Wikipedija mtwiki https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il-Pa%C4%A1na_prin%C4%8Bipali MediaWiki 1.45.0-wmf.7 first-letter Medja Speċjali Diskussjoni Utent Diskussjoni utent Wikipedija Diskussjoni Wikipedija Stampa Diskussjoni stampa MediaWiki Diskussjoni MediaWiki Mudell Diskussjoni mudell Għajnuna Diskussjoni għajnuna Kategorija Diskussjoni kategorija Portal Diskussjoni portal TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 2 25623 323824 323820 2025-06-30T16:49:45Z Trigcly 17859 aġġornament 323824 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Artikli ġodda (1834)''' == === <u>'''A'''</u> === * [[Aapravasi Ghat]] * [[Aasivissuit-Nipisat: Territorju tal-Kaċċa tal-Inuit bejn is-Silġ u l-Baħar]] * [[Abbazija ta' Corvey]] * [[Abbazija ta' Fontenay]] * [[Abbazija ta' Lorsch]] * [[Abbazija ta' Pannonhalma]] *[[Abbazija ta' Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe]] *[[Abbazija ta' Sankt Gallen]] *[[Abbazija ta’ Vézelay|Abbazija ta' Vezelay]] *[[Abu al-Fida]] *[[Abu Mena]] *[[Abu Simbel]] *[[Afag Bashirgyzy]] *[[Aflaj tal-Oman]] *[[Afrodisja]] *[[Agadez]] *[[Agostino Carracci]] *[[Agostino Matrenza]] *[[Ahwar tan-Nofsinhar tal-Iraq]] *[[Aigai]] *[[Aït Benhaddou]] *[[Akkwedott ta' Padre Tembleque]] *[[Akkwedott ta' Pontcysyllte]] *[[Akshata Murthy]] *[[Aksum]] *[[Al Qal'a ta' Beni Hammad]] *[[Al Zubarah]] *[[Al-Maghtas]] *[[Alatyr]] *[[Albéric Magnard]] *[[Alberobello]] *[[Albi]] *[[Alcalá de Henares]] *[[Alcide d'Orbigny]] *[[Aleksandr Yakovlevich Khinchin]] *[[Alenush Terian]] *[[Aleppo]] *[[Alessandro Scarlatti]] *[[Alessandro Volta]] *[[Alexander Pushkin]] *[[Alexander Wolszczan]] *[[Aleksandra Smiljanić]] *[[Alfred Hermann Fried]] *[[Alfred Nobel]] *[[Alfredo Casella]] *[[Alois Dryák]] *[[Alto Douro]] *[[Amazigh Marokkin Standard]] *[[Ambra Sabatini]] *[[Amerigo Vespucci]] *[[Amerigo Vespucci (vapur għoli)|''Amerigo Vespucci'' (vapur għoli)]] * [[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka t’Isfel]] * [[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta’ Fuq]] *[[Amilcare Ponchielli]] *[[Anastasia Golovina]] *[[Anders Jonas Ångström]] *[[André Citroën]] *[[André Weil]] *[[Anfiteatru ta' El Jem]] *[[Angelina Mango]] * [[Angkor Wat]] * [[Angra do Heroísmo]] * [[Ani]] * [[Anjar]] * [[Anna Brigadere]] *[[Anna Seghers]] *[[Anna Sychravová]] *[[Anne-Sophie Mutter]] *[[Anse aux Meadows]] * [[Antartika]] * [[Anticosti]] *[[Antoine de Jussieu]] *[[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]] *[[Antoinette Miggiani]] *[[Anton Diabelli]] *[[Anuradhapura]] *[[Aplogruppi Y-DNA fit-tribujiet tal-Każakistan]] *[[Aquileia]] *[[Arċipelagu ta' Revillagigedo]] *[[Arċipelagu ta' Vega]] *[[Arena Tettonika Żvizzera ta' Sardona]] *[[Arequipa]] *[[Arġentier]] *[[Arġentier (tad-deheb)]] *[[Ark Ġeodetiku ta’ Struve|Ark Ġeodetiku ta' Struve]] *[[Arkata Trijonfali ta' Orange]] *[[Arkeoloġija]] *[[Arkitett]] *[[Arkitettura Mudéjar ta' Aragona]] *[[Arkitettura tas-Seklu 20 ta' Frank Lloyd Wright]] *[[Arles]] *[[Armata tat-Terrakotta]] *[[Arslantepe]] *[[Art tal-Inċens]] *[[Arti Paleolitika