Wikipedija mtwiki https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il-Pa%C4%A1na_prin%C4%8Bipali MediaWiki 1.45.0-wmf.3 first-letter Medja Speċjali Diskussjoni Utent Diskussjoni utent Wikipedija Diskussjoni Wikipedija Stampa Diskussjoni stampa MediaWiki Diskussjoni MediaWiki Mudell Diskussjoni mudell Għajnuna Diskussjoni għajnuna Kategorija Diskussjoni kategorija Portal Diskussjoni portal TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk 0 18200 323366 299078 2025-06-02T12:03:55Z Makenzis 12206 /* Unuri */ 323366 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox klabb tal-futbol | titlu = Linfield | stampa = [[Stampa:Linfield.png|150px]] | pattern_b1 = _umbrovier1rw | pattern_la1 = _umbrovier1rw | pattern_ra1 = _umbrovier1rw | pattern_sh1 = | pattern_so1 = | leftarm1 = FFFFFF | body1 = 0000FF | rightarm1 = FFFFFF | shorts1 = FFFFFF | socks1 = FF0000 | pattern_la2 = _linfield2021a | pattern_b2 = _linfield2021a | pattern_ra2 = _linfield2021a | pattern_sh2 = _linfield2021a | pattern_so2 = _linfield2021a | leftarm2 = b300b3 | body2 = b300b3 | rightarm2 = b300b3 | shorts2 = b300b3 | socks2 = b300b3 | pattern_b3 = _linfield1819a | pattern_sh3 = _linfield1819a | leftarm3 = FF0000 | body3 = FF0000 | rightarm3 = FFFFFF | shorts3 = FF0000 | socks3 = FFFFFF }} '''Linfield Football Club''' huwa [[klabb tal-futbol]] semi-professjonali mill-[[Irlanda ta' Fuq]],li grawnd tagħhom huwa [[Windsor Park]] f'[[Belfast]], li huwa il-grawnd nazzjonali tat-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Irlanda ta' Fuq|tim nazzjonali]]. Linfield jilgħabu fil-[[IFA Premiership]] (xorta popolarment imsejħa l-Lega Irlandiża)<ref>{{Ċita web |url=http://www.nifootball.co.uk/division/table/irish/IFA-Premiership.html |titlu=NI Football |data-aċċess=2010-02-05 |lingwa=Ingliż |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212233231/http://www.nifootball.co.uk/division/table/irish/IFA-Premiership.html |arkivju-data=2009-12-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref>It-tieni l-eqdem kampjonat nazzjonali fid-dinja wara l-Football League fl-Ingilterra.<ref>{{Ċita web | url=http://www.instantactionsports.com/sportsbook/soccer/irish-league-history.html | titlu=Soccer Betting – Irish League | data-aċċess=2011-03-11 | lingwa=Ingliż | arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713042235/http://www.instantactionsports.com/sportsbook/soccer/irish-league-history.html | arkivju-data=2011-07-13 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Linfield rebħu t-titlu tal-kampjonat 51 darbiet, Mill-istaġun 1890–1891 meta dawn saru l-ewwel ċampjins tal-Kampjonat. Dan hu wieħed mill-erba klabbs li kienu miżmuma fil-Kampjonat sa mill-formazzjoni tiegħu fl-1890, l-oħrajn kienu [[Glentoran FC|Glentoran]], [[Cliftonville FC|Cliftonville]] u [[Lisburn Distillery FC|Lisburn Distillery]]. Ir-rivali ewlenin ta' Linfield huma Glentoran li jilagħbu fl-Oval fil-Lvant ta 'Belfast. Dan rivalità ma 'Glentoran hija magħrufa bħala ''[[Belfast's Big Two]]''. == Storja == Bdew f'Marzu 1886 f'[[Sandy Row]] fin-nofsinhar ta' Belfast mill-ħaddiema tal-Kumpannija Ulster Spinning Linfield Mill,<ref>{{Ċita ktieb |titlu=Association football and society in pre-partition Ireland|kunjom=Garnham|isem=Neal|paġna=47|pubblikatur=Ulster Historical Foundation|sena=2004|lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> it-tim oriġinarjament kien magħruf bħala l-Kazin Linfield Athletic u lagħbu fil-grawnd tal-mitħna magħrufa bħala l-Meadow. Linfield tmexxiet għal Ulsterville Avenue fl-1889. Wara x-xiri ta 'biċċa art magħrufa bħala l-"bog meadows" ftit l-isfel Windsor Avenue fl-1904, il-klabb stabbilita f'dak li sar permanenti ta Linfield FC. Windsor Park, raġuni li ospitat logħbiet internazzjonali sa mill-ftuħ tagħha. L-ewwel logħba f'Windsor kien intlagħbet kontra Glentoran, in-nofs l-ieħor ta' Belfast li hija "Big Two," fit-2 ta' Settembru , 1905 – għalkemm Belfast Celtic kienu rivali ewlenin tal-klabb fiż-żmienijiet.<ref name="windsorOpening">{{Ċita ktieb|titlu=Encyclopedia of British football|isem1=Richard |kunjom1=William Cox|isem2=Dave |kunjom2=Russell|isem3=Wray |kunjom3=Vamplew|pubblikatur=Psychology Press|sena=2002|paġna=219|lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> [[Roy Coyle]] kien l-aktar maniġer suċċessiv li rnexxielu jrebaħ 31 trofej għall-Linfield matul il-ħin tiegħu fil Windsor Park (1975-1990). Huwa segwit mill-qrib mill maniġer attwali ta' Linfield [[David Jeffrey]] li rebaħ 30 trofej mill-ħatra tiegħu fl-1997. Il-Kaptan ta' Linfield [[Noel Bailie]] miksub kiseb l-1000 preżenza tiegħu għall-klabb meta lagħab ma [[Crusaders FC]]. Ftit wara, fis April 27, 2010, Linfield ħadu 49 titolu tagħhom wara rebħa 1-0 kontra [[Cliftonville FC|Cliftonville]] f'[[Windsor Park]] fil-Kampjonat Carling Premiership. Min meta Noel Bailie irtira mill-futbol f'Mejju 2011 f'età ta' 40, peress li rtirati in-numru 11 tal-ger.<ref>{{Ċita aħbar|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/irish/8645142.stm|titlu=Linfield 1–0 Cliftonville |data=2010-04-27|pubblikatur=BBC Sport|data-aċċess=2010-04-27|lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> Linfield assiguraw it-titolu tagħhom fil-50 kampjonat fis-26 t'April, 2011 wara rebħa ta' 4-0 kontra [[Lisburn Distillery FC|Lisburn Distillery]]. Dak li refgħa t-trofew tagħhom għamel il-Linfield l-aktar tim suċċessiv fil-futbol Irlandiż. == Windsor Park == Il-Grawnd ta' Linfield [[Windsor Park]] fil-Nofsinhar ta' Belfast. Il-korp governattiv tal-futbol Irlandiż, l-[[Irish Football Association]], jikri l-grawnd għall-użu mill-[[Tim nazzjonali tal-futbol tal-Irlanda ta' Fuq]]. Il-klabb bħalissa qed tirċievi 15% tal-internazzjonali irċevuti bħala kera tal-Irlanda ta' Fuq. Dan huwa kontroversjali kemm klabbs rivali tal-Kampjonat Irlandiż tara dan bħala l-ogħti ta' vantaġġ inġust għall-Linfield billi jippermeti li joffru pagi aktar attraenti u jkollhom skwadra akbar minn klabbs kollha.<ref>{{Ċita aħbar |titlu=IFA thrash out new Linfield Windsor deal|pubblikatur=Belfast Telegraph|url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/sport/football/world-cup/ifa-thrash-out-new-linfield-windsor-deal-14852130.html|data=2010-06-23|data-aċċess=2010-12-09|lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> L-istadium bħalissa għaddej rinovar sostanzjali biex tiżdied il-kapaċità u tittejjeb is-sikurezza.<ref>{{Ċita aħbar | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/irish/8475748.stm | titlu=Uefa provides half a million euros to save Windsor Park | data-aċċess=2011-03-15 | data=2010-01-22 | pubblikatur=BBC News|lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> Huwa wkoll l-akbar Assoċjazzjoni tal-istadju tal-Irlanda ta' Fuq, mal-[[L-Oval (Belfast)|Oval]] ta' Glentoran. == Rekord Ewropew == L-aktar klabb dominanti tan-naħa tat-Tramuntana tal-Irlanda, Linfield kienu difensuri regolari fil-futbol Ewropew. L-aktar kisba notevoli tagħhom kienet tilħaq il-fażi kwarti tal-finali fit-[[UEFA Champions League|Tazza Ewropea]] fl-istaġun 1966–1967. Wara li għelbu lil [[FC Aris Bonnevoie|Aris Bonnevoie]] tal-[[Lussemburgu]] u [[Vålerenga Fotball|Vålerenga]] tan-[[Norveġja]] huma ffaċċjaw lil-[[PFC CSKA Sofia|CSKA Sofia]] fl-aħħar tmienja. Dan irriżulta fi dro ta' 2–2 f'darhom u telfa f'1–0 barra min darhom.<ref>{{Ċita web | url=http://sportsthenandnow.com/2011/02/08/the-lisbon-lions-remembered/ | titlu=‘The Lisbon Lions’ remembered: Celtic’s 1967 European Cup Winners | data-aċċess=2011-03-16 | awtur=Crowley, Rod | data=Frar 8, 2011|lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> Fl-istaġun 1984–85, wara li jegħlbu lil [[Shamrock Rovers FC|Shamrock Rovers]] bil-gowls barra min darhom (l-ewwel serje u s'issa biss ta 'laqgħat bejn iż-żewġ superpotenzi Irlandiżi barra l-Kampjonat fl-Irlanda'),<ref>{{Ċita web | url=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/feature?id=325744&cc=5901 | titlu=Football's last great taboo? | data-aċċess=2011-03-16 | kunjom=Bradley | isem=Steve | data=2005-02-22 | pubblikatur=ESPN Soccernet | lingwa=Ingliż | arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024175934/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/feature?id=325744&cc=5901 | arkivju-data=2012-10-24 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Linfield iffaċċjaw eventwali semi-finalisti [[Panathinaikos FC|Panathinaikos]] fit-tieni rawnd. Wara telfa ta'2–1 barra minn darhom, Linfield ġew dro ta' 3-3 f'Windsor Park fir-ritorn tal-leg.<ref>{{Ċita web | url=http://www.worldfootball.net/alle_spiele/champions-league-1984-1985/ | titlu=Champions League 1984/1985 .:. Match schedule | data-aċċess=2011-03-16|lingwa=Ingliż}}</ref> Fl-istaġun 1987–88 Linfield lagħbu f'darhom kontra [[Lillestrøm SK|Lillestrøm]] kienet imħassara minħabba l-missili,jirriżulta s-sanzjonijiet tal-[[UEFA]] li kien ifisser biex ikollhom jilagħbu li jmisshom żewġ logħbiet f'darhom fil-Kompetizzjonijiet Ewropej fil-klabb tal-Wales [[Wrexham AFC|Wrexham]] fl-istaġuni 1988–89 u 1989–90. Fil-[[UEFA Champions League 1993–94]] rat lil-Linfield mfassla ma [[Dynamo Tbilisi]] tal-[[Ġeorġja]]. wara li tilfu 3–2 fuq l-aggregat, kien reġgħu ddaħħlu meta l-avversarji tagħhom kienu mkeċċija mill-kompetizzjoni għal-logħba allegata bbażata fuq ħlas tal-uffiċjali. Linfield iffaċċjaw lil-[[FC Copenhagen|Copenhagen]] fl-ewwel rawnd. Huma rebħu l-ewwel leg 3–0, iżda imbagħad tilfu it-tieni leg 4–0 wara l-ħin miżjud. Dan wera għalja, kif rebħa kienet tfisser dro finanzjarjament qligħ kontra ċampjins eventwali [[AC Milan|Milan]] fir-rawnd li jmiss. == Unuri == * '''[[IFA Premiership|Irish League/Irish Premier League]]: 57 ''' ** 1890–91, 1891–92, 1892–93, 1894–95, 1897–98, 1901–02, 1903–04, 1906–07, 1907–08, 1908–09, 1910–11, 1913–14, 1921–22, 1922–23, 1929–30, 1931–32, 1933–34, 1934–35, 1948–49, 1949–50, 1953–54, 1954–55, 1955–56, 1958–59, 1960–61, 1961–62, 1965–66, 1968–69, 1970–71, 1974–75, 1977–78, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1984–85, 1985–86, 1986–87, 1988–89, 1992–93, 1993–94, 1999–00, 2000–01, 2003–04, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12, 2016–17, 2018–19, 2019/20, 2020/21, 2021/22, 2024/25 * '''[[Tazza Irlandiża]]: 42''' ** 1890–91, 1891–92, 1892–93, 1894–95, 1897–98, 1898–99, 1901–02, 1903–04, 1911–12, 1912–13, 1914–15, 1915–16, 1918–19, 1921–22, 1922–23, 1929–30, 1930–31, 1933–34, 1935–36, 1938–39, 1941–42, 1944–45, 1945–46, 1947–48, 1949–50, 1952–53, 1959–60, 1961–62, 1962–63, 1969–70, 1977–78, 1979–80, 1981–82, 1993–94, 1994–95, 2001–02, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12 * '''[[Irish League Cup]]: 9''' ** 1986–87, 1991–92, 1993–94, 1997–98, 1998–99, 1999–00, 2001–02, 2005–06, 2007–08 * '''[[County Antrim Shield]]: 43''' ** 1898–99, 1903–04, 1905–06, 1906–07, 1907–08, 1912–13, 1913–14, 1916–17, 1921–22, 1922–23, 1927–28, 1928–29, 1929–30, 1931–32, 1932–33, 1933–34, 1934–35, 1937–38, 1941–42, 1946–47, 1948–49†, 1952–53, 1954–55, 1957–58, 1958–59, 1960–61, 1961–62, 1962–63, 1965–66, 1966–67, 1972–73, 1976–77, 1980–81, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1994–95, 1997–98, 2000–01, 2003–04, 2004–05, 2005–06 * '''[[Irish FA Charity Shield]]: 3''' ** 1993 (shared), 1994, 2000 * '''[[Tazza tad-Deheb (Irlanda ta 'Fuq)|Tazza tad-Deheb]]: 33''' ** 1915–16, 1917–18, 1918–19, 1920–21, 1921–22, 1923–24, 1926–27, 1927–28, 1928–29, 1930–31, 1935–36, 1936–37, 1948–49, 1949–50, 1950–51, 1955–56, 1957–58, 1959–60, 1961–62, 1963–64, 1965–66, 1967–68, 1968–69, 1970–71, 1971–72, 1979–80, 1981–82, 1983–84, 1984–85, 1987–88, 1988–89, 1989–90, 1996–97 * '''[[Tazza tal-Belt (Irlanda ta 'Fuq)|Tazza tal-Belt]]: 24''' ** 1894–95, 1895–96, 1897–98, 1899–00, 1900–01, 1901–02, 1902–03, 1903–04, 1907–08, 1909–10, 1919–20 1921–22, 1926–27, 1928–29, 1935–36, 1937–38, 1949–50, 1951–52, 1957–58, 1958–59, 1961–62, 1963–64, 1967–68, 1973–74 * '''[[Tazza Ulster]]: 15''' ** 1948–49, 1955–56, 1956–57, 1959–60, 1961–62, 1964–65, 1967–68, 1970–71, 1971–72, 1974–75, 1977–78, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1984–85, 1992–93 * '''[[Irish League Floodlit Cup|Floodlit Cup]]: 2''' ** 1993–94, 1997–98 * '''[[North-South Cup]]: 1 ''' ** 1961–62 * '''[[Tazza Blaxnit]]: 1 ''' ** 1970–71 * '''[[Tazza Tyler]]: 1 ''' ** 1980–81 * '''[[Setanta Cup]]: 1 ''' ** 2005 * '''[[Tazza tal-aħjar erba' (Irlanda ta 'Fuq)|Tazza tal-Aħjar Erba']]: 2 ''' ** 1966–67, 1967–68 * '''Tazza Belfast Charity: 21''' ** 1890–91, 1891–92, 1892–93, 1893–94, 1894–95, 1898–99, 1902–03, 1904–05, 1912–13, 1913–14, 1914–15, 1916–17, 1917–18, 1918–19, 1921–22, 1926–27, 1927–28, 1929–30, 1932–33, 1933–34, 1934–35, 1935–36, 1937–38 * '''Tazza Alhambra: 1 ''' ** 1921–22 * '''Tazza Jubilee: 1''' ** 1935-36 * '''Belfast & District League: 2 ''' ** 1915–16, 1917–18 * '''Northern Regional league: 3 ''' ** 1942–43, 1944–45, 1945–46 * '''Substitute Gold Cup: 2 ''' ** 1942–43, 1944–45 * '''Manchester Charity Cup: 2''' ** 1945-1946, 1946–1947 == Referenzi == {{Referenzi}} == Ħoloq esterni == * {{Sit uffiċjali}} [[Kategorija:Klabbs tal-futbol tal-Irlanda ta' Fuq]] [[Kategorija:Klabbs tal-futbol stabbiliti fl-1886|Linfield]] 2qgkocw58qg3a3h1ypaj95yuenx4ewx 0 22455 323369 323323 2025-06-03T05:06:59Z 217.71.190.205 323369 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Selection on the ramp at Auschwitz-Birkenau, 1944 (Auschwitz Album) 1a.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-wasla tal-Lhud f'Auschwitz II fil-Polonja okkupata mill-Ġermaniżi, f'Mejju 1944. Il-biċċa l-kbira kienu jiġu ggassjati.]] L-'''Olokawst''' (bil-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]]: ὁλόκαυστος holókaustos: hólos, "sħiħ" u kaustós, "ħruq"), magħruf ukoll bħala '''Shoah''' (bl-[[Ebrajk]]: השואה, Haxoah, "il-katastrofi"; bil-Yiddish: חורבן, Kurben jew Ħurban, mill-Ebrajk "qirda") fost il-[[Lhud]], kien l-akbar ġenoċidju tas-seklu għoxrin li fih sitt miljun Lhudi nqatlu mill-militar [[Ġermanja|Ġermaniż]], immexxi minn [[Adolf Hitler]], u l-kollaboraturi tagħhom. Bejn l-1939 u l-1945, l-SS (Schutzstaffel), megħjuna minn gvernijiet tal-pajjiżi okkupati, qatlu mill-inqas ħdax-il miljun ruħ (miljun minnhom tfal), fosthom sitt miljun Lhudi (żewġ terzi tal-popolazzjoni Lhudija fl-[[Ewropa]]), tliet miljun priġunier [[Unjoni Sovjetika|Sovjetiku]], żewġ miljun [[Polonja|Pollakk]], miljun u nofs żingaru, u eluf kbar ta' [[Komuniżmu|Komunisti]], oppożituri [[Politiku|politiċi]], omosesswali, persuni b'diżabbiltajiet fiżiċi u mentali, xhieda ta' Ġeħova, Avventisti, u trejdunjonisti. Il-qtil kien isir fil-kampijiet ta' konċentrament jew ta' sterminju, fil-ghettos, u bl-eżekuzzjonijiet tal-massa. Ħafna vittmi tal-Olokawst kienu jiġu ggassjati, filwaqt li oħrajn mietu bil-ġuħ u bil-mard fiż-żmien li kienu [[Skjavitù|skjavi]] fil-kampijiet.<ref>Gerlach, Christian (2016). ''The Extermination of the European Jews''. Cambridge University Press. ISBN <bdi>978-0-521-70689-6</bdi>. p. 15.</ref><ref>Beorn, Waitman Wade (2018). ''The Holocaust in Eastern Europe: At the Epicenter of the Final Solution''. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN <bdi>978-1-4742-3219-7</bdi>. p. 4.</ref> == Oriġini == Sa mill-[[Medjuevu|Medju Evu]] 'l quddiem, is-soċjetà u l-[[kultura]] Ġermaniża kienet mimlija antisemitiżmu. Fit-tieni nofs tas-seklu 19 beda l-moviment Völkisch minn ħassieba bħal [[Houston Stewart Chamberlain]] u [[Paul de Lagarde]], li kienu jemmnu f'razziżmu psewdoxjentifiku li kien jara lil-Lhud bħala razza f'taqbida mortali mar-razza Arjana biex tiddomina d-[[Id-Dinja|dinja]]. Ħadu sterjotipi mill-antisemitiżmu [[Kristjaneżmu|Nisrani]], b'differenza li qiesu l-Lhud bħala razza u mhux bħala [[reliġjon]]. F'diskors fir-Reichstag fl-1895 (meta Hitler kien għad kellu sitt snin), [[Hermann Ahlwardt]], mexxej tal-Völkisch, sejjaħ lil-Lhud "predaturi" u "baċilli tal-[[kolera]]" li għandhom "jinqerdu" għall-ġid tal-poplu Ġermaniż. Fi ktieb suċċess tal-1912 ''Kieku kont il-Kaiser'', [[Heinrich Class]], ħeġġeġ biex lil-Lhud tal-Ġermanja titneħħielhom iċ-ċittadinanza Ġermaniża u jibdew jitqiesu bħala aljeni, jiġu esklużi mill-aspetti kollha tal-ħajja soċjali Ġermaniża, ma jitħallewx ikollhom art, jokkupaw uffiċji pubbliċi, jew ikunu [[Ġurnalist|ġurnalisti]], bankieri, u professjonisti liberi. L-ewwel sperimentazzjoni [[Mediċina|medika]] fuq [[Bniedem|bnedmin]] u tindif etniku mill-Ġermaniżi saru fil-kampijiet tal-mewt li l-Ġermaniżi kellhom fin-[[Namibja]], dak iż-żmien magħrufa bħala l-Lbiċ tal-[[Afrika]] Ġermaniża, matul il-Ġenoċidju tal-Herero u tan-Namaqua fil-bidu tas-seklu għoxrin. Dan seta' kien ispirazzjoni għall-Olokawst. Ir-razziżmu psewdoxjentifiku sar aċċettat minn ħafna Ġermaniżi, fosthom il-klassijiet professjonali tal-pajjiż. Il-partiti [[Politika|politiċi]] kollha saru jaċċettawh. Il-Partit [[Nażiżmu|Nażista]] twaqqaf fl-1920 u billi ħareġ mill-moviment Völkisch, kellu l-istess antisemitiżmu tiegħu. Dan kompla jinħema bid-Darwiniżmu soċjali u bl-ewġenetika, bl-idea li ċerti nies jiswew iktar minn oħrajn, [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġikament]]. Wara t-telfa tal-[[L-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija|Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija]], il-burokrati Ġermaniżi sabuha diffiċli jsolvu l-problemi soċjali li kien waqa' fihom pajjiżhom u raw li l-aħjar isalvaw li dawk li huma bijoloġikament "idonei" u jeqirdu lil dawk li mhumiex. Il-faqar li ġabet id-Depressjoni l-Kbira, wassal lil ħafna [[Tabib|tobba]] Ġermaniżi jipproponu l-[[ewtanasja]] lil dawk li kienu diżabbli mentalment u fiżikament "inkurabbli", bħala miżura biex jiġu ffrankati l-flus ħa jiġu mgħejuna dawk li setgħu jiġu mfejqa. Meta n-Nażisti ħadu l-poter fl-1933, diġà kien hemm it-twemmin soċjali li għandhom jiġu salvati dawk li huma razzjalment "prezzjużi" u li s-soċjetà tinħeles minn dawk li razzjalment "mhumiex mixtieqa". === Hitler === Hitler kien juri fil-beraħ il-mibegħda tiegħu lejn il-Lhud. Fil-ktieb tiegħu ''Mein Kampf'', jgħid li ried jeskludihom mill-ħajja politika, intellettwali u kulturali tal-Ġermanja. Ma jgħidx li ried jipprova jeqridhom, għalkemm fil-privat kien ikun iktar espliċitu. Sa mill-1922, huwa kien qal lill-Maġġur [[Joseph Hell]], li dak iż-żmien kien ġurnalist, li l-ewwel ħaġa li kien beħsiebu jagħmel kif jieħu l-poter kienet li jeqred lil-Lhud, jgħallaqhom f'Marienplatz fi [[Munich]], u jħallihom imdendlin sakemm jintnu, u jnaddaf lill-Ġermanja kollha mil-Lhud. In-Nażisti kienu jemmnu ukoll fil-kunċett ta' iġjene razzjali. Fil-15 ta' Settembru 1935, Hitler għadda l-Liġijiet ta' [[Nuremberg]] li għamluha illegali għall-Arjani li jkollhom x'jaqsmu jew jiżżewġu mal-Lhud, u iktar tard dan ġie estiż "għaż-żingari, għas-suwed jew għan-nisel tagħhom". Min ma kienx Arjan tilef iċ-ċittadinanza Ġermaniża. L-ewwel politika ewġenika ta' Hitler immirat lit-tfal b'diżabbiltà bil-programm ''Action Brandt'', u iktar tard programm ta' ewtanasja għall-adulti b'diżabbiltajiet serji mentali u fiżiċi, illum imsejjaħ ''Action T4''. L-Olokawst u l-gwerra tal-Ġermanja tal-Lvant kienu bbażati fuq l-idea antika ta' Hitler li l-Lhud kienu l-ikbar għadu tal-poplu Ġermaniż u li l-Ġermanja kellha bżonn l-art, ''Lebensraum'', biex tespandi. Huwa tefa' għajnejh fuq il-[[Ewropa tal-Lvant|Lvant tal-Ewropa]] għal din l-espansjoni, billi jkisser lill-Polonja u lill-Unjoni Sovjetika u jneħħi jew jeqred lil-Lhud u lis-Slavi. Il-pjan kien li jiddeporta lil min kien jgħix f'dawn il-postijiet lejn il-Punent tas-Siberja, jew biex jaħdmu bħala skjavi jew biex jinqatlu; u t-territorji konkwistati jiġu Ġermanizzati. It-tir kien li jimplimenta dan il-pjan wara l-konkwista tal-Unjoni Sovjetika, iżda meta din falliet, Hitler baqa' għaddej bil-pjanijiet tiegħu. Minn Jannar 1942, kien ġie deċiż li jinqatlu l-Lhud, is-Slavi u deportati oħra meqjusa mhux mixtieqa. === Responsabbiltà ta' Hitler === L-Olokawst ("Endlösung der Judenfrage" jew "Is-Soluzzjoni Finali tal-Kwistjoni Lhudija") kien ordnat minn Hitler u organizzat u mwettaq minn Heinrich Himmler u Reinhard Heydrich. L-atti tal-Konferenza ta' Wannsee — li saret fl-20 ta' Jannar 1942 u tmexxiet minn Heydrich, bi ħmistax-il uffiċjal Nażista jieħdu sehem — hija l-aqwa xhieda tal-ippjanar sistematiku tal-Olokawst. Fit-22 ta' Frar, Hitler qal, "se niksbu saħħitna lura mill-ġdid biss jekk neliminaw lil-Lhud". Id-diskorsi pubbliċi tiegħu, l-ordnijiet tiegħu lill-ġenerali, u d-djarji ta' uffiċjali Nażisti juru li kien hu li kkonċepixxa u awtorizza l-qtil tal-Lhud Ewropej. Kien hu li approva l-iskwadri tal-[[mewt]] Einsatzgruppen li mxew mal-armata Ġermaniża fil-Polonja, fil-Baltiku u fl-Unjoni Sovjetika — u kien infurmat sew fuq x'kienu qed jagħmlu. Sas-sajf tal-1942, il-kamp ta' konċentrament ta' [[Auschwitz]] kiber malajr biex ikun jiflaħ mases ta' deportati biex jinqatlu jew biex jinżammu skjavi. Għexieren ta' kampijiet ta' konċentrament inbnew fl-Ewropa okkupata, b'ħafna kampijiet dedikati biss għall-qerda. Kien hemm 42,500 faċilità fil-Ġermanja u fil-pajjiżi okkupati biex jiġbru u joqtlu lil-Lhud u vittmi oħra, u madwar 500,000 ruħ ħadu sehem b'mod dirett fl-ippjanar u fil-qtil tal-vittmi tal-Olokawst. Meta r-reġim Nażista kiseb il-poter fil-Ġermanja f'Jannar 1933, mill-ewwel beda jieħu miżuri sistematiċi kontra l-Lhud. Mill-1933 sal-1939, saru sforzi organizzati mill-Partit Nażista biex jeliminaw lil-Lhud mill-ħajja ekonomika. Il-Lhud tkeċċew mill-pożizzjonijiet li kellhom mal-gvern, u l-[[Avukat|avukati]] u t-tobba Lhud tilfu l-klijenti Ġermaniżi tagħhom. L-intrapriżi Lhud kienu jiġu likwidati jew jinxtraw b'valur ħafna inqas minn kemm jiswew minn kumpaniji li ma kinux tal-Lhud. Id-dħul li l-Lhud kienu jagħmlu minn bejgħ kif ukoll dak li jġemmgħu, kien suġġett għal taxxa speċjali. ==== "Lejl tal-[[Ħġieġ]] Imkisser" ==== F'Novembru 1938, wara li żagħżugħ Lhudi qatel diplomatiku Ġermaniż f'[[Pariġi]], is-sinagogi kollha fil-Ġermanja ġew maħruqa, it-twieqi tal-ħwienet Lhud tkissru, u eluf ta' Lhud ġew arrestati. Dal-"Lejl tal-Ħġieġ Imkisser" (''Kristallnacht'') kien sinjal għal-Lhud fil-Ġermanja u fl-[[Awstrija]] biex jitilqu malajr kemm jista' jkun. Mijiet ta' eluf ta' Lhud irnexxielhom isibu kenn f'pajjiżi oħra, iżda numru daqstant ieħor kbir ta' Lhud, ħafna minnhom xjuħ u foqra, baqgħu hemm jistennew destin inċert. ==== Invażjoni tal-Polonja ==== F'Awwissu 1939, il-Ġermanja iffirmat patt mal-Unjoni Sovjetika, u f'dan il-patt iż-żewġ pajjiżi bil-moħbi qasmu l-Polonja. Hitler attakka l-Polonja f'Settembru 1939. Il-Pollakki maljar ingħelbu u l-alleati tagħhom, l-[[Renju Unit|Ingliżi]] u l-[[Franza|Franċiżi]], ma għamlu xejn biex jgħinuhom. Fir-rebbiegħa tal-1940, Hitler ħataf lid-[[Danimarka]] u lin-[[Norveġja]] u ftit wara lin-[[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Netherlands]], lill-[[Belġju]] u lil Franza. Meta Hitler okkupa l-Polonja żied kważi żewġ miljuni Lhud taħt is-setgħa tiegħu. Ir-restrizzjonijiet li saru fuq il-Lhud tal-Polonja kienu eħrex minn dawk fil-Ġermanja. Il-Lhud fil-Polonja kienu mġiegħla jgħixu f'ghettos imdawra b'ħitan u b'fildiferru mxewwek. Il-ghettos kienu bħal bliet magħluqin minn kullimkien. Kull ghetto kellu kunsill Lhudi li kien responsabbli għad-djar, għas-sanità u għall-produzzjoni. L-ikel li kien jitħalla jidħol fil-ghettos mill-Ġermaniżi kien jikkonisti biss f'qamħ u f'ħaxix bħal ġdur, karrotti u pitravi. Fil-ghetto ta' [[Varsavja]], ir-razzjon uffiċjali għal kull abitant ma kienx jaqbeż l-1,200 kalorija. Xi ikel li kien jidħol minn taħt, kien jinbigħ bi prezzijiet m'għola s-sema, u l-qgħad u l-faqar kienu mifruxa. Id-djar kienu mimlijin nies, b'sitta jew b'sebgħa min-nies f'kull kamra, u l-marda tat-tifu kienet komuni. ==== Fl-Unjoni Sovjetika ==== Waqt li kien qed jiġri dan kollu fil-Polonja, f'Ġunju 1941, il-Ġermaniżi invadew l-Unjoni Sovjetika. L-SS qassmet 3,000 gwardja f'unitajiet speċjali fit-territorji Sovjetiċi, biex joqtlu l-Lhud kollha fil-post. Dawn l-iskwadri kienu involuti f'massakri sħaħ, li ħafna drabi kienu jsiru f'fosos jew f'irdumijiet qrib l-ibliet. Xi drabi r-residenti kienu jaraw dawn il-massakri, u aħbarijiet dwar dan ma damux ma bdew jaslu f'diversi [[Belt kapitali|bliet kapitali]] tad-dinja. ==== "Soluzzjoni Finali" ==== Xahar wara dan, it-tieni fit-tmexxija wara Hitler, Hermann Göring, bagħat direttiva lill-kap tal-SS, Reinhard Heydrich, bl-ordni li jorganizza "soluzzjoni finali għall-kwistjoni Lhudija" fl-Ewropa kollha dominata mill-Ġermanja. F'Settembru 1941, il-Lhud tal-Ġermanja kellhom jilbsu armi jew faxex ma' driegħhom immarkati bi [[stilla]] safra. Fix-xhur ta' wara, għexieren ta' eluf ġew deportati fil-Polonja u fi bliet maħtufa mill-Unjoni Sovjetika. Sadanittant kienet qed titħejja innovazzjoni oħra: il-kamp tal-mewt. Kampijiet attrezzati biex jiggassjaw lin-nies inbnew fuq l-art tal-Polonja okkupata. Ħafna mill-vittmi kellhom jinġiebu mill-ghettos tal-qrib. Mill-ghetto ta' Varsavja biss, inġiebu iktar minn 300,000 ruħ. L-ewwel trasport kien mimli bi tfal u xjuħ li ma setgħux jaħdmu; il-Lhud li setgħu jaħdmu kienu jinżammu, iżda fl-aħħar kienu jispiċċaw maqtulin huma wkoll. L-ikbar deportazzjonijiet seħħew fis-sajf tal-1942. Id-destinazzjoni ta' dan it-trasport ma kinitx tiġi mgħarrfa lill-komunitajiet Lhud, iżda rapporti ta' massakri sħaħ fl-aħħar waslu għand il-Lhud li kienu għadhom ħajjin u għand il-gvernijiet tal-Istati Uniti u tal-Ingilterra. F'April 1943, il-65,000 Lhud li kien fadal f'Varsavja rreżistew lill-pulizija Ġermaniża li daħlet fil-ghetto, f'battalja li damet sejra tliet ġimgħat. Bejn Lulju u Ottubru 1942, iktar minn 300,000 abitant tal-ghetto ta' Varsavja ntbagħtu fil-kampijiet ta' konċentrament u nqatlu. Is-60,000 Lhud li kien għad baqa' nqatlu f'din ir-reżistenza erojka. Fejn kien possibli, il-Ġermaniżi ġabru l-proprjetà kollha tad-deportati. Fil-Ġermanja, il-kontijiet tal-bank ġew konfiskati, u minn Franza, Belġju u Olanda okkupati, l-għamara tal-Lhud kienet titwassal il-Ġermanja biex tingħata lil persuni li djarhom kienu ġew ibbumbardjati. It-trasport tal-vittmi lejn il-kampijiet tal-mewt kien isir bil-ferrovija. Il-vaguni li kienu jwasslu lil-Lhud kienu jimxu bil-mod bi skedi speċjali għad-destinazzjoni tagħhom. Ħafna drabi l-morda u x-xjuħ kienu jmutu fit-triq. ==== Auschwitz ==== Auschwitz, qrib [[Krakovja]], kien l-akbar kamp tal-mewt, li b'differenza mill-oħrajn uża l-gass tal-[[idroġenu]] li malajr kien iwassal għall-effett mixtieq. Il-vittmi t'Auschwitz kienu ġejjin mill-Ewropa kollha okkupata mill-Germanizi: il-Ġermanja, [[Spanja]], il-[[Portugall]], l-[[Italja]], Franza, l-Awstrija, iċ-Ċekoslovakkja, il-Polonja, in-Norveġja, id-Danimarka, il-[[Finlandja]], in-Netherlands, il-Belġju, il-[[Lussemburgu]], il-[[Greċja]], il-Jugoslavja, l-[[Albanija]], l-[[Ungerija]], ir-[[Rumanija]], il-[[Bulgarija]], ir-[[Russja]], l-[[Ukrajna]], il-[[Belarussja]], il-[[Moldova]], l-[[Estonja]], il-[[Latvja]] u l-[[Litwanja]]. Ħafna priġunieri, Lhud u mhumiex, kienu jitħaddmu; xi priġunieri kienu jintużaw f'esperimenti mediċi, b'mod partikolari għall-isterilizzazzjonijiet. Għalkemm il-Lhud u ż-żingari biss kienu jiġu ggassjati regolarment, mijiet ta' eluf ta' priġunieri oħrajn f'Auschwitz mietu bil-ġuħ, bil-mard jew ġustizzjati. Biex jgħattu dnubiethom, bnew krematorji kbar biex fihom jinħarqu l-katavri ta' dawk li ġew ġustizzjati. Fl-1944, il-kamp ġie fotografat mill-ajruplani tal-Alleati li kienu qed ifittxu l-industriji; il-fabbriki ġew ibbumbardjati iżda l-kampijiet le. ==== Riżultati tax-''Shoah'' ==== Meta l-gwerra ntemmet, miljuni ta' Lhud, Slavi, żingari, omosesswali, Xhieda ta' Ġeħova, Komunisti, u oħrajn fil-mira tan-Nażisti, kienu nqatlu fl-Olokawst. Il-Lhud maqtulin kienu madwar 6 miljun ruħ: madwar 3 miljun ruħ fil-kampijiet ta' konċentrament, miljun u nofs ġustizzjati, u iktar minn 600,000 ruħ fil-ghettos. L-Alleati ġew pressati biex joħolqu art permanenti fil-[[Palestina]] għal-Lhud li baqgħu ħajjin. It-twaqqif ta' [[Iżrael]], tliet snin wara l-waqgħa tal-Ġermanja kien għalhekk riżultat tal-Olokawst. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:It-Tieni Gwerra Dinjija]] 3of9fmgyma7o0w3ww6nmnqhx9tbwi66 0 33627 323367 323329 2025-06-02T16:21:00Z Trigcly 17859 /* Deptford */ żieda kontenut 323367 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Pietru I''' (bir-[[Lingwa Russa|Russu]]: Пётр I Алексеевич, <small>b'ittri Rumani:</small> ''Pyotr I Alekseyevich'', IPA: [ˈpʲɵtr ɐlʲɪkˈsʲejɪvʲɪtɕ]; twieled fid-9 ta' Ġunju [skont sorsi oħra fit-30 ta' Mejju] 1672 – miet fit-8 ta' Frar [skont sorsi oħra fit-28 ta' Jannar] 1725), magħruf aħjar bħala '''Pietru l-Kbir''', kien il-Ksar tar-[[Russja]] kollha mill-1682 u l-ewwel Imperatur tar-Russja kollha mill-1721 sa mewtu fl-1725. Huwa rrenja b'mod konġunt flimkien ma' ħuh min-nisel ta' ġenitur wieħed komuni, [[Ivan V]], sal-1696. Minn dik is-sena, Pietru kien monarka assolut u awtokrata li baqa' l-awtorità suprema u organizza stat riġidu u ordnat sew. Il-biċċa l-kbira tar-renju ta' Pietru kienet mimlija gwerer twal kontra l-imperi [[Imperu Ottoman|Ottomani]] u [[Żvezja|Żvediżi]]. Il-kampanji militari tiegħu ta' Azov kienu segwiti mill-istabbiliment tal-Flotta Navali Russa; wara r-rebħa tiegħu fil-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana minkejja diffikultajiet inizjali, ir-Russja annettiet parti sinifikanti mill-kosta Baltika tal-Lvant u uffiċjalment bdiet tissejjaħ imperu. Pietru mexxa rivoluzzjoni [[Kultura|kulturali]] li ssostitwiet uħud mis-sistemi soċjali u [[Politika|politiċi]] tradizzjonalisti u [[Medjuevu|Medjevali]] b'oħrajn li kienu moderni, [[Xjenza|xjentifiċi]], tal-Punent u bbażati fuq Illuminiżmu radikali. F'Diċembru 1699 huwa daħħal il-[[kalendarju Ġuljan]], li ħa post il-kalendarju [[Biżantini|Biżantin]] li kien ilu jintuża fir-Russja, iżda l-[[Knisja Ortodossa Russa]] rreżistiet partikolarment din il-bidla. Fl-1703 huwa daħħal l-ewwel gazzetta Russa, ''Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti'', u ordna l-kitba ċivili, riforma tal-[[ortografija]] Russa ddisinjata fil-biċċa l-kbira minnu nnifsu. Max-xtut tax-xmara Neva, huwa stabbilixxa [[San Pietruburgu]], belt li malajr ġiet imlaqqma minn [[Francesco Algarotti]] bħala t-"tieqa lejn il-Punent". Fl-1712, Pietru ttrasferixxa l-[[belt kapitali]] minn [[Moska]] lejn San Pietruburgu, status li żammet sal-1918. Pietru kellu interess kbir fil-pjanti, fl-[[Annimal|annimali]] u fil-minerali, fil-ħlejjaq deformati jew fl-eċċezzjonijiet tal-liġi tan-natura li kienu jqanqlulu l-kurżità. Huwa ħeġġeġ ir-riċerka tad-deformazzjonijiet, u b'hekk ipprova wkoll jeqred il-biża' superstizzjuża tal-mostri. Huwa ppromwova l-industrijalizzazzjoni fl-Imperu Russu u l-[[edukazzjoni]] għolja. L-Akkademja Russa tax-Xjenzi u l-Università Statali ta' San Pietruburgu ġew stabbiliti fl-1724, u stieden lil [[Christian Wolff]] u lil [[Willem 's Gravesande]]. Pietru jiġi akkreditat primarjament bil-modernizzazzjoni tal-pajjiż, peress li malajr ittrasformah f'setgħa [[Ewropa|Ewropea]] ewlenija. Ir-riformi amministrattivi tiegħu, li ħolqu Senat tal-Governanza fl-1711, il-''Collegium'' fl-1717 u t-Tabella tal-Karigi fl-1722, kellhom impatt fit-tul fuq ir-Russja, u bosta istituzzjonijiet tal-gvern Russu oriġinaw fir-renju tiegħu. == Ħajja bikrija == Pietru trabba fil-proprjetà tal-familja ta' Izmaylovo u ngħata l-edukazzjoni tiegħu fil-Palazz tad-Divertiment minn età bikrija mingħand diversi [[Għalliem|għalliema]] privati kkummissjonati minn missieru; l-iktar notevoli minnhom kienu [[Nikita Zotov]], [[Patrick Gordon]] u [[Paul Menesius]]. Meta missieru miet fl-1676, huwa ħalla s-sovranità f'idejn ħuh il-kbir tal-istess nisel minn ġenitur wieħed komuni, il-magħtub [[Teodoru III]]. Matul dan il-perjodu kollu, il-gvern kien immexxi fil-biċċa l-kbira minn [[Artamon Matveyev]], ħabib illuminat ta' Alexis, il-kap politiku tal-familja Naryshkin u wieħed mill-ikbar benefatturi tat-tfulija ta' Pietru. Din is-sitwazzjoni nbidlet meta Teodoru miet fl-1682. Peress li Teodoru ma kellux ulied, qam diżgwid bejn il-familja Miloslavsky ([[Maria Miloslavskaya]] kienet l-ewwel mara ta' [[Alexis I]]) u l-familja Naryshkin ([[Natalya Naryshkina]] kienet it-tieni mara tiegħu) rigward min kien se jiret it-tron. Huwa rrenja b'mod konġunt ma' ħuh il-kbir bin-nisel ta' ġenitur wieħed komuni, Ivan V, sal-1696. Ivan kien l-eredi bid-dritt iżda kien dgħajjef u għami. B'hekk, il-Boyar Duma (kunsill tan-nobbli Russi) għażel lil Pietru biex isir il-ksar ta' għaxar snin, u ommu kienet ir-reġġenti tiegħu. Tħaffret toqba fid-dahar tat-tron, biex litteralment minn wara l-kwinti, ommu setgħet issefsef f'widnejn iż-żewġ subien. It-"Tkeċċija l-Kbira ta' Moska" bdiet fl-1677 u tlestiet fl-1688; din affettwat il-familji nobbli b'karigi għoljin fl-amministrazzjoni; il-ministeri tnaqqsu wkoll. Dan ipprovoka reazzjonijiet inkorlati. Sophia, waħda mill-ulied bniet ta' Alexis mill-ewwel żwieġ tiegħu, mexxiet ribelljoni tal-i''streltsy'' (il-korp militari tal-elit tar-Russja) f'April–Mejju 1682. Fil-kunflitt sussegwenti, uħud mill-qrabat u mill-ħbieb ta' Pietru nqatlu, fosthom Artamon Matveyev, u Pietru esperjenza wħud minn dawn l-att ta' vjolenza politika. L-i''streltsy'' għamluha possibbli għal Sophia, għall-Miloslavskys (il-klan ta' Ivan) u għall-alleati tagħhom biex jinsistu li Pietru u Ivan jiġu pproklamati b'mod konġunt bħala l-ksars, u Ivan ġie akklamat bħala l-ksar superjuri. Imbagħad Sophia għamlitha tar-reġġenti matul iż-żmien meta s-sovrani kienu taħt l-età u eżerċitat is-setgħa kollha tagħha. Għal 7 snin, hija mexxiet bħala awtokrata. Mill-1682 sal-1689, Pietru u ommu tkeċċew lejn Preobrazhenskoye. Tal-età ta' 16-il sena, huwa skopra dgħajsa Ingliża fil-proprjetà tal-familja, irrestawraha u tgħallem ibaħħar. Huwa ngħata sestant (strument tan-navigazzjoni), iżda ma kienx jaf kif jużah. Pietru kien affaxxinat bl-arloġġi tax-[[xemx]]. Għaldaqstant, huwa beda jfittex għal espert barrani fil-Kwartier [[Ġermanja|Ġermaniż]]. Pietru għamel ħbieb ma' [[Andrew Vinius]], biblijofilu, li għallmu l-Olandiż u żewġ mastrudaxxi Olandiżi, Frans Timmerman u Karsten Brandt. Pietru studja l-[[matematika]], il-[[ġeometrija]] u x-xjenzi militari. Huwa ma kienx interessat fl-edukazzjoni mużikali iżda kien iħobb it-tnabar u l-logħob tan-nar. Pietru ma tantx kien imħasseb wisq li oħrajn kienu qed imexxu f'ismu; Boris Golitsyn u Fyodor Apraksin kellhom rwol importanti. Huwa kellu passatempi bħall-bini tal-vapuri f'Pereslavl-Zalessky u t-tbaħħir fil-Lag ta' Pleshcheyevo, kif ukoll f'battalji taparsi bl-armata tal-ġugarelli tiegħu. Omm Pietru ppruvat tobbligah jadotta approċċ iktar konvenzjonali u rranġat iż-żwieġ tiegħu ma' [[Eudoxia Lopukhina]] fl-1689. Iż-żwieġ sfaxxa, u 10 snin wara, Pietru ġiegħel lil martu ssir soru u b'hekk inħeles mill-unjoni ta' bejniethom. Sas-sajf tal-1689, Pietru ppjana li jaħtaf il-poter mingħand oħtu tan-nisel minn ġenitur wieħed komuni, Sophia, ladarba l-pożizzjoni tagħha kienet iddgħajfet minħabba żewġ kampanji militari fallimentari fil-[[Krimea]] kontra l-Khanat tal-Krimea, f'tentattiv biex twaqqaf l-attakki devastanti tat-[[Tatari tal-Krimea]] fl-artijiet tan-Nofsinhar tar-Russja. Meta saret taf bil-pjanijiet tiegħu, Sophia kkonfoffat ma' xi mexxejja tal-i''streltsy'', li b'mod kontinwu qalgħu diżordni u garr kbir. Pietru, imwissi minn oħrajn dwar l-i''streltsy'', ħarab f'nofs ta' lejl lejn il-monasteru impenetrabbli ta' Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra; hemmhekk bil-mod il-mod ġemgħa n-nies li emmnu li kien se jirbaħ it-taqbida għall-poter. Sophia eventwalment tneħħiet mit-tron, u Pietru I u Ivan V baqgħu jirrenjaw bħala ksars f'daqqa. Pietru ġiegħel lil Sophia tidħol f'kunvent, fejn ċediet il-jeddijiet u l-kariga tagħha bħala membru tal-familja rjali. Sadanittant, Pietru kien mistieden frekwenti fil-kwartier Ġermaniż, fejn iltaqa' ma' [[Anna Mons|Anna]] u [[Willem Mons]]. Fl-1692 huwa bagħat lil [[Eberhard Isbrand Ides]] bħala mibgħut għand l-Imperatur Kangxi taċ-[[Ċina]]. Fl-1693 huwa baħħar lejn il-Monasteru ta' [[Gżejjer Solovetsky|Solovetsky]] u aċċetta l-provvidenza divina wara li ħelisha mill-għarqa f'maltempata. Xorta waħda, Pietru ma setax jikseb il-kontroll reali tal-affarijiet Russi. Minflok il-poter kien eżerċitat minn ommu. Kien biss meta Natalya mietet fl-1694 li Pietru, li dak iż-żmien kellu 22 sena, sar sovran indipendenti. Formalment, Ivan V kien mexxej konġunt flimkien ma' Pietru, għalkemm ma tantx kien effettiv. Pietru sar il-mexxej waħdieni meta Ivan miet fl-1696 mingħajr ma kellu ulied subien. Pietru kiber u kien tassew twil, speċjalment għal dak iż-żmien, u jingħad li kien twil 6 piedi u 8 pulzieri (2.03 [[Metru|metri]]). Huwa kien jitqies bħala t-"tieni Gulija" jew Sansun. San Xmun iddeskrivih fl-1717 bħala "twil, mibni sew u rqiq... b'ħarsa bla biża' u kiefra". Pietru kellu difett notevoli fl-espressjonijiet ta' wiċċu għax jaf kien ibati minn muskoli spażmatiċi f'għonqu. == Ideoloġija tar-renju ta' Pietru == Bħala żagħżugħ, Pietru I adotta l-mudell [[Protestantiżmu|Protestant]] tal-eżistenza f'dinja pragmatika ta' kompetizzjoni u suċċess personali, li sawret il-biċċa l-kbira tal-filosofija tar-riformiżmu tiegħu. Huwa pperċepixxa l-poplu Russu bħala pastaż, mhux intelliġenti, rasu iebsa, għadu lura, qisu xi tifel/tifla jew student għażżien(a). Huwa apprezza r-rwol statali fil-ħajja tas-soċjetà, u kien jarah bħala strument ideali biex jinkisbu għanijiet nobbli, kien jarah bħala istituzzjoni universali għat-trasformazzjoni tan-nies, bl-għajnuna tal-vjolenza u tal-biża', f'sudditi edukati, konxji, li jħarsu l-liġi, u utli għas-soċjetà kollha. Pietru kien interessat ferm f'''L-Edukazzjoni ta' Prinċep Kristjan'' li jagħti pariri lill-mexxejja kif għandhom jiggvernaw b'mod ġust u għaref. Huwa daħħal fil-kunċett tal-poter awtokratiku, in-nozzjoni tad-dmirijiet tal-monarka. Kien iqis li huwa d-dmir tiegħu li jieħu ħsieb is-sudditi tiegħu, li jħarishom mill-għedewwa, li jaħdem għall-benefiċċju tagħhom. Fuq kollox, huwa poġġa l-interessi tar-Russja fuq quddiem. Huwa kien iħoss li l-missjoni tiegħu kienet li jibdilha f'setgħa simili għall-pajjiżi tal-Punent, u ddedika ħajtu u ħajjet is-sudditi tiegħu biex din l-idea titwettaq. Gradwalment l-idea daħlet, anke bl-għajnuna tar-riformi, li saru skont ir-rieda tal-awtokrata, li kien joħloq il-ġid u jikkastiga l-ħażen. Huwa kien iqis il-moralità ta' statista separatament mill-moralità ta' persuna privata u kien jemmen li s-sovran fl-isem l-istat seta' jwettaq qtil, vjolenza, falsifikazzjoni u qerq. Huwa għadda mil-lieva navali, u beda mill-iżjed livelli baxxi: bumbardier (1695), kaptan (1696), kurunell (1706), għassies ta' billejl (1709), viċi ammirall (1714), ammirall (1721). Permezz tax-xogħol iebes ta' kuljum (skont l-espressjoni figurattiva ta' Pietru l-Kbir stess, fl-istess ħin "kellu jżomm xabla u pinna f'id leminija waħda") u l-imġiba qalbiena huwa wera lis-sudditi tiegħu l-eżempju pożittiv personali tiegħu, wera kif wieħed għandu jaġixxi, u ddedika ruħu u ġismu biex jaqdi dmiru għas-servizz ta' art twelidu. == Renju == Pietru rrenja għal madwar 43 sena. Huwa implimenta riformi trasversali bl-għan li jimmodernizzaw ir-Russja. Influwenzat ferm mill-konsulenti tiegħu, bħal [[Jacob Bruce]], Pietru organizza mill-ġdid l-armata Russa skont linji moderni u kien joħlom li r-Russja ssir setgħa marittima. Huwa ltaqa' ma' ħafna oppożizzjoni għal dawn il-politiki f'art twelidu iżda qered b'mod brutali r-ribelljonijiet kontra l-awtorità tiegħu, inkluż mill-i''streltsy'', mill-Baxkiri, mill-Astrakhan, u l-ikbar rewwixta ċivili tar-renju tiegħu, ir-Ribelljoni ta' Bulavin. Fil-proċess tiegħu li jqarreb ir-Russja lejn il-Punent, huwa ried li l-membri tal-familja tiegħu jiżżewġu ma' membri rjali Ewropej oħra. Fl-imgħoddi, l-antenati tiegħu ġew injorati meta ressqu din l-idea; madankollu, uriet li kienet qed tagħti l-frott. Huwa nnegozja ma' [[Frederick William]], id-Duka ta' Courland biex iżewweġ lin-neputija tiegħu, Anna Ivanovna. Huwa uża ż-żwieġ tagħha sabiex iniedi l-belt kapitali l-ġdida tiegħu, San Pietruburgu, fejn diġà kien ordna proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni ta' palazzi u binjiet simili għal dawn tal-Punent. Pietru qabbad lil [[Arkitett|arkitetti]] [[Italja|Taljani]] u Ġermaniżi biex ifasslu d-disinni. Huwa attira lil [[Domenico Trezzini]], [[Carlo Bartolomeo Rastrelli]], [[Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond]] u [[Andreas Schlüter]]. Sabiex itejjeb il-pożizzjoni tan-nazzjon tiegħu fl-ibħra, Pietru pprova jikseb iktar żbokki marittimi. L-uniku żbokk tiegħu dak iż-żmien kien il-[[Baħar l-Abjad]] f'Arkhangelsk. Il-[[Baħar Baltiku]] dak iż-żmien kien ikkontrollat mill-Iżvezja fit-Tramuntana, filwaqt li l-[[Baħar l-Iswed]] u l-[[Baħar Kaspju]] kienu kkontrollati mill-Imperu Ottoman u mill-Imperu tas-Safavidi rispettivament fin-Nofsinhar. Il-ħtieġa tal-pajjiż għall-metall żdiedet minħabba li faqqgħu l-gwerer għall-aċċess għall-Baħar l-Iswed u għall-Baħar Baltiku. Pietru pprova jikseb il-kontroll tal-Baħar l-Iswed, li kien jirrikjedi t-tkeċċija tat-Tatari miż-żoni tal-madwar. Bħala parti minn ftehim mal-Polonja li bih [[Kiev]] ġiet ċeduta lir-Russja, Pietru ġie mġiegħel jiddikjara gwerra kontra l-Khan tal-Krimea u kontra s-Sultan Ottoman ta' fuqu. L-objettiv primarju ta' Pietru sar li jaħtaf il-fortizza Ottomana ta' Azov, qrib ix-xmara Don. Fis-sajf tal-1695 Pietru organizza l-kampanji militari ta' Azov biex jaħtaf il-fortizza, iżda t-tentattivi tiegħu fallew. Pietru reġa' lura Moska f'Novembru 1695 u beda jibni flotta navali kbira f'Voronezh. Huwa vara madwar tletin vapur kontra l-Ottomani fl-1696, u ħataf Azov f'Lulju ta' dik is-sena. Huwa ħatar lil [[Alexander Gordon]], li iktar 'il quddiem ippubblika bijografija ta' Pietru. Pietru kien jorganizza l-laqgħat importanti kollha u bosta ċelebrazzjonijiet fil-Palazz ta' Le Fort. === Gran Ambaxxata === Pietru kien jaf li r-Russja ma setgħetx tiffaċċja l-Imperu Ottoman waħedha. F'Marzu 1697 huwa vvjaġġa "pajsan" lejn il-Punent tal-Ewropa għal 18-il xahar flimkien ma' delegazzjoni Russa kbira — l-hekk imsejħa "Gran Ambaxxata". Pietru kien l-ewwel ksar li ħareġ mir-Russja f'iktar minn 100 sena. Huwa uża isem falz, li permezz tiegħu seta' jaħrab mill-avvenimenti soċjali u diplomatiċi, iżda peress li kien ferm itwal minn bosta oħrajn, ma tantx kien jirnexxilu jġibha żewġ. Għan minnhom kien li jfittex l-għajnuna tal-monarki Ewropej, iżda t-tama ta' Pietru mietet fuq ommha. [[Franza]] kienet alleat tradizzjonali tas-Sultan Ottoman, u l-[[Awstrija]] kienet ħerqana li jżomm il-paċi fil-Lvant sakemm kienet qed tagħmel il-gwerer tagħha stess fil-Punent.Barra minn hekk, Pietru kien għażel mument mhux f'waqtu: l-Ewropej dak iż-żmien kienu iktar mħassbin dwar il-Gwerra tas-Suċċessjoni [[Spanja|Spanjola]] u min kien se jkun is-suċċessur tar-Re [[Karlu II ta' Spanja]] li ma kellux ulied milli mill-ġlied kontra s-Sultan Ottoman. Pietru b'hekk ma rnexxilux jespandi l-alleanza kontra l-Ottomani. F'[[Riga]], il-kmandant Żvediż lokali [[Erik Dahlbergh]] iddeċieda li jagħmilha tabirruħu li ma għarafx lil Pietru u ma ħalliehx jispezzjona l-fortifikazzjonijiet. 3 snin wara, Pietru kkwota l-lqugħ inospitabbli bħala waħda mir-raġunijiet li wasslu għall-bidu tal-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana. Huwa ltaqa' ma' Frederick Casimir Kettler, id-Duka ta' Courland. F'Königsberg, il-ksar ta apprendistat ta' xahrejn lil inġinier tal-artillerija. Inħarġu wkoll digrieti għall-kostruzzjoni tal-ewwel fran tal-ibblastjar tal-Ural. F'Lulju Pietru ltaqa' ma' Sophia ta' Hanover fil-Kastell ta' Coppenbrügge. Hi ddeskritu b'dan il-mod: "Il-ksar huwa [[raġel]] twil u sabiħ, b'wiċċ attraenti. Huwa fuq tiegħu u għaref ħafna. Madankollu, xi ħadd b'daqstant preġji naturali jista' jkollu manjieri kemxejn aħjar". Pietru kera vapur f'Emmerich am Rhein u baħħar lejn Zaandam, fejn wasal fit-18 ta' Awwissu 1697. ==== [[Amsterdam]] ==== Pietru studja l-impjanti tal-isserrar tal-[[injam]] u tal-manifattura u tal-bini tal-vapuri f'Zaandam iżda telaq wara ġimgħa. Huwa baħħar lejn Amsterdam wara li għarfuh u ġie attakkat. L-għorfa taz-zkuk tal-injam li kien kera saret id-Dar tal-Ksar Pietru. Huwa baħħar lejn [[Texel]] biex jara flotta. Permezz tal-medjazzjoni ta' [[Nicolaas Witsen]], espert dwar ir-Russja, il-ksar ingħata l-opportunità li jikseb esperjenza prattika fit-tarzna tal-Kumpanija Olandiża tal-Indji tal-Lvant għal perjodu ta' 4 xhur, taħt is-superviżjoni ta' [[Gerrit Claesz Pool]]. Il-ksar diliġenti u kapaċi assista fil-kostruzzjoni tal-bastiment ''Pietru u Pawlu'' li nbena apposta għalih. Pietru ħass li l-mastrudaxxi tal-bastiment fl-Olanda kienu jaħdmu wisq fuq għajnejhom u ma kinux jagħmlu tpinġijiet akkurati tal-kostruzzjoni tal-bastimenti. Matul is-soġġorn tiegħu, il-ksar iltaqa' ma' bosta ħaddiema b'ħiliet kbar bħall-bennejja tal-imgħalaq, tal-fortizzi, [[Bennej|bennejja]] tal-vapuri u baħħara — inkluż [[Cornelis Cruys]], viċi ammirall li taħt Franz Lefort sar il-konsulent tal-ksar fl-affarijiet marittimi; l-inġinier [[Menno van Coehoorn]] irrifjuta. Pietru uża l-għarfien li kiseb fil-kostruzzjoni tal-bastimenti biex jgħin fil-bini tal-flotta navali tar-Russja. Pietru u Witsen żaru lil [[Frederik Ruysch]] li kellu l-eżemplari kollha esposti f'ħames kmamar. Huwa għallem lil Pietru jaqbad il-friefet u kif kellu jagħmel biex jippreservahom. Kellhom interess komuni wkoll fil-gremxul. Kienu jmorru flimkien biex jaraw xi pazjenti. Pietru wasal f'[[Utrecht]] fuq barkun u ltaqa' ma' [[William III]] f'berġa. Meta żar lill-Ġeneral Statali tan-Netherlands huwa telaq mis-sala u stagħġeb lil dawk li kienu preżenti bil-parrokka li kien libes, skont Massie. Huwa żar ukoll lil [[Jan van der Heyden]], l-inventur tal-pajp tat-tifi tan-nar. Pietru kien jikkollezzjona wkoll il-[[Pittura|pitturi]] ta' [[Adam Silo]] b'vapuri u b'pajsaġġi tal-baħar bħala s-suġġett tagħhom. F'Ottubru 1697, il-ksar żar [[Delft]] u ngħata "apparat biex josserva s-salluriet" mingħand il-mikroskopista [[Antoni van Leeuwenhoek]]. Wara t-Trattat tal-Paċi ta' Ryswick, Pietru ġie mistieden mir-Re tal-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]] biex iżuru. Ir-reġġenti Olandiżi ħassew li l-ksar kien wisq inkwiżittiv, u dan affettwa r-rieda tagħhom li jgħinu lir-Russi. ==== Deptford ==== Fil-11 ta' Jannar 1698 (skont sorsi oħra), Pietru wasal fix-Xatt ta' Victoria flimkien ma' erba' qaddejja, tliet interpreti (Peter Shafirov, LeFort), żewġ arloġġara, kok, patri, sitt trumbettiera, 70 suldat mir-riġment ta' Preobrazhensky, erba' nani u xadina li kien xtara minn Amsterdam; ġie akkumpanjat minn Jacob Bruce. Pietru ssoġġorna f'21 Norfolk Street, Strand, u ltaqa' mal-Isqof ta' [[Salisbury]] Gilbert Burnet u ma' Thomas Osborne u ppoża għal Sir Godfrey Kneller. Huwa osserva l-proċeduri fi ħdan il-Parlament minn tieqa ħdejn is-saqaf. Dak iż-żmien, l-attriċi Letitia Cross kien l-innamrata tiegħu. Huwa żar iz-Zekka Rjali erba' darbiet; mhux ċar jekk qatt iltaqa' ma' Isaac Newton, il-gwardjan taz-zekka, li daħal isem iz-zekka fuq il-muniti. Skont Massie, Pietru baqa' impressjonat mill-Izzekkar mill-Ġdid il-Kbir tal-1696. Dak iż-żmien huwa żar Spithead, Plymouth, flimkien mal-kaptan John Perry biex jara battalja taparsi. Fi Frar attenda Rieżami tal-Flotta f'Deptford, u spezzjona t-Tarzna ta' Woolwich u l-Arsenal Irjali flimkien ma' Anthony Deane. Għal 3 xhur huwa qagħad f'Sayes Court bħala l-mistieden ta' John Evelyn, membru tas-Soċjetà Rjali. Huwa tħarreġ kif juża t-teleskopju fl-Osservatorju ta' Greenwich flimkien ma' John Flamsteed. Pietru kkomunika ma' Thomas Story u ma' William Penn dwar il-pożizzjoni tagħhom li dawk li kienu jemmnu ma kellhom jingħaqdu mal-militar. Ir-Re [[William III]] ppreżenta skuna b'ekwipaġġ sħiħ lil Pietru I bi skambju għad-dritt ta' monopolju tal-merkanti Ingliżi fil-kummerċ tat-tabakk fir-Russja. Fl-aħħar ta' April 1698, huwa telaq wara li ġie muri kif jagħmel l-arloġġi u jħejji t-tapizzerija tat-twiebet. Lura fl-Olanda huwa żar Harderwijk u Cleves. Imbagħad l-Ambaxxata marret lejn [[Leipzig]], Dresden, fejn iltaqa' mar-Reġina Christiane Eberhardine tal-Polonja-Litwanja. Huwa żar il-Kunstsammlung tliet darbiet, imbagħad il-Fortizza ta' Königstein, [[Praga]] u [[Vjenna]], biex iżur lil [[Leopoldu I]]. F'Rava-Ruska, huwa qasam il-fruntiera u Pietru tkellem ma' Awgustu II il-Qawwi. Iż-żjara ta' Pietru spiċċat ħesrem, meta ġie infurmat bit-tieni rewwixta tal-i''streltsy'' f'Ġunju. Ir-ribelljoni trażżnet faċilment mill-Ġeneral Gordon qabel ma Pietru reġa' lura d-dar qabel iż-żmien f'Settembru. Minkejja dan, Pietru baqa' jeħodha qatta' bla ħabel kontra r-ribelli; 4,600 ribell inxteħtu l-ħabs. Madwar 1,182 ribell ġew torturati u ġustizzjati, u Pietru ordna li ġisimhom jintwerew fil-pubbliku bħala twissija għal min seta' jitħajjar jagħmel xi konfoffa simili fil-futur. L-i''streltsy'' sfaxxaw, u oħt Pietru minn ġenitur wieħed komuni, Sophia, li ppruvaw ittellgħuha fuq it-tron, inżammet f'seklużjoni mill-iktar rigoruża fil-[[Kunvent ta' Novodevichy]]. Iż-żjarat ta' Pietru fil-Punent ħallew fih in-nozzjoni li d-drawwiet Ewropej kienu f'diversi aspetti superjuri għat-tradizzjonijiet Russi. Huwa kkmanda lill-qaddejja u lill-uffiċjali kollha tiegħu biex jilbsu ilbies Ewropew (mhux kaftani) u biex jaqtgħu d-daqna twila tagħhom, u b'hekk inkorla ferm lill-Bojari u lill-Kredenti Anzjani li kellhom għall-qalbhom id-daqna tagħhom. Il-Bojari li xtaqu jħallu d-daqna tagħhom kellhom iħallsu taxxa annwali fuq id-daqna tagħhom ta' xi mitt rublu. Fl-istess sena, Pietru pprova jtemm iż-żwiġijiet irranġati, li kienu n-norma fost in-nobbli Russi, għax kien tal-fehma li tali prattika kienet barbarika u kienet qed twassal għal vjolenza domestika, peress li l-konjuġi spiss kienu jispiċċaw jobogħdu lil xulxin. === Riformi === In 1698, Peter sent a delegation to Malta, under boyar Boris Sheremetev, to observe the training and abilities of the Knights of Malta and their fleet. Sheremetev investigated the possibility of future joint ventures with the Knights, including action against the Turks and the possibility of a future Russian naval base. On 12 September 1698, Peter officially founded the first Russian Navy base, Taganrog on the Sea of Azov. In 1699, Peter changed the date of the celebration of the new year from 1 September to 1 January. Traditionally, the years were reckoned from the purported creation of the World, but after Peter's reforms, they were to be counted from the birth of Christ. Thus, in the year 7207 of the old Russian calendar, Peter proclaimed that the Julian Calendar was in effect and the year was 1700. On the death of Lefort in 1699, Menshikov succeeded him as Peter's prime favourite and confidant. In 1700, Pietru I prevented the election of a new patriarch and deprived the Russian Church of the opportunity to regain a single spiritual leader. Reducing the number of monasteries, he converted all monasteries with less than 30 monks into schools or churches. He encouraged the development of private entrepreneurship, but under strict state control. He initiated the construction of canals by John Perry and implemented a monetary reform, using the decimal principle as the basis of the monetary system (1698-–1704). Peter attracted many foreign specialists and opened an educational institution for surgery, led by Nicolaas Bidloo. In 1701, the Moscow School of Mathematics and Navigation was founded, led by Jacob Bruce; for fifteen years, naval officers, surveyors, engineers, and gunners were educated there. In 1700, Jan Thesingh (-1701) received a monopoly on printing and importing books, maps and prints into Russia for fifteen years. In 1701 he appointed Fedor Polikarpov-Orlov as head of the Moscow Print Yard. In 1707, Tsar Pietru I bought a fully equipped printing house in Holland, including staff. Peter replaced the Cyrillic numerals with Arabic numerals (1705–1710) and the Cyrillic font with a civil script (1708–1710). In 1708, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz became an advisor and offered to write new laws for the country. In December Russia was divided into eight governorates (''guberniya''). Matwei Petrowitsch Gagarin was the first governor of Siberia. Peter was visited by Cornelis de Bruijn, who spent six years in Russia and made drawings of the Kremlin. In 1711, Peter visited elector August II of Poland in Dresden, Carlsbad and Torgau where his son Aleksei married. In 1713 he visited Hamburg, sieged Tönningen with his allies. He then traveled to Hanover and was a guest of Duke Anton Ulrich of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel in Salzdahlum. From Danzig he sailed to Riga, Helsingfors and Turku. In 1711, Peter established by decree a new state body known as the Governing Senate. Normally, the Boyar duma would have exercised power during his absence. Peter, however, mistrusted the boyars; he instead abolished the Duma and created a Senate of ten members. The Senate was founded as the highest state institution to supervise all judicial, financial and administrative affairs. Originally established only for the time of the monarch's absence, the Senate became a permanent body after his return. A special high official, the Ober-Procurator, served as the link between the ruler and the senate and acted, in Peter own words, as "the sovereign's eye". Without his signature no Senate decision could go into effect; the Senate became one of the most important institutions of Imperial Russia. In 1701, 1705 and 1712, Pietru I issued decrees establishing an Engineering School in Sukharev Tower, which was supposed to recruit up to 100 students, but had only 23. Therefore, he issued another decree in 1714 calling for compulsory education, which dictated that all Russian 10- to 15-year-old children of the nobility, government clerks, and lesser-ranked officials must learn basic arithmetic, trigonometry and geometry, and should be tested on the subjects at the end of their studies. Areskine, an iatrochemist, became head of the court apothecary; Johann Daniel Schumacher was appointed secretary and librarian of the Kunstkamera. The country's first scientific library was opened in his palace in the Summer Garden. Peter ordered the development of Aptekarsky Island, headquarters for the Medical Clerical Office and the Main Pharmacy. Gottlieb Schober was commissioned to examine hot springs and discovered rich deposits of sulfur; Pietru Immediately set up a factory for the development in the Samara Oblast. In 1721 the shipyard Petrozavod and Petrodvorets Watch Factory was established. Some 3,500 new words—German, French, Dutch, English, Italian, Swedish in origin—entered Russian in Peter's period, roughly one-fourth of them shipping and naval terms. As part of his reforms, Peter started an industrialization effort that was slow but eventually successful. Russian manufacturing and main exports were based on the mining and lumber industries. In 1719, the privileges of miners were enshrined in law with the Berg Privilege, which allowed representatives of all classes to search for ores and build metallurgical plants. At the same time, manufacturers and artisans were exempted from state taxes and recruiting, and their houses were exempt from the post of troops. The law also guaranteed the inheritance of the ownership of factories, proclaimed industrial activity a matter of state importance and protected manufacturers from interference in their affairs by local authorities. The same law established the Collegium of Mining, and managed the entire mining and metallurgical industry, and local administrations. The Demidovs became the first Russian exporters of iron to Western Europe. In 1721, a decree was issued that allowed factory owners, regardless of whether they had a noble rank, to buy serfs. === Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana === Peter made a temporary peace with the Ottoman Empire that allowed him to keep the captured fort of Azov, and turned his attention to Russian maritime supremacy. He sought to acquire control of the Baltic Sea, which had been taken by the Swedish Empire a half-century earlier. Peter declared war on Sweden, which was at the time led by the young King Charles XII. Sweden was also opposed by Denmark–Norway, Saxony, and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Preobrazhensky regiment took part in all major battles of the Great Northern War. Russia was ill-prepared to fight the Swedes, and their first attempt at seizing the Baltic coast ended in disaster at the Battle of Narva in 1700. In the conflict, the forces of Charles XII, rather than employ a slow methodical siege, attacked immediately using a blinding snowstorm to their advantage. After the battle, Charles XII decided to concentrate his forces against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which gave Peter time to reorganize the Russian army and conquered Nyenschantz in the Ingrian campaign. Bidloo had to organize a military hospital. Robert Bruce was appointed commander-in-chief of St. Petersburg. After the defeat at Narva, Pietru I gave the order to melt the church bells into cannons and mortars. In 1701, Peter ordered the construction of Novodvinsk Fortress north of Archangelsk. Everybody was convinced they knew: his Majesty will wage war. In the siege of Nöteborg Russian forces captured the Swedish fortress, renamed Shlisselburg. In 1702 Peter the Great established the Olonets Shipyard at Lodeynoye Pole, where Russian frigate Shtandart was built. While the Poles fought the Swedes, Peter founded the city of Saint Petersburg on 29 June 1703 on Hare Island. He forbade the building of stone edifices outside Saint Petersburg, which he intended to become Russia's capital, so that all stonemasons could participate in the construction of the new city. While the city was being built along the Neva he lived in a modest three-room log cabin (with a study but without a fire-place) which had to make room for the first version of the Winter Palace. The first buildings which appeared were a shipyard at the Admiralty, Kronstadt (1704-1706) and the Peter and Paul Fortress (1706). Peter took his whole family on a boat trip to Kronstadt. Following several defeats, Polish King Augustus II the Strong abdicated in 1706. Swedish king Charles XII turned his attention to Russia, invading it in 1708. After crossing into Russia, Charles defeated Peter at Golovchin in July. In the Battle of Lesnaya, Charles suffered his first loss after Peter crushed a group of Swedish reinforcements marching from Riga. Deprived of this aid, Charles was forced to abandon his proposed march on Moscow. Charles XII refused to retreat to Poland or back to Sweden and instead invaded Ukraine. Peter withdrew his army southward, employing scorched earth, destroying along the way anything that could assist the Swedes. Deprived of local supplies, the Swedish army was forced to halt its advance in the winter of 1708–1709. In the summer of 1709, they resumed their efforts to capture Russian-ruled Ukraine, culminating in the Battle of Poltava on 27 June. The battle was a decisive defeat for the Swedish forces, ending Charles' campaign in Ukraine and forcing him south to seek refuge in the Ottoman Empire. Russia had defeated what was considered to be one of the world's best militaries, and the victory overturned the view that Russia was militarily incompetent. In Poland, Augustus II was restored as King. Peter, overestimating the support he would receive from his Balkan allies, attacked the Ottoman Empire, initiating the Russo-Turkish War of 1710. Peter's campaign in the Ottoman Empire was disastrous, and in the ensuing Treaty of the Pruth, Peter was forced to return the Black Sea ports he had seized in 1697. In return, the Sultan expelled Charles XII. The Ottomans called him ''Mad Peter'' (Turkish: ''deli Petro''), for his willingness to sacrifice large numbers of his troops in wartime. Peter's northern armies took the Swedish province of Livonia (the northern half of modern Latvia, and the southern half of modern Estonia), driving the Swedes out of Finland. In 1714, the Russian fleet won the Battle of Gangut. During the Great Wrath most of Finland was occupied by Russian forces. === Tieni Ambaxxata === In January 1716, Tsar Peter traveled in the Baltic region to discuss peace negotiations and how to protect the sea trade route from the Swedes. He visited Riga, Königsberg and Danzig. There his niece married the quarrelsome Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin with which Peter wanted an alliance. He obtained the assistance of the Frederick William I of Prussia who sieged the strong Swedish fortress Wismar. In Altona he met with Danish diplomats, supporting Prussia. He sailed to Copenhagen heading an allied fleet. In Wittenberg he visited the monastery, where Luther lived. In May he went on to Bad Pyrmont, and, because of his physical problems he stayed at this spa. There he met with the genius Leibniz. Blumentrost and Areskine accompanied him. In early December Peter arrived in Amsterdam and visited Nicolaas Witsen. He bought the anatomic and herbarium collection of Frederik Ruysch, Levinus Vincent and Albertus Seba. He obtained many paintings among other from Maria Sibylla Merian for his Kunstkamera and Rembrandt's "David and Jonathan" for Peterhof Palace. He paid a visit to a friend's mansion near Nigtevecht, a silk manufacture and a paper-mill. At five in the morning he was received by Herman Boerhaave who showed Peter the Botanical Garden. In April 1717 he continued his travel to Austrian Netherlands, Dunkirk and Calais. In Paris he obtained many books, requested to become a member of the Academie de Sciences and visited the parliament, the Sorbonne and Madame Maintenon. Via the Palace of Saint-Cloud, the Grand Trianon at Versailles, Fontainebleau, Spa he travelled on to Maastricht, at that time one of the most important fortresses in Europe. He went back Amsterdam to attend a Treaty with France and Prussia on 15 August. He achieved a diplomatic success, and his international prestige, consolidated. Again he visited the Hortus Botanicus and left the city early September 1717, heading for Berlin. In October he was back in St Petersburg. In 1719 New Holland Island was created. The tsar's navy was powerful enough that the Russians could penetrate Sweden. Still, Charles XII refused to yield, and not until his death in battle in 1718 did peace become feasible. After the battle of Grengam, Sweden made peace with all powers but Russia by 1720. In 1721, the Treaty of Nystad ended the Great Northern War. Russia acquired Ingria, Estonia, Livonia, and a substantial portion of Karelia. In turn, Russia paid two million Riksdaler and surrendered most of Finland. === Iktar 'il quddiem === In 1717, Alexander Bekovich-Cherkassky led the first Russian military expedition into Central Asia against the Khanate of Khiva. The expedition ended in complete disaster when the entire expeditionary force was slaughtered. To the end of 1717, the preparatory phase of administrative reform in Russia was completed. After 1718, Peter established collegiums in place of the old central agencies of government, including foreign affairs, war, navy, expense, income, justice, and inspection. Later others were added, to regulate mining and industry. Each college consisted of a president, a vice-president, a number of councilors and assessors, and a procurator. Some foreigners were included in various colleges but not as president. Pavel Yaguzhinsky was entrusted with the observation of the "soonest possible establishment of colleges by their presidents". Peter did not have enough loyal, talented or educated persons to put in full charge of the various departments. Peter preferred to rely on groups of individuals who would keep check on one another. Decisions depended on the majority vote. In 1718, Pietru Investigated why the formerly Swedish province of Livonia was so orderly. He discovered that the Swedes spent as much administering Livonia (300 times smaller than his empire) as he spent on the entire Russian bureaucracy. He was forced to dismantle the province's government. In June 1721 he had Gagarin, the governor of Siberia, executed. Peter's last years were marked by further reform in Russia. On 2 November 1721 (N.S.), soon after peace was made with Sweden, he was officially proclaimed ''Emperor of All Russia''. The coronation of the Russian monarch took place in Uspensky Cathedral, Moscow. Some proposed that he take the title ''Emperor of the East'', but he refused. Gavrila Golovkin, the State Chancellor, was the first to add "the Great, Father of His Country, Emperor of All the Russias" to Peter's traditional title of tsar following a speech by Theophan Prokopovich in 1721. Peter's imperial title was recognized by Augustus II of Poland, Frederick William I of Prussia, and Frederick I of Sweden, but not by the other European monarchs. In the minds of many, the word ''emperor'' connoted superiority or pre-eminence over kings. Several rulers feared that Peter would claim authority over them, just as the Holy Roman Emperor had claimed suzerainty over all Christian nations.