fl-Għerien tat-Tramuntana ta' Spanja]] *[[Artiġjan]] *[[Artijiet Għoljin Ċentrali tas-Sri Lanka]] *[[As-Salt]] *[[Asmara]] * [[Assisi]] * [[Assi Ċentrali ta' Beijing]] * [[Assur]] *[[Asuman Baytop]] *[[Athos]] *[[Attrazzjonijiet Ewlenin tar-Renju Antik ta' Saba f'Marib]] *[[Auschwitz]] *[[Austin Camilleri]] *[[Ávila]] *[[Avukat]] === '''<u>B</u>''' === * [[Baalbek]] * [[Babilonja]] * [[Baċir tal-Lag ta' Uvs]] * [[Baċir tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Nord-Pas de Calais]] * [[Baeza]] * [[Bagan]] * [[Baħar l-Abjad]] * [[Baħar l-Iswed]] *[[Baħar ta' Wadden]] *[[Baħar tar-Ramel tan-Namibja]] *[[Bajja ta' Dungonab]] *[[Bajja ta' Ha Long]] *[[Bajja ta' Tallinn]] *[[Bajja tal-Klieb il-Baħar]] *[[Bajjad]] *[[Baleron]] *[[Bamberg]] *[[Ban Chiang]] *[[Banská Štiavnica]] *[[Barbier]] *[[Bardejov]] *[[Barokk]] *[[Bartolomé de Escobedo]] *[[Bath, Somerset]] *[[Batlejka]] *[[Battaljun Mediku tal-Ospedalieri]] *[[Battir]] *[[Bauhaus u s-Siti tal-Moviment f'Weimar, f'Dessau u f'Bernau]] *[[Baxkortostan]] *[[Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta’ Poreč|Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta' Poreč]] *[[Bażilika ta' San Eġidju]] *[[Beatriz Carrillo]] *[[Beemster]] *[[Béguinage]] *[[BelKA]] *[[Belt Kolonjali ta' Santo Domingo]] *[[Belt Projbita]] *[[Belt Storika tal-Kajr]] *[[Belt Storika tal-Moskej ta' Bagerhat]] *[[Belt ta' Guanajuato]] *[[Belt ta' New York]] *[[Belt ta' Vicenza u l-Vilel ta' Palladio fil-Veneto|Belt ta' Viċenza u l-Vilel ta' Palladio fil-Veneto]] *[[Belt Universitarja ta' Caracas]] *[[Bennej]] *[[Bergpark Wilhelmshöhe]] *[[Bernard Grech]] *[[Betlem]] *[[Betti Alver]] *[[Burkhan Khaldun]] *[[Bidwi]] *[[Bieb il-Belt]] *[[Binjiet Gotiċi Vittorjani u tal-Art Deco ta' Mumbai]] *[[Binjiet Tradizzjonali tal-Asante]] *[[Blat Imkenni ta' Bhimbetka]] *[[Bliet Antiki tal-Pyu]] *[[Bliet Kapitali u Oqbra tar-Renju Antik ta' Koguryo]] *[[Bliet Storiċi tal-Istrett ta' Malakka]] *[[Bobby Charlton]] *[[Bolgar]] *[[Bordeaux]] *[[Borobudur]] *[[Borża ta' Malta]] *[[Bosra]] *[[Bridgetown]] *[[Brook Taylor]] *[[Brú na Bóinne]] *[[Bruno Pizzul]] *[[Bryggen]] *[[Bucha]] *[[Buddha Ġgantesk ta' Leshan]] *[[Bukhara]] *[[Burt Bacharach]] *[[Buskett]] *[[Butrint]] *[[Byblos]] === '''<u>Ċ/C</u>''' === * [[Cáceres (Spanja)]] * [[Calakmul]] * [[Camagüey]] * [[Camino Real de Tierra Adentro]] * [[Campeche]] * [[Canal du Midi]] * [[Canaletto]] * [[Caral]] * [[Carcassonne]] *[[Carl Bosch]] *[[Carl David Anderson]] *[[Carla Fracci]] *[[Carlo Collodi]] *[[Caroline Mikkelsen]] *[[Casco Viejo, il-Panama]] *[[Castel del Monte, Puglia]] *[[Çatalhöyük]] *[[Causses u Cévennes]] *[[Ċensu Apap]] *[[Ċentru Kulturali ta' Heydar Aliyev]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Lijiang]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Macao]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Rauma]] *[[Český Krumlov]] *[[Ċetta Chevalier]] *[[Chaîne des Puys]] *[[Chan Chan]] *[[Changdeokgung]] *[[Chankillo]] *[[Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin]] *[[Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo]] *[[Charles