<blockquote>By the grace of God, the most excellent and great sovereign emperor Pyotr Alekseevich the ruler of all the Russias: of Moscow, of Kiev, of Vladimir, of Novgorod, Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan and Tsar of Siberia, sovereign of Pskov, great prince of Smolensk, of Tver, of Yugorsk, of Perm, of Vyatka, of Bulgaria and others, sovereign and great prince of the Novgorod Lower lands, of Chernigov, of Ryazan, of Rostov, of Yaroslavl, of Belozersk, of Udora, of Kondia and the sovereign of all the northern lands, and the sovereign of the Iverian lands, of the Kartlian and Georgian Kings, of the Kabardin lands, of the Circassian and Mountain princes and many other states and lands western and eastern here and there and the successor and sovereign and ruler.</blockquote>In 1722, Pietru Issued a Decree on the succession to the throne, in which he abolished the ancient custom of transferring the throne to direct descendants in the male line (as he had no son). The decree was so unusual for Russian society that it was necessary to explain it. Peter created a new order of precedence for landowners known as the Table of Ranks. Formerly, precedence had been determined by birth. To deprive the Boyars of their high positions, Peter directed that precedence should be determined by merit and service to the Emperor. The Table of Ranks continued to remain in effect until the Russian monarchy was overthrown in 1917. In 1722, John Bell accompanied Peter the Great on a military expedition to the city of Derbent near the Caspian Sea. The once powerful Persian Safavid Empire to the south was in deep decline. Taking advantage of the profitable situation, Peter launched the Russo-Persian War of 1722–1723, otherwise known as "The Persian Expedition of Peter the Great", which drastically increased Russian influence for the first time in the Caucasus and Caspian Sea region, and prevented the Ottoman Empire from making territorial gains in the region. After considerable success and the capture of many provinces and cities in the Caucasus and northern mainland Persia, the Safavids were forced to hand over territory to Russia, comprising Derbent, Shirvan, Gilan, Mazandaran, Baku, and Astrabad. Within twelve years all the territories were ceded back to Persia, now led by the charismatic military genius Nader Shah, as part of the Treaty of Resht, the Treaty of Ganja, and as the result of a Russo-Persian alliance against the Ottoman Empire, which was the common enemy of both. Peter changed the system of direct taxation. He abolished the land tax and household tax and replaced them with a poll tax. The taxes on land and on households were payable only by individuals who owned property or maintained families. The new head taxes were payable by serfs and paupers. Peter began construction of the Monplaisir Palace based on his own sketches. He ordered to purchase 2,000 lime trees which were shipped to St Petersburg. In 1725, the construction of Peterhof, a palace near Saint Petersburg, was completed. Peterhof was a grand residence, becoming known as the "Russian Versailles". === Mard u mewt === In the winter of 1723, Peter, whose overall health was never robust, began having problems with his urinary tract and bladder. In the summer of 1724, a team of doctors performed surgery releasing upwards of four pounds of blocked urine. Peter remained bedridden until late autumn. In the first week of October, restless and certain he was cured, Peter began a lengthy inspection tour of various projects. Rastrelli finished his monument to Pietru I (St. Michael's Castle). According to legend, in November, at Lakhta along the Gulf of Finland to inspect some ironworks, Peter saw a group of soldiers drowning near shore and, wading out into near-waist deep water, came to their rescue. This icy water rescue is said to have exacerbated Peter's bladder problems and caused his death. The story, however, has been viewed with skepticism by some historians, pointing out that the German chronicler de:Jacob von Staehlin is the only source for the story. In early January 1725, Peter was struck once again with uremia or azotemia. Legend has it that before lapsing into unconsciousness Peter asked for a paper and pen and scrawled an unfinished note that read: ''"Leave all to ..."'' and then, exhausted by the effort, asked for his daughter Anna to be summoned. Peter died between four and five in the morning 8 February. An autopsy revealed his bladder to be infected with gangrene. He was fifty-two years, seven months old when he died, having reigned forty-two years. He is interred in Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral. After his death, students came to the Military College with a request to "leave science" under the pretext of "unconsciousness and incomprehensibility." == Reliġjon == Peter had a great interest in dissenters and visited gatherings of Quakers and Mennonites. He did not believe in miracles and founded The All-Joking, All-Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters, an organization that mocked the Orthodox and Catholic Church, when he was eighteen. In January 1695, Peter refused to partake in a traditional Russian Orthodox Epiphany Ceremony, and would often schedule events for The All-Joking, All-Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters to directly conflict with the Church. He often used the nickname ''Pakhom Mikhailov'' (Russian: Пахом Михайлов) among the ministers of religion who made up his relatively close circle of long-term drinking companions. Peter was brought up in the Russian Orthodox faith, but he had low regard for the Church hierarchy, which he kept under tight governmental control. The traditional leader of the Church was the Patriarch of Moscow. In 1700, when the office fell vacant, Peter refused to name a replacement, allowing the patriarch's coadjutor (or deputy) to discharge the duties of the office. Peter could not tolerate the patriarch exercising power superior to the tsar, as indeed had happened in the case of Philaret (1619–1633) and Nikon (1652–66). The Alexander Nevsky Lavra was constructed between 1710–1712; Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral between 1712–1733. In 1716 he invited Theophan Prokopovich, a pietist and astronomer, to come to the capital. The ''Ecclesiastical Regulations'' of 1721 are based on the ideas of August Hermann Francke. The Church reform of Peter the Great therefore abolished the patriarchate, replacing it with a Holy Synod that was under the control of a Procurator. In 1721, Peter followed the advice of Prokopovich in designing the Holy Synod as a council of ten clergymen. For leadership in the Church, Peter turned increasingly to Ukrainians, who were more open to reform, but were not well loved by the Russian clergy. Pietru Implemented a law that stipulated that no Russian man could join a monastery before the age of fifty. He felt that too many able Russian men were being wasted on clerical work when they could be joining his new and improved army. == Żwiġijiet u familja == Peter the Great had two wives, with whom he had fifteen children, three of whom survived to adulthood. Peter's mother selected his first wife, Eudoxia Lopukhina, when he was only 16. This was consistent with previous Romanov tradition by choosing a daughter of a minor noble. This was done to prevent fighting between the stronger noble houses and to bring fresh blood into the family. Upon his return from his European tour in 1698, Peter sought to end his unhappy marriage. He divorced the tsaritsa and forced her to join a convent. She had borne him three children, although only one, Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia, survived past his childhood. Menshikov introduced him to Marta Helena Skowrońska, the daughter of a Polish-Lithuanian peasant, and took her as a mistress some time between 1702 and 1704. Marta converted to the Russian Orthodox Church and was given the name Catherine. Though no record exists, Catherine and Peter married secretly between 23 October and 1 December 1707 in St. Petersburg. Peter valued Catherine and married officially, at Saint Isaac's Cathedral on 19 February 1712. In 1718, his son Alexei Petrovich was locked up in the Peter and Paul fortress, whom he regarded as the rebellious Absalom. He was suspected of being involved in a plot to overthrow the Emperor. Alexei was tried and confessed under torture during questioning conducted by a secular court (count Tolstoy). He was convicted and sentenced to be executed. The sentence of high treason could only be carried out with Peter's signed authorization, and Alexei died in prison, as Peter hesitated before making the decision. Alexei's death most likely resulted from injuries suffered during his torture. Alexei's mother Eudoxia was punished. She was dragged from her home, tried on false charges of adultery, publicly flogged, and confined in monasteries while being forbidden to be talked to. ^{[''dubious – discuss'']} In 1724, Peter had his second wife, Catherine, crowned as Empress, although he remained Russia's actual ruler. === Ulied === Mingħad iż-żewġ nisa tiegħu fiż-żwieġ kellu 15-il wild: tlieta mingħand Eudoxia u tnax mingħand Katerina. Dawn kienu jinkludu erba' subien imsejħa ''Pavel'' u tliet subien imsejħa ''Pietru'', li kollha kemm huma mietu meta kienu għadhom trabi. Tlieta biss minn uliedu baqgħu ħajjin sa ma saru adulti. Huwa kellu tliet neputijiet biss: il-Ksar Pietru II u l-Gran Dukessa Natalia mingħand Alexei u l-Ksar Pietru III mingħand Anna. {| class="wikitable" !Isem !Twelid !Mewt !Noti |- | colspan="4" |'''''Mingħand Eudoxia Lopukhina''''' |- |Alexei Petrovich, Ksarevich tar-Russja |18 ta' Frar 1690 |26 ta' Ġunju 1718, età ta' 28 sena |Iżżewweġ fl-1711 lil Charlotte Christine ta' Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel; ma' Pietru II tar-Russja |- |Alexander Petrovich |13 ta' Ottubru 1691 |14 ta' Mejju 1692, età ta' 7 xhur | |- |Pavel Petrovich |1693 |1693 | |- | colspan="4" |'''''Mingħand Katerina I''''' |- |Pietru Petrovich |xitwa tal-1704 |1707 |Twieled u miet qabel iż-żwieġ uffiċjali tal-ġenituri tiegħu |- |Paul Petrovich |Ottubru 1705 |1707 |Twieled u miet qabel iż-żwieġ uffiċjali tal-ġenituri tiegħu |- |Katerina Petrovna |7 ta' Frar 1707 |7 ta' Awwissu 1708 |Twieled u miet qabel iż-żwieġ uffiċjali tal-ġenituri tiegħu |- |Anna Petrovna |27 ta' Jannar 1708 |15 ta' Mejju 1728 |Iżżewġet fl-1725 lil Karl Friedrich, id-Duka ta' Holstein-Gottorp; weldet lil Pietru III tar-Russja. |- |Elizaveta Petrovna, li mbagħad saret l-Imperatriċi Elizaveta Petrovna |29 ta' Diċembru 1709 |5 ta' Jannar 1762 |Jingħad li żżewġet fl-1742 lil Alexei Razumovsky; bla tfal |- |Maria Natalia Petrovna |20 ta' Marzu 1713 |17 ta' Mejju 1715 |twieldet f'Riga |- |Margarita Petrovna |19 ta' Settembru 1714 |7 ta' Ġunju 1715 | |- |Pietru Petrovich |9 ta' Novembru 1715 |6 ta' Mejju 1719 | |- |Pavel Petrovich |13 ta' Jannar 1717 |14 ta' Jannar 1717 |twieled f'Wesel |- |Natalia Petrovna |31 ta' Awwissu 1718 |15 ta' Marzu 1725 | |- |Pietru Petrovich |7 ta' Ottubru 1723 |7 ta' Ottubru 1723 | |- |Pavel Petrovich |1724 |1724 | |} === Namrati u tfal illeġittimi === * Anna Mons, mill-1691 (jew mill-1692) sal-1704; * Letitia Cross fl-1698; * is-Sinjura Mary Hamilton ** Korriet (1715) ** Wild mingħajr isem (1717–1718?); * il-Prinċipessa Maria Dmitrievna Cantemirovna tal-Moldavja, bint Dimitrie Cantemir ** Iben mingħajr isem (1722–1723?). == Legat == Peter's legacy has always been a major concern of Russian intellectuals. Pietru Is a more complex character than he is sometimes given credit for. Some believe Peter's reforms divided the country socially and weakened it spiritually. Riasanovsky points to a "paradoxical dichotomy" in the black and white images such as God/Antichrist, educator/ignoramus, architect of Russia's greatness/destroyer of national culture, father of his country/scourge of the common man. For Old Believers he was the Antichrist, because of the calendar changes and poll tax. Peter compared himself with King David or Noah with a divine mission. At his funeral Prokopovich compared him with Moses and Solomon. Voltaire's 1759 biography gave 18th-century Russians a man of the Enlightenment, while Alexander Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" poem of 1833 gave a powerful romantic image of a creator-god. Slavophiles in mid-19th century deplored Peter's westernization of Russia. Western writers and political analysts recounted "The Testimony" or secret will of Peter the Great. It supposedly revealed his grand evil plot for Russia to control the world via conquest of Constantinople, Afghanistan and India. It was a forgery made in Paris at Napoleon's command when he started the invasion of Russia in 1812. Nevertheless, it is still quoted in foreign policy circles. The Communists executed the last Romanovs, and their historians such as Mikhail Pokrovsky presented strongly negative views of the entire dynasty. Stalin however admired how Peter strengthened the state, and wartime, diplomacy, industry, higher education, and government administration. Stalin wrote in 1928, "when Peter the Great, who had to deal with more developed countries in the West, feverishly built works in factories for supplying the army and strengthening the country's defenses, this was an original attempt to leap out of the framework of backwardness." As a result, Soviet historiography emphasizes both the positive achievement and the negative factor of oppressing the common people. After the fall of Communism in 1991, scholars and the general public in Russia and the West gave fresh attention to Peter and his role in Russian history. His reign is now seen as the decisive formative event in the Russian imperial past. Many new ideas have merged, such as whether he strengthened the autocratic state or whether the tsarist regime was not statist enough given its small bureaucracy. Modernization models have become contested ground. He initiated a wide range of economic, social, political, administrative, educational and military reforms which ended the dominance of traditionalism and religion in Russia and initiated its westernization. His efforts included secularization of education, organization of administration for effective governance, enhanced use of technology, establishing an industrial economy, modernization of the army and establishment of a strong navy. Historian Y. Vodarsky said in 1993 that Peter, "did not lead the country on the path of accelerated economic, political and social development, did not force it to 'achieve a leap' through several stages.... On the contrary, these actions to the greatest degree put a brake on Russia's progress and created conditions for holding it back for one and a half centuries!" The autocratic powers that Stalin admired appeared as a liability to Evgeny Anisimov, who complained that Peter was, "the creator of the administrative command system and the true ancestor of Stalin." In the period from 1678 to 1710, however, the population grew 2 times. According to ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', "He did not completely bridge the gulf between Russia and the Western countries, but he achieved considerable progress in development of the national economy and trade, education, science and culture, and foreign policy. Russia became a great power, without whose concurrence no important European problem could thenceforth be settled. His internal reforms achieved progress to an extent that no earlier innovator could have envisaged." While the cultural turn in historiography has downplayed diplomatic, economic and constitutional issues, new cultural roles have been found for Peter, for example in architecture (Petrine Baroque) and dress. James Cracraft argues: : The Petrine revolution in Russia—subsuming in this phrase the many military, naval, governmental, educational, architectural, linguistic, and other internal reforms enacted by Peter's regime to promote Russia's rise as a major European power—was essentially a cultural revolution, one that profoundly impacted both the basic constitution of the Russian Empire and, perforce, its subsequent development. The iconic representations of dead saints typical for centuries of Russian visual culture suddenly give way to naturalistic portraiture. == Fil-kultura popolari == Pietru ssemma f'bosta ġrajjiet tal-istorja, rumanzi, reċti, films, monumenti u pitturi. Dawn jinkludu l-poeżiji ''Ir-Rikkieb tal-Bronż'', ''Poltava'' u r-rumanz mhux komplut ''L-Għarbi Iberiku ta' Pietru l-Kbir'', kollha ta' [[Alexander Pushkin]]. L-ewwel waħda kienet dwar statwa ekwestri li nbniet f'ġieħ Pietru. Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy kiteb rumanz storiku bijografiku dwaru, imsejjaħ ''Pietru I'', fis-snin 30 tas-seklu 20. * Il-film silenzjuż Ġermaniż tal-1922 ''Pietru l-Kbir'' tar-reġista Dimitri Buchowetzki u tal-protagonista Emil Jannings li ħadimha ta' Pietru. * Fl-1929 ittellgħet ir-reċta ta' A.N. Tolstoy, fejn skont il-linja tal-partit Pietru ntwera bħala tirann li "għakkes lil kulħadd u lil kollox bħallikieku kien ippossedut mix-xjaten, nissel il-biża', u sallab kemm lill-ibnu kif ukoll lill-pajjiżu". * Il-film Sovjetiku tal-1937–1938 ''Pietru l-Kbir''. * Il-film tal-1976 ''How Czar Peter the Great Married Off His Moor'', bil-protagonista Aleksey Petrenko li ħadimha ta' Pietru, u Vladimir Vysotsky li ħadimha ta' Abram Petrovich Gannibal, juri t-tentattiv ta' Pietru li jibni l-Flotta Baltika. * Jan Niklas u Maximilian Schell ħadmuha ta' Pietru fil-minisensiela tal-NBC tal-1986 ''Pietru l-Kbir''. * Il-film tal-2007 ''The Sovereign's Servant'' (Il-Qaddej tas-Sovran) juri l-lat brutali ta' Pietru matul il-kampanji militari tiegħu. * Karattru bbażat fuq Pietru għandu rwol ewlieni f'''The Age of Unreason'', sensiela ta' erba' rumanzi storiċi differenti miktubin mill-awtur Amerikan tal-fantaxjenza u tal-fantasija Gregory Keyes. * Pietru huwa wieħed minn bosta karattri sekondarji f'''Baroque Cycle'' (Ċiklu Barokk) ta' Neal Stephenson – u jitfaċċa b'mod prinċipali fit-tielet rumanz, ''The System of the World'' (Is-Sistema tad-Dinja). * Isaac Rouse jirrakkonta lil Pietru fuq BBC Radio 4 bħala tifel, Will Howard bħala adolexxenti u Elliot Cowan bħala adult fir-reċti ta' fuq ir-radju msejħa ''Peter the Great: The Gamblers'' u ''Peter the Great: The Queen of Spades'', miktubin minn Mike Walker u li kienu l-aħħar żewġ reċti fl-ewwel sensiela ta' ''Tsar''. Ir-reċti xxandru fil-25 ta' Settembru u fit-2 ta' Ottubru 2016. * Vers fil-"Kanzunetta tax-Xorb tal-Inġiniera" jsemmi lil Pietru l-Kbir. * Jason Isaacs ħadimha ta' Pietru fis-sensiela antistorika Hulu tal-2020,''The Great''. * Pietru jintwera bħala l-mexxej taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni Russa fil-logħob tal-kompjuter ''Sid Meier's Civilization VI''. * Ivan Kolesnikov ħadimha ta' Pietru fil-film dokumentarju storiku Russu tal-2022, ''Pietru I: L-Aħħar Ksar u l-Ewwel Imperatur''. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Russja]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1672]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-1725]] q4jzqny9dn92559zak5ycdbhl4x52k0 323368 323367 2025-06-02T16:45:05Z Trigcly 17859 /* Riformi */ żieda kontenut 323368 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Pietru I''' (bir-[[Lingwa Russa|Russu]]: Пётр I Алексеевич, <small>b'ittri Rumani:</small> ''Pyotr I Alekseyevich'', IPA: [ˈpʲɵtr ɐlʲɪkˈsʲejɪvʲɪtɕ]; twieled fid-9 ta' Ġunju [skont sorsi oħra fit-30 ta' Mejju] 1672 – miet fit-8 ta' Frar [skont sorsi oħra fit-28 ta' Jannar] 1725), magħruf aħjar bħala '''Pietru l-Kbir''', kien il-Ksar tar-[[Russja]] kollha mill-1682 u l-ewwel Imperatur tar-Russja kollha mill-1721 sa mewtu fl-1725. Huwa rrenja b'mod konġunt flimkien ma' ħuh min-nisel ta' ġenitur wieħed komuni, [[Ivan V]], sal-1696. Minn dik is-sena, Pietru kien monarka assolut u awtokrata li baqa' l-awtorità suprema u organizza stat riġidu u ordnat sew. Il-biċċa l-kbira tar-renju ta' Pietru kienet mimlija gwerer twal kontra l-imperi [[Imperu Ottoman|Ottomani]] u [[Żvezja|Żvediżi]]. Il-kampanji militari tiegħu ta' Azov kienu segwiti mill-istabbiliment tal-Flotta Navali Russa; wara r-rebħa tiegħu fil-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana minkejja diffikultajiet inizjali, ir-Russja annettiet parti sinifikanti mill-kosta Baltika tal-Lvant u uffiċjalment bdiet tissejjaħ imperu. Pietru mexxa rivoluzzjoni [[Kultura|kulturali]] li ssostitwiet uħud mis-sistemi soċjali u [[Politika|politiċi]] tradizzjonalisti u [[Medjuevu|Medjevali]] b'oħrajn li kienu moderni, [[Xjenza|xjentifiċi]], tal-Punent u bbażati fuq Illuminiżmu radikali. F'Diċembru 1699 huwa daħħal il-[[kalendarju Ġuljan]], li ħa post il-kalendarju [[Biżantini|Biżantin]] li kien ilu jintuża fir-Russja, iżda l-[[Knisja Ortodossa Russa]] rreżistiet partikolarment din il-bidla. Fl-1703 huwa daħħal l-ewwel gazzetta Russa, ''Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti'', u ordna l-kitba ċivili, riforma tal-[[ortografija]] Russa ddisinjata fil-biċċa l-kbira minnu nnifsu. Max-xtut tax-xmara Neva, huwa stabbilixxa [[San Pietruburgu]], belt li malajr ġiet imlaqqma minn [[Francesco Algarotti]] bħala t-"tieqa lejn il-Punent". Fl-1712, Pietru ttrasferixxa l-[[belt kapitali]] minn [[Moska]] lejn San Pietruburgu, status li żammet sal-1918. Pietru kellu interess kbir fil-pjanti, fl-[[Annimal|annimali]] u fil-minerali, fil-ħlejjaq deformati jew fl-eċċezzjonijiet tal-liġi tan-natura li kienu jqanqlulu l-kurżità. Huwa ħeġġeġ ir-riċerka tad-deformazzjonijiet, u b'hekk ipprova wkoll jeqred il-biża' superstizzjuża tal-mostri. Huwa ppromwova l-industrijalizzazzjoni fl-Imperu Russu u l-[[edukazzjoni]] għolja. L-Akkademja Russa tax-Xjenzi u l-Università Statali ta' San Pietruburgu ġew stabbiliti fl-1724, u stieden lil [[Christian Wolff]] u lil [[Willem 's Gravesande]]. Pietru jiġi akkreditat primarjament bil-modernizzazzjoni tal-pajjiż, peress li malajr ittrasformah f'setgħa [[Ewropa|Ewropea]] ewlenija. Ir-riformi amministrattivi tiegħu, li ħolqu Senat tal-Governanza fl-1711, il-''Collegium'' fl-1717 u t-Tabella tal-Karigi fl-1722, kellhom impatt fit-tul fuq ir-Russja, u bosta istituzzjonijiet tal-gvern Russu oriġinaw fir-renju tiegħu. == Ħajja bikrija == Pietru trabba fil-proprjetà tal-familja ta' Izmaylovo u ngħata l-edukazzjoni tiegħu fil-Palazz tad-Divertiment minn età bikrija mingħand diversi [[Għalliem|għalliema]] privati kkummissjonati minn missieru; l-iktar notevoli minnhom kienu [[Nikita Zotov]], [[Patrick Gordon]] u [[Paul Menesius]]. Meta missieru miet fl-1676, huwa ħalla s-sovranità f'idejn ħuh il-kbir tal-istess nisel minn ġenitur wieħed komuni, il-magħtub [[Teodoru III]]. Matul dan il-perjodu kollu, il-gvern kien immexxi fil-biċċa l-kbira minn [[Artamon Matveyev]], ħabib illuminat ta' Alexis, il-kap politiku tal-familja Naryshkin u wieħed mill-ikbar benefatturi tat-tfulija ta' Pietru. Din is-sitwazzjoni nbidlet meta Teodoru miet fl-1682. Peress li Teodoru ma kellux ulied, qam diżgwid bejn il-familja Miloslavsky ([[Maria Miloslavskaya]] kienet l-ewwel mara ta' [[Alexis I]]) u l-familja Naryshkin ([[Natalya Naryshkina]] kienet it-tieni mara tiegħu) rigward min kien se jiret it-tron. Huwa rrenja b'mod konġunt ma' ħuh il-kbir bin-nisel ta' ġenitur wieħed komuni, Ivan V, sal-1696. Ivan kien l-eredi bid-dritt iżda kien dgħajjef u għami. B'hekk, il-Boyar Duma (kunsill tan-nobbli Russi) għażel lil Pietru biex isir il-ksar ta' għaxar snin, u ommu kienet ir-reġġenti tiegħu. Tħaffret toqba fid-dahar tat-tron, biex litteralment minn wara l-kwinti, ommu setgħet issefsef f'widnejn iż-żewġ subien. It-"Tkeċċija l-Kbira ta' Moska" bdiet fl-1677 u tlestiet fl-1688; din affettwat il-familji nobbli b'karigi għoljin fl-amministrazzjoni; il-ministeri tnaqqsu wkoll. Dan ipprovoka reazzjonijiet inkorlati. Sophia, waħda mill-ulied bniet ta' Alexis mill-ewwel żwieġ tiegħu, mexxiet ribelljoni tal-i''streltsy'' (il-korp militari tal-elit tar-Russja) f'April–Mejju 1682. Fil-kunflitt sussegwenti, uħud mill-qrabat u mill-ħbieb ta' Pietru nqatlu, fosthom Artamon Matveyev, u Pietru esperjenza wħud minn dawn l-att ta' vjolenza politika. L-i''streltsy'' għamluha possibbli għal Sophia, għall-Miloslavskys (il-klan ta' Ivan) u għall-alleati tagħhom biex jinsistu li Pietru u Ivan jiġu pproklamati b'mod konġunt bħala l-ksars, u Ivan ġie akklamat bħala l-ksar superjuri. Imbagħad Sophia għamlitha tar-reġġenti matul iż-żmien meta s-sovrani kienu taħt l-età u eżerċitat is-setgħa kollha tagħha. Għal 7 snin, hija mexxiet bħala awtokrata. Mill-1682 sal-1689, Pietru u ommu tkeċċew lejn Preobrazhenskoye. Tal-età ta' 16-il sena, huwa skopra dgħajsa Ingliża fil-proprjetà tal-familja, irrestawraha u tgħallem ibaħħar. Huwa ngħata sestant (strument tan-navigazzjoni), iżda ma kienx jaf kif jużah. Pietru kien affaxxinat bl-arloġġi tax-[[xemx]]. Għaldaqstant, huwa beda jfittex għal espert barrani fil-Kwartier [[Ġermanja|Ġermaniż]]. Pietru għamel ħbieb ma' [[Andrew Vinius]], biblijofilu, li għallmu l-Olandiż u żewġ mastrudaxxi Olandiżi, Frans Timmerman u Karsten Brandt. Pietru studja l-[[matematika]], il-[[ġeometrija]] u x-xjenzi militari. Huwa ma kienx interessat fl-edukazzjoni mużikali iżda kien iħobb it-tnabar u l-logħob tan-nar. Pietru ma tantx kien imħasseb wisq li oħrajn kienu qed imexxu f'ismu; Boris Golitsyn u Fyodor Apraksin kellhom rwol importanti. Huwa kellu passatempi bħall-bini tal-vapuri f'Pereslavl-Zalessky u t-tbaħħir fil-Lag ta' Pleshcheyevo, kif ukoll f'battalji taparsi bl-armata tal-ġugarelli tiegħu. Omm Pietru ppruvat tobbligah jadotta approċċ iktar konvenzjonali u rranġat iż-żwieġ tiegħu ma' [[Eudoxia Lopukhina]] fl-1689. Iż-żwieġ sfaxxa, u 10 snin wara, Pietru ġiegħel lil martu ssir soru u b'hekk inħeles mill-unjoni ta' bejniethom. Sas-sajf tal-1689, Pietru ppjana li jaħtaf il-poter mingħand oħtu tan-nisel minn ġenitur wieħed komuni, Sophia, ladarba l-pożizzjoni tagħha kienet iddgħajfet minħabba żewġ kampanji militari fallimentari fil-[[Krimea]] kontra l-Khanat tal-Krimea, f'tentattiv biex twaqqaf l-attakki devastanti tat-[[Tatari tal-Krimea]] fl-artijiet tan-Nofsinhar tar-Russja. Meta saret taf bil-pjanijiet tiegħu, Sophia kkonfoffat ma' xi mexxejja tal-i''streltsy'', li b'mod kontinwu qalgħu diżordni u garr kbir. Pietru, imwissi minn oħrajn dwar l-i''streltsy'', ħarab f'nofs ta' lejl lejn il-monasteru impenetrabbli ta' Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra; hemmhekk bil-mod il-mod ġemgħa n-nies li emmnu li kien se jirbaħ it-taqbida għall-poter. Sophia eventwalment tneħħiet mit-tron, u Pietru I u Ivan V baqgħu jirrenjaw bħala ksars f'daqqa. Pietru ġiegħel lil Sophia tidħol f'kunvent, fejn ċediet il-jeddijiet u l-kariga tagħha bħala membru tal-familja rjali. Sadanittant, Pietru kien mistieden frekwenti fil-kwartier Ġermaniż, fejn iltaqa' ma' [[Anna Mons|Anna]] u [[Willem Mons]]. Fl-1692 huwa bagħat lil [[Eberhard Isbrand Ides]] bħala mibgħut għand l-Imperatur Kangxi taċ-[[Ċina]]. Fl-1693 huwa baħħar lejn il-Monasteru ta' [[Gżejjer Solovetsky|Solovetsky]] u aċċetta l-provvidenza divina wara li ħelisha mill-għarqa f'maltempata. Xorta waħda, Pietru ma setax jikseb il-kontroll reali tal-affarijiet Russi. Minflok il-poter kien eżerċitat minn ommu. Kien biss meta Natalya mietet fl-1694 li Pietru, li dak iż-żmien kellu 22 sena, sar sovran indipendenti. Formalment, Ivan V kien mexxej konġunt flimkien ma' Pietru, għalkemm ma tantx kien effettiv. Pietru sar il-mexxej waħdieni meta Ivan miet fl-1696 mingħajr ma kellu ulied subien. Pietru kiber u kien tassew twil, speċjalment għal dak iż-żmien, u jingħad li kien twil 6 piedi u 8 pulzieri (2.03 [[Metru|metri]]). Huwa kien jitqies bħala t-"tieni Gulija" jew Sansun. San Xmun iddeskrivih fl-1717 bħala "twil, mibni sew u rqiq... b'ħarsa bla biża' u kiefra". Pietru kellu difett notevoli fl-espressjonijiet ta' wiċċu għax jaf kien ibati minn muskoli spażmatiċi f'għonqu. == Ideoloġija tar-renju ta' Pietru == Bħala żagħżugħ, Pietru I adotta l-mudell [[Protestantiżmu|Protestant]] tal-eżistenza f'dinja pragmatika ta' kompetizzjoni u suċċess personali, li sawret il-biċċa l-kbira tal-filosofija tar-riformiżmu tiegħu. Huwa pperċepixxa l-poplu Russu bħala pastaż, mhux intelliġenti, rasu iebsa, għadu lura, qisu xi tifel/tifla jew student għażżien(a). Huwa apprezza r-rwol statali fil-ħajja tas-soċjetà, u kien jarah bħala strument ideali biex jinkisbu għanijiet nobbli, kien jarah bħala istituzzjoni universali għat-trasformazzjoni tan-nies, bl-għajnuna tal-vjolenza u tal-biża', f'sudditi edukati, konxji, li jħarsu l-liġi, u utli għas-soċjetà kollha. Pietru kien interessat ferm f'''L-Edukazzjoni ta' Prinċep Kristjan'' li jagħti pariri lill-mexxejja kif għandhom jiggvernaw b'mod ġust u għaref. Huwa daħħal fil-kunċett tal-poter awtokratiku, in-nozzjoni tad-dmirijiet tal-monarka. Kien iqis li huwa d-dmir tiegħu li jieħu ħsieb is-sudditi tiegħu, li jħarishom mill-għedewwa, li jaħdem għall-benefiċċju tagħhom. Fuq kollox, huwa poġġa l-interessi tar-Russja fuq quddiem. Huwa kien iħoss li l-missjoni tiegħu kienet li jibdilha f'setgħa simili għall-pajjiżi tal-Punent, u ddedika ħajtu u ħajjet is-sudditi tiegħu biex din l-idea titwettaq. Gradwalment l-idea daħlet, anke bl-għajnuna tar-riformi, li saru skont ir-rieda tal-awtokrata, li kien joħloq il-ġid u jikkastiga l-ħażen. Huwa kien iqis il-moralità ta' statista separatament mill-moralità ta' persuna privata u kien jemmen li s-sovran fl-isem l-istat seta' jwettaq qtil, vjolenza, falsifikazzjoni u qerq. Huwa għadda mil-lieva navali, u beda mill-iżjed livelli baxxi: bumbardier (1695), kaptan (1696), kurunell (1706), għassies ta' billejl (1709), viċi ammirall (1714), ammirall (1721). Permezz tax-xogħol iebes ta' kuljum (skont l-espressjoni figurattiva ta' Pietru l-Kbir stess, fl-istess ħin "kellu jżomm xabla u pinna f'id leminija waħda") u l-imġiba qalbiena huwa wera lis-sudditi tiegħu l-eżempju pożittiv personali tiegħu, wera kif wieħed għandu jaġixxi, u ddedika ruħu u ġismu biex jaqdi dmiru għas-servizz ta' art twelidu. == Renju == Pietru rrenja għal madwar 43 sena. Huwa implimenta riformi trasversali bl-għan li jimmodernizzaw ir-Russja. Influwenzat ferm mill-konsulenti tiegħu, bħal [[Jacob Bruce]], Pietru organizza mill-ġdid l-armata Russa skont linji moderni u kien joħlom li r-Russja ssir setgħa marittima. Huwa ltaqa' ma' ħafna oppożizzjoni għal dawn il-politiki f'art twelidu iżda qered b'mod brutali r-ribelljonijiet kontra l-awtorità tiegħu, inkluż mill-i''streltsy'', mill-Baxkiri, mill-Astrakhan, u l-ikbar rewwixta ċivili tar-renju tiegħu, ir-Ribelljoni ta' Bulavin. Fil-proċess tiegħu li jqarreb ir-Russja lejn il-Punent, huwa ried li l-membri tal-familja tiegħu jiżżewġu ma' membri rjali Ewropej oħra. Fl-imgħoddi, l-antenati tiegħu ġew injorati meta ressqu din l-idea; madankollu, uriet li kienet qed tagħti l-frott. Huwa nnegozja ma' [[Frederick William]], id-Duka ta' Courland biex iżewweġ lin-neputija tiegħu, Anna Ivanovna. Huwa uża ż-żwieġ tagħha sabiex iniedi l-belt kapitali l-ġdida tiegħu, San Pietruburgu, fejn diġà kien ordna proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni ta' palazzi u binjiet simili għal dawn tal-Punent. Pietru qabbad lil [[Arkitett|arkitetti]] [[Italja|Taljani]] u Ġermaniżi biex ifasslu d-disinni. Huwa attira lil [[Domenico Trezzini]], [[Carlo Bartolomeo Rastrelli]], [[Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond]] u [[Andreas Schlüter]]. Sabiex itejjeb il-pożizzjoni tan-nazzjon tiegħu fl-ibħra, Pietru pprova jikseb iktar żbokki marittimi. L-uniku żbokk tiegħu dak iż-żmien kien il-[[Baħar l-Abjad]] f'Arkhangelsk. Il-[[Baħar Baltiku]] dak iż-żmien kien ikkontrollat mill-Iżvezja fit-Tramuntana, filwaqt li l-[[Baħar l-Iswed]] u l-[[Baħar Kaspju]] kienu kkontrollati mill-Imperu Ottoman u mill-Imperu tas-Safavidi rispettivament fin-Nofsinhar. Il-ħtieġa tal-pajjiż għall-metall żdiedet minħabba li faqqgħu l-gwerer għall-aċċess għall-Baħar l-Iswed u għall-Baħar Baltiku. Pietru pprova jikseb il-kontroll tal-Baħar l-Iswed, li kien jirrikjedi t-tkeċċija tat-Tatari miż-żoni tal-madwar. Bħala parti minn ftehim mal-Polonja li bih [[Kiev]] ġiet ċeduta lir-Russja, Pietru ġie mġiegħel jiddikjara gwerra kontra l-Khan tal-Krimea u kontra s-Sultan Ottoman ta' fuqu. L-objettiv primarju ta' Pietru sar li jaħtaf il-fortizza Ottomana ta' Azov, qrib ix-xmara Don. Fis-sajf tal-1695 Pietru organizza l-kampanji militari ta' Azov biex jaħtaf il-fortizza, iżda t-tentattivi tiegħu fallew. Pietru reġa' lura Moska f'Novembru 1695 u beda jibni flotta navali kbira f'Voronezh. Huwa vara madwar tletin vapur kontra l-Ottomani fl-1696, u ħataf Azov f'Lulju ta' dik is-sena. Huwa ħatar lil [[Alexander Gordon]], li iktar 'il quddiem ippubblika bijografija ta' Pietru. Pietru kien jorganizza l-laqgħat importanti kollha u bosta ċelebrazzjonijiet fil-Palazz ta' Le Fort. === Gran Ambaxxata === Pietru kien jaf li r-Russja ma setgħetx tiffaċċja l-Imperu Ottoman waħedha. F'Marzu 1697 huwa vvjaġġa "pajsan" lejn il-Punent tal-Ewropa għal 18-il xahar flimkien ma' delegazzjoni Russa kbira — l-hekk imsejħa "Gran Ambaxxata". Pietru kien l-ewwel ksar li ħareġ mir-Russja f'iktar minn 100 sena. Huwa uża isem falz, li permezz tiegħu seta' jaħrab mill-avvenimenti soċjali u diplomatiċi, iżda peress li kien ferm itwal minn bosta oħrajn, ma tantx kien jirnexxilu jġibha żewġ. Għan minnhom kien li jfittex l-għajnuna tal-monarki Ewropej, iżda t-tama ta' Pietru mietet fuq ommha. [[Franza]] kienet alleat tradizzjonali tas-Sultan Ottoman, u l-[[Awstrija]] kienet ħerqana li jżomm il-paċi fil-Lvant sakemm kienet qed tagħmel il-gwerer tagħha stess fil-Punent.Barra minn hekk, Pietru kien għażel mument mhux f'waqtu: l-Ewropej dak iż-żmien kienu iktar mħassbin dwar il-Gwerra tas-Suċċessjoni [[Spanja|Spanjola]] u min kien se jkun is-suċċessur tar-Re [[Karlu II ta' Spanja]] li ma kellux ulied milli mill-ġlied kontra s-Sultan Ottoman. Pietru b'hekk ma rnexxilux jespandi l-alleanza kontra l-Ottomani. F'[[Riga]], il-kmandant Żvediż lokali [[Erik Dahlbergh]] iddeċieda li jagħmilha tabirruħu li ma għarafx lil Pietru u ma ħalliehx jispezzjona l-fortifikazzjonijiet. 