Nicolle]] *[[Charles Richter]] *[[Charles Xuereb]] *[[Charlie Watts]] *[[Chavín]] *[[Chersonesus Tawrika]] *[[Chichén Itzá]] *[[Chilehaus]] *[[Choirokoitia]] *[[Christiansfeld]] *[[Christopher Polhem]] *[[Cidade Velha]] *[[Cienfuegos]] *[[Ċikli ta' affreski tas-seklu 14 ta' Padova]] *[[Cinque Terre]] *[[Ċirkewwa]] *[[Ċittadella Imperjali ta' Thăng Long]] *[[Ċittadella ta' Erbil]] *[[Ċittadella tad-Dinastija Hồ]] *[[Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle]] *[[Climats u Terroirs ta' Bourgogne]] *[[Colonia del Sacramento]] *[[Copan]] *[[Córdoba, Spanja]] *[[Coro]] *[[Crespi d'Adda]] *[[Ċrieki tal-Ġebel tas-Senegambja]] *[[Cristofano Allori]] *[[Cuenca, l-Ekwador]] *[[Cuenca (Spanja)]] *[[Cumalıkızık]] *[[Curzio Maltese]] *[[Cusco]] *[[Cynthia Turner]] *[[Cyrene]] === '''<u>D</u>''' === * [[Daiga Mieriņa]] * [[Damasku]] * [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]] * [[Danxia]] *[[Dar ta’ Rietveld Schröder|Dar ta' Rietveld Schröder]] *[[Dar tal-Kimeri]] *[[Dar tat-Twelid ta' Martin Luteru]] *[[Dar u Studjo ta' Luis Barragán]] *[[Delos]] *[[Delphi]] *[[Delta ta' Saloum]] *[[Delta ta' Okavango]] *[[Delta tad-Danubju]] *[[Delta tax-xmara Kızılırmak]] *[[Dengfeng]] *[[Dentist]] *[[Denys Shmyhal]] *[[Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu]] *[[Deżert ta' Badain Jaran]] *[[Deżert ta' Lut]] *[[Deżerta tal-isfarġel]] *[[Diana, Prinċipessa ta' Wales]] *[[Diaolou]] *[[Diga ta' Karakaya]] *[[Dikjarazzjoni tal-Indipendenza tal-Ukrajna]] *[[Dimitrana Ivanova]] *[[Distrett ta' At-Turaif]] *[[Dizzjunarju]] *[[Djalett]] *[[Djar Ewlenin ta' Victor Horta fi Brussell]] *[[Djémila]] *[[Djerba]] *[[Dolċier]] *[[Dolmen ta' Menga]] *[[Dolmen ta' Viera]] *[[Dolomiti]] *[[Domenico Allegri]] *[[Domenico Scarlatti]] *[[Domowina]] *[[Donatello]] *[[Dougga]] *[[Draginja Vuksanović-Stanković]] *[[Dubrovnik]] *[[Durmitor]] * [[Dwejra]] === '''<u>E</u>''' === * [[Edgar Preca]] * [[Edward Sexton]] * [[Edinburgu]] * [[Edward de Bono]] * [[Edwin Hubble]] * [[Efesu]] * [[Eise Eisinga]] *[[Ekonomista]] *[[Ekosistema u Relitt tal-Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Lopé-Okanda]] *[[El Escorial]] *[[El Jadida]] *[[El Tajin]] *[[El Torcal]] *[[Eladio Dieste]] *[[Eleonora Jenko Groyer]] *[[Elisha Graves Otis]] *[[Elvas]] *[[Emil Nolde]] *[[Emma Andrijewska]] *[[Emma Muscat]] *[[Ernst Schröder]] *[[Esperantoloġija]] *[[Essaouira]] *[[Estrazzjoni terminoloġika]] *[[Ethel Anderson]] *[[Eugenija Šimkūnaitė]] *[[Eugenio Montale]] *[[Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs]] *[[Evelyn Bonaci]] *[[Évora]] *[[Ewropa tal-Lvant]] === '''<u>F</u>''' === * [[Fabbrika ta' Fagus]] * [[Fabbrika ta' Van Nelle]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Azzar ta' Völklingen]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Ħadid ta' Engelsberg]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Ħarir ta' Tomioka]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Injam u tal-Kartun ta' Verla]] * [[Fabbriki tal-Wied ta' Derwent]] * [[Fanal ta' Cordouan]] * [[Fanjingshan]] * [[Fasil