3 snin wara, Pietru kkwota l-lqugħ inospitabbli bħala waħda mir-raġunijiet li wasslu għall-bidu tal-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana. Huwa ltaqa' ma' Frederick Casimir Kettler, id-Duka ta' Courland. F'Königsberg, il-ksar ta apprendistat ta' xahrejn lil inġinier tal-artillerija. Inħarġu wkoll digrieti għall-kostruzzjoni tal-ewwel fran tal-ibblastjar tal-Ural. F'Lulju Pietru ltaqa' ma' Sophia ta' Hanover fil-Kastell ta' Coppenbrügge. Hi ddeskritu b'dan il-mod: "Il-ksar huwa [[raġel]] twil u sabiħ, b'wiċċ attraenti. Huwa fuq tiegħu u għaref ħafna. Madankollu, xi ħadd b'daqstant preġji naturali jista' jkollu manjieri kemxejn aħjar". Pietru kera vapur f'Emmerich am Rhein u baħħar lejn Zaandam, fejn wasal fit-18 ta' Awwissu 1697. ==== [[Amsterdam]] ==== Pietru studja l-impjanti tal-isserrar tal-[[injam]] u tal-manifattura u tal-bini tal-vapuri f'Zaandam iżda telaq wara ġimgħa. Huwa baħħar lejn Amsterdam wara li għarfuh u ġie attakkat. L-għorfa taz-zkuk tal-injam li kien kera saret id-Dar tal-Ksar Pietru. Huwa baħħar lejn [[Texel]] biex jara flotta. Permezz tal-medjazzjoni ta' [[Nicolaas Witsen]], espert dwar ir-Russja, il-ksar ingħata l-opportunità li jikseb esperjenza prattika fit-tarzna tal-Kumpanija Olandiża tal-Indji tal-Lvant għal perjodu ta' 4 xhur, taħt is-superviżjoni ta' [[Gerrit Claesz Pool]]. Il-ksar diliġenti u kapaċi assista fil-kostruzzjoni tal-bastiment ''Pietru u Pawlu'' li nbena apposta għalih. Pietru ħass li l-mastrudaxxi tal-bastiment fl-Olanda kienu jaħdmu wisq fuq għajnejhom u ma kinux jagħmlu tpinġijiet akkurati tal-kostruzzjoni tal-bastimenti. Matul is-soġġorn tiegħu, il-ksar iltaqa' ma' bosta ħaddiema b'ħiliet kbar bħall-bennejja tal-imgħalaq, tal-fortizzi, [[Bennej|bennejja]] tal-vapuri u baħħara — inkluż [[Cornelis Cruys]], viċi ammirall li taħt Franz Lefort sar il-konsulent tal-ksar fl-affarijiet marittimi; l-inġinier [[Menno van Coehoorn]] irrifjuta. Pietru uża l-għarfien li kiseb fil-kostruzzjoni tal-bastimenti biex jgħin fil-bini tal-flotta navali tar-Russja. Pietru u Witsen żaru lil [[Frederik Ruysch]] li kellu l-eżemplari kollha esposti f'ħames kmamar. Huwa għallem lil Pietru jaqbad il-friefet u kif kellu jagħmel biex jippreservahom. Kellhom interess komuni wkoll fil-gremxul. Kienu jmorru flimkien biex jaraw xi pazjenti. Pietru wasal f'[[Utrecht]] fuq barkun u ltaqa' ma' [[William III]] f'berġa. Meta żar lill-Ġeneral Statali tan-Netherlands huwa telaq mis-sala u stagħġeb lil dawk li kienu preżenti bil-parrokka li kien libes, skont Massie. Huwa żar ukoll lil [[Jan van der Heyden]], l-inventur tal-pajp tat-tifi tan-nar. Pietru kien jikkollezzjona wkoll il-[[Pittura|pitturi]] ta' [[Adam Silo]] b'vapuri u b'pajsaġġi tal-baħar bħala s-suġġett tagħhom. F'Ottubru 1697, il-ksar żar [[Delft]] u ngħata "apparat biex josserva s-salluriet" mingħand il-mikroskopista [[Antoni van Leeuwenhoek]]. Wara t-Trattat tal-Paċi ta' Ryswick, Pietru ġie mistieden mir-Re tal-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]] biex iżuru. Ir-reġġenti Olandiżi ħassew li l-ksar kien wisq inkwiżittiv, u dan affettwa r-rieda tagħhom li jgħinu lir-Russi. ==== Deptford ==== Fil-11 ta' Jannar 1698 (skont sorsi oħra), Pietru wasal fix-Xatt ta' Victoria flimkien ma' erba' qaddejja, tliet interpreti (Peter Shafirov, LeFort), żewġ arloġġara, kok, patri, sitt trumbettiera, 70 suldat mir-riġment ta' Preobrazhensky, erba' nani u xadina li kien xtara minn Amsterdam; ġie akkumpanjat minn Jacob Bruce. Pietru ssoġġorna f'21 Norfolk Street, Strand, u ltaqa' mal-Isqof ta' [[Salisbury]] Gilbert Burnet u ma' Thomas Osborne u ppoża għal Sir Godfrey Kneller. Huwa osserva l-proċeduri fi ħdan il-Parlament minn tieqa ħdejn is-saqaf. Dak iż-żmien, l-attriċi Letitia Cross kien l-innamrata tiegħu. Huwa żar iz-Zekka Rjali erba' darbiet; mhux ċar jekk qatt iltaqa' ma' Isaac Newton, il-gwardjan taz-zekka, li daħal isem iz-zekka fuq il-muniti. Skont Massie, Pietru baqa' impressjonat mill-Izzekkar mill-Ġdid il-Kbir tal-1696. Dak iż-żmien huwa żar Spithead, Plymouth, flimkien mal-kaptan John Perry biex jara battalja taparsi. Fi Frar attenda Rieżami tal-Flotta f'Deptford, u spezzjona t-Tarzna ta' Woolwich u l-Arsenal Irjali flimkien ma' Anthony Deane. Għal 3 xhur huwa qagħad f'Sayes Court bħala l-mistieden ta' John Evelyn, membru tas-Soċjetà Rjali. Huwa tħarreġ kif juża t-teleskopju fl-Osservatorju ta' Greenwich flimkien ma' John Flamsteed. Pietru kkomunika ma' Thomas Story u ma' William Penn dwar il-pożizzjoni tagħhom li dawk li kienu jemmnu ma kellhom jingħaqdu mal-militar. Ir-Re [[William III]] ppreżenta skuna b'ekwipaġġ sħiħ lil Pietru I bi skambju għad-dritt ta' monopolju tal-merkanti Ingliżi fil-kummerċ tat-tabakk fir-Russja. Fl-aħħar ta' April 1698, huwa telaq wara li ġie muri kif jagħmel l-arloġġi u jħejji t-tapizzerija tat-twiebet. Lura fl-Olanda huwa żar Harderwijk u Cleves. Imbagħad l-Ambaxxata marret lejn [[Leipzig]], Dresden, fejn iltaqa' mar-Reġina Christiane Eberhardine tal-Polonja-Litwanja. Huwa żar il-Kunstsammlung tliet darbiet, imbagħad il-Fortizza ta' Königstein, [[Praga]] u [[Vjenna]], biex iżur lil [[Leopoldu I]]. F'Rava-Ruska, huwa qasam il-fruntiera u Pietru tkellem ma' Awgustu II il-Qawwi. Iż-żjara ta' Pietru spiċċat ħesrem, meta ġie infurmat bit-tieni rewwixta tal-i''streltsy'' f'Ġunju. Ir-ribelljoni trażżnet faċilment mill-Ġeneral Gordon qabel ma Pietru reġa' lura d-dar qabel iż-żmien f'Settembru. Minkejja dan, Pietru baqa' jeħodha qatta' bla ħabel kontra r-ribelli; 4,600 ribell inxteħtu l-ħabs. Madwar 1,182 ribell ġew torturati u ġustizzjati, u Pietru ordna li ġisimhom jintwerew fil-pubbliku bħala twissija għal min seta' jitħajjar jagħmel xi konfoffa simili fil-futur. L-i''streltsy'' sfaxxaw, u oħt Pietru minn ġenitur wieħed komuni, Sophia, li ppruvaw ittellgħuha fuq it-tron, inżammet f'seklużjoni mill-iktar rigoruża fil-[[Kunvent ta' Novodevichy]]. Iż-żjarat ta' Pietru fil-Punent ħallew fih in-nozzjoni li d-drawwiet Ewropej kienu f'diversi aspetti superjuri għat-tradizzjonijiet Russi. Huwa kkmanda lill-qaddejja u lill-uffiċjali kollha tiegħu biex jilbsu ilbies Ewropew (mhux kaftani) u biex jaqtgħu d-daqna twila tagħhom, u b'hekk inkorla ferm lill-Bojari u lill-Kredenti Anzjani li kellhom għall-qalbhom id-daqna tagħhom. Il-Bojari li xtaqu jħallu d-daqna tagħhom kellhom iħallsu taxxa annwali fuq id-daqna tagħhom ta' xi mitt rublu. Fl-istess sena, Pietru pprova jtemm iż-żwiġijiet irranġati, li kienu n-norma fost in-nobbli Russi, għax kien tal-fehma li tali prattika kienet barbarika u kienet qed twassal għal vjolenza domestika, peress li l-konjuġi spiss kienu jispiċċaw jobogħdu lil xulxin. === Riformi === Fl-1698, Pietru bagħat delegazzjoni lejn [[Malta]], taħt il-Bojar [[Boris Sheremetev]], biex tosserva t-taħriġ u l-kapaċitajiet tal-[[Ordni ta' San Ġwann|Kavallieri ta' Malta]] u tal-flotta tagħhom. Sheremetev investiga l-possibbiltà ta' azzjonijiet konġunti fil-futur mal-Kavallieri, inkluż azzjoni kontra t-[[Turkija|Torok]] u l-possibbiltà ta' bażi navali Russa fil-futur. Fit-12 ta' Settembru 1698, Pietru stabbilixxa uffiċjalment l-ewwel bażi navali Russa, Taganrog, fil-Baħar ta' Azov. Fl-1699, Pietru bidel id-data taċ-ċelebrazzjoni tal-ewwel tas-sena mill-1 ta' Settembru għall-1 ta' Jannar. Tradizzjonalment, is-snin kienu jitqiesu li jibdew mill-ħolqien tad-[[Id-Dinja|Dinja]], iżda wara r-riformi ta' Pietru, bdew jingħaddu mit-twelid ta' [[Ġesù|Kristu]]. Għalhekk, fis-sena 7207 tal-kalendarju Russu antik, Pietru pproklama li l-kalendarju Ġuljan sar effettiv u li b'hekk kienet is-sena 1700. Mal-mewt ta' Lefort fl-1699, Menshikov laħaq minfloku bħala l-konsulent l-iktar ippreferut ta' Pietru. Fl-1700, Pietru I pprevjena l-elezzjoni ta' patriarka ġdid u ċaħħad lill-Knisja Russa mill-opportunità li jerġa' jkollha mexxej spiritwali uniku. Huwa naqqas l-għadd ta' monasteri fil-pajjiż, u kkonverta l-monasteri kollha b'inqas minn 30 patri fi skejjel jew fi knejjes. Huwa ħeġġeġ l-iżvilupp tal-imprenditorija privata, iżda taħt kontroll statali strett. Huwa ta bidu għall-kostruzzjoni tal-kanali magħmula minn John Perry u implimenta riforma monetarja, bl-użu tal-prinċipju deċimali bħala l-bażi tas-sistema monetarja (1698–1704). Pietru attira bosta speċjalisti barranin u fetaħ istituzzjoni edukattiva għall-kirurġija, immexxija minn [[Nicolaas Bidloo]]. Fl-1701 ġiet stabbilita l-Iskola tal-Matematika u n-Navigazzjoni ta' Moska, immexxija minn [[Jacob Bruce]]; għal ħmistax-il sena fiha ġew edukati l-uffiċjali navali, is-surveyors, l-inġiniera u l-membri tal-artillerija. Fl-1700, [[Jan Thesingh]] ingħata monopolju fuq l-istampar u l-importazzjoni tal-kotba, tal-mapep u tal-pitturi stampati fir-Russja għal ħmistax-il sena. Fl-1701 huwa ħatar lil Fedor Polikarpov-Orlov bħala kap tal-Istamperija ta' Moska. Fl-1707, il-Ksar Pietru I xtara stamperija mgħammra għalkollox fl-Olanda, inkluż bil-persunal. Pietru ssostitwixxa n-numri Ċirilliċi b'numri [[Għarab]] (1705–1710) u t-tipa Ċirillika b'kitba ċivili (1708–1710). Fl-1708, [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] sar konsulent u offra li jikteb liġijiet ġodda għall-pajjiż. F'Diċembru r-Russja ġiet maqsuma fi tmien governorati (''guberniya''). [[Matwei Petrowitsch Gagarin]] kien l-ewwel gvernatur tas-[[Siberja]]. [[Cornelis de Bruijn]] żar lil Pietru u qatta' 6 snin fir-Russja u għamel xi tpinġijiet tal-[[Kremlin ta’ Moska|Kremlin]]. Fl-1711, Pietru żar lill-elettur [[Awgustu II tal-Polonja]] fi Dresden, f'Carlsbad u f'Torgau fejn iżżewweġ ibnu Aleksei. Fl-1713 huwa żar [[Amburgu]] u assedja lil [[Tönningen]] flimkien mal-alleati tiegħu. Imbagħad ivvjaġġa lejn Hanover u kien mistieden tad-Duka Anton Ulrich ta' Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel f'Salzdahlum. Minn [[Gdańsk|Danzig]] (Gdansk) huwa baħħar lejn Riga, Helsingfors u [[Turku]]. Fl-1711, Pietru stabbilixxa korp statali ġdid, magħruf bħala s-Senat tal-Governanza, permezz ta' digriet. Normalment, id-Duma tal-Bojar kien jeżerċita l-poter matul l-assenza tiegħu. Madankollu, Pietru ma kienx jafda lill-Bojari; minflok abolixxa d-Duma u ħoloq Senat ta' għaxar membri. Is-Senat ġie stabbilit bħala l-ogħla istituzzjoni statali biex jissorvelja l-affarijiet ġudizzjarji, finanzjarji u amministrattivi kollha. Oriġinarjament ġie stabbilit biss għaż-żmien ta' assenza tal-monarka, iżda mbagħad is-Senat sar korp permanenti wara r-ritorn tiegħu. Uffiċjal għoli speċjali, il-Prokuratur Superjuri, kien iservi bħala l-kollegament bejn il-mexxej u s-Senat, u fi kliem Pietru stess kien jaġixxi bħala "għajnejn is-sovran". Mingħajr il-firma tiegħu l-ebda deċiżjoni tas-Senat ma kienet issir effettiva; is-Senat sar waħda mill-iżjed istituzzjonijiet importanti tar-Russja Imperjali. In 1701, 1705 and 1712, Pietru I issued decrees establishing an Engineering School in Sukharev Tower, which was supposed to recruit up to 100 students, but had only 23. Therefore, he issued another decree in 1714 calling for compulsory education, which dictated that all Russian 10- to 15-year-old children of the nobility, government clerks, and lesser-ranked officials must learn basic arithmetic, trigonometry and geometry, and should be tested on the subjects at the end of their studies. Areskine, an iatrochemist, became head of the court apothecary; Johann Daniel Schumacher was appointed secretary and librarian of the Kunstkamera. The country's first scientific library was opened in his palace in the Summer Garden. Peter ordered the development of Aptekarsky Island, headquarters for the Medical Clerical Office and the Main Pharmacy. Gottlieb Schober was commissioned to examine hot springs and discovered rich deposits of sulfur; Pietru Immediately set up a factory for the development in the Samara Oblast. In 1721 the shipyard Petrozavod and Petrodvorets Watch Factory was established. Some 3,500 new words—German, French, Dutch, English, Italian, Swedish in origin—entered Russian in Peter's period, roughly one-fourth of them shipping and naval terms. As part of his reforms, Peter started an industrialization effort that was slow but eventually successful. Russian manufacturing and main exports were based on the mining and lumber industries. In 1719, the privileges of miners were enshrined in law with the Berg Privilege, which allowed representatives of all classes to search for ores and build metallurgical plants. At the same time, manufacturers and artisans were exempted from state taxes and recruiting, and their houses were exempt from the post of troops. The law also guaranteed the inheritance of the ownership of factories, proclaimed industrial activity a matter of state importance and protected manufacturers from interference in their affairs by local authorities. The same law established the Collegium of Mining, and managed the entire mining and metallurgical industry, and local administrations. The Demidovs became the first Russian exporters of iron to Western Europe. In 1721, a decree was issued that allowed factory owners, regardless of whether they had a noble rank, to buy serfs. === Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana === Peter made a temporary peace with the Ottoman Empire that allowed him to keep the captured fort of Azov, and turned his attention to Russian maritime supremacy. He sought to acquire control of the Baltic Sea, which had been taken by the Swedish Empire a half-century earlier. Peter declared war on Sweden, which was at the time led by the young King Charles XII. Sweden was also opposed by Denmark–Norway, Saxony, and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Preobrazhensky regiment took part in all major battles of the Great Northern War. Russia was ill-prepared to fight the Swedes, and their first attempt at seizing the Baltic coast ended in disaster at the Battle of Narva in 1700. In the conflict, the forces of Charles XII, rather than employ a slow methodical siege, attacked immediately using a blinding snowstorm to their advantage. After the battle, Charles XII decided to concentrate his forces against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which gave Peter time to reorganize the Russian army and conquered Nyenschantz in the Ingrian campaign. Bidloo had to organize a military hospital. Robert Bruce was appointed commander-in-chief of St. Petersburg. After the defeat at Narva, Pietru I gave the order to melt the church bells into cannons and mortars. In 1701, Peter ordered the construction of Novodvinsk Fortress north of Archangelsk. Everybody was convinced they knew: his Majesty will wage war. In the siege of Nöteborg Russian forces captured the Swedish fortress, renamed Shlisselburg. In 1702 Peter the Great established the Olonets Shipyard at Lodeynoye Pole, where Russian frigate Shtandart was built. While the Poles fought the Swedes, Peter founded the city of Saint Petersburg on 29 June 1703 on Hare Island. He forbade the building of stone edifices outside Saint Petersburg, which he intended to become Russia's capital, so that all stonemasons could participate in the construction of the new city. While the city was being built along the Neva he lived in a modest three-room log cabin (with a study but without a fire-place) which had to make room for the first version of the Winter Palace. The first buildings which appeared were a shipyard at the Admiralty, Kronstadt (1704-1706) and the Peter and Paul Fortress (1706). Peter took his whole family on a boat trip to Kronstadt. Following several defeats, Polish King Augustus II the Strong abdicated in 1706. Swedish king Charles XII turned his attention to Russia, invading it in 1708. After crossing into Russia, Charles defeated Peter at Golovchin in July. In the Battle of Lesnaya, Charles suffered his first loss after Peter crushed a group of Swedish reinforcements marching from Riga. Deprived of this aid, Charles was forced to abandon his proposed march on Moscow. Charles XII refused to retreat to Poland or back to Sweden and instead invaded Ukraine. Peter withdrew his army southward, employing scorched earth, destroying along the way anything that could assist the Swedes. Deprived of local supplies, the Swedish army was forced to halt its advance in the winter of 1708–1709. In the summer of 1709, they resumed their efforts to capture Russian-ruled Ukraine, culminating in the Battle of Poltava on 27 June. The battle was a decisive defeat for the Swedish forces, ending Charles' campaign in Ukraine and forcing him south to seek refuge in the Ottoman Empire. Russia had defeated what was considered to be one of the world's best militaries, and the victory overturned the view that Russia was militarily incompetent. In Poland, Augustus II was restored as King. Peter, overestimating the support he would receive from his Balkan allies, attacked the Ottoman Empire, initiating the Russo-Turkish War of 1710. Peter's campaign in the Ottoman Empire was disastrous, and in the ensuing Treaty of the Pruth, Peter was forced to return the Black Sea ports he had seized in 1697. In return, the Sultan expelled Charles XII. The Ottomans called him ''Mad Peter'' (Turkish: ''deli Petro''), for his willingness to sacrifice large numbers of his troops in wartime. Peter's northern armies took the Swedish province of Livonia (the northern half of modern Latvia, and the southern half of modern Estonia), driving the Swedes out of Finland. In 1714, the Russian fleet won the Battle of Gangut. During the Great Wrath most of Finland was occupied by Russian forces. === Tieni Ambaxxata === In January 1716, Tsar Peter traveled in the Baltic region to discuss peace negotiations and how to protect the sea trade route from the Swedes. He visited Riga, Königsberg and Danzig. There his niece married the quarrelsome Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin with which Peter wanted an alliance. He obtained the assistance of the Frederick William I of Prussia who sieged the strong Swedish fortress Wismar. In Altona he met with Danish diplomats, supporting Prussia. He sailed to Copenhagen heading an allied fleet. In Wittenberg he visited the monastery, where Luther lived. In May he went on to Bad Pyrmont, and, because of his physical problems he stayed at this spa. There he met with the genius Leibniz. Blumentrost and Areskine accompanied him. In early December Peter arrived in Amsterdam and visited Nicolaas Witsen. He bought the anatomic and herbarium collection of Frederik Ruysch, Levinus Vincent and Albertus Seba. He obtained many paintings among other from Maria Sibylla Merian for his Kunstkamera and Rembrandt's "David and Jonathan" for Peterhof Palace. He paid a visit to a friend's mansion near Nigtevecht, a silk manufacture and a paper-mill. At five in the morning he was received by Herman Boerhaave who showed Peter the Botanical Garden. In April 1717 he continued his travel to Austrian Netherlands, Dunkirk and Calais. In Paris he obtained many books, requested to become a member of the Academie de Sciences and visited the parliament, the Sorbonne and Madame Maintenon. Via the Palace of Saint-Cloud, the Grand Trianon at Versailles, Fontainebleau, Spa he travelled on to Maastricht, at that time one of the most important fortresses in Europe. He went back Amsterdam to attend a Treaty with France and Prussia on 15 August. He achieved a diplomatic success, and his international prestige, consolidated. Again he visited the Hortus Botanicus and left the city early September 1717, heading for Berlin. In October he was back in St Petersburg. In 1719 New Holland Island was created. The tsar's navy was powerful enough that the Russians could penetrate Sweden. Still, Charles XII refused to yield, and not until his death in battle in 1718 did peace become feasible. After the battle of Grengam, Sweden made peace with all powers but Russia by 1720. In 1721, the Treaty of Nystad ended the Great Northern War. Russia acquired Ingria, Estonia, Livonia, and a substantial portion of Karelia. In turn, Russia paid two million Riksdaler and surrendered most of Finland. === Iktar 'il quddiem === In 1717, Alexander Bekovich-Cherkassky led the first Russian military expedition into Central Asia against the Khanate of Khiva. The expedition ended in complete disaster when the entire expeditionary force was slaughtered. To the end of 1717, the preparatory phase of administrative reform in Russia was completed. After 1718, Peter established collegiums in place of the old central agencies of government, including foreign affairs, war, navy, expense, income, justice, and inspection. Later others were added, to regulate mining and industry. Each college consisted of a president, a vice-president, a number of councilors and assessors, and a procurator. Some foreigners were included in various colleges but not as president. Pavel Yaguzhinsky was entrusted with the observation of the "soonest possible establishment of colleges by their presidents". Peter did not have enough loyal, talented or educated persons to put in full charge of the various departments. Peter preferred to rely on groups of individuals who would keep check on one another. Decisions depended on the majority vote. In 1718, Pietru Investigated why the formerly Swedish province of Livonia was so orderly. He discovered that the Swedes spent as much administering Livonia (300 times smaller than his empire) as he spent on the entire Russian bureaucracy. He was forced to dismantle the province's government. In June 1721 he had Gagarin, the governor of Siberia, executed. Peter's last years were marked by further reform in Russia. On 2 November 1721 (N.S.), soon after peace was made with Sweden, he was officially proclaimed ''Emperor of All Russia''. The coronation of the Russian monarch took place in Uspensky Cathedral, Moscow. Some proposed that he take the title ''Emperor of the East'', but he refused. Gavrila Golovkin, the State Chancellor, was the first to add "the Great, Father of His Country, Emperor of All the Russias" to Peter's traditional title of tsar following a speech by Theophan Prokopovich in 1721. Peter's imperial title was recognized by Augustus II of Poland, Frederick William I of Prussia, and Frederick I of Sweden, but not by the other European monarchs. In the minds of many, the word ''emperor'' connoted superiority or pre-eminence over kings. Several rulers feared that Peter would claim authority over them, just as the Holy Roman Emperor had claimed suzerainty over all Christian nations.<blockquote>By the grace of God, the most excellent and great sovereign emperor Pyotr Alekseevich the ruler of all the Russias: of Moscow, of Kiev, of Vladimir, of Novgorod, Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan and Tsar of Siberia, sovereign of Pskov, great prince of Smolensk, of Tver, of Yugorsk, of Perm, of Vyatka, of Bulgaria and others, sovereign and great prince of the Novgorod Lower lands, of Chernigov, of Ryazan, of Rostov, of Yaroslavl, of Belozersk, of Udora, of Kondia and the sovereign of all the northern lands, and the sovereign of the Iverian lands, of the Kartlian and Georgian Kings, of the Kabardin lands, of the Circassian and Mountain princes and many other states and lands western and eastern here and there and the successor and sovereign and ruler.</blockquote>In 1722, Pietru Issued a Decree on the succession to the throne, in which he abolished the ancient custom of transferring the throne to direct descendants in the male line (as he had no son). The decree was so unusual for Russian society that it was necessary to explain it. Peter created a new order of precedence for landowners known as the Table of Ranks. Formerly, precedence had been determined by birth. To deprive the Boyars of their high positions, Peter directed that precedence should be determined by merit and service to the Emperor. The Table of Ranks continued to remain in effect until the Russian monarchy was overthrown in 1917. In 1722, John Bell accompanied Peter the Great on a military expedition to the city of Derbent near the Caspian Sea. The once powerful Persian Safavid Empire to the south was in deep decline. Taking advantage of the profitable situation, Peter launched the Russo-Persian War of 1722–1723, otherwise known as "The Persian Expedition of Peter the Great", which drastically increased Russian influence for the first time in the Caucasus and Caspian Sea region, and prevented the Ottoman Empire from making territorial gains in the region. After considerable success and the capture of many provinces and cities in the Caucasus and northern mainland Persia, the Safavids were forced to hand over territory to Russia, comprising Derbent, Shirvan, Gilan, Mazandaran, Baku, and Astrabad. Within twelve years all the territories were ceded back to Persia, now led by the charismatic military genius Nader Shah, as part of the Treaty of Resht, the Treaty of Ganja, and as the result of a Russo-Persian alliance against the Ottoman Empire, which was the common enemy of both. Peter changed the system of direct taxation. He abolished the land tax and household tax and replaced them with a poll tax. The taxes on land and on households were payable only by individuals who owned property or maintained families. The new head taxes were payable by serfs and paupers. Peter began construction of the Monplaisir Palace based on his own sketches. He ordered to purchase 2,000 lime trees which were shipped to St Petersburg. In 1725, the construction of Peterhof, a palace near Saint Petersburg, was completed. Peterhof was a grand residence, becoming known as the "Russian Versailles". === Mard u mewt === In the winter of 1723, Peter, whose overall health was never robust, began having problems with his urinary tract and bladder. In the summer of 1724, a team of doctors performed surgery releasing upwards of four pounds of blocked urine. Peter remained bedridden until late autumn. In the first week of October, restless and certain he was cured, Peter began a lengthy inspection tour of various projects. Rastrelli finished his monument to Pietru I (St. Michael's Castle). According to legend, in November, at Lakhta along the Gulf of Finland to inspect some ironworks, Peter saw a group of soldiers drowning near shore and, wading out into near-waist deep water, came to their rescue. This icy water rescue is said to have exacerbated Peter's bladder problems and caused his death. The story, however, has been viewed with skepticism by some historians, pointing out that the German chronicler de:Jacob von Staehlin is the only source for the story. In early January 1725, Peter was struck once again with uremia or azotemia. Legend has it that before lapsing into unconsciousness Peter asked for a paper and pen and scrawled an unfinished note that read: ''"Leave all to ..."'' and then, exhausted by the effort, asked for his daughter Anna to be summoned. Peter died between four and five in the morning 8 February. An autopsy revealed his bladder to be infected with gangrene. He was fifty-two years, seven months old when he died, having reigned forty-two years. He is interred in Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral. After his death, students came to the Military College with a request to "leave science" under the pretext of "unconsciousness and incomprehensibility." == Reliġjon == Peter had a great interest in dissenters and visited gatherings of Quakers and Mennonites. He did not believe in miracles and founded The All-Joking, All-Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters, an organization that mocked the Orthodox and Catholic Church, when he was eighteen. In January 1695, Peter refused to partake in a traditional Russian Orthodox Epiphany Ceremony, and would often schedule events for The All-Joking, All-Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters to directly conflict with the Church. He often used the nickname ''Pakhom Mikhailov'' (Russian: Пахом Михайлов) among the ministers of religion who made up his relatively close circle of long-term drinking companions. Peter was brought up in the Russian Orthodox faith, but he had low regard for the Church hierarchy, which he kept under tight governmental control. The traditional leader of the Church was the Patriarch of Moscow. In 1700, when the office fell vacant, Peter refused to name a replacement, allowing the patriarch's coadjutor (or deputy) to discharge the duties of the office. Peter could not tolerate the patriarch exercising power superior to the tsar, as indeed had happened in the case of Philaret (1619–1633) and Nikon (1652–66). The Alexander Nevsky Lavra was constructed between 1710–1712; Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral between 1712–1733. In 1716 he invited Theophan Prokopovich, a pietist and astronomer, to come to the capital. The ''Ecclesiastical Regulations'' of 1721 are based on the ideas of August Hermann Francke. The Church reform of Peter the Great therefore abolished the patriarchate, replacing it with a Holy Synod that was under the control of a Procurator. In 1721, Peter followed the advice of Prokopovich in designing the Holy Synod as a council of ten clergymen. For leadership in the Church, Peter turned increasingly to Ukrainians, who were more open to reform, but were not well loved by the Russian clergy. Pietru Implemented a law that stipulated that no Russian man could join a monastery before the age of fifty. He felt that too many able Russian men were being wasted on clerical work when they could be joining his new and improved army. == Żwiġijiet u familja == Peter the Great had two wives, with whom he had fifteen children, three of whom survived to adulthood. Peter's mother selected his first wife, Eudoxia Lopukhina, when he was only 16. This was consistent with previous Romanov tradition by choosing a daughter of a minor noble. This was done to prevent fighting between the stronger noble houses and to bring fresh blood into the family. Upon his return from his European tour in 1698, Peter sought to end his unhappy marriage. He divorced the tsaritsa and forced her to join a convent. She had borne him three children, although only one, Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia, survived past his childhood. Menshikov introduced him to Marta Helena Skowrońska, the daughter of a Polish-Lithuanian peasant, and took her as a mistress some time between 1702 and 1704. Marta converted to the Russian Orthodox Church and was given the name Catherine. Though no record exists, Catherine and Peter married secretly between 23 October and 1 December 1707 in St. Petersburg. Peter valued Catherine and married officially, at Saint Isaac's Cathedral on 19 February 1712. In 1718, his son Alexei Petrovich was locked up in the Peter and Paul fortress, whom he regarded as the rebellious Absalom. He was suspected of being involved in a plot to overthrow the Emperor. Alexei was tried and confessed under torture during questioning conducted by a secular court (count Tolstoy). He was convicted and sentenced to be executed. The sentence of high treason could only be carried out with Peter's signed authorization, and Alexei died in prison, as Peter hesitated before making the decision. Alexei's death most likely resulted from injuries suffered during his torture. Alexei's mother Eudoxia was punished. She was dragged from her home, tried on false charges of adultery, publicly flogged, and confined in monasteries while being forbidden to be talked to. ^{[''dubious – discuss'']} In 1724, Peter had his second wife, Catherine, crowned as Empress, although he remained Russia's actual ruler. === Ulied === Mingħad iż-żewġ nisa tiegħu fiż-żwieġ kellu 15-il wild: tlieta mingħand Eudoxia u tnax mingħand Katerina. Dawn kienu jinkludu erba' subien imsejħa ''Pavel'' u tliet subien imsejħa ''Pietru'', li kollha kemm huma mietu meta kienu għadhom trabi. Tlieta biss minn uliedu baqgħu ħajjin sa ma saru adulti. Huwa kellu tliet neputijiet biss: il-Ksar Pietru II u l-Gran Dukessa Natalia mingħand Alexei u l-Ksar Pietru III mingħand Anna. {| class="wikitable" !Isem !Twelid !Mewt !Noti |- | colspan="4" |'''''Mingħand Eudoxia Lopukhina''''' |- |Alexei Petrovich, Ksarevich tar-Russja |18 ta' Frar 1690 |26 ta' Ġunju 1718, età ta' 28 sena |Iżżewweġ fl-1711 lil Charlotte Christine ta' Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel; ma' Pietru II tar-Russja |- |Alexander Petrovich |13 ta' Ottubru 1691 |14 ta' Mejju 1692, età ta' 7 xhur | |- |Pavel Petrovich |1693 |1693 | |- | colspan="4" |'''''Mingħand Katerina I''''' |- |Pietru Petrovich |xitwa tal-1704 |1707 |Twieled u miet qabel iż-żwieġ uffiċjali tal-ġenituri tiegħu |- |Paul Petrovich |Ottubru 1705 |1707 |Twieled u miet qabel iż-żwieġ uffiċjali tal-ġenituri tiegħu |- |Katerina Petrovna |7 ta' Frar 1707 |7 ta' Awwissu 1708 |Twieled u miet qabel iż-żwieġ uffiċjali tal-ġenituri tiegħu |- |Anna Petrovna |27 ta' Jannar 1708 |15 ta' Mejju 1728 |Iżżewġet fl-1725 lil Karl Friedrich, id-Duka ta' Holstein-Gottorp; weldet lil Pietru III tar-Russja. |- |Elizaveta Petrovna, li mbagħad saret l-Imperatriċi Elizaveta Petrovna |29 ta' Diċembru 1709 |5 ta' Jannar 1762 |Jingħad li żżewġet fl-1742 lil Alexei Razumovsky; bla tfal |- |Maria Natalia Petrovna |20 ta' Marzu 1713 |17 ta' Mejju 1715 |twieldet f'Riga |- |Margarita Petrovna |19 ta' Settembru 1714 |7 ta' Ġunju 1715 | |- |Pietru Petrovich |9 ta' Novembru 1715 |6 ta' Mejju 1719 | |- |Pavel Petrovich |13 ta' Jannar 1717 |14 ta' Jannar 1717 |twieled f'Wesel |- |Natalia Petrovna |31 ta' Awwissu 1718 |15 ta' Marzu 1725 | |- |Pietru Petrovich |7 ta' Ottubru 1723 |7 ta' Ottubru 1723 | |- |Pavel Petrovich |1724 |1724 | |} === Namrati u tfal illeġittimi === * Anna Mons, mill-1691 (jew mill-1692) sal-1704; * Letitia Cross fl-1698; * is-Sinjura Mary Hamilton ** Korriet (1715) ** Wild mingħajr isem (1717–1718?); * il-Prinċipessa Maria Dmitrievna Cantemirovna tal-Moldavja, bint Dimitrie Cantemir ** Iben mingħajr isem (1722–1723?). == Legat == Peter's legacy has always been a major concern of Russian intellectuals. Pietru Is a more complex character than he is sometimes given credit for. Some believe Peter's reforms divided the country socially and weakened it spiritually. Riasanovsky points to a "paradoxical dichotomy" in the black and white images such as God/Antichrist, educator/ignoramus, architect of Russia's greatness/destroyer of national culture, father of his country/scourge of the common man. For Old Believers he was the Antichrist, because of the calendar changes and poll tax. Peter compared himself with King David or Noah with a divine mission. At his funeral Prokopovich compared him with Moses and Solomon. Voltaire's 1759 biography gave 18th-century Russians a man of the Enlightenment, while Alexander Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" poem of 1833 gave a powerful romantic image of a creator-god. Slavophiles in mid-19th century deplored Peter's westernization of Russia. Western writers and political analysts recounted "The Testimony" or secret will of Peter the Great. It supposedly revealed his grand evil plot for Russia to control the world via conquest of Constantinople, Afghanistan and India. It was a forgery made in Paris at Napoleon's command when he started the invasion of Russia in 1812. Nevertheless, it is still quoted in foreign policy circles. The Communists executed the last Romanovs, and their historians such as Mikhail Pokrovsky presented strongly negative views of the entire dynasty. Stalin however admired how Peter strengthened the state, and wartime, diplomacy, industry, higher education, and government administration. Stalin wrote in 1928, "when Peter the Great, who had to deal with more developed countries in the West, feverishly built works in factories for supplying the army and strengthening the country's defenses, this was an original attempt to leap out of the framework of backwardness." As a result, Soviet historiography emphasizes both the positive achievement and the negative factor of oppressing the common people. After the fall of Communism in 1991, scholars and the general public in Russia and the West gave fresh attention to Peter and his role in Russian history. His reign is now seen as the decisive formative event in the Russian imperial past. Many new ideas have merged, such as whether he strengthened the autocratic state or whether the tsarist regime was not statist enough given its small bureaucracy. Modernization models have become contested ground. He initiated a wide range of economic, social, political, administrative, educational and military reforms which ended the dominance of traditionalism and religion in Russia and initiated its westernization. His efforts included secularization of education, organization of administration for effective governance, enhanced use of technology, establishing an industrial economy, modernization of the army and establishment of a strong navy. Historian Y. Vodarsky said in 1993 that Peter, "did not lead the country on the path of accelerated economic, political and social development, did not force it to 'achieve a leap' through several stages.... On the contrary, these actions to the greatest degree put a brake on Russia's progress and created conditions for holding it back for one and a half centuries!" The autocratic powers that Stalin admired appeared as a liability to Evgeny Anisimov, who complained that Peter was, "the creator of the administrative command system and the true ancestor of Stalin." In the period from 1678 to 1710, however, the population grew 2 times. According to ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', "He did not completely bridge the gulf between Russia and the Western countries, but he achieved considerable progress in development of the national economy and trade, education, science and culture, and foreign policy. Russia became a great power, without whose concurrence no important European problem could thenceforth be settled. His internal reforms achieved progress to an extent that no earlier innovator could have envisaged." While the cultural turn in historiography has downplayed diplomatic, economic and constitutional issues, new cultural roles have been found for Peter, for example in architecture (Petrine Baroque) and dress. James Cracraft argues: : The Petrine revolution in Russia—subsuming in this phrase the many military, naval, governmental, educational, architectural, linguistic, and other internal reforms enacted by Peter's regime to promote Russia's rise as a major European power—was essentially a cultural revolution, one that profoundly impacted both the basic constitution of the Russian Empire and, perforce, its subsequent development. The iconic representations of dead saints typical for centuries of Russian visual culture suddenly give way to naturalistic portraiture. == Fil-kultura popolari == Pietru ssemma f'bosta ġrajjiet tal-istorja, rumanzi, reċti, films, monumenti u pitturi. Dawn jinkludu l-poeżiji ''Ir-Rikkieb tal-Bronż'', ''Poltava'' u r-rumanz mhux komplut ''L-Għarbi Iberiku ta' Pietru l-Kbir'', kollha ta' [[Alexander Pushkin]]. L-ewwel waħda kienet dwar statwa ekwestri li nbniet f'ġieħ Pietru. Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy kiteb rumanz storiku bijografiku dwaru, imsejjaħ ''Pietru I'', fis-snin 30 tas-seklu 20. * Il-film silenzjuż Ġermaniż tal-1922 ''Pietru l-Kbir'' tar-reġista Dimitri Buchowetzki u tal-protagonista Emil Jannings li ħadimha ta' Pietru. * Fl-1929 ittellgħet ir-reċta ta' A.N. Tolstoy, fejn skont il-linja tal-partit Pietru ntwera bħala tirann li "għakkes lil kulħadd u lil kollox bħallikieku kien ippossedut mix-xjaten, nissel il-biża', u sallab kemm lill-ibnu kif ukoll lill-pajjiżu". * Il-film Sovjetiku tal-1937–1938 ''Pietru l-Kbir''. * Il-film tal-1976 ''How Czar Peter the Great Married Off His Moor'', bil-protagonista Aleksey Petrenko li ħadimha ta' Pietru, u Vladimir Vysotsky li ħadimha ta' Abram Petrovich Gannibal, juri t-tentattiv ta' Pietru li jibni l-Flotta Baltika. * Jan Niklas u Maximilian Schell ħadmuha ta' Pietru fil-minisensiela tal-NBC tal-1986 ''Pietru l-Kbir''. * Il-film tal-2007 ''The Sovereign's Servant'' (Il-Qaddej tas-Sovran) juri l-lat brutali ta' Pietru matul il-kampanji militari tiegħu. * Karattru bbażat fuq Pietru għandu rwol ewlieni f'''The Age of Unreason'', sensiela ta' erba' rumanzi storiċi differenti miktubin mill-awtur Amerikan tal-fantaxjenza u tal-fantasija Gregory Keyes. * Pietru huwa wieħed minn bosta karattri sekondarji f'''Baroque Cycle'' (Ċiklu Barokk) ta' Neal Stephenson – u jitfaċċa b'mod prinċipali fit-tielet rumanz, ''The System of the World'' (Is-Sistema tad-Dinja). * Isaac Rouse jirrakkonta lil Pietru fuq BBC Radio 4 bħala tifel, Will Howard bħala adolexxenti u Elliot Cowan bħala adult fir-reċti ta' fuq ir-radju msejħa ''Peter the Great: The Gamblers'' u ''Peter the Great: The Queen of Spades'', miktubin minn Mike Walker u li kienu l-aħħar żewġ reċti fl-ewwel sensiela ta' ''Tsar''. Ir-reċti xxandru fil-25 ta' Settembru u fit-2 ta' Ottubru 2016. * Vers fil-"Kanzunetta tax-Xorb tal-Inġiniera" jsemmi lil Pietru l-Kbir. * Jason Isaacs ħadimha ta' Pietru fis-sensiela antistorika Hulu tal-2020,''The Great''. * Pietru jintwera bħala l-mexxej taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni Russa fil-logħob tal-kompjuter ''Sid Meier's Civilization VI''. * Ivan Kolesnikov ħadimha ta' Pietru fil-film dokumentarju storiku Russu tal-2022, ''Pietru I: L-Aħħar Ksar u l-Ewwel Imperatur''. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Russja]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1672]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-1725]] ebaqoai6b0zogdzpbw8crnoj1jfdc7p 323370 323368 2025-06-03T10:07:57Z Trigcly 17859 /* Riformi */ żieda kontenut 323370 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Pietru I''' (bir-[[Lingwa Russa|Russu]]: Пётр I Алексеевич, <small>b'ittri Rumani:</small> ''Pyotr I Alekseyevich'', IPA: [ˈpʲɵtr ɐlʲɪkˈsʲejɪvʲɪtɕ]; twieled fid-9 ta' Ġunju [skont sorsi oħra fit-30 ta' Mejju] 1672 – miet fit-8 ta' Frar [skont sorsi oħra fit-28 ta' Jannar] 1725), magħruf aħjar bħala '''Pietru l-Kbir''', kien il-Ksar tar-[[Russja]] kollha mill-1682 u l-ewwel Imperatur tar-Russja kollha mill-1721 sa mewtu fl-1725. Huwa rrenja b'mod konġunt flimkien ma' ħuh min-nisel ta' ġenitur wieħed komuni, [[Ivan V]], sal-1696. Minn dik is-sena, Pietru kien monarka assolut u awtokrata li baqa' l-awtorità suprema u organizza stat riġidu u ordnat sew. Il-biċċa l-kbira tar-renju ta' Pietru kienet mimlija gwerer twal kontra l-imperi [[Imperu Ottoman|Ottomani]] u [[Żvezja|Żvediżi]]. Il-kampanji militari tiegħu ta' Azov kienu segwiti mill-istabbiliment tal-Flotta Navali Russa; wara r-rebħa tiegħu fil-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana minkejja diffikultajiet inizjali, ir-Russja annettiet parti sinifikanti mill-kosta Baltika tal-Lvant u uffiċjalment bdiet tissejjaħ imperu. Pietru mexxa rivoluzzjoni [[Kultura|kulturali]] li ssostitwiet uħud mis-sistemi soċjali u [[Politika|politiċi]] tradizzjonalisti u [[Medjuevu|Medjevali]] b'oħrajn li kienu moderni, [[Xjenza|xjentifiċi]], tal-Punent u bbażati fuq Illuminiżmu radikali. F'Diċembru 1699 huwa daħħal il-[[kalendarju Ġuljan]], li ħa post il-kalendarju [[Biżantini|Biżantin]] li kien ilu jintuża fir-Russja, iżda l-[[Knisja Ortodossa Russa]] rreżistiet partikolarment din il-bidla. Fl-1703 huwa daħħal l-ewwel gazzetta Russa, ''Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti'', u ordna l-kitba ċivili, riforma tal-[[ortografija]] Russa ddisinjata fil-biċċa l-kbira minnu nnifsu. Max-xtut tax-xmara Neva, huwa stabbilixxa [[San Pietruburgu]], belt li malajr ġiet imlaqqma minn [[Francesco Algarotti]] bħala t-"tieqa lejn il-Punent". Fl-1712, Pietru ttrasferixxa l-[[belt kapitali]] minn [[Moska]] lejn San Pietruburgu, status li żammet sal-1918. Pietru kellu interess kbir fil-pjanti, fl-[[Annimal|annimali]] u fil-minerali, fil-ħlejjaq deformati jew fl-eċċezzjonijiet tal-liġi tan-natura li kienu jqanqlulu l-kurżità. Huwa ħeġġeġ ir-riċerka tad-deformazzjonijiet, u b'hekk ipprova wkoll jeqred il-biża' superstizzjuża tal-mostri. Huwa ppromwova l-industrijalizzazzjoni fl-Imperu Russu u l-[[edukazzjoni]] għolja. L-Akkademja Russa tax-Xjenzi u l-Università Statali ta' San Pietruburgu ġew stabbiliti fl-1724, u stieden lil [[Christian Wolff]] u lil [[Willem 's Gravesande]]. Pietru jiġi akkreditat primarjament bil-modernizzazzjoni tal-pajjiż, peress li malajr ittrasformah f'setgħa [[Ewropa|Ewropea]] ewlenija. Ir-riformi amministrattivi tiegħu, li ħolqu Senat tal-Governanza fl-1711, il-''Collegium'' fl-1717 u t-Tabella tal-Karigi fl-1722, kellhom impatt fit-tul fuq ir-Russja, u bosta istituzzjonijiet tal-gvern Russu oriġinaw fir-renju tiegħu. == Ħajja bikrija == Pietru trabba fil-proprjetà tal-familja ta' Izmaylovo u ngħata l-edukazzjoni tiegħu fil-Palazz tad-Divertiment minn età bikrija mingħand diversi [[Għalliem|għalliema]] privati kkummissjonati minn missieru; l-iktar notevoli minnhom kienu [[Nikita Zotov]], [[Patrick Gordon]] u [[Paul Menesius]]. Meta missieru miet fl-1676, huwa ħalla s-sovranità f'idejn ħuh il-kbir tal-istess nisel minn ġenitur wieħed komuni, il-magħtub [[Teodoru III]]. Matul dan il-perjodu kollu, il-gvern kien immexxi fil-biċċa l-kbira minn [[Artamon Matveyev]], ħabib illuminat ta' Alexis, il-kap politiku tal-familja Naryshkin u wieħed mill-ikbar benefatturi tat-tfulija ta' Pietru. Din is-sitwazzjoni nbidlet meta Teodoru miet fl-1682. Peress li Teodoru ma kellux ulied, qam diżgwid bejn il-familja Miloslavsky ([[Maria Miloslavskaya]] kienet l-ewwel mara ta' [[Alexis I]]) u l-familja Naryshkin ([[Natalya Naryshkina]] kienet it-tieni mara tiegħu) rigward min kien se jiret it-tron. Huwa rrenja b'mod konġunt ma' ħuh il-kbir bin-nisel ta' ġenitur wieħed komuni, Ivan V, sal-1696. Ivan kien l-eredi bid-dritt iżda kien dgħajjef u għami. B'hekk, il-Boyar Duma (kunsill tan-nobbli Russi) għażel lil Pietru biex isir il-ksar ta' għaxar snin, u ommu kienet ir-reġġenti tiegħu. Tħaffret toqba fid-dahar tat-tron, biex litteralment minn wara l-kwinti, ommu setgħet issefsef f'widnejn iż-żewġ subien. It-"Tkeċċija l-Kbira ta' Moska" bdiet fl-1677 u tlestiet fl-1688; din affettwat il-familji nobbli b'karigi għoljin fl-amministrazzjoni; il-ministeri tnaqqsu wkoll. Dan ipprovoka reazzjonijiet inkorlati. Sophia, waħda mill-ulied bniet ta' Alexis mill-ewwel żwieġ tiegħu, mexxiet ribelljoni tal-i''streltsy'' (il-korp militari tal-elit tar-Russja) f'April–Mejju 1682. Fil-kunflitt sussegwenti, uħud mill-qrabat u mill-ħbieb ta' Pietru nqatlu, fosthom Artamon Matveyev, u Pietru esperjenza wħud minn dawn l-att ta' vjolenza politika. L-i''streltsy'' għamluha possibbli għal Sophia, għall-Miloslavskys (il-klan ta' Ivan) u għall-alleati tagħhom biex jinsistu li Pietru u Ivan jiġu pproklamati b'mod konġunt bħala l-ksars, u Ivan ġie akklamat bħala l-ksar superjuri. Imbagħad Sophia għamlitha tar-reġġenti matul iż-żmien meta s-sovrani kienu taħt l-età u eżerċitat is-setgħa kollha tagħha. Għal 7 snin, hija mexxiet bħala awtokrata. Mill-1682 sal-1689, Pietru u ommu tkeċċew lejn Preobrazhenskoye. Tal-età ta' 16-il sena, huwa skopra dgħajsa Ingliża fil-proprjetà tal-familja, irrestawraha u tgħallem ibaħħar. Huwa ngħata sestant (strument tan-navigazzjoni), iżda ma kienx jaf kif jużah. Pietru kien affaxxinat bl-arloġġi tax-[[xemx]]. Għaldaqstant, huwa beda jfittex għal espert barrani fil-Kwartier [[Ġermanja|Ġermaniż]]. Pietru għamel ħbieb ma' [[Andrew Vinius]], biblijofilu, li għallmu l-Olandiż u żewġ mastrudaxxi Olandiżi, Frans Timmerman u Karsten Brandt. Pietru studja l-[[matematika]], il-[[ġeometrija]] u x-xjenzi militari. Huwa ma kienx interessat fl-edukazzjoni mużikali iżda kien iħobb it-tnabar u l-logħob tan-nar. Pietru ma tantx kien imħasseb wisq li oħrajn kienu qed imexxu f'ismu; Boris Golitsyn u Fyodor Apraksin kellhom rwol importanti. Huwa kellu passatempi bħall-bini tal-vapuri f'Pereslavl-Zalessky u t-tbaħħir fil-Lag ta' Pleshcheyevo, kif ukoll f'battalji taparsi bl-armata tal-ġugarelli tiegħu. Omm Pietru ppruvat tobbligah jadotta approċċ iktar konvenzjonali u rranġat iż-żwieġ tiegħu ma' [[Eudoxia Lopukhina]] fl-1689. Iż-żwieġ sfaxxa, u 10 snin wara, Pietru ġiegħel lil martu ssir soru u b'hekk inħeles mill-unjoni ta' bejniethom. Sas-sajf tal-1689, Pietru ppjana li jaħtaf il-poter mingħand oħtu tan-nisel minn ġenitur wieħed komuni, Sophia, ladarba l-pożizzjoni tagħha kienet iddgħajfet minħabba żewġ kampanji militari fallimentari fil-[[Krimea]] kontra l-Khanat tal-Krimea, f'tentattiv biex twaqqaf l-attakki devastanti tat-[[Tatari tal-Krimea]] fl-artijiet tan-Nofsinhar tar-Russja. Meta saret taf bil-pjanijiet tiegħu, Sophia kkonfoffat ma' xi mexxejja tal-i''streltsy'', li b'mod kontinwu qalgħu diżordni u garr kbir. Pietru, imwissi minn oħrajn dwar l-i''streltsy'', ħarab f'nofs ta' lejl lejn il-monasteru impenetrabbli ta' Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra; hemmhekk bil-mod il-mod ġemgħa n-nies li emmnu li kien se jirbaħ it-taqbida għall-poter. Sophia eventwalment tneħħiet mit-tron, u Pietru I u Ivan V baqgħu jirrenjaw bħala ksars f'daqqa. Pietru ġiegħel lil Sophia tidħol f'kunvent, fejn ċediet il-jeddijiet u l-kariga tagħha bħala membru tal-familja rjali. Sadanittant, Pietru kien mistieden frekwenti fil-kwartier Ġermaniż, fejn iltaqa' ma' [[Anna Mons|Anna]] u [[Willem Mons]]. Fl-1692 huwa bagħat lil [[Eberhard Isbrand Ides]] bħala mibgħut għand l-Imperatur Kangxi taċ-[[Ċina]]. Fl-1693 huwa baħħar lejn il-Monasteru ta' [[Gżejjer Solovetsky|Solovetsky]] u aċċetta l-provvidenza divina wara li ħelisha mill-għarqa f'maltempata. Xorta waħda, Pietru ma setax jikseb il-kontroll reali tal-affarijiet Russi. Minflok il-poter kien eżerċitat minn ommu. Kien biss meta Natalya mietet fl-1694 li Pietru, li dak iż-żmien kellu 22 sena, sar sovran indipendenti. Formalment, Ivan V kien mexxej konġunt flimkien ma' Pietru, għalkemm ma tantx kien effettiv. Pietru sar il-mexxej waħdieni meta Ivan miet fl-1696 mingħajr ma kellu ulied subien. Pietru kiber u kien tassew twil, speċjalment għal dak iż-żmien, u jingħad li kien twil 6 piedi u 8 pulzieri (2.03 [[Metru|metri]]). Huwa kien jitqies bħala t-"tieni Gulija" jew Sansun. San Xmun iddeskrivih fl-1717 bħala "twil, mibni sew u rqiq... b'ħarsa bla biża' u kiefra". Pietru kellu difett notevoli fl-espressjonijiet ta' wiċċu għax jaf kien ibati minn muskoli spażmatiċi f'għonqu. == Ideoloġija tar-renju ta' Pietru == Bħala żagħżugħ, Pietru I adotta l-mudell [[Protestantiżmu|Protestant]] tal-eżistenza f'dinja pragmatika ta' kompetizzjoni u suċċess personali, li sawret il-biċċa l-kbira tal-filosofija tar-riformiżmu tiegħu. Huwa pperċepixxa l-poplu Russu bħala pastaż, mhux intelliġenti, rasu iebsa, għadu lura, qisu xi tifel/tifla jew student għażżien(a). Huwa apprezza r-rwol statali fil-ħajja tas-soċjetà, u kien jarah bħala strument ideali biex jinkisbu għanijiet nobbli, kien jarah bħala istituzzjoni universali għat-trasformazzjoni tan-nies, bl-għajnuna tal-vjolenza u tal-biża', f'sudditi edukati, konxji, li jħarsu l-liġi, u utli għas-soċjetà kollha. Pietru kien interessat ferm f'''L-Edukazzjoni ta' Prinċep Kristjan'' li jagħti pariri lill-mexxejja kif għandhom jiggvernaw b'mod ġust u għaref. Huwa daħħal fil-kunċett tal-poter awtokratiku, in-nozzjoni tad-dmirijiet tal-monarka. Kien iqis li huwa d-dmir tiegħu li jieħu ħsieb is-sudditi tiegħu, li jħarishom mill-għedewwa, li jaħdem għall-benefiċċju tagħhom. Fuq kollox, huwa poġġa l-interessi tar-Russja fuq quddiem. Huwa kien iħoss li l-missjoni tiegħu kienet li jibdilha f'setgħa simili għall-pajjiżi tal-Punent, u ddedika ħajtu u ħajjet is-sudditi tiegħu biex din l-idea titwettaq. Gradwalment l-idea daħlet, anke bl-għajnuna tar-riformi, li saru skont ir-rieda tal-awtokrata, li kien joħloq il-ġid u jikkastiga l-ħażen. Huwa kien iqis il-moralità ta' statista separatament mill-moralità ta' persuna privata u kien jemmen li s-sovran fl-isem l-istat seta' jwettaq qtil, vjolenza, falsifikazzjoni u qerq. Huwa għadda mil-lieva navali, u beda mill-iżjed livelli baxxi: bumbardier (1695), kaptan (1696), kurunell (1706), għassies ta' billejl (1709), viċi ammirall (1714), ammirall (1721). Permezz tax-xogħol iebes ta' kuljum (skont l-espressjoni figurattiva ta' Pietru l-Kbir stess, fl-istess ħin "kellu jżomm xabla u pinna f'id leminija waħda") u l-imġiba qalbiena huwa wera lis-sudditi tiegħu l-eżempju pożittiv personali tiegħu, wera kif wieħed għandu jaġixxi, u ddedika ruħu u ġismu biex jaqdi dmiru għas-servizz ta' art twelidu. == Renju == Pietru rrenja għal madwar 43 sena. Huwa implimenta riformi trasversali bl-għan li jimmodernizzaw ir-Russja. Influwenzat ferm mill-konsulenti tiegħu, bħal [[Jacob Bruce]], Pietru organizza mill-ġdid l-armata Russa skont linji moderni u kien joħlom li r-Russja ssir setgħa marittima. Huwa ltaqa' ma' ħafna oppożizzjoni għal dawn il-politiki f'art twelidu iżda qered b'mod brutali r-ribelljonijiet kontra l-awtorità tiegħu, inkluż mill-i''streltsy'', mill-Baxkiri, mill-Astrakhan, u l-ikbar rewwixta ċivili tar-renju tiegħu, ir-Ribelljoni ta' Bulavin. Fil-proċess tiegħu li jqarreb ir-Russja lejn il-Punent, huwa ried li l-membri tal-familja tiegħu jiżżewġu ma' membri rjali Ewropej oħra. Fl-imgħoddi, l-antenati tiegħu ġew injorati meta ressqu din l-idea; madankollu, uriet li kienet qed tagħti l-frott. Huwa nnegozja ma' [[Frederick William]], id-Duka ta' Courland biex iżewweġ lin-neputija tiegħu, Anna Ivanovna. Huwa uża ż-żwieġ tagħha sabiex iniedi l-belt kapitali l-ġdida tiegħu, San Pietruburgu, fejn diġà kien ordna proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni ta' palazzi u binjiet simili għal dawn tal-Punent. Pietru qabbad lil [[Arkitett|arkitetti]] [[Italja|Taljani]] u Ġermaniżi biex ifasslu d-disinni. Huwa attira lil [[Domenico Trezzini]], [[Carlo Bartolomeo Rastrelli]], [[Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond]] u [[Andreas Schlüter]]. Sabiex itejjeb il-pożizzjoni tan-nazzjon tiegħu fl-ibħra, Pietru pprova jikseb iktar żbokki marittimi. L-uniku żbokk tiegħu dak iż-żmien kien il-[[Baħar l-Abjad]] f'Arkhangelsk. Il-[[Baħar Baltiku]] dak iż-żmien kien ikkontrollat mill-Iżvezja fit-Tramuntana, filwaqt li l-[[Baħar l-Iswed]] u l-[[Baħar Kaspju]] kienu kkontrollati mill-Imperu Ottoman u mill-Imperu tas-Safavidi rispettivament fin-Nofsinhar. Il-ħtieġa tal-pajjiż għall-metall żdiedet minħabba li faqqgħu l-gwerer għall-aċċess għall-Baħar l-Iswed u għall-Baħar Baltiku. Pietru pprova jikseb il-kontroll tal-Baħar l-Iswed, li kien jirrikjedi t-tkeċċija tat-Tatari miż-żoni tal-madwar. Bħala parti minn ftehim mal-Polonja li bih [[Kiev]] ġiet ċeduta lir-Russja, Pietru ġie mġiegħel jiddikjara gwerra kontra l-Khan tal-Krimea u kontra s-Sultan Ottoman ta' fuqu. L-objettiv primarju ta' Pietru sar li jaħtaf il-fortizza Ottomana ta' Azov, qrib ix-xmara Don. Fis-sajf tal-1695 Pietru organizza l-kampanji militari ta' Azov biex jaħtaf il-fortizza, iżda t-tentattivi tiegħu fallew. Pietru reġa' lura Moska f'Novembru 1695 u beda jibni flotta navali kbira f'Voronezh. Huwa vara madwar tletin vapur kontra l-Ottomani fl-1696, u ħataf Azov f'Lulju ta' dik is-sena. Huwa ħatar lil [[Alexander Gordon]], li iktar 'il quddiem ippubblika bijografija ta' Pietru. Pietru kien jorganizza l-laqgħat importanti kollha u bosta ċelebrazzjonijiet fil-Palazz ta' Le Fort. === Gran Ambaxxata === Pietru kien jaf li r-Russja ma setgħetx tiffaċċja l-Imperu Ottoman waħedha. F'Marzu 1697 huwa vvjaġġa "pajsan" lejn il-Punent tal-Ewropa għal 18-il xahar flimkien ma' delegazzjoni Russa kbira — l-hekk imsejħa "Gran Ambaxxata". Pietru kien l-ewwel ksar li ħareġ mir-Russja f'iktar minn 100 sena. Huwa uża isem falz, li permezz tiegħu seta' jaħrab mill-avvenimenti soċjali u diplomatiċi, iżda peress li kien ferm itwal minn bosta oħrajn, ma tantx kien jirnexxilu jġibha żewġ. Għan minnhom kien li jfittex l-għajnuna tal-monarki Ewropej, iżda t-tama ta' Pietru mietet fuq ommha. [[Franza]] kienet alleat tradizzjonali tas-Sultan Ottoman, u l-[[Awstrija]] kienet ħerqana li jżomm il-paċi fil-Lvant sakemm kienet qed tagħmel il-gwerer tagħha stess fil-Punent.Barra minn hekk, Pietru kien għażel mument mhux f'waqtu: l-Ewropej dak iż-żmien kienu iktar mħassbin dwar il-Gwerra tas-Suċċessjoni [[Spanja|Spanjola]] u min kien se jkun is-suċċessur tar-Re [[Karlu II ta' Spanja]] li ma kellux ulied milli mill-ġlied kontra s-Sultan Ottoman. Pietru b'hekk ma rnexxilux jespandi l-alleanza kontra l-Ottomani. F'[[Riga]], il-kmandant Żvediż lokali [[Erik Dahlbergh]] iddeċieda li jagħmilha tabirruħu li ma għarafx lil Pietru u ma ħalliehx jispezzjona l-fortifikazzjonijiet. 3 snin wara, Pietru kkwota l-lqugħ inospitabbli bħala waħda mir-raġunijiet li wasslu għall-bidu tal-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana. Huwa ltaqa' ma' Frederick Casimir Kettler, id-Duka ta' Courland. F'Königsberg, il-ksar ta apprendistat ta' xahrejn lil inġinier tal-artillerija. Inħarġu wkoll digrieti għall-kostruzzjoni tal-ewwel fran tal-ibblastjar tal-Ural. F'Lulju Pietru ltaqa' ma' Sophia ta' Hanover fil-Kastell ta' Coppenbrügge. Hi ddeskritu b'dan il-mod: "Il-ksar huwa [[raġel]] twil u sabiħ, b'wiċċ attraenti. Huwa fuq tiegħu u għaref ħafna. Madankollu, xi ħadd b'daqstant preġji naturali jista' jkollu manjieri kemxejn aħjar". Pietru kera vapur f'Emmerich am Rhein u baħħar lejn Zaandam, fejn wasal fit-18 ta' Awwissu 1697. ==== [[Amsterdam]] ==== Pietru studja l-impjanti tal-isserrar tal-[[injam]] u tal-manifattura u tal-bini tal-vapuri f'Zaandam iżda telaq wara ġimgħa. Huwa baħħar lejn Amsterdam wara li għarfuh u ġie attakkat. L-għorfa taz-zkuk tal-injam li kien kera saret id-Dar tal-Ksar Pietru. Huwa baħħar lejn [[Texel]] biex jara flotta. Permezz tal-medjazzjoni ta' [[Nicolaas Witsen]], espert dwar ir-Russja, il-ksar ingħata l-opportunità li jikseb esperjenza prattika fit-tarzna tal-Kumpanija Olandiża tal-Indji tal-Lvant għal perjodu ta' 4 xhur, taħt is-superviżjoni ta' [[Gerrit Claesz Pool]]. Il-ksar diliġenti u kapaċi assista fil-kostruzzjoni tal-bastiment ''Pietru u Pawlu'' li nbena apposta għalih. Pietru ħass li l-mastrudaxxi tal-bastiment fl-Olanda kienu jaħdmu wisq fuq għajnejhom u ma kinux jagħmlu tpinġijiet akkurati tal-kostruzzjoni tal-bastimenti. Matul is-soġġorn tiegħu, il-ksar iltaqa' ma' bosta ħaddiema b'ħiliet kbar bħall-bennejja tal-imgħalaq, tal-fortizzi, [[Bennej|bennejja]] tal-vapuri u baħħara — inkluż [[Cornelis Cruys]], viċi ammirall li taħt Franz Lefort sar il-konsulent tal-ksar fl-affarijiet marittimi; l-inġinier [[Menno van Coehoorn]] irrifjuta. Pietru uża l-għarfien li kiseb fil-kostruzzjoni tal-bastimenti biex jgħin fil-bini tal-flotta navali tar-Russja. Pietru u Witsen żaru lil [[Frederik Ruysch]] li kellu l-eżemplari kollha esposti f'ħames kmamar. Huwa għallem lil Pietru jaqbad il-friefet u kif kellu jagħmel biex jippreservahom. Kellhom interess komuni wkoll fil-gremxul. Kienu jmorru flimkien biex jaraw xi pazjenti. Pietru wasal f'[[Utrecht]] fuq barkun u ltaqa' ma' [[William III]] f'berġa. Meta żar lill-Ġeneral Statali tan-Netherlands huwa telaq mis-sala u stagħġeb lil dawk li kienu preżenti bil-parrokka li kien libes, skont Massie. Huwa żar ukoll lil [[Jan van der Heyden]], l-inventur tal-pajp tat-tifi tan-nar. Pietru kien jikkollezzjona wkoll il-[[Pittura|pitturi]] ta' [[Adam Silo]] b'vapuri u b'pajsaġġi tal-baħar bħala s-suġġett tagħhom. F'Ottubru 1697, il-ksar żar [[Delft]] u ngħata "apparat biex josserva s-salluriet" mingħand il-mikroskopista [[Antoni van Leeuwenhoek]]. Wara t-Trattat tal-Paċi ta' Ryswick, Pietru ġie mistieden mir-Re tal-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]] biex iżuru. Ir-reġġenti Olandiżi ħassew li l-ksar kien wisq inkwiżittiv, u dan affettwa r-rieda tagħhom li jgħinu lir-Russi. ==== Deptford ==== Fil-11 ta' Jannar 1698 (skont sorsi oħra), Pietru wasal fix-Xatt ta' Victoria flimkien ma' erba' qaddejja, tliet interpreti (Peter Shafirov, LeFort), żewġ arloġġara, kok, patri, sitt trumbettiera, 70 suldat mir-riġment ta' Preobrazhensky, erba' nani u xadina li kien xtara minn Amsterdam; ġie akkumpanjat minn Jacob Bruce. Pietru ssoġġorna f'21 Norfolk Street, Strand, u ltaqa' mal-Isqof ta' [[Salisbury]] Gilbert Burnet u ma' Thomas Osborne u ppoża għal Sir Godfrey Kneller. Huwa osserva l-proċeduri fi ħdan il-Parlament minn tieqa ħdejn is-saqaf. Dak iż-żmien, l-attriċi Letitia Cross kien l-innamrata tiegħu. Huwa żar iz-Zekka Rjali erba' darbiet; mhux ċar jekk qatt iltaqa' ma' Isaac Newton, il-gwardjan taz-zekka, li daħal isem iz-zekka fuq il-muniti. Skont Massie, Pietru baqa' impressjonat mill-Izzekkar mill-Ġdid il-Kbir tal-1696. Dak iż-żmien huwa żar Spithead, Plymouth, flimkien mal-kaptan John Perry biex jara battalja taparsi. Fi Frar attenda Rieżami tal-Flotta f'Deptford, u spezzjona t-Tarzna ta' Woolwich u l-Arsenal Irjali flimkien ma' Anthony Deane. Għal 3 xhur huwa qagħad f'Sayes Court bħala l-mistieden ta' John Evelyn, membru tas-Soċjetà Rjali. Huwa tħarreġ kif juża t-teleskopju fl-Osservatorju ta' Greenwich flimkien ma' John Flamsteed. Pietru kkomunika ma' Thomas Story u ma' William Penn dwar il-pożizzjoni tagħhom li dawk li kienu jemmnu ma kellhom jingħaqdu mal-militar. Ir-Re [[William III]] ppreżenta skuna b'ekwipaġġ sħiħ lil Pietru I bi skambju għad-dritt ta' monopolju tal-merkanti Ingliżi fil-kummerċ tat-tabakk fir-Russja. Fl-aħħar ta' April 1698, huwa telaq wara li ġie muri kif jagħmel l-arloġġi u jħejji t-tapizzerija tat-twiebet. Lura fl-Olanda huwa żar Harderwijk u Cleves. Imbagħad l-Ambaxxata marret lejn [[Leipzig]], Dresden, fejn iltaqa' mar-Reġina Christiane Eberhardine tal-Polonja-Litwanja. Huwa żar il-Kunstsammlung tliet darbiet, imbagħad il-Fortizza ta' Königstein, [[Praga]] u [[Vjenna]], biex iżur lil [[Leopoldu I]]. F'Rava-Ruska, huwa qasam il-fruntiera u Pietru tkellem ma' Awgustu II il-Qawwi. Iż-żjara ta' Pietru spiċċat ħesrem, meta ġie infurmat bit-tieni rewwixta tal-i''streltsy'' f'Ġunju. Ir-ribelljoni trażżnet faċilment mill-Ġeneral Gordon qabel ma Pietru reġa' lura d-dar qabel iż-żmien f'Settembru. Minkejja dan, Pietru baqa' jeħodha qatta' bla ħabel kontra r-ribelli; 4,600 ribell inxteħtu l-ħabs. Madwar 1,182 ribell ġew torturati u ġustizzjati, u Pietru ordna li ġisimhom jintwerew fil-pubbliku bħala twissija għal min seta' jitħajjar jagħmel xi konfoffa simili fil-futur. L-i''streltsy'' sfaxxaw, u oħt Pietru minn ġenitur wieħed komuni, Sophia, li ppruvaw ittellgħuha fuq it-tron, inżammet f'seklużjoni mill-iktar rigoruża fil-[[Kunvent ta' Novodevichy]]. Iż-żjarat ta' Pietru fil-Punent ħallew fih in-nozzjoni li d-drawwiet Ewropej kienu f'diversi aspetti superjuri għat-tradizzjonijiet Russi. Huwa kkmanda lill-qaddejja u lill-uffiċjali kollha tiegħu biex jilbsu ilbies Ewropew (mhux kaftani) u biex jaqtgħu d-daqna twila tagħhom, u b'hekk inkorla ferm lill-Bojari u lill-Kredenti Anzjani li kellhom għall-qalbhom id-daqna tagħhom. Il-Bojari li xtaqu jħallu d-daqna tagħhom kellhom iħallsu taxxa annwali fuq id-daqna tagħhom ta' xi mitt rublu. Fl-istess sena, Pietru pprova jtemm iż-żwiġijiet irranġati, li kienu n-norma fost in-nobbli Russi, għax kien tal-fehma li tali prattika kienet barbarika u kienet qed twassal għal vjolenza domestika, peress li l-konjuġi spiss kienu jispiċċaw jobogħdu lil xulxin. === Riformi === Fl-1698, Pietru bagħat delegazzjoni lejn [[Malta]], taħt il-Bojar [[Boris Sheremetev]], biex tosserva t-taħriġ u l-kapaċitajiet tal-[[Ordni ta' San Ġwann|Kavallieri ta' Malta]] u tal-flotta tagħhom. Sheremetev investiga l-possibbiltà ta' azzjonijiet konġunti fil-futur mal-Kavallieri, inkluż azzjoni kontra t-[[Turkija|Torok]] u l-possibbiltà ta' bażi navali Russa fil-futur. Fit-12 ta' Settembru 1698, Pietru stabbilixxa uffiċjalment l-ewwel bażi navali Russa, Taganrog, fil-Baħar ta' Azov. Fl-1699, Pietru bidel id-data taċ-ċelebrazzjoni tal-ewwel tas-sena mill-1 ta' Settembru għall-1 ta' Jannar. Tradizzjonalment, is-snin kienu jitqiesu li jibdew mill-ħolqien tad-[[Id-Dinja|Dinja]], iżda wara r-riformi ta' Pietru, bdew jingħaddu mit-twelid ta' [[Ġesù|Kristu]]. Għalhekk, fis-sena 7207 tal-kalendarju Russu antik, Pietru pproklama li l-kalendarju Ġuljan sar effettiv u li b'hekk kienet is-sena 1700. Mal-mewt ta' Lefort fl-1699, Menshikov laħaq minfloku bħala l-konsulent l-iktar ippreferut ta' Pietru. Fl-1700, Pietru I pprevjena l-elezzjoni ta' patriarka ġdid u ċaħħad lill-Knisja Russa mill-opportunità li jerġa' jkollha mexxej spiritwali uniku. Huwa naqqas l-għadd ta' monasteri fil-pajjiż, u kkonverta l-monasteri kollha b'inqas minn 30 patri fi skejjel jew fi knejjes. Huwa ħeġġeġ l-iżvilupp tal-imprenditorija privata, iżda taħt kontroll statali strett. Huwa ta bidu għall-kostruzzjoni tal-kanali magħmula minn John Perry u implimenta riforma monetarja, bl-użu tal-prinċipju deċimali bħala l-bażi tas-sistema monetarja (1698–1704). Pietru attira bosta speċjalisti barranin u fetaħ istituzzjoni edukattiva għall-kirurġija, immexxija minn [[Nicolaas Bidloo]]. Fl-1701 ġiet stabbilita l-Iskola tal-Matematika u n-Navigazzjoni ta' Moska, immexxija minn [[Jacob Bruce]]; għal ħmistax-il sena fiha ġew edukati l-uffiċjali navali, is-surveyors, l-inġiniera u l-membri tal-artillerija. Fl-1700, [[Jan Thesingh]] ingħata monopolju fuq l-istampar u l-importazzjoni tal-kotba, tal-mapep u tal-pitturi stampati fir-Russja għal ħmistax-il sena. Fl-1701 huwa ħatar lil Fedor Polikarpov-Orlov bħala kap tal-Istamperija ta' Moska. Fl-1707, il-Ksar Pietru I xtara stamperija mgħammra għalkollox fl-Olanda, inkluż bil-persunal. Pietru ssostitwixxa n-numri Ċirilliċi b'numri [[Għarab]] (1705–1710) u t-tipa Ċirillika b'kitba ċivili (1708–1710). Fl-1708, [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] sar konsulent u offra li jikteb liġijiet ġodda għall-pajjiż. F'Diċembru r-Russja ġiet maqsuma fi tmien governorati (''guberniya''). [[Matwei Petrowitsch Gagarin]] kien l-ewwel gvernatur tas-[[Siberja]]. [[Cornelis de Bruijn]] żar lil Pietru u qatta' 6 snin fir-Russja u għamel xi tpinġijiet tal-[[Kremlin ta’ Moska|Kremlin]]. Fl-1711, Pietru żar lill-elettur [[Awgustu II tal-Polonja]] fi Dresden, f'Carlsbad u f'Torgau fejn iżżewweġ ibnu Aleksei. Fl-1713 huwa żar [[Amburgu]] u assedja lil [[Tönningen]] flimkien mal-alleati tiegħu. Imbagħad ivvjaġġa lejn Hanover u kien mistieden tad-Duka Anton Ulrich ta' Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel f'Salzdahlum. Minn [[Gdańsk|Danzig]] (Gdansk) huwa baħħar lejn Riga, Helsingfors u [[Turku]]. Fl-1711, Pietru stabbilixxa korp statali ġdid, magħruf bħala s-Senat tal-Governanza, permezz ta' digriet. Normalment, id-Duma tal-Bojar kien jeżerċita l-poter matul l-assenza tiegħu. Madankollu, Pietru ma kienx jafda lill-Bojari; minflok abolixxa d-Duma u ħoloq Senat ta' għaxar membri. Is-Senat ġie stabbilit bħala l-ogħla istituzzjoni statali biex jissorvelja l-affarijiet ġudizzjarji, finanzjarji u amministrattivi kollha. Oriġinarjament ġie stabbilit biss għaż-żmien ta' assenza tal-monarka, iżda mbagħad is-Senat sar korp permanenti wara r-ritorn tiegħu. Uffiċjal għoli speċjali, il-Prokuratur Superjuri, kien iservi bħala l-kollegament bejn il-mexxej u s-Senat, u fi kliem Pietru stess kien jaġixxi bħala "għajnejn is-sovran". Mingħajr il-firma tiegħu l-ebda deċiżjoni tas-Senat ma kienet issir effettiva; is-Senat sar waħda mill-iżjed istituzzjonijiet importanti tar-Russja Imperjali. Fl-1701, fl-1705 u fl-1712, Pietru I ħareġ digrieti li stabbilew Skola tal-Inġinerija fit-Torri ta' Sukharev, li suppost kellha tilqa' sa 100 student, iżda kellha 23 student biss. Għalhekk, ħareġ digriet ieħor fl-1714 biex l-edukazzjoni tkun obbligatorja, u stabbilixxa li t-tfal Russi kollha ta' bejn l-10 snin u l-15-il sena tan-nobbli, tal-iskrivani tal-gvern u tal-uffiċjali ta' kariga iktar baxxa kellhom jitgħallmu l-aritmetika bażika, it-trigonometrija u l-[[ġeometrija]], u kellhom jiġu ttestjati fuq dawn is-suġġetti fl-aħħar tal-istudji tagħhom. [[Areskine]], jatrospiżjar, sar il-kap tal-ispiżerija tal-qorti imperjali; [[Johann Daniel Schumacher]] inħatar bħala segretarju u librar tal-Kunstkamera. L-ewwel librerija xjentifika tal-pajjiż infetħet fil-palazz tiegħu fil-Ġnien tas-Sajf. Pietru ordna l-iżvilupp tal-Gżira ta' Aptekarsky, is-sede tal-Uffiċċju tal-Iskrivani Mediċi u l-Ispiżerija Prinċipali. [[Gottlieb Schober]] ġie kkummissjonat biex jeżamina l-fawwariet termali u skopra depożiti rikki tal-kubrit; Pietru minnufih stabbilixxa fabbrika għall-iżvilupp fl-Oblast ta' Samara. Fl-1721 ġew stabbiliti t-tarzna ta' Petrozavod u l-Fabbrika tal-Arloġġi ta' Petrodvorets. Fi żmien Pietru daħlu xi 3,500 [[kelma]] ġdida — mill-[[Lingwa Ġermaniża|Ġermaniż]], mill-[[Lingwa Franċiża|Franċiż]], mill-[[Lingwa Olandiża|Olandiż]], mill-[[Lingwa Ingliża|Ingliż]], mit-[[Lingwa Taljana|Taljan]] u mill-[[Lingwa żvediża|Iżvediż]] — fir-Russu, u bejn wieħed u ieħor kwart minnhom kienu termini navali u tat-tbaħħir. Bħala parti mir-riformi tiegħu, Pietru beda sforz ta' industrijalizzazzjoni li kien kajman iżda eventwalment irnexxa. Il-manifattura Russa u l-esportazzjonijiet prinċipali kienu bbażati fuq l-industriji tal-estrazzjoni u tal-[[injam]]. Fl-1719, il-privileġġi tal-minaturi ddaħħlu fil-liġi permezz tal-Privileġġ ta' Berg, u b'hekk ir-rappreżentanti tal-klassijiet kollha setgħu jfittxu għall-minerali grezzi u jibnu impjanti metallurġiċi. Fl-istess waqt, il-manifatturi u l-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]] ġew eżentati mit-taxxi statali u mir-reklutaġġ għal-lieva, u d-djar tagħhom ġew eżentati mill-istazzjonar tat-truppi. Il-liġi ggarantiet ukoll il-wirt tas-sjieda tal-fabbriki, ipproklamat l-attività industrijali bħala kwistjoni ta' importanza statali u pproteġiet lill-manifatturi mill-indħil fl-affarijiet tagħhom mill-awtoritajiet lokali. L-istess liġi stabbiliet il-Collegium tal-Estrazzjoni, u ħadet ħsieb il-ġestjoni tal-industrija kollha tal-estrazzjoni u tal-metallurġija, kif ukoll tal-amministrazzjonijiet lokali. Id-Demidovs saru l-ewwel esportaturi Russi tal-[[ħadid]] lejn il-Punent tal-Ewropa. Fl-1721 inħareġ digriet li ppermetta lis-sidien tal-fabbriki, irrispettivament kinux nobbli jew le, biex jixtru l-qaddejja. === Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana === Pietru kiseb paċi temporanja mal-Imperu Ottoman u b'hekk seta' jżomm il-forti maħtuf ta' Azov, u minflok xeħet l-attenzjoni tiegħu fuq is-supremazija marittima Russa. Huwa pprova jikseb il-kontroll tal-Baħar Baltiku, li kien ittieħed mill-Imperu Żvediż nofs seklu qabel. Pietru ddikjara gwerra kontra l-Iżvezja, li dak iż-żmien kienet immexxija mir-re żagħżugħ [[Karlu XII]]. L-Iżvezja opponewha wkoll id-[[Danimarka]], in-[[Norveġja]], is-Sassonja u l-Commonwealth Pollakka-[[Litwanja|Litwana]]. Ir-riġment ta' Preobrazhensky ħa sehem fil-battalji ewlenin kollha tal-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana. Ir-Russja ma kinitx ippreparata sew biex tiġġieled kontra l-Iżvediżi, u l-ewwel tentattiv tagħha li taħtaf il-kosta Baltika ntemm f'diżastru fil-Battalja ta' Narva fl-1700. Matul il-kunflitt, il-qawwiet ta' Karlu XII, minflok ma għamlu assedju metodiku bil-mod il-mod, attakkaw minnufih u użaw maltempata bil-borra biex ikunu vvantaġġati. Wara l-battalja, Karlu XII ddeċieda li jikkonċentra l-qawwiet tiegħu kontra l-Commonwealth Pollakka-Litwana, u b'hekk Pietru kellu biżżejjed żmien biex jerġa' jorganizza l-armata Russa u ħakem lil Nyenschantz matul il-kampanja militari Ingrjana. Bidloo kellu jorganizza sptar militari. Robert Bruce nħatar bħala l-kmandant ewlieni ta' San Pietruburgu. Wara t-telfa li ġarrab f'Narva, Pietru I ordna li l-qniepen tal-knejjes jiddewbu f'kanuni u porvli. Fl-1701, Pietru ordna l-kostruzzjoni tal-Fortizza ta' Novodvinsk fit-Tramuntana ta' Archangelsk. Kulħadd kien konvint li l-monarka kien se jiddikjara gwerra. Fl-assedju ta' Nöteborg, il-qawwiet Russi ħatfu l-fortizza Żvediża, li bdew isejħulha Shlisselburg. Fl-1702 Pietru l-Kbir stabbilixxa t-tarzna ta' Olonets f'Lodeynoye Pole, fejn inbniet il-frejgata Russa Shtandart. Sakemm il-Pollakki ġġieldu kontra l-Iżvediżi, Pietru stabbilixxa l-belt ta' San Pietruburgu fid-29 ta' Ġunju 1703 fuq il-Gżira tal-[[Liebru]]. Huwa pprojbixxa l-kostruzzjoni ta' binjiet tal-ġebel 'il barra minn San Pietruburgu, li kien beħsiebu li ssir il-belt kapitali tar-Russja, biex in-naġġara u l-[[Bennej|bennejja]] kollha setgħu jieħdu sehem fil-kostruzzjoni tal-belt il-ġdida. Sakemm il-belt kienet qed tinbena tul ix-xmara Neva, huwa għex f'kabina modesta tal-injam bi tlett ikmamar (bi studju mingħajr fuklar tal-ħatab) li mbagħad tneħħiet biex tinbena l-ewwel verżjoni tal-Palazz tax-Xitwa. L-ewwel binjiet li tfaċċaw kienu tarzna fl-Istazzjonament tal-Ammirall, Kronstadt (1704-1706) u l-Fortizza ta' San Pietru u San Pawl (1706). Pietru ħa l-familja kollha tiegħu fuq mawra bid-dgħajsa lejn Kronstadt. Wara diversi telfiet, ir-re Pollakk Awgustu II s-Setgħan abdika fl-1706. Ir-re Żvediż Karlu XII b'hekk reġa' xeħet l-attenzjoni tiegħu lejn ir-Russja u invadiha fl-1708. Wara li qasam lejn ir-Russja, Karlu għeleb lil Pietru f'Golovchin f'Lulju. Fil-Battalja ta' Lesnaya, Karlu ġarrab l-ewwel telfa tiegħu wara li Pietru għeleb grupp ta' qawwiet Żvediżi ta' rinfurzar li mmarċjaw minn Riga. Ladarba ġie mċaħħad minn din l-għajnuna, Karlu kien imġiegħel jabbanduna l-avvanz propost tiegħu lejn Moska. Karlu XII rrifjuta li jirtira lejn il-Polonja jew lura lejn l-Iżvezja u minflok invada l-[[Ukrajna]]. Pietru rtira l-armata tiegħu lejn in-Nofsinhar, ta n-nar lill-artijiet li għadda minnhom, u qered kull ma seta' jkun ta' għajnuna għall-Iżvediżi. Imċaħħda mill-provvisti lokali, l-armata Żvediża kellha trażżan l-avvanz tagħha fix-xitwa tal-1708–1709. Fis-sajf tal-1709, l-armata kompliet l-isforzi tagħha biex taħtaf lill-Ukrajna mmexxija mir-Russja, u dawn laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fil-Battalja ta' Poltava fis-27 ta' Ġunju. Il-battalja kienet telfa deċiżiva għall-qawwiet Żvediżi, u temmet il-kampanja militari ta' Karlu fl-Ukrajna u wasslitu biex imur lejn in-Nofsinhar u jfittex refuġju fl-Imperu Ottoman. Ir-Russja kienet għelbet wieħed mill-aqwa militar ta' dak iż-żmien fid-dinja, u r-rebħa biddlet il-fehma li r-Russja ma kinitx kompetenti militarment. Fil-Polonja, Awgustu II reġa' sar ir-re. Pietru sopravvaluta l-appoġġ li kien se jingħata mill-alleati tiegħu fil-Balkani, u attakka lill-Imperu Ottoman, u ta bidu għall-Gwerra bejn ir-Russja u t-Turkija tal-1710. Il-kampanja militari ta' Pietru fl-Imperu Ottoman kienet diżastruża, u fit-Trattat ta' Pruth suċċessiv, Pietru kellu jirritorna l-portijiet tal-Baħar Iswed li kien ħataf fl-1697. Min-naħa l-oħra, is-Sultan keċċa lil Karlu XII. L-Ottomani sejħulu ''Pietru l-Miġnun'' (bit-Tork: ''deli Petro''), minħabba li kien lest jissagrifika għadd kbir ta' suldati mit-truppi tiegħu fil-gwerra. L-armati tat-Tramuntana ta' Pietru ħatfu l-provinċja Żvediża ta' Livonja (in-nofs tat-Tramuntana tal-[[Latvja]] moderna, u n-nofs tan-Nofsinhar tal-[[Estonja]] moderna), u keċċew lill-Iżvediżi 'l barra mill-[[Finlandja]]. Fl-1714, il-flotta Russa rebħet il-Battalja ta' Gangut. Matul il-Korla l-Kbira l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Finlandja ġiet okkupata mill-qawwiet Russi. === Tieni Ambaxxata === In January 1716, Tsar Peter traveled in the Baltic region to discuss peace negotiations and how to protect the sea trade route from the Swedes. He visited Riga, Königsberg and Danzig. There his niece married the quarrelsome Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin with which Peter wanted an alliance. He obtained the assistance of the Frederick William I of Prussia who sieged the strong Swedish fortress Wismar. In Altona he met with Danish diplomats, supporting Prussia. He sailed to Copenhagen heading an allied fleet. In Wittenberg he visited the monastery, where Luther lived. In May he went on to Bad Pyrmont, and, because of his physical problems he stayed at this spa. There he met with the genius Leibniz. Blumentrost and Areskine accompanied him. In early December Peter arrived in Amsterdam and visited Nicolaas Witsen. He bought the anatomic and herbarium collection of Frederik Ruysch, Levinus Vincent and Albertus Seba. He obtained many paintings among other from Maria Sibylla Merian for his Kunstkamera and Rembrandt's "David and Jonathan" for Peterhof Palace. He paid a visit to a friend's mansion near Nigtevecht, a silk manufacture and a paper-mill. At five in the morning he was received by Herman Boerhaave who showed Peter the Botanical Garden. In April 1717 he continued his travel to Austrian Netherlands, Dunkirk and Calais. In Paris he obtained many books, requested to become a member of the Academie de Sciences and visited the parliament, the Sorbonne and Madame Maintenon. Via the Palace of Saint-Cloud, the Grand Trianon at Versailles, Fontainebleau, Spa he travelled on to Maastricht, at that time one of the most important fortresses in Europe. He went back Amsterdam to attend a Treaty with France and Prussia on 15 August. He achieved a diplomatic success, and his international prestige, consolidated. Again he visited the Hortus Botanicus and left the city early September 1717, heading for Berlin. In October he was back in St Petersburg. In 1719 New Holland Island was created. The tsar's navy was powerful enough that the Russians could penetrate Sweden. Still, Charles XII refused to yield, and not until his death in battle in 1718 did peace become feasible. After the battle of Grengam, Sweden made peace with all powers but Russia by 1720. In 1721, the Treaty of Nystad ended the Great Northern War. Russia acquired Ingria, Estonia, Livonia, and a substantial portion of Karelia. In turn, Russia paid two million Riksdaler and surrendered most of Finland. === Iktar 'il quddiem === In 1717, Alexander Bekovich-Cherkassky led the first Russian military expedition into Central Asia against the Khanate of Khiva. The expedition ended in complete disaster when the entire expeditionary force was slaughtered. To the end of 1717, the preparatory phase of administrative reform in Russia was completed. After 1718, Peter established collegiums in place of the old central agencies of government, including foreign affairs, war, navy, expense, income, justice, and inspection. Later others were added, to regulate mining and industry. Each college consisted of a president, a vice-president, a number of councilors and assessors, and a procurator. Some foreigners were included in various colleges but not as president. Pavel Yaguzhinsky was entrusted with the observation of the "soonest possible establishment of colleges by their presidents". Peter did not have enough loyal, talented or educated persons to put in full charge of the various departments. Peter preferred to rely on groups of individuals who would keep check on one another. Decisions depended on the majority vote. In 1718, Pietru Investigated why the formerly Swedish province of Livonia was so orderly. He discovered that the Swedes spent as much administering Livonia (300 times smaller than his empire) as he spent on the entire Russian bureaucracy. He was forced to dismantle the province's government. In June 1721 he had Gagarin, the governor of Siberia, executed. Peter's last years were marked by further reform in Russia. On 2 November 1721 (N.S.), soon after peace was made with Sweden, he was officially proclaimed ''Emperor of All Russia''. The coronation of the Russian monarch took place in Uspensky Cathedral, Moscow. Some proposed that he take the title ''Emperor of the East'', but he refused. Gavrila Golovkin, the State Chancellor, was the first to add "the Great, Father of His Country, Emperor of All the Russias" to Peter's traditional title of tsar following a speech by Theophan Prokopovich in 1721. Peter's imperial title was recognized by Augustus II of Poland, Frederick William I of Prussia, and Frederick I of Sweden, but not by the other European monarchs. In the minds of many, the word ''emperor'' connoted superiority or pre-eminence over kings. Several rulers feared that Peter would claim authority over them, just as the Holy Roman Emperor had claimed suzerainty over all Christian nations.<blockquote>By the grace of God, the most excellent and great sovereign emperor Pyotr Alekseevich the ruler of all the Russias: of Moscow, of Kiev, of Vladimir, of Novgorod, Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan and Tsar of Siberia, sovereign of Pskov, great prince of Smolensk, of Tver, of Yugorsk, of Perm, of Vyatka, of Bulgaria and others, sovereign and great prince of the Novgorod Lower lands, of Chernigov, of Ryazan, of Rostov, of Yaroslavl, of Belozersk, of Udora, of Kondia and the sovereign of all the northern lands, and the sovereign of the Iverian lands, of the Kartlian and Georgian Kings, of the Kabardin lands, of the Circassian and Mountain princes and many other states and lands western and eastern here and there and the successor and sovereign and ruler.</blockquote>In 1722, Pietru Issued a Decree on the succession to the throne, in which he abolished the ancient custom of transferring the throne to direct descendants in the male line (as he had no son). The decree was so unusual for Russian society that it was necessary to explain it. Peter created a new order of precedence for landowners known as the Table of Ranks. Formerly, precedence had been determined by birth. To deprive the Boyars of their high positions, Peter directed that precedence should be determined by merit and service to the Emperor. The Table of Ranks continued to remain in effect until the Russian monarchy was overthrown in 1917. In 1722, John Bell accompanied Peter the Great on a military expedition to the city of Derbent near the Caspian Sea. The once powerful Persian Safavid Empire to the south was in deep decline. Taking advantage of the profitable situation, Peter launched the Russo-Persian War of 1722–1723, otherwise known as "The Persian Expedition of Peter the Great", which drastically increased Russian influence for the first time in the Caucasus and Caspian Sea region, and prevented the Ottoman Empire from making territorial gains in the region. After considerable success and the capture of many provinces and cities in the Caucasus and northern mainland Persia, the Safavids were forced to hand over territory to Russia, comprising Derbent, Shirvan, Gilan, Mazandaran, Baku, and Astrabad. Within twelve years all the territories were ceded back to Persia, now led by the charismatic military genius Nader Shah, as part of the Treaty of Resht, the Treaty of Ganja, and as the result of a Russo-Persian alliance against the Ottoman Empire, which was the common enemy of both. Peter changed the system of direct taxation. He abolished the land tax and household tax and replaced them with a poll tax. The taxes on land and on households were payable only by individuals who owned property or maintained families. The new head taxes were payable by serfs and paupers. Peter began construction of the Monplaisir Palace based on his own sketches. He ordered to purchase 2,000 lime trees which were shipped to St Petersburg. In 1725, the construction of Peterhof, a palace near Saint Petersburg, was completed. Peterhof was a grand residence, becoming known as the "Russian Versailles". === Mard u mewt === In the winter of 1723, Peter, whose overall health was never robust, began having problems with his urinary tract and bladder. In the summer of 1724, a team of doctors performed surgery releasing upwards of four pounds of blocked urine. Peter remained bedridden until late autumn. In the first week of October, restless and certain he was cured, Peter began a lengthy inspection tour of various projects. Rastrelli finished his monument to Pietru I (St. Michael's Castle). According to legend, in November, at Lakhta along the Gulf of Finland to inspect some ironworks, Peter saw a group of soldiers drowning near shore and, wading out into near-waist deep water, came to their rescue. This icy water rescue is said to have exacerbated Peter's bladder problems and caused his death. The story, however, has been viewed with skepticism by some historians, pointing out that the German chronicler de:Jacob von Staehlin is the only source for the story. In early January 1725, Peter was struck once again with uremia or azotemia. Legend has it that before lapsing into unconsciousness Peter asked for a paper and pen and scrawled an unfinished note that read: ''"Leave all to ..."'' and then, exhausted by the effort, asked for his daughter Anna to be summoned. Peter died between four and five in the morning 8 February. An autopsy revealed his bladder to be infected with gangrene. He was fifty-two years, seven months old when he died, having reigned forty-two years. He is interred in Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral. After his death, students came to the Military College with a request to "leave science" under the pretext of "unconsciousness and incomprehensibility." == Reliġjon == Peter had a great interest in dissenters and visited gatherings of Quakers and Mennonites. He did not believe in miracles and founded The All-Joking, All-Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters, an organization that mocked the Orthodox and Catholic Church, when he was eighteen. In January 1695, Peter refused to partake in a traditional Russian Orthodox Epiphany Ceremony, and would often schedule events for The All-Joking, All-Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters to directly conflict with the Church. He often used the nickname ''Pakhom Mikhailov'' (Russian: Пахом Михайлов) among the ministers of religion who made up his relatively close circle of long-term drinking companions. Peter was brought up in the Russian Orthodox faith, but he had low regard for the Church hierarchy, which he kept under tight governmental control. The traditional leader of the Church was the Patriarch of Moscow. In 1700, when the office fell vacant, Peter refused to name a replacement, allowing the patriarch's coadjutor (or deputy) to discharge the duties of the office. Peter could not tolerate the patriarch exercising power superior to the tsar, as indeed had happened in the case of Philaret (1619–1633) and Nikon (1652–66). The Alexander Nevsky Lavra was constructed between 1710–1712; Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral between 1712–1733. In 1716 he invited Theophan Prokopovich, a pietist and astronomer, to come to the capital. The ''Ecclesiastical Regulations'' of 1721 are based on the ideas of August Hermann Francke. The Church reform of Peter the Great therefore abolished the patriarchate, replacing it with a Holy Synod that was under the control of a Procurator. In 1721, Peter followed the advice of Prokopovich in designing the Holy Synod as a council of ten clergymen. For leadership in the Church, Peter turned increasingly to Ukrainians, who were more open to reform, but were not well loved by the Russian clergy. Pietru Implemented a law that stipulated that no Russian man could join a monastery before the age of fifty. He felt that too many able Russian men were being wasted on clerical work when they could be joining his new and improved army. == Żwiġijiet u familja == Peter the Great had two wives, with whom he had fifteen children, three of whom survived to adulthood. Peter's mother selected his first wife, Eudoxia Lopukhina, when he was only 16. This was consistent with previous Romanov tradition by choosing a daughter of a minor noble. This was done to prevent fighting between the stronger noble houses and to bring fresh blood into the family. Upon his return from his European tour in 1698, Peter sought to end his unhappy marriage. He divorced the tsaritsa and forced her to join a convent. She had borne him three children, although only one, Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia, survived past his childhood. Menshikov introduced him to Marta Helena Skowrońska, the daughter of a Polish-Lithuanian peasant, and took her as a mistress some time between 1702 and 1704. Marta converted to the Russian Orthodox Church and was given the name Catherine. Though no record exists, Catherine and Peter married secretly between 23 October and 1 December 1707 in St. Petersburg. Peter valued Catherine and married officially, at Saint Isaac's Cathedral on 19 February 1712. In 1718, his son Alexei Petrovich was locked up in the Peter and Paul fortress, whom he regarded as the rebellious Absalom. He was suspected of being involved in a plot to overthrow the Emperor. Alexei was tried and confessed under torture during questioning conducted by a secular court (count Tolstoy). He was convicted and sentenced to be executed. The sentence of high treason could only be carried out with Peter's signed authorization, and Alexei died in prison, as Peter hesitated before making the decision. Alexei's death most likely resulted from injuries suffered during his torture. Alexei's mother Eudoxia was punished. She was dragged from her home, tried on false charges of adultery, publicly flogged, and confined in monasteries while being forbidden to be talked to. ^{[''dubious – discuss'']} In 1724, Peter had his second wife, Catherine, crowned as Empress, although he remained Russia's actual ruler. === Ulied === Mingħad iż-żewġ nisa tiegħu fiż-żwieġ kellu 15-il wild: tlieta mingħand Eudoxia u tnax mingħand Katerina. Dawn kienu jinkludu erba' subien imsejħa ''Pavel'' u tliet subien imsejħa ''Pietru'', li kollha kemm huma mietu meta kienu għadhom trabi. Tlieta biss minn uliedu baqgħu ħajjin sa ma saru adulti. Huwa kellu tliet neputijiet biss: il-Ksar Pietru II u l-Gran Dukessa Natalia mingħand Alexei u l-Ksar Pietru III mingħand Anna. {| class="wikitable" !Isem !Twelid !Mewt !Noti |- | colspan="4" |'''''Mingħand Eudoxia Lopukhina''''' |- |Alexei Petrovich, Ksarevich tar-Russja |18 ta' Frar 1690 |26 ta' Ġunju 1718, età ta' 28 sena |Iżżewweġ fl-1711 lil Charlotte Christine ta' Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel; ma' Pietru II tar-Russja |- |Alexander Petrovich |13 ta' Ottubru 1691 |14 ta' Mejju 1692, età ta' 7 xhur | |- |Pavel Petrovich |1693 |1693 | |- | colspan="4" |'''''Mingħand Katerina I''''' |- |Pietru Petrovich |xitwa tal-1704 |1707 |Twieled u miet qabel iż-żwieġ uffiċjali tal-ġenituri tiegħu |- |Paul Petrovich |Ottubru 1705 |1707 |Twieled u miet qabel iż-żwieġ uffiċjali tal-ġenituri tiegħu |- |Katerina Petrovna |7 ta' Frar 1707 |7 ta' Awwissu 1708 |Twieled u miet qabel iż-żwieġ uffiċjali tal-ġenituri tiegħu |- |Anna Petrovna |27 ta' Jannar 1708 |15 ta' Mejju 1728 |Iżżewġet fl-1725 lil Karl Friedrich, id-Duka ta' Holstein-Gottorp; weldet lil Pietru III tar-Russja. |- |Elizaveta Petrovna, li mbagħad saret l-Imperatriċi Elizaveta Petrovna |29 ta' Diċembru 1709 |5 ta' Jannar 1762 |Jingħad li żżewġet fl-1742 lil Alexei Razumovsky; bla tfal |- |Maria Natalia Petrovna |20 ta' Marzu 1713 |17 ta' Mejju 1715 |twieldet f'Riga |- |Margarita Petrovna |19 ta' Settembru 1714 |7 ta' Ġunju 1715 | |- |Pietru Petrovich |9 ta' Novembru 1715 |6 ta' Mejju 1719 | |- |Pavel Petrovich |13 ta' Jannar 1717 |14 ta' Jannar 1717 |twieled f'Wesel |- |Natalia Petrovna |31 ta' Awwissu 1718 |15 ta' Marzu 1725 | |- |Pietru Petrovich |7 ta' Ottubru 1723 |7 ta' Ottubru 1723 | |- |Pavel Petrovich |1724 |1724 | |} === Namrati u tfal illeġittimi === * Anna Mons, mill-1691 (jew mill-1692) sal-1704; * Letitia Cross fl-1698; * is-Sinjura Mary Hamilton ** Korriet (1715) ** Wild mingħajr isem (1717–1718?); * il-Prinċipessa Maria Dmitrievna Cantemirovna tal-Moldavja, bint Dimitrie Cantemir ** Iben mingħajr isem (1722–1723?). == Legat == Peter's legacy has always been a major concern of Russian intellectuals. Pietru Is a more complex character than he is sometimes given credit for. Some believe Peter's reforms divided the country socially and weakened it spiritually. Riasanovsky points to a "paradoxical dichotomy" in the black and white images such as God/Antichrist, educator/ignoramus, architect of Russia's greatness/destroyer of national culture, father of his country/scourge of the common man. For Old Believers he was the Antichrist, because of the calendar changes and poll tax. Peter compared himself with King David or Noah with a divine mission. At his funeral Prokopovich compared him with Moses and Solomon. Voltaire's 1759 biography gave 18th-century Russians a man of the Enlightenment, while Alexander Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" poem of 1833 gave a powerful romantic image of a creator-god. Slavophiles in mid-19th century deplored Peter's westernization of Russia. Western writers and political analysts recounted "The Testimony" or secret will of Peter the Great. It supposedly revealed his grand evil plot for Russia to control the world via conquest of Constantinople, Afghanistan and India. It was a forgery made in Paris at Napoleon's command when he started the invasion of Russia in 1812. Nevertheless, it is still quoted in foreign policy circles. The Communists executed the last Romanovs, and their historians such as Mikhail Pokrovsky presented strongly negative views of the entire dynasty. Stalin however admired how Peter strengthened the state, and wartime, diplomacy, industry, higher education, and government administration. Stalin wrote in 1928, "when Peter the Great, who had to deal with more developed countries in the West, feverishly built works in factories for supplying the army and strengthening the country's defenses, this was an original attempt to leap out of the framework of backwardness." As a result, Soviet historiography emphasizes both the positive achievement and the negative factor of oppressing the common people. After the fall of Communism in 1991, scholars and the general public in Russia and the West gave fresh attention to Peter and his role in Russian history. His reign is now seen as the decisive formative event in the Russian imperial past. Many new ideas have merged, such as whether he strengthened the autocratic state or whether the tsarist regime was not statist enough given its small bureaucracy. Modernization models have become contested ground. He initiated a wide range of economic, social, political, administrative, educational and military reforms which ended the dominance of traditionalism and religion in Russia and initiated its westernization. His efforts included secularization of education, organization of administration for effective governance, enhanced use of technology, establishing an industrial economy, modernization of the army and establishment of a strong navy. Historian Y. Vodarsky said in 1993 that Peter, "did not lead the country on the path of accelerated economic, political and social development, did not force it to 'achieve a leap' through several stages.... On the contrary, these actions to the greatest degree put a brake on Russia's progress and created conditions for holding it back for one and a half centuries!" The autocratic powers that Stalin admired appeared as a liability to Evgeny Anisimov, who complained that Peter was, "the creator of the administrative command system and the true ancestor of Stalin." In the period from 1678 to 1710, however, the population grew 2 times. According to ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', "He did not completely bridge the gulf between Russia and the Western countries, but he achieved considerable progress in development of the national economy and trade, education, science and culture, and foreign policy. Russia became a great power, without whose concurrence no important European problem could thenceforth be settled. His internal reforms achieved progress to an extent that no earlier innovator could have envisaged." While the cultural turn in historiography has downplayed diplomatic, economic and constitutional issues, new cultural roles have been found for Peter, for example in architecture (Petrine Baroque) and dress. James Cracraft argues: : The Petrine revolution in Russia—subsuming in this phrase the many military, naval, governmental, educational, architectural, linguistic, and other internal reforms enacted by Peter's regime to promote Russia's rise as a major European power—was essentially a cultural revolution, one that profoundly impacted both the basic constitution of the Russian Empire and, perforce, its subsequent development. The iconic representations of dead saints typical for centuries of Russian visual culture suddenly give way to naturalistic portraiture. == Fil-kultura popolari == Pietru ssemma f'bosta ġrajjiet tal-istorja, rumanzi, reċti, films, monumenti u pitturi. Dawn jinkludu l-poeżiji ''Ir-Rikkieb tal-Bronż'', ''Poltava'' u r-rumanz mhux komplut ''L-Għarbi Iberiku ta' Pietru l-Kbir'', kollha ta' [[Alexander Pushkin]]. L-ewwel waħda kienet dwar statwa ekwestri li nbniet f'ġieħ Pietru. Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy kiteb rumanz storiku bijografiku dwaru, imsejjaħ ''Pietru I'', fis-snin 30 tas-seklu 20. * Il-film silenzjuż Ġermaniż tal-1922 ''Pietru l-Kbir'' tar-reġista Dimitri Buchowetzki u tal-protagonista Emil Jannings li ħadimha ta' Pietru. * Fl-1929 ittellgħet ir-reċta ta' A.N. Tolstoy, fejn skont il-linja tal-partit Pietru ntwera bħala tirann li "għakkes lil kulħadd u lil kollox bħallikieku kien ippossedut mix-xjaten, nissel il-biża', u sallab kemm lill-ibnu kif ukoll lill-pajjiżu". * Il-film Sovjetiku tal-1937–1938 ''Pietru l-Kbir''. * Il-film tal-1976 ''How Czar Peter the Great Married Off His Moor'', bil-protagonista Aleksey Petrenko li ħadimha ta' Pietru, u Vladimir Vysotsky li ħadimha ta' Abram Petrovich Gannibal, juri t-tentattiv ta' Pietru li jibni l-Flotta Baltika. * Jan Niklas u Maximilian Schell ħadmuha ta' Pietru fil-minisensiela tal-NBC tal-1986 ''Pietru l-Kbir''. * Il-film tal-2007 ''The Sovereign's Servant'' (Il-Qaddej tas-Sovran) juri l-lat brutali ta' Pietru matul il-kampanji militari tiegħu. * Karattru bbażat fuq Pietru għandu rwol ewlieni f'''The Age of Unreason'', sensiela ta' erba' rumanzi storiċi differenti miktubin mill-awtur Amerikan tal-fantaxjenza u tal-fantasija Gregory Keyes. * Pietru huwa wieħed minn bosta karattri sekondarji f'''Baroque Cycle'' (Ċiklu Barokk) ta' Neal Stephenson – u jitfaċċa b'mod prinċipali fit-tielet rumanz, ''The System of the World'' (Is-Sistema tad-Dinja). * Isaac Rouse jirrakkonta lil Pietru fuq BBC Radio 4 bħala tifel, Will Howard bħala adolexxenti u Elliot Cowan bħala adult fir-reċti ta' fuq ir-radju msejħa ''Peter the Great: The Gamblers'' u ''Peter the Great: The Queen of Spades'', miktubin minn Mike Walker u li kienu l-aħħar żewġ reċti fl-ewwel sensiela ta' ''Tsar''. Ir-reċti xxandru fil-25 ta' Settembru u fit-2 ta' Ottubru 2016. * Vers fil-"Kanzunetta tax-Xorb tal-Inġiniera" jsemmi lil Pietru l-Kbir. * Jason Isaacs ħadimha ta' Pietru fis-sensiela antistorika Hulu tal-2020,''The Great''. * Pietru jintwera bħala l-mexxej taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni Russa fil-logħob tal-kompjuter ''Sid Meier's Civilization VI''. * Ivan Kolesnikov ħadimha ta' Pietru fil-film dokumentarju storiku Russu tal-2022, ''Pietru I: L-Aħħar Ksar u l-Ewwel Imperatur''. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Russja]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1672]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-1725]] hoev51dj2lir01myuwt693nwoo851d7 323371 323370 2025-06-03T10:45:05Z Trigcly 17859 /* Tieni Ambaxxata */ żieda kontenut 323371 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Pietru I''' (bir-[[Lingwa Russa|Russu]]: Пётр I Алексеевич, <small>b'ittri Rumani:</small> ''Pyotr I Alekseyevich'', IPA: [ˈpʲɵtr ɐlʲɪkˈsʲejɪvʲɪtɕ]; twieled fid-9 ta' Ġunju [skont sorsi oħra fit-30 ta' Mejju] 1672 – miet fit-8 ta' Frar [skont sorsi oħra fit-28 ta' Jannar] 1725), magħruf aħjar bħala '''Pietru l-Kbir''', kien il-Ksar tar-[[Russja]] kollha mill-1682 u l-ewwel Imperatur tar-Russja kollha mill-1721 sa mewtu fl-1725. Huwa rrenja b'mod konġunt flimkien ma' ħuh min-nisel ta' ġenitur wieħed komuni, [[Ivan V]], sal-1696. Minn dik is-sena, Pietru kien monarka assolut u awtokrata li baqa' l-awtorità suprema u organizza stat riġidu u ordnat sew. Il-biċċa l-kbira tar-renju ta' Pietru kienet mimlija gwerer twal kontra l-imperi [[Imperu Ottoman|Ottomani]] u [[Żvezja|Żvediżi]]. Il-kampanji militari tiegħu ta' Azov kienu segwiti mill-istabbiliment tal-Flotta Navali Russa; wara r-rebħa tiegħu fil-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana minkejja diffikultajiet inizjali, ir-Russja annettiet parti sinifikanti mill-kosta Baltika tal-Lvant u uffiċjalment bdiet tissejjaħ imperu. Pietru mexxa rivoluzzjoni [[Kultura|kulturali]] li ssostitwiet uħud mis-sistemi soċjali u [[Politika|politiċi]] tradizzjonalisti u [[Medjuevu|Medjevali]] b'oħrajn li kienu moderni, [[Xjenza|xjentifiċi]], tal-Punent u bbażati fuq Illuminiżmu radikali. F'Diċembru 1699 huwa daħħal il-[[kalendarju Ġuljan]], li ħa post il-kalendarju [[Biżantini|Biżantin]] li kien ilu jintuża fir-Russja, iżda l-[[Knisja Ortodossa Russa]] rreżistiet partikolarment din il-bidla. Fl-1703 huwa daħħal l-ewwel gazzetta Russa, ''Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti'', u ordna l-kitba ċivili, riforma tal-[[ortografija]] Russa ddisinjata fil-biċċa l-kbira minnu nnifsu. Max-xtut tax-xmara Neva, huwa stabbilixxa [[San Pietruburgu]], belt li malajr ġiet imlaqqma minn [[Francesco Algarotti]] bħala t-"tieqa lejn il-Punent". Fl-1712, Pietru ttrasferixxa l-[[belt kapitali]] minn [[Moska]] lejn San Pietruburgu, status li żammet sal-1918. Pietru kellu interess kbir fil-pjanti, fl-[[Annimal|annimali]] u fil-minerali, fil-ħlejjaq deformati jew fl-eċċezzjonijiet tal-liġi tan-natura li kienu jqanqlulu l-kurżità. Huwa ħeġġeġ ir-riċerka tad-deformazzjonijiet, u b'hekk ipprova wkoll jeqred il-biża' superstizzjuża tal-mostri. Huwa ppromwova l-industrijalizzazzjoni fl-Imperu Russu u l-[[edukazzjoni]] għolja. L-Akkademja Russa tax-Xjenzi u l-Università Statali ta' San Pietruburgu ġew stabbiliti fl-1724, u stieden lil [[Christian Wolff]] u lil [[Willem 's Gravesande]]. Pietru jiġi akkreditat primarjament bil-modernizzazzjoni tal-pajjiż, peress li malajr ittrasformah f'setgħa [[Ewropa|Ewropea]] ewlenija. Ir-riformi amministrattivi tiegħu, li ħolqu Senat tal-Governanza fl-1711, il-''Collegium'' fl-1717 u t-Tabella tal-Karigi fl-1722, kellhom impatt fit-tul fuq ir-Russja, u bosta istituzzjonijiet tal-gvern Russu oriġinaw fir-renju tiegħu. == Ħajja bikrija == Pietru trabba fil-proprjetà tal-familja ta' Izmaylovo u ngħata l-edukazzjoni tiegħu fil-Palazz tad-Divertiment minn età bikrija mingħand diversi [[Għalliem|għalliema]] privati kkummissjonati minn missieru; l-iktar notevoli minnhom kienu [[Nikita Zotov]], [[Patrick Gordon]] u [[Paul Menesius]]. Meta missieru miet fl-1676, huwa ħalla s-sovranità f'idejn ħuh il-kbir tal-istess nisel minn ġenitur wieħed komuni, il-magħtub [[Teodoru III]]. Matul dan il-perjodu kollu, il-gvern kien immexxi fil-biċċa l-kbira minn [[Artamon Matveyev]], ħabib illuminat ta' Alexis, il-kap politiku tal-familja Naryshkin u wieħed mill-ikbar benefatturi tat-tfulija ta' Pietru. Din is-sitwazzjoni nbidlet meta Teodoru miet fl-1682. Peress li Teodoru ma kellux ulied, qam diżgwid bejn il-familja Miloslavsky ([[Maria Miloslavskaya]] kienet l-ewwel mara ta' [[Alexis I]]) u l-familja Naryshkin ([[Natalya Naryshkina]] kienet it-tieni mara tiegħu) rigward min kien se jiret it-tron. Huwa rrenja b'mod konġunt ma' ħuh il-kbir bin-nisel ta' ġenitur wieħed komuni, Ivan V, sal-1696. Ivan kien l-eredi bid-dritt iżda kien dgħajjef u għami. B'hekk, il-Boyar Duma (kunsill tan-nobbli Russi) għażel lil Pietru biex isir il-ksar ta' għaxar snin, u ommu kienet ir-reġġenti tiegħu. Tħaffret toqba fid-dahar tat-tron, biex litteralment minn wara l-kwinti, ommu setgħet issefsef f'widnejn iż-żewġ subien. It-"Tkeċċija l-Kbira ta' Moska" bdiet fl-1677 u tlestiet fl-1688; din affettwat il-familji nobbli b'karigi għoljin fl-amministrazzjoni; il-ministeri tnaqqsu wkoll. Dan ipprovoka reazzjonijiet inkorlati. Sophia, waħda mill-ulied bniet ta' Alexis mill-ewwel żwieġ tiegħu, mexxiet ribelljoni tal-i''streltsy'' (il-korp militari tal-elit tar-Russja) f'April–Mejju 1682. Fil-kunflitt sussegwenti, uħud mill-qrabat u mill-ħbieb ta' Pietru nqatlu, fosthom Artamon Matveyev, u Pietru esperjenza wħud minn dawn l-att ta' vjolenza politika. L-i''streltsy'' għamluha possibbli għal Sophia, għall-Miloslavskys (il-klan ta' Ivan) u għall-alleati tagħhom biex jinsistu li Pietru u Ivan jiġu pproklamati b'mod konġunt bħala l-ksars, u Ivan ġie akklamat bħala l-ksar superjuri. Imbagħad Sophia għamlitha tar-reġġenti matul iż-żmien meta s-sovrani kienu taħt l-età u eżerċitat is-setgħa kollha tagħha. Għal 7 snin, hija mexxiet bħala awtokrata. Mill-1682 sal-1689, Pietru u ommu tkeċċew lejn Preobrazhenskoye. Tal-età ta' 16-il sena, huwa skopra dgħajsa Ingliża fil-proprjetà tal-familja, irrestawraha u tgħallem ibaħħar. Huwa ngħata sestant (strument tan-navigazzjoni), iżda ma kienx jaf kif jużah. Pietru kien affaxxinat bl-arloġġi tax-[[xemx]]. Għaldaqstant, huwa beda jfittex għal espert barrani fil-Kwartier [[Ġermanja|Ġermaniż]]. Pietru għamel ħbieb ma' [[Andrew Vinius]], biblijofilu, li għallmu l-Olandiż u żewġ mastrudaxxi Olandiżi, Frans Timmerman u Karsten Brandt. Pietru studja l-[[matematika]], il-[[ġeometrija]] u x-xjenzi militari. Huwa ma kienx interessat fl-edukazzjoni mużikali iżda kien iħobb it-tnabar u l-logħob tan-nar. Pietru ma tantx kien imħasseb wisq li oħrajn kienu qed imexxu f'ismu; Boris Golitsyn u Fyodor Apraksin kellhom rwol importanti. Huwa kellu passatempi bħall-bini tal-vapuri f'Pereslavl-Zalessky u t-tbaħħir fil-Lag ta' Pleshcheyevo, kif ukoll f'battalji taparsi bl-armata tal-ġugarelli tiegħu. Omm Pietru ppruvat tobbligah jadotta approċċ iktar konvenzjonali u rranġat iż-żwieġ tiegħu ma' [[Eudoxia Lopukhina]] fl-1689. Iż-żwieġ sfaxxa, u 10 snin wara, Pietru ġiegħel lil martu ssir soru u b'hekk inħeles mill-unjoni ta' bejniethom. Sas-sajf tal-1689, Pietru ppjana li jaħtaf il-poter mingħand oħtu tan-nisel minn ġenitur wieħed komuni, Sophia, ladarba l-pożizzjoni tagħha kienet iddgħajfet minħabba żewġ kampanji militari fallimentari fil-[[Krimea]] kontra l-Khanat tal-Krimea, f'tentattiv biex twaqqaf l-attakki devastanti tat-[[Tatari tal-Krimea]] fl-artijiet tan-Nofsinhar tar-Russja. Meta saret taf bil-pjanijiet tiegħu, Sophia kkonfoffat ma' xi mexxejja tal-i''streltsy'', li b'mod kontinwu qalgħu diżordni u garr kbir. Pietru, imwissi minn oħrajn dwar l-i''streltsy'', ħarab f'nofs ta' lejl lejn il-monasteru impenetrabbli ta' Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra; hemmhekk bil-mod il-mod ġemgħa n-nies li emmnu li kien se jirbaħ it-taqbida għall-poter. Sophia eventwalment tneħħiet mit-tron, u Pietru I u Ivan V baqgħu jirrenjaw bħala ksars f'daqqa. Pietru ġiegħel lil Sophia tidħol f'kunvent, fejn ċediet il-jeddijiet u l-kariga tagħha bħala membru tal-familja rjali. Sadanittant, Pietru kien mistieden frekwenti fil-kwartier Ġermaniż, fejn iltaqa' ma' [[Anna Mons|Anna]] u [[Willem Mons]]. Fl-1692 huwa bagħat lil [[Eberhard Isbrand Ides]] bħala mibgħut għand l-Imperatur Kangxi taċ-[[Ċina]]. Fl-1693 huwa baħħar lejn il-Monasteru ta' [[Gżejjer Solovetsky|Solovetsky]] u aċċetta l-provvidenza divina wara li ħelisha mill-għarqa f'maltempata. Xorta waħda, Pietru ma setax jikseb il-kontroll reali tal-affarijiet Russi. Minflok il-poter kien eżerċitat minn ommu. Kien biss meta Natalya mietet fl-1694 li Pietru, li dak iż-żmien kellu 22 sena, sar sovran indipendenti. Formalment, Ivan V kien mexxej konġunt flimkien ma' Pietru, għalkemm ma tantx kien effettiv. Pietru sar il-mexxej waħdieni meta Ivan miet fl-1696 mingħajr ma kellu ulied subien. Pietru kiber u kien tassew twil, speċjalment għal dak iż-żmien, u jingħad li kien twil 6 piedi u 8 pulzieri (2.03 [[Metru|metri]]). Huwa kien jitqies bħala t-"tieni Gulija" jew Sansun. San Xmun iddeskrivih fl-1717 bħala "twil, mibni sew u rqiq... b'ħarsa bla biża' u kiefra". Pietru kellu difett notevoli fl-espressjonijiet ta' wiċċu għax jaf kien ibati minn muskoli spażmatiċi f'għonqu. == Ideoloġija tar-renju ta' Pietru == Bħala żagħżugħ, Pietru I adotta l-mudell [[Protestantiżmu|Protestant]] tal-eżistenza f'dinja pragmatika ta' kompetizzjoni u suċċess personali, li sawret il-biċċa l-kbira tal-filosofija tar-riformiżmu tiegħu. Huwa pperċepixxa l-poplu Russu bħala pastaż, mhux intelliġenti, rasu iebsa, għadu lura, qisu xi tifel/tifla jew student għażżien(a). Huwa apprezza r-rwol statali fil-ħajja tas-soċjetà, u kien jarah bħala strument ideali biex jinkisbu għanijiet nobbli, kien jarah bħala istituzzjoni universali għat-trasformazzjoni tan-nies, bl-għajnuna tal-vjolenza u tal-biża', f'sudditi edukati, konxji, li jħarsu l-liġi, u utli għas-soċjetà kollha. Pietru kien interessat ferm f'''L-Edukazzjoni ta' Prinċep Kristjan'' li jagħti pariri lill-mexxejja kif għandhom jiggvernaw b'mod ġust u għaref. Huwa daħħal fil-kunċett tal-poter awtokratiku, in-nozzjoni tad-dmirijiet tal-monarka. Kien iqis li huwa d-dmir tiegħu li jieħu ħsieb is-sudditi tiegħu, li jħarishom mill-għedewwa, li jaħdem għall-benefiċċju tagħhom. Fuq kollox, huwa poġġa l-interessi tar-Russja fuq quddiem. Huwa kien iħoss li l-missjoni tiegħu kienet li jibdilha f'setgħa simili għall-pajjiżi tal-Punent, u ddedika ħajtu u ħajjet is-sudditi tiegħu biex din l-idea titwettaq. Gradwalment l-idea daħlet, anke bl-għajnuna tar-riformi, li saru skont ir-rieda tal-awtokrata, li kien joħloq il-ġid u jikkastiga l-ħażen. Huwa kien iqis il-moralità ta' statista separatament mill-moralità ta' persuna privata u kien jemmen li s-sovran fl-isem l-istat seta' jwettaq qtil, vjolenza, falsifikazzjoni u qerq. Huwa għadda mil-lieva navali, u beda mill-iżjed livelli baxxi: bumbardier (1695), kaptan (1696), kurunell (1706), għassies ta' billejl (1709), viċi ammirall (1714), ammirall (1721). Permezz tax-xogħol iebes ta' kuljum (skont l-espressjoni figurattiva ta' Pietru l-Kbir stess, fl-istess ħin "kellu jżomm xabla u pinna f'id leminija waħda") u l-imġiba qalbiena huwa wera lis-sudditi tiegħu l-eżempju pożittiv personali tiegħu, wera kif wieħed għandu jaġixxi, u ddedika ruħu u ġismu biex jaqdi dmiru għas-servizz ta' art twelidu. == Renju == Pietru rrenja għal madwar 43 sena. Huwa implimenta riformi trasversali bl-għan li jimmodernizzaw ir-Russja. Influwenzat ferm mill-konsulenti tiegħu, bħal [[Jacob Bruce]], Pietru organizza mill-ġdid l-armata Russa skont linji moderni u kien joħlom li r-Russja ssir setgħa marittima. Huwa ltaqa' ma' ħafna oppożizzjoni għal dawn il-politiki f'art twelidu iżda qered b'mod brutali r-ribelljonijiet kontra l-awtorità tiegħu, inkluż mill-i''streltsy'', mill-Baxkiri, mill-Astrakhan, u l-ikbar rewwixta ċivili tar-renju tiegħu, ir-Ribelljoni ta' Bulavin. Fil-proċess tiegħu li jqarreb ir-Russja lejn il-Punent, huwa ried li l-membri tal-familja tiegħu jiżżewġu ma' membri rjali Ewropej oħra. Fl-imgħoddi, l-antenati tiegħu ġew injorati meta ressqu din l-idea; madankollu, uriet li kienet qed tagħti l-frott. Huwa nnegozja ma' [[Frederick William]], id-Duka ta' Courland biex iżewweġ lin-neputija tiegħu, Anna Ivanovna. Huwa uża ż-żwieġ tagħha sabiex iniedi l-belt kapitali l-ġdida tiegħu, San Pietruburgu, fejn diġà kien ordna proġetti ta' kostruzzjoni ta' palazzi u binjiet simili għal dawn tal-Punent. Pietru qabbad lil [[Arkitett|arkitetti]] [[Italja|Taljani]] u Ġermaniżi biex ifasslu d-disinni. Huwa attira lil [[Domenico Trezzini]], [[Carlo Bartolomeo Rastrelli]], [[Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond]] u [[Andreas Schlüter]]. Sabiex itejjeb il-pożizzjoni tan-nazzjon tiegħu fl-ibħra, Pietru pprova jikseb iktar żbokki marittimi. L-uniku żbokk tiegħu dak iż-żmien kien il-[[Baħar l-Abjad]] f'Arkhangelsk. Il-[[Baħar Baltiku]] dak iż-żmien kien ikkontrollat mill-Iżvezja fit-Tramuntana, filwaqt li l-[[Baħar l-Iswed]] u l-[[Baħar Kaspju]] kienu kkontrollati mill-Imperu Ottoman u mill-Imperu tas-Safavidi rispettivament fin-Nofsinhar. Il-ħtieġa tal-pajjiż għall-metall żdiedet minħabba li faqqgħu l-gwerer għall-aċċess għall-Baħar l-Iswed u għall-Baħar Baltiku. Pietru pprova jikseb il-kontroll tal-Baħar l-Iswed, li kien jirrikjedi t-tkeċċija tat-Tatari miż-żoni tal-madwar. Bħala parti minn ftehim mal-Polonja li bih [[Kiev]] ġiet ċeduta lir-Russja, Pietru ġie mġiegħel jiddikjara gwerra kontra l-Khan tal-Krimea u kontra s-Sultan Ottoman ta' fuqu. L-objettiv primarju ta' Pietru sar li jaħtaf il-fortizza Ottomana ta' Azov, qrib ix-xmara Don. Fis-sajf tal-1695 Pietru organizza l-kampanji militari ta' Azov biex jaħtaf il-fortizza, iżda t-tentattivi tiegħu fallew. Pietru reġa' lura Moska f'Novembru 1695 u beda jibni flotta navali kbira f'Voronezh. Huwa vara madwar tletin vapur kontra l-Ottomani fl-1696, u ħataf Azov f'Lulju ta' dik is-sena. Huwa ħatar lil [[Alexander Gordon]], li iktar 'il quddiem ippubblika bijografija ta' Pietru. Pietru kien jorganizza l-laqgħat importanti kollha u bosta ċelebrazzjonijiet fil-Palazz ta' Le Fort. === Gran Ambaxxata === Pietru kien jaf li r-Russja ma setgħetx tiffaċċja l-Imperu Ottoman waħedha. F'Marzu 1697 huwa vvjaġġa "pajsan" lejn il-Punent tal-Ewropa għal 18-il xahar flimkien ma' delegazzjoni Russa kbira — l-hekk imsejħa "Gran Ambaxxata". Pietru kien l-ewwel ksar li ħareġ mir-Russja f'iktar minn 100 sena. Huwa uża isem falz, li permezz tiegħu seta' jaħrab mill-avvenimenti soċjali u diplomatiċi, iżda peress li kien ferm itwal minn bosta oħrajn, ma tantx kien jirnexxilu jġibha żewġ. Għan minnhom kien li jfittex l-għajnuna tal-monarki Ewropej, iżda t-tama ta' Pietru mietet fuq ommha. [[Franza]] kienet alleat tradizzjonali tas-Sultan Ottoman, u l-[[Awstrija]] kienet ħerqana li jżomm il-paċi fil-Lvant sakemm kienet qed tagħmel il-gwerer tagħha stess fil-Punent.Barra minn hekk, Pietru kien għażel mument mhux f'waqtu: l-Ewropej dak iż-żmien kienu iktar mħassbin dwar il-Gwerra tas-Suċċessjoni [[Spanja|Spanjola]] u min kien se jkun is-suċċessur tar-Re [[Karlu II ta' Spanja]] li ma kellux ulied milli mill-ġlied kontra s-Sultan Ottoman. Pietru b'hekk ma rnexxilux jespandi l-alleanza kontra l-Ottomani. F'[[Riga]], il-kmandant Żvediż lokali [[Erik Dahlbergh]] iddeċieda li jagħmilha tabirruħu li ma għarafx lil Pietru u ma ħalliehx jispezzjona l-fortifikazzjonijiet. 3 snin wara, Pietru kkwota l-lqugħ inospitabbli bħala waħda mir-raġunijiet li wasslu għall-bidu tal-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana. Huwa ltaqa' ma' Frederick Casimir Kettler, id-Duka ta' Courland. F'Königsberg, il-ksar ta apprendistat ta' xahrejn lil inġinier tal-artillerija. Inħarġu wkoll digrieti għall-kostruzzjoni tal-ewwel fran tal-ibblastjar tal-Ural. F'Lulju Pietru ltaqa' ma' Sophia ta' Hanover fil-Kastell ta' Coppenbrügge. Hi ddeskritu b'dan il-mod: "Il-ksar huwa [[raġel]] twil u sabiħ, b'wiċċ attraenti. Huwa fuq tiegħu u għaref ħafna. Madankollu, xi ħadd b'daqstant preġji naturali jista' jkollu manjieri kemxejn aħjar". Pietru kera vapur f'Emmerich am Rhein u baħħar lejn Zaandam, fejn wasal fit-18 ta' Awwissu 1697. ==== [[Amsterdam]] ==== Pietru studja l-impjanti tal-isserrar tal-[[injam]] u tal-manifattura u tal-bini tal-vapuri f'Zaandam iżda telaq wara ġimgħa. Huwa baħħar lejn Amsterdam wara li għarfuh u ġie attakkat. L-għorfa taz-zkuk tal-injam li kien kera saret id-Dar tal-Ksar Pietru. Huwa baħħar lejn [[Texel]] biex jara flotta. Permezz tal-medjazzjoni ta' [[Nicolaas Witsen]], espert dwar ir-Russja, il-ksar ingħata l-opportunità li jikseb esperjenza prattika fit-tarzna tal-Kumpanija Olandiża tal-Indji tal-Lvant għal perjodu ta' 4 xhur, taħt is-superviżjoni ta' [[Gerrit Claesz Pool]]. Il-ksar diliġenti u kapaċi assista fil-kostruzzjoni tal-bastiment ''Pietru u Pawlu'' li nbena apposta għalih. Pietru ħass li l-mastrudaxxi tal-bastiment fl-Olanda kienu jaħdmu wisq fuq għajnejhom u ma kinux jagħmlu tpinġijiet akkurati tal-kostruzzjoni tal-bastimenti. Matul is-soġġorn tiegħu, il-ksar iltaqa' ma' bosta ħaddiema b'ħiliet kbar bħall-bennejja tal-imgħalaq, tal-fortizzi, [[Bennej|bennejja]] tal-vapuri u baħħara — inkluż [[Cornelis Cruys]], viċi ammirall li taħt Franz Lefort sar il-konsulent tal-ksar fl-affarijiet marittimi; l-inġinier [[Menno van Coehoorn]] irrifjuta. Pietru uża l-għarfien li kiseb fil-kostruzzjoni tal-bastimenti biex jgħin fil-bini tal-flotta navali tar-Russja. Pietru u Witsen żaru lil [[Frederik Ruysch]] li kellu l-eżemplari kollha esposti f'ħames kmamar. Huwa għallem lil Pietru jaqbad il-friefet u kif kellu jagħmel biex jippreservahom. Kellhom interess komuni wkoll fil-gremxul. Kienu jmorru flimkien biex jaraw xi pazjenti. Pietru wasal f'[[Utrecht]] fuq barkun u ltaqa' ma' [[William III]] f'berġa. Meta żar lill-Ġeneral Statali tan-Netherlands huwa telaq mis-sala u stagħġeb lil dawk li kienu preżenti bil-parrokka li kien libes, skont Massie. Huwa żar ukoll lil [[Jan van der Heyden]], l-inventur tal-pajp tat-tifi tan-nar. Pietru kien jikkollezzjona wkoll il-[[Pittura|pitturi]] ta' [[Adam Silo]] b'vapuri u b'pajsaġġi tal-baħar bħala s-suġġett tagħhom. F'Ottubru 1697, il-ksar żar [[Delft]] u ngħata "apparat biex josserva s-salluriet" mingħand il-mikroskopista [[Antoni van Leeuwenhoek]]. Wara t-Trattat tal-Paċi ta' Ryswick, Pietru ġie mistieden mir-Re tal-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]] biex iżuru. Ir-reġġenti Olandiżi ħassew li l-ksar kien wisq inkwiżittiv, u dan affettwa r-rieda tagħhom li jgħinu lir-Russi. ==== Deptford ==== Fil-11 ta' Jannar 1698 (skont sorsi oħra), Pietru wasal fix-Xatt ta' Victoria flimkien ma' erba' qaddejja, tliet interpreti (Peter Shafirov, LeFort), żewġ arloġġara, kok, patri, sitt trumbettiera, 70 suldat mir-riġment ta' Preobrazhensky, erba' nani u xadina li kien xtara minn Amsterdam; ġie akkumpanjat minn Jacob Bruce. Pietru ssoġġorna f'21 Norfolk Street, Strand, u ltaqa' mal-Isqof ta' [[Salisbury]] Gilbert Burnet u ma' Thomas Osborne u ppoża għal Sir Godfrey Kneller. Huwa osserva l-proċeduri fi ħdan il-Parlament minn tieqa ħdejn is-saqaf. Dak iż-żmien, l-attriċi Letitia Cross kien l-innamrata tiegħu. Huwa żar iz-Zekka Rjali erba' darbiet; mhux ċar jekk qatt iltaqa' ma' Isaac Newton, il-gwardjan taz-zekka, li daħal isem iz-zekka fuq il-muniti. Skont Massie, Pietru baqa' impressjonat mill-Izzekkar mill-Ġdid il-Kbir tal-1696. Dak iż-żmien huwa żar Spithead, Plymouth, flimkien mal-kaptan John Perry biex jara battalja taparsi. Fi Frar attenda Rieżami tal-Flotta f'Deptford, u spezzjona t-Tarzna ta' Woolwich u l-Arsenal Irjali flimkien ma' Anthony Deane. Għal 3 xhur huwa qagħad f'Sayes Court bħala l-mistieden ta' John Evelyn, membru tas-Soċjetà Rjali. Huwa tħarreġ kif juża t-teleskopju fl-Osservatorju ta' Greenwich flimkien ma' John Flamsteed. Pietru kkomunika ma' Thomas Story u ma' William Penn dwar il-pożizzjoni tagħhom li dawk li kienu jemmnu ma kellhom jingħaqdu mal-militar. Ir-Re [[William III]] ppreżenta skuna b'ekwipaġġ sħiħ lil Pietru I bi skambju għad-dritt ta' monopolju tal-merkanti Ingliżi fil-kummerċ tat-tabakk fir-Russja. Fl-aħħar ta' April 1698, huwa telaq wara li ġie muri kif jagħmel l-arloġġi u jħejji t-tapizzerija tat-twiebet. Lura fl-Olanda huwa żar Harderwijk u Cleves. Imbagħad l-Ambaxxata marret lejn [[Leipzig]], Dresden, fejn iltaqa' mar-Reġina Christiane Eberhardine tal-Polonja-Litwanja. Huwa żar il-Kunstsammlung tliet darbiet, imbagħad il-Fortizza ta' Königstein, [[Praga]] u [[Vjenna]], biex iżur lil [[Leopoldu I]]. F'Rava-Ruska, huwa qasam il-fruntiera u Pietru tkellem ma' Awgustu II il-Qawwi. Iż-żjara ta' Pietru spiċċat ħesrem, meta ġie infurmat bit-tieni rewwixta tal-i''streltsy'' f'Ġunju. Ir-ribelljoni trażżnet faċilment mill-Ġeneral Gordon qabel ma Pietru reġa' lura d-dar qabel iż-żmien f'Settembru. Minkejja dan, Pietru baqa' jeħodha qatta' bla ħabel kontra r-ribelli; 4,600 ribell inxteħtu l-ħabs. Madwar 1,182 ribell ġew torturati u ġustizzjati, u Pietru ordna li ġisimhom jintwerew fil-pubbliku bħala twissija għal min seta' jitħajjar jagħmel xi konfoffa simili fil-futur. L-i''streltsy'' sfaxxaw, u oħt Pietru minn ġenitur wieħed komuni, Sophia, li ppruvaw ittellgħuha fuq it-tron, inżammet f'seklużjoni mill-iktar rigoruża fil-[[Kunvent ta' Novodevichy]]. Iż-żjarat ta' Pietru fil-Punent ħallew fih in-nozzjoni li d-drawwiet Ewropej kienu f'diversi aspetti superjuri għat-tradizzjonijiet Russi. Huwa kkmanda lill-qaddejja u lill-uffiċjali kollha tiegħu biex jilbsu ilbies Ewropew (mhux kaftani) u biex jaqtgħu d-daqna twila tagħhom, u b'hekk inkorla ferm lill-Bojari u lill-Kredenti Anzjani li kellhom għall-qalbhom id-daqna tagħhom. Il-Bojari li xtaqu jħallu d-daqna tagħhom kellhom iħallsu taxxa annwali fuq id-daqna tagħhom ta' xi mitt rublu. Fl-istess sena, Pietru pprova jtemm iż-żwiġijiet irranġati, li kienu n-norma fost in-nobbli Russi, għax kien tal-fehma li tali prattika kienet barbarika u kienet qed twassal għal vjolenza domestika, peress li l-konjuġi spiss kienu jispiċċaw jobogħdu lil xulxin. === Riformi === Fl-1698, Pietru bagħat delegazzjoni lejn [[Malta]], taħt il-Bojar [[Boris Sheremetev]], biex tosserva t-taħriġ u l-kapaċitajiet tal-[[Ordni ta' San Ġwann|Kavallieri ta' Malta]] u tal-flotta tagħhom. Sheremetev investiga l-possibbiltà ta' azzjonijiet konġunti fil-futur mal-Kavallieri, inkluż azzjoni kontra t-[[Turkija|Torok]] u l-possibbiltà ta' bażi navali Russa fil-futur. Fit-12 ta' Settembru 1698, Pietru stabbilixxa uffiċjalment l-ewwel bażi navali Russa, Taganrog, fil-Baħar ta' Azov. Fl-1699, Pietru bidel id-data taċ-ċelebrazzjoni tal-ewwel tas-sena mill-1 ta' Settembru għall-1 ta' Jannar. Tradizzjonalment, is-snin kienu jitqiesu li jibdew mill-ħolqien tad-[[Id-Dinja|Dinja]], iżda wara r-riformi ta' Pietru, bdew jingħaddu mit-twelid ta' [[Ġesù|Kristu]]. Għalhekk, fis-sena 7207 tal-kalendarju Russu antik, Pietru pproklama li l-kalendarju Ġuljan sar effettiv u li b'hekk kienet is-sena 1700. Mal-mewt ta' Lefort fl-1699, Menshikov laħaq minfloku bħala l-konsulent l-iktar ippreferut ta' Pietru. Fl-1700, Pietru I pprevjena l-elezzjoni ta' patriarka ġdid u ċaħħad lill-Knisja Russa mill-opportunità li jerġa' jkollha mexxej spiritwali uniku. Huwa naqqas l-għadd ta' monasteri fil-pajjiż, u kkonverta l-monasteri kollha b'inqas minn 30 patri fi skejjel jew fi knejjes. Huwa ħeġġeġ l-iżvilupp tal-imprenditorija privata, iżda taħt kontroll statali strett. Huwa ta bidu għall-kostruzzjoni tal-kanali magħmula minn John Perry u implimenta riforma monetarja, bl-użu tal-prinċipju deċimali bħala l-bażi tas-sistema monetarja (1698–1704). Pietru attira bosta speċjalisti barranin u fetaħ istituzzjoni edukattiva għall-kirurġija, immexxija minn [[Nicolaas Bidloo]]. Fl-1701 ġiet stabbilita l-Iskola tal-Matematika u n-Navigazzjoni ta' Moska, immexxija minn [[Jacob Bruce]]; għal ħmistax-il sena fiha ġew edukati l-uffiċjali navali, is-surveyors, l-inġiniera u l-membri tal-artillerija. Fl-1700, [[Jan Thesingh]] ingħata monopolju fuq l-istampar u l-importazzjoni tal-kotba, tal-mapep u tal-pitturi stampati fir-Russja għal ħmistax-il sena. Fl-1701 huwa ħatar lil Fedor Polikarpov-Orlov bħala kap tal-Istamperija ta' Moska. Fl-1707, il-Ksar Pietru I xtara stamperija mgħammra għalkollox fl-Olanda, inkluż bil-persunal. Pietru ssostitwixxa n-numri Ċirilliċi b'numri [[Għarab]] (1705–1710) u t-tipa Ċirillika b'kitba ċivili (1708–1710). Fl-1708, [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] sar konsulent u offra li jikteb liġijiet ġodda għall-pajjiż. F'Diċembru r-Russja ġiet maqsuma fi tmien governorati (''guberniya''). [[Matwei Petrowitsch Gagarin]] kien l-ewwel gvernatur tas-[[Siberja]]. [[Cornelis de Bruijn]] żar lil Pietru u qatta' 6 snin fir-Russja u għamel xi tpinġijiet tal-[[Kremlin ta’ Moska|Kremlin]]. Fl-1711, Pietru żar lill-elettur [[Awgustu II tal-Polonja]] fi Dresden, f'Carlsbad u f'Torgau fejn iżżewweġ ibnu Aleksei. Fl-1713 huwa żar [[Amburgu]] u assedja lil [[Tönningen]] flimkien mal-alleati tiegħu. Imbagħad ivvjaġġa lejn Hanover u kien mistieden tad-Duka Anton Ulrich ta' Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel f'Salzdahlum. Minn [[Gdańsk|Danzig]] (Gdansk) huwa baħħar lejn Riga, Helsingfors u [[Turku]]. Fl-1711, Pietru stabbilixxa korp statali ġdid, magħruf bħala s-Senat tal-Governanza, permezz ta' digriet. Normalment, id-Duma tal-Bojar kien jeżerċita l-poter matul l-assenza tiegħu. Madankollu, Pietru ma kienx jafda lill-Bojari; minflok abolixxa d-Duma u ħoloq Senat ta' għaxar membri. Is-Senat ġie stabbilit bħala l-ogħla istituzzjoni statali biex jissorvelja l-affarijiet ġudizzjarji, finanzjarji u amministrattivi kollha. Oriġinarjament ġie stabbilit biss għaż-żmien ta' assenza tal-monarka, iżda mbagħad is-Senat sar korp permanenti wara r-ritorn tiegħu. Uffiċjal għoli speċjali, il-Prokuratur Superjuri, kien iservi bħala l-kollegament bejn il-mexxej u s-Senat, u fi kliem Pietru stess kien jaġixxi bħala "għajnejn is-sovran". Mingħajr il-firma tiegħu l-ebda deċiżjoni tas-Senat ma kienet issir effettiva; is-Senat sar waħda mill-iżjed istituzzjonijiet importanti tar-Russja Imperjali. Fl-1701, fl-1705 u fl-1712, Pietru I ħareġ digrieti li stabbilew Skola tal-Inġinerija fit-Torri ta' Sukharev, li suppost kellha tilqa' sa 100 student, iżda kellha 23 student biss. Għalhekk, ħareġ digriet ieħor fl-1714 biex l-edukazzjoni tkun obbligatorja, u stabbilixxa li t-tfal Russi kollha ta' bejn l-10 snin u l-15-il sena tan-nobbli, tal-iskrivani tal-gvern u tal-uffiċjali ta' kariga iktar baxxa kellhom jitgħallmu l-aritmetika bażika, it-trigonometrija u l-[[ġeometrija]], u kellhom jiġu ttestjati fuq dawn is-suġġetti fl-aħħar tal-istudji tagħhom. [[Areskine]], jatrospiżjar, sar il-kap tal-ispiżerija tal-qorti imperjali; [[Johann Daniel Schumacher]] inħatar bħala segretarju u librar tal-Kunstkamera. L-ewwel librerija xjentifika tal-pajjiż infetħet fil-palazz tiegħu fil-Ġnien tas-Sajf. Pietru ordna l-iżvilupp tal-Gżira ta' Aptekarsky, is-sede tal-Uffiċċju tal-Iskrivani Mediċi u l-Ispiżerija Prinċipali. [[Gottlieb Schober]] ġie kkummissjonat biex jeżamina l-fawwariet termali u skopra depożiti rikki tal-kubrit; Pietru minnufih stabbilixxa fabbrika għall-iżvilupp fl-Oblast ta' Samara. Fl-1721 ġew stabbiliti t-tarzna ta' Petrozavod u l-Fabbrika tal-Arloġġi ta' Petrodvorets. Fi żmien Pietru daħlu xi 3,500 [[kelma]] ġdida — mill-[[Lingwa Ġermaniża|Ġermaniż]], mill-[[Lingwa Franċiża|Franċiż]], mill-[[Lingwa Olandiża|Olandiż]], mill-[[Lingwa Ingliża|Ingliż]], mit-[[Lingwa Taljana|Taljan]] u mill-[[Lingwa żvediża|Iżvediż]] — fir-Russu, u bejn wieħed u ieħor kwart minnhom kienu termini navali u tat-tbaħħir. Bħala parti mir-riformi tiegħu, Pietru beda sforz ta' industrijalizzazzjoni li kien kajman iżda eventwalment irnexxa. Il-manifattura Russa u l-esportazzjonijiet prinċipali kienu bbażati fuq l-industriji tal-estrazzjoni u tal-[[injam]]. Fl-1719, il-privileġġi tal-minaturi ddaħħlu fil-liġi permezz tal-Privileġġ ta' Berg, u b'hekk ir-rappreżentanti tal-klassijiet kollha setgħu jfittxu għall-minerali grezzi u jibnu impjanti metallurġiċi. Fl-istess waqt, il-manifatturi u l-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]] ġew eżentati mit-taxxi statali u mir-reklutaġġ għal-lieva, u d-djar tagħhom ġew eżentati mill-istazzjonar tat-truppi. Il-liġi ggarantiet ukoll il-wirt tas-sjieda tal-fabbriki, ipproklamat l-attività industrijali bħala kwistjoni ta' importanza statali u pproteġiet lill-manifatturi mill-indħil fl-affarijiet tagħhom mill-awtoritajiet lokali. L-istess liġi stabbiliet il-Collegium tal-Estrazzjoni, u ħadet ħsieb il-ġestjoni tal-industrija kollha tal-estrazzjoni u tal-metallurġija, kif ukoll tal-amministrazzjonijiet lokali. Id-Demidovs saru l-ewwel esportaturi Russi tal-[[ħadid]] lejn il-Punent tal-Ewropa. Fl-1721 inħareġ digriet li ppermetta lis-sidien tal-fabbriki, irrispettivament kinux nobbli jew le, biex jixtru l-qaddejja. === Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana === Pietru kiseb paċi temporanja mal-Imperu Ottoman u b'hekk seta' jżomm il-forti maħtuf ta' Azov, u minflok xeħet l-attenzjoni tiegħu fuq is-supremazija marittima Russa. Huwa pprova jikseb il-kontroll tal-Baħar Baltiku, li kien ittieħed mill-Imperu Żvediż nofs seklu qabel. Pietru ddikjara gwerra kontra l-Iżvezja, li dak iż-żmien kienet immexxija mir-re żagħżugħ [[Karlu XII]]. L-Iżvezja opponewha wkoll id-[[Danimarka]], in-[[Norveġja]], is-Sassonja u l-Commonwealth Pollakka-[[Litwanja|Litwana]]. Ir-riġment ta' Preobrazhensky ħa sehem fil-battalji ewlenin kollha tal-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana. Ir-Russja ma kinitx ippreparata sew biex tiġġieled kontra l-Iżvediżi, u l-ewwel tentattiv tagħha li taħtaf il-kosta Baltika ntemm f'diżastru fil-Battalja ta' Narva fl-1700. Matul il-kunflitt, il-qawwiet ta' Karlu XII, minflok ma għamlu assedju metodiku bil-mod il-mod, attakkaw minnufih u użaw maltempata bil-borra biex ikunu vvantaġġati. Wara l-battalja, Karlu XII ddeċieda li jikkonċentra l-qawwiet tiegħu kontra l-Commonwealth Pollakka-Litwana, u b'hekk Pietru kellu biżżejjed żmien biex jerġa' jorganizza l-armata Russa u ħakem lil Nyenschantz matul il-kampanja militari Ingrjana. Bidloo kellu jorganizza sptar militari. Robert Bruce nħatar bħala l-kmandant ewlieni ta' San Pietruburgu. Wara t-telfa li ġarrab f'Narva, Pietru I ordna li l-qniepen tal-knejjes jiddewbu f'kanuni u porvli. Fl-1701, Pietru ordna l-kostruzzjoni tal-Fortizza ta' Novodvinsk fit-Tramuntana ta' Archangelsk. Kulħadd kien konvint li l-monarka kien se jiddikjara gwerra. Fl-assedju ta' Nöteborg, il-qawwiet Russi ħatfu l-fortizza Żvediża, li bdew isejħulha Shlisselburg. Fl-1702 Pietru l-Kbir stabbilixxa t-tarzna ta' Olonets f'Lodeynoye Pole, fejn inbniet il-frejgata Russa Shtandart. Sakemm il-Pollakki ġġieldu kontra l-Iżvediżi, Pietru stabbilixxa l-belt ta' San Pietruburgu fid-29 ta' Ġunju 1703 fuq il-Gżira tal-[[Liebru]]. Huwa pprojbixxa l-kostruzzjoni ta' binjiet tal-ġebel 'il barra minn San Pietruburgu, li kien beħsiebu li ssir il-belt kapitali tar-Russja, biex in-naġġara u l-[[Bennej|bennejja]] kollha setgħu jieħdu sehem fil-kostruzzjoni tal-belt il-ġdida. Sakemm il-belt kienet qed tinbena tul ix-xmara Neva, huwa għex f'kabina modesta tal-injam bi tlett ikmamar (bi studju mingħajr fuklar tal-ħatab) li mbagħad tneħħiet biex tinbena l-ewwel verżjoni tal-Palazz tax-Xitwa. L-ewwel binjiet li tfaċċaw kienu tarzna fl-Istazzjonament tal-Ammirall, Kronstadt (1704-1706) u l-Fortizza ta' San Pietru u San Pawl (1706). Pietru ħa l-familja kollha tiegħu fuq mawra bid-dgħajsa lejn Kronstadt. Wara diversi telfiet, ir-re Pollakk Awgustu II s-Setgħan abdika fl-1706. Ir-re Żvediż Karlu XII b'hekk reġa' xeħet l-attenzjoni tiegħu lejn ir-Russja u invadiha fl-1708. Wara li qasam lejn ir-Russja, Karlu għeleb lil Pietru f'Golovchin f'Lulju. Fil-Battalja ta' Lesnaya, Karlu ġarrab l-ewwel telfa tiegħu wara li Pietru għeleb grupp ta' qawwiet Żvediżi ta' rinfurzar li mmarċjaw minn Riga. Ladarba ġie mċaħħad minn din l-għajnuna, Karlu kien imġiegħel jabbanduna l-avvanz propost tiegħu lejn Moska. Karlu XII rrifjuta li jirtira lejn il-Polonja jew lura lejn l-Iżvezja u minflok invada l-[[Ukrajna]]. Pietru rtira l-armata tiegħu lejn in-Nofsinhar, ta n-nar lill-artijiet li għadda minnhom, u qered kull ma seta' jkun ta' għajnuna għall-Iżvediżi. Imċaħħda mill-provvisti lokali, l-armata Żvediża kellha trażżan l-avvanz tagħha fix-xitwa tal-1708–1709. Fis-sajf tal-1709, l-armata kompliet l-isforzi tagħha biex taħtaf lill-Ukrajna mmexxija mir-Russja, u dawn laħqu l-qofol tagħhom fil-Battalja ta' Poltava fis-27 ta' Ġunju. Il-battalja kienet telfa deċiżiva għall-qawwiet Żvediżi, u temmet il-kampanja militari ta' Karlu fl-Ukrajna u wasslitu biex imur lejn in-Nofsinhar u jfittex refuġju fl-Imperu Ottoman. Ir-Russja kienet għelbet wieħed mill-aqwa militar ta' dak iż-żmien fid-dinja, u r-rebħa biddlet il-fehma li r-Russja ma kinitx kompetenti militarment. Fil-Polonja, Awgustu II reġa' sar ir-re. Pietru sopravvaluta l-appoġġ li kien se jingħata mill-alleati tiegħu fil-Balkani, u attakka lill-Imperu Ottoman, u ta bidu għall-Gwerra bejn ir-Russja u t-Turkija tal-1710. Il-kampanja militari ta' Pietru fl-Imperu Ottoman kienet diżastruża, u fit-Trattat ta' Pruth suċċessiv, Pietru kellu jirritorna l-portijiet tal-Baħar Iswed li kien ħataf fl-1697. Min-naħa l-oħra, is-Sultan keċċa lil Karlu XII. L-Ottomani sejħulu ''Pietru l-Miġnun'' (bit-Tork: ''deli Petro''), minħabba li kien lest jissagrifika għadd kbir ta' suldati mit-truppi tiegħu fil-gwerra. L-armati tat-Tramuntana ta' Pietru ħatfu l-provinċja Żvediża ta' Livonja (in-nofs tat-Tramuntana tal-[[Latvja]] moderna, u n-nofs tan-Nofsinhar tal-[[Estonja]] moderna), u keċċew lill-Iżvediżi 'l barra mill-[[Finlandja]]. Fl-1714, il-flotta Russa rebħet il-Battalja ta' Gangut. Matul il-Korla l-Kbira l-biċċa l-kbira tal-Finlandja ġiet okkupata mill-qawwiet Russi. === Tieni Ambaxxata === F'Jannar 1716, il-Ksar Pietru vvjaġġa fir-reġjun Baltiku biex jiddiskuti n-negozjati għall-paċi u kif seta' jipproteġi r-rotta kummerċjali bil-baħar mill-Iżvediżi. Huwa żar Riga, Königsberg u Danzig. Hemmhekk, in-neputija tiegħu żżewġet lid-Duka ta' Mecklenburg-Schwerin, li miegħu Pietru ried jistabbilixxi alleanza. Huwa kiseb l-assistenza ta' Federiku William I tal-Prussja li assedja l-fortizza qawwija Żvediża ta' [[Wismar]]. F'Altona huwa ltaqa' mad-diplomatiċi Daniżi li appoġġaw lill-Prussja. Huwa baħħar lejn [[Kopenħagen|Copenhagen]] u mexxa flotta mal-alleati. F'Wittenberg huwa żar il-monasteru fejn kien jgħix [[Luteru]]. F'Mejju baqa' sejjer lejn Bad Pyrmont, u minħabba l-problemi fiżiċi tiegħu qagħad f'dak l-ispa. Hemmhekk huwa ltaqa' mal-ġenju Leibniz u Blumentrost u Areskine akkumpanjawh. Fil-bidu ta' Diċembru Pietru wasal f'Amsterdam u żar lil Nicolaas Witsen. Huwa xtara l-kollezzjoni anatomika u tal-ħxejjex mediċinali ta' Frederik Ruysch, Levinus Vincent u Albertus Seba. Huwa kiseb bosta pitturi, fost l-oħrajn ta' [[Maria Sibylla Merian]] għall-Kunstkamera tiegħu u "David u Jonathan" ta' [[Rembrandt]] għall-Palazz ta' Peterhof. Huwa żar villa ta' ħabib tiegħu qrib Nigtevecht, manifattur tal-ħarir u impjant tal-produzzjoni tal-karta. Fil-ħamsa ta' filgħodu huwa ntlaqa' minn Herman Boerhaave li wera l-Ġnien Botaniku lil Pietru. F'April 1717 huwa baqa' għaddej bil-vjaġġ tiegħu lejn in-[[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Netherlands]] [[Awstrija|Awstrijaċi]], [[Dunkirk]] u [[Calais]]. F'[[Pariġi]] huwa kiseb bosta kotba, talab li jsir membru tal-Academie de Sciences (Akkademja tax-Xjenzi) u żar il-parlament, is-Sorbonne u Madame Maintenon. Mill-Palazz ta' Saint-Cloud, il-Gran Trianon f'[[Versailles]], [[Palazz ta' Fontainebleau|Fontainebleau]], u [[Spa]], huwa vvjaġġa lejn [[Maastricht]], li dak iż-żmien kienet waħda mill-iżjed fortizzi importanti fl-Ewropa. Huwa mar lura Amsterdam biex jattendi għal Trattat ma' Franza u l-Prussja fil-15 ta' Awwissu. Kiseb suċċess diplomatika, u l-prestiġju internazzjonali tiegħu ssaħħaħ. Reġa' żar il-Ġnien Botaniku u telaq mill-belt fil-bidu ta' Settembru 1717, u mar [[Berlin]]. F'Ottubru reġa' lura f'San Pietruburgu u fl-1719 inħolqot il-Gżira tal-Olanda l-Ġdida. Il-flotta navali tal-ksar kienet qawwija biżżejjed tant li r-Russi setgħu jidħlu fl-Iżvezja. Minkejja dan, Karlu XII rrifjuta li jċedi, u baqa' sakemm miet fil-battalja fl-1718 biex il-paċi setgħet tkun fattibbli. Wara l-Battalja ta' Grengam, l-Iżvezja għamlet paċi mas-setgħat kollha ħlief ir-Russja sal-1720. Fl-1721, it-Trattat ta' Nystad temm il-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana. Ir-Russja kisbet l-Ingrija, l-Estonja, il-Livonja, u parti sostanzjali tal-Karelja. Min-naħa l-oħra, ir-Russja ħallset żewġ miljun Riksdaler u ċediet il-biċċa l-kbira tal-Finlandja. === Iktar 'il quddiem === In 1717, Alexander Bekovich-Cherkassky led the first Russian military expedition into Central Asia against the Khanate of Khiva. The expedition ended in complete disaster when the entire expeditionary force was slaughtered. To the end of 1717, the preparatory phase of administrative reform in Russia was completed. After 1718, Peter established collegiums in place of the old central agencies of government, including foreign affairs, war, navy, expense, income, justice, and inspection. Later others were added, to regulate mining and industry. Each college consisted of a president, a vice-president, a number of councilors and assessors, and a procurator. Some foreigners were included in various colleges but not as president. Pavel Yaguzhinsky was entrusted with the observation of the "soonest possible establishment of colleges by their presidents". Peter did not have enough loyal, talented or educated persons to put in full charge of the various departments. Peter preferred to rely on groups of individuals who would keep check on one another. Decisions depended on the majority vote. In 1718, Pietru Investigated why the formerly Swedish province of Livonia was so orderly. He discovered that the Swedes spent as much administering Livonia (300 times smaller than his empire) as he spent on the entire Russian bureaucracy. He was forced to dismantle the province's government. In June 1721 he had Gagarin, the governor of Siberia, executed. Peter's last years were marked by further reform in Russia. On 2 November 1721 (N.S.), soon after peace was made with Sweden, he was officially proclaimed ''Emperor of All Russia''. The coronation of the Russian monarch took place in Uspensky Cathedral, Moscow. Some proposed that he take the title ''Emperor of the East'', but he refused. Gavrila Golovkin, the State Chancellor, was the first to add "the Great, Father of His Country, Emperor of All the Russias" to Peter's traditional title of tsar following a speech by Theophan Prokopovich in 1721. Peter's imperial title was recognized by Augustus II of Poland, Frederick William I of Prussia, and Frederick I of Sweden, but not by the other European monarchs. In the minds of many, the word ''emperor'' connoted superiority or pre-eminence over kings. Several rulers feared that Peter would claim authority over them, just as the Holy Roman Emperor had claimed suzerainty over all Christian nations.<blockquote>By the grace of God, the most excellent and great sovereign emperor Pyotr Alekseevich the ruler of all the Russias: of Moscow, of Kiev, of Vladimir, of Novgorod, Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan and Tsar of Siberia, sovereign of Pskov, great prince of Smolensk, of Tver, of Yugorsk, of Perm, of Vyatka, of Bulgaria and others, sovereign and great prince of the Novgorod Lower lands, of Chernigov, of Ryazan, of Rostov, of Yaroslavl, of Belozersk, of Udora, of Kondia and the sovereign of all the northern lands, and the sovereign of the Iverian lands, of the Kartlian and Georgian Kings, of the Kabardin lands, of the Circassian and Mountain princes and many other states and lands western and eastern here and there and the successor and sovereign and ruler.</blockquote>In 1722, Pietru Issued a Decree on the succession to the throne, in which he abolished the ancient custom of transferring the throne to direct descendants in the male line (as he had no son). The decree was so unusual for Russian society that it was necessary to explain it. Peter created a new order of precedence for landowners known as the Table of Ranks. Formerly, precedence had been determined by birth. To deprive the Boyars of their high positions, Peter directed that precedence should be determined by merit and service to the Emperor. The Table of Ranks continued to remain in effect until the Russian monarchy was overthrown in 1917. In 1722, John Bell accompanied Peter the Great on a military expedition to the city of Derbent near the Caspian Sea. The once powerful Persian Safavid Empire to the south was in deep decline. Taking advantage of the profitable situation, Peter launched the Russo-Persian War of 1722–1723, otherwise known as "The Persian Expedition of Peter the Great", which drastically increased Russian influence for the first time in the Caucasus and Caspian Sea region, and prevented the Ottoman Empire from making territorial gains in the region. After considerable success and the capture of many provinces and cities in the Caucasus and northern mainland Persia, the Safavids were forced to hand over territory to Russia, comprising Derbent, Shirvan, Gilan, Mazandaran, Baku, and Astrabad. Within twelve years all the territories were ceded back to Persia, now led by the charismatic military genius Nader Shah, as part of the Treaty of Resht, the Treaty of Ganja, and as the result of a Russo-Persian alliance against the Ottoman Empire, which was the common enemy of both. Peter changed the system of direct taxation. He abolished the land tax and household tax and replaced them with a poll tax. The taxes on land and on households were payable only by individuals who owned property or maintained families. The new head taxes were payable by serfs and paupers. Peter began construction of the Monplaisir Palace based on his own sketches. He ordered to purchase 2,000 lime trees which were shipped to St Petersburg. In 1725, the construction of Peterhof, a palace near Saint Petersburg, was completed. Peterhof was a grand residence, becoming known as the "Russian Versailles". === Mard u mewt === In the winter of 1723, Peter, whose overall health was never robust, began having problems with his urinary tract and bladder. In the summer of 1724, a team of doctors performed surgery releasing upwards of four pounds of blocked urine. Peter remained bedridden until late autumn. In the first week of October, restless and certain he was cured, Peter began a lengthy inspection tour of various projects. Rastrelli finished his monument to Pietru I (St. Michael's Castle). According to legend, in November, at Lakhta along the Gulf of Finland to inspect some ironworks, Peter saw a group of soldiers drowning near shore and, wading out into near-waist deep water, came to their rescue. This icy water rescue is said to have exacerbated Peter's bladder problems and caused his death. The story, however, has been viewed with skepticism by some historians, pointing out that the German chronicler de:Jacob von Staehlin is the only source for the story. In early January 1725, Peter was struck once again with uremia or azotemia. Legend has it that before lapsing into unconsciousness Peter asked for a paper and pen and scrawled an unfinished note that read: ''"Leave all to ..."'' and then, exhausted by the effort, asked for his daughter Anna to be summoned. Peter died between four and five in the morning 8 February. An autopsy revealed his bladder to be infected with gangrene. He was fifty-two years, seven months old when he died, having reigned forty-two years. He is interred in Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral. After his death, students came to the Military College with a request to "leave science" under the pretext of "unconsciousness and incomprehensibility." == Reliġjon == Peter had a great interest in dissenters and visited gatherings of Quakers and Mennonites. He did not believe in miracles and founded The All-Joking, All-Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters, an organization that mocked the Orthodox and Catholic Church, when he was eighteen. In January 1695, Peter refused to partake in a traditional Russian Orthodox Epiphany Ceremony, and would often schedule events for The All-Joking, All-Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters to directly conflict with the Church. He often used the nickname ''Pakhom Mikhailov'' (Russian: Пахом Михайлов) among the ministers of religion who made up his relatively close circle of long-term drinking companions. Peter was brought up in the Russian Orthodox faith, but he had low regard for the Church hierarchy, which he kept under tight governmental control. The traditional leader of the Church was the Patriarch of Moscow. In 1700, when the office fell vacant, Peter refused to name a replacement, allowing the patriarch's coadjutor (or deputy) to discharge the duties of the office. Peter could not tolerate the patriarch exercising power superior to the tsar, as indeed had happened in the case of Philaret (1619–1633) and Nikon (1652–66). The Alexander Nevsky Lavra was constructed between 1710–1712; Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral between 1712–1733. In 1716 he invited Theophan Prokopovich, a pietist and astronomer, to come to the capital. The ''Ecclesiastical Regulations'' of 1721 are based on the ideas of August Hermann Francke. The Church reform of Peter the Great therefore abolished the patriarchate, replacing it with a Holy Synod that was under the control of a Procurator. In 1721, Peter followed the advice of Prokopovich in designing the Holy Synod as a council of ten clergymen. For leadership in the Church, Peter turned increasingly to Ukrainians, who were more open to reform, but were not well loved by the Russian clergy. Pietru Implemented a law that stipulated that no Russian man could join a monastery before the age of fifty. He felt that too many able Russian men were being wasted on clerical work when they could be joining his new and improved army. == Żwiġijiet u familja == Peter the Great had two wives, with whom he had fifteen children, three of whom survived to adulthood. Peter's mother selected his first wife, Eudoxia Lopukhina, when he was only 16. This was consistent with previous Romanov tradition by choosing a daughter of a minor noble. This was done to prevent fighting between the stronger noble houses and to bring fresh blood into the family. Upon his return from his European tour in 1698, Peter sought to end his unhappy marriage. He divorced the tsaritsa and forced her to join a convent. She had borne him three children, although only one, Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia, survived past his childhood. Menshikov introduced him to Marta Helena Skowrońska, the daughter of a Polish-Lithuanian peasant, and took her as a mistress some time between 1702 and 1704. Marta converted to the Russian Orthodox Church and was given the name Catherine. Though no record exists, Catherine and Peter married secretly between 23 October and 1 December 1707 in St. Petersburg. Peter valued Catherine and married officially, at Saint Isaac's Cathedral on 19 February 1712. In 1718, his son Alexei Petrovich was locked up in the Peter and Paul fortress, whom he regarded as the rebellious Absalom. He was suspected of being involved in a plot to overthrow the Emperor. Alexei was tried and confessed under torture during questioning conducted by a secular court (count Tolstoy). He was convicted and sentenced to be executed. The sentence of high treason could only be carried out with Peter's signed authorization, and Alexei died in prison, as Peter hesitated before making the decision. Alexei's death most likely resulted from injuries suffered during his torture. Alexei's mother Eudoxia was punished. She was dragged from her home, tried on false charges of adultery, publicly flogged, and confined in monasteries while being forbidden to be talked to. ^{[''dubious – discuss'']} In 1724, Peter had his second wife, Catherine, crowned as Empress, although he remained Russia's actual ruler. === Ulied === Mingħad iż-żewġ nisa tiegħu fiż-żwieġ kellu 15-il wild: tlieta mingħand Eudoxia u tnax mingħand Katerina. Dawn kienu jinkludu erba' subien imsejħa ''Pavel'' u tliet subien imsejħa ''Pietru'', li kollha kemm huma mietu meta kienu għadhom trabi. Tlieta biss minn uliedu baqgħu ħajjin sa ma saru adulti. Huwa kellu tliet neputijiet biss: il-Ksar Pietru II u l-Gran Dukessa Natalia mingħand Alexei u l-Ksar Pietru III mingħand Anna. {| class="wikitable" !Isem !Twelid !Mewt !Noti |- | colspan="4" |'''''Mingħand Eudoxia Lopukhina''''' |- |Alexei Petrovich, Ksarevich tar-Russja |18 ta' Frar 1690 |26 ta' Ġunju 1718, età ta' 28 sena |Iżżewweġ fl-1711 lil Charlotte Christine ta' Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel; ma' Pietru II tar-Russja |- |Alexander Petrovich |13 ta' Ottubru 1691 |14 ta' Mejju 1692, età ta' 7 xhur | |- |Pavel Petrovich |1693 |1693 | |- | colspan="4" |'''''Mingħand Katerina I''''' |- |Pietru Petrovich |xitwa tal-1704 |1707 |Twieled u miet qabel iż-żwieġ uffiċjali tal-ġenituri tiegħu |- |Paul Petrovich |Ottubru 1705 |1707 |Twieled u miet qabel iż-żwieġ uffiċjali tal-ġenituri tiegħu |- |Katerina Petrovna |7 ta' Frar 1707 |7 ta' Awwissu 1708 |Twieled u miet qabel iż-żwieġ uffiċjali tal-ġenituri tiegħu |- |Anna Petrovna |27 ta' Jannar 1708 |15 ta' Mejju 1728 |Iżżewġet fl-1725 lil Karl Friedrich, id-Duka ta' Holstein-Gottorp; weldet lil Pietru III tar-Russja. |- |Elizaveta Petrovna, li mbagħad saret l-Imperatriċi Elizaveta Petrovna |29 ta' Diċembru 1709 |5 ta' Jannar 1762 |Jingħad li żżewġet fl-1742 lil Alexei Razumovsky; bla tfal |- |Maria Natalia Petrovna |20 ta' Marzu 1713 |17 ta' Mejju 1715 |twieldet f'Riga |- |Margarita Petrovna |19 ta' Settembru 1714 |7 ta' Ġunju 1715 | |- |Pietru Petrovich |9 ta' Novembru 1715 |6 ta' Mejju 1719 | |- |Pavel Petrovich |13 ta' Jannar 1717 |14 ta' Jannar 1717 |twieled f'Wesel |- |Natalia Petrovna |31 ta' Awwissu 1718 |15 ta' Marzu 1725 | |- |Pietru Petrovich |7 ta' Ottubru 1723 |7 ta' Ottubru 1723 | |- |Pavel Petrovich |1724 |1724 | |} === Namrati u tfal illeġittimi === * Anna Mons, mill-1691 (jew mill-1692) sal-1704; * Letitia Cross fl-1698; * is-Sinjura Mary Hamilton ** Korriet (1715) ** Wild mingħajr isem (1717–1718?); * il-Prinċipessa Maria Dmitrievna Cantemirovna tal-Moldavja, bint Dimitrie Cantemir ** Iben mingħajr isem (1722–1723?). == Legat == Peter's legacy has always been a major concern of Russian intellectuals. Pietru Is a more complex character than he is sometimes given credit for. Some believe Peter's reforms divided the country socially and weakened it spiritually. Riasanovsky points to a "paradoxical dichotomy" in the black and white images such as God/Antichrist, educator/ignoramus, architect of Russia's greatness/destroyer of national culture, father of his country/scourge of the common man. For Old Believers he was the Antichrist, because of the calendar changes and poll tax. Peter compared himself with King David or Noah with a divine mission. At his funeral Prokopovich compared him with Moses and Solomon. Voltaire's 1759 biography gave 18th-century Russians a man of the Enlightenment, while Alexander Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" poem of 1833 gave a powerful romantic image of a creator-god. Slavophiles in mid-19th century deplored Peter's westernization of Russia. Western writers and political analysts recounted "The Testimony" or secret will of Peter the Great. It supposedly revealed his grand evil plot for Russia to control the world via conquest of Constantinople, Afghanistan and India. It was a forgery made in Paris at Napoleon's command when he started the invasion of Russia in 1812. Nevertheless, it is still quoted in foreign policy circles. The Communists executed the last Romanovs, and their historians such as Mikhail Pokrovsky presented strongly negative views of the entire dynasty. Stalin however admired how Peter strengthened the state, and wartime, diplomacy, industry, higher education, and government administration. Stalin wrote in 1928, "when Peter the Great, who had to deal with more developed countries in the West, feverishly built works in factories for supplying the army and strengthening the country's defenses, this was an original attempt to leap out of the framework of backwardness." As a result, Soviet historiography emphasizes both the positive achievement and the negative factor of oppressing the common people. After the fall of Communism in 1991, scholars and the general public in Russia and the West gave fresh attention to Peter and his role in Russian history. His reign is now seen as the decisive formative event in the Russian imperial past. Many new ideas have merged, such as whether he strengthened the autocratic state or whether the tsarist regime was not statist enough given its small bureaucracy. Modernization models have become contested ground. He initiated a wide range of economic, social, political, administrative, educational and military reforms which ended the dominance of traditionalism and religion in Russia and initiated its westernization. His efforts included secularization of education, organization of administration for effective governance, enhanced use of technology, establishing an industrial economy, modernization of the army and establishment of a strong navy. Historian Y. Vodarsky said in 1993 that Peter, "did not lead the country on the path of accelerated economic, political and social development, did not force it to 'achieve a leap' through several stages.... On the contrary, these actions to the greatest degree put a brake on Russia's progress and created conditions for holding it back for one and a half centuries!" The autocratic powers that Stalin admired appeared as a liability to Evgeny Anisimov, who complained that Peter was, "the creator of the administrative command system and the true ancestor of Stalin." In the period from 1678 to 1710, however, the population grew 2 times. According to ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', "He did not completely bridge the gulf between Russia and the Western countries, but he achieved considerable progress in development of the national economy and trade, education, science and culture, and foreign policy. Russia became a great power, without whose concurrence no important European problem could thenceforth be settled. His internal reforms achieved progress to an extent that no earlier innovator could have envisaged." While the cultural turn in historiography has downplayed diplomatic, economic and constitutional issues, new cultural roles have been found for Peter, for example in architecture (Petrine Baroque) and dress. James Cracraft argues: : The Petrine revolution in Russia—subsuming in this phrase the many military, naval, governmental, educational, architectural, linguistic, and other internal reforms enacted by Peter's regime to promote Russia's rise as a major European power—was essentially a cultural revolution, one that profoundly impacted both the basic constitution of the Russian Empire and, perforce, its subsequent development. The iconic representations of dead saints typical for centuries of Russian visual culture suddenly give way to naturalistic portraiture. == Fil-kultura popolari == Pietru ssemma f'bosta ġrajjiet tal-istorja, rumanzi, reċti, films, monumenti u pitturi. Dawn jinkludu l-poeżiji ''Ir-Rikkieb tal-Bronż'', ''Poltava'' u r-rumanz mhux komplut ''L-Għarbi Iberiku ta' Pietru l-Kbir'', kollha ta' [[Alexander Pushkin]]. L-ewwel waħda kienet dwar statwa ekwestri li nbniet f'ġieħ Pietru. Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy kiteb rumanz storiku bijografiku dwaru, imsejjaħ ''Pietru I'', fis-snin 30 tas-seklu 20. * Il-film silenzjuż Ġermaniż tal-1922 ''Pietru l-Kbir'' tar-reġista Dimitri Buchowetzki u tal-protagonista Emil Jannings li ħadimha ta' Pietru. * Fl-1929 ittellgħet ir-reċta ta' A.N. Tolstoy, fejn skont il-linja tal-partit Pietru ntwera bħala tirann li "għakkes lil kulħadd u lil kollox bħallikieku kien ippossedut mix-xjaten, nissel il-biża', u sallab kemm lill-ibnu kif ukoll lill-pajjiżu". * Il-film Sovjetiku tal-1937–1938 ''Pietru l-Kbir''. * Il-film tal-1976 ''How Czar Peter the Great Married Off His Moor'', bil-protagonista Aleksey Petrenko li ħadimha ta' Pietru, u Vladimir Vysotsky li ħadimha ta' Abram Petrovich Gannibal, juri t-tentattiv ta' Pietru li jibni l-Flotta Baltika. * Jan Niklas u Maximilian Schell ħadmuha ta' Pietru fil-minisensiela tal-NBC tal-1986 ''Pietru l-Kbir''. * Il-film tal-2007 ''The Sovereign's Servant'' (Il-Qaddej tas-Sovran) juri l-lat brutali ta' Pietru matul il-kampanji militari tiegħu. * Karattru bbażat fuq Pietru għandu rwol ewlieni f'''The Age of Unreason'', sensiela ta' erba' rumanzi storiċi differenti miktubin mill-awtur Amerikan tal-fantaxjenza u tal-fantasija Gregory Keyes. * Pietru huwa wieħed minn bosta karattri sekondarji f'''Baroque Cycle'' (Ċiklu Barokk) ta' Neal Stephenson – u jitfaċċa b'mod prinċipali fit-tielet rumanz, ''The System of the World'' (Is-Sistema tad-Dinja). * Isaac Rouse jirrakkonta lil Pietru fuq BBC Radio 4 bħala tifel, Will Howard bħala adolexxenti u Elliot Cowan bħala adult fir-reċti ta' fuq ir-radju msejħa ''Peter the Great: The Gamblers'' u ''Peter the Great: The Queen of Spades'', miktubin minn Mike Walker u li kienu l-aħħar żewġ reċti fl-ewwel sensiela ta' ''Tsar''. Ir-reċti xxandru fil-25 ta' Settembru u fit-2 ta' Ottubru 2016. * Vers fil-"Kanzunetta tax-Xorb tal-Inġiniera" jsemmi lil Pietru l-Kbir. * Jason Isaacs ħadimha ta' Pietru fis-sensiela antistorika Hulu tal-2020,''The Great''. * Pietru jintwera bħala l-mexxej taċ-ċivilizzazzjoni Russa fil-logħob tal-kompjuter ''Sid Meier's Civilization VI''. * Ivan Kolesnikov ħadimha ta' Pietru fil-film dokumentarju storiku Russu tal-2022, ''Pietru I: L-Aħħar Ksar u l-Ewwel Imperatur''. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Russja]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1672]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-1725]] oas1mrs2kzamqylp2bnolpv2516qw1w