Ghebbi]] * [[Fatehpur Sikri]] * [[Fdalijiet Arkeoloġiċi ta' Moenjodaro]] * [[Fdalijiet ta' Gedi]] * [[Fdalijiet ta' León Viejo]] * [[Fdalijiet ta' Loropéni]] * [[Fdalijiet tal-Vihara Buddista f'Paharpur]] * [[Fehme Agani]] *[[Femminiżmu tar-Rom]] *[[Fenno-Skandinavja]] *[[Fernando Botero]] *[[Ferrara]] *[[Ferruccio Lamborghini]] *[[Festival ta' Sanremo]] *[[Fiera Internazzjonali ta' Rachid Karami f'Tripoli]] *[[Figolla]] *[[Firenze]] *[[Fjord tas-Silġ ta' Ilulissat]] *[[Fjords Norveġiżi tal-Punent]] *[[Flora Martirosian]] *[[Fondoq ta' Ironbridge]] *[[Foresti Antiki u Primordjali tal-Fagu tal-Karpazji u ta' Reġjuni Oħra tal-Ewropa]] *[[Foresti Irkanjani]] *[[Foresti Muntanjużi ta' Odzala-Kokoua]] *[[Foresti Sagri ta' Kaya tal-Mijikenda]] *[[Foresti tas-Siġar tar-Rand ta' Madeira]] *[[Foresti Tropikali ta' Gondwana]] *[[Foresti Tropikali tal-Atsinanana]] *[[Foresti Tropikali u Artijiet Mistagħdra Kolkiċi]] *[[Foresti Verġni ta' Komi]] *[[Formazzjonijiet u Għerien Karstiċi Evaporitiċi tar-Reġjun ta' Emilia Romagna]] *[[Forti l-Aħmar]] * [[Forti ta' Agra]] *[[Forti ta' Bahla]] *[[Forti ta' Galle]] *[[Forti ta' Ġesù]] *[[Forti ta' Rohtas]] *[[Fortifikazzjonijiet fuq in-Naħa tal-Karibew tal-Panama: Portobelo-San Lorenzo]] *[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta’ Kotor|Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Kotor]] *[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Vauban]] *[[Fortijiet fl-Għoljiet ta' Rajasthan]] *[[Fortijiet u Kastelli tal-Ghana]] *[[Fortizza ta' Diyarbakır]] *[[Fortizza ta' Hwaseong]] *[[Fortizza ta' Pirot]] *[[Fortizza ta' San Nikola]] *[[Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna]] *[[Fortizzi ta' Dacia fil-Muntanji Orăștie]] *[[Fortizzi Tondi tal-Vikingi]] *[[Foss ta' Messel]] *[[Fotografu]] *[[Francesco Guardi]] *[[François-Alphonse Forel]] *[[François Couperin]] *[[François Girardon]] *[[Francois Mauriac]] *[[Franco Migliacci]] *[[Franġisk Zahra]] *[[Frank Drake]] *[[Franz Beckenbauer]] *[[Franz Kafka]] *[[Franz Ritter von Hauer]] *[[Franz von Suppé]] *[[Fray Bentos]] *[[Frédéric Bartholdi]] *[[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]] *[[Fritz Albert Lipmann]] * [[Frott]] * [[Fruntieri Rumani Ġermaniċi t'Isfel]] * [[Fruntieri Rumani ta' Dacia]] * [[Fruntieri Rumani tad-Danubju]] * [[Fruntieri tal-Imperu Ruman]] *[[Fuji]] *[[Furnar]] === '''<u>Ġ</u>''' === * [[Ġardinar]] *[[Ġebla ta' Rosetta]] * [[Ġebla tal-Ġeneral]] * [[Ġeoloġija]] * [[Ġeriko tal-Qedem]] * [[Ġerusalemm]] * [[Ġibjun ta' Bovilla]] * [[Ġibjun ta' Kiev]] * [[Ġnien Botaniku ta' Padova]] * [[Ġnien Persjan]] * [[Ġonna Botaniċi Rjali ta' Kew]] * [[Ġonna Botaniċi ta' Singapore]] * [[Ġonna Klassiċi ta' Suzhou]] * [[Ġonna ta' Hevsel]] * [[Ġonna ta' Shalimar]] *[[Ġurnalist]] === '''<u>G</u>''' === * [[Gammelstad]] * [[Gamzigrad]] * [[Gebel Barkal]] * [[Geirangerfjord]] * [[Genova: It-Toroq Ġodda u s-Sistema tal-Palazzi tal-Listi]] *[[Georg Ohm]] *[[Georg von Békésy]] *[[George Gallup]] *[[Georges Bernanos]] *[[Georges J.F. Kohler]] *[[Gerbrand van den Eeckhout]] *[[Getbol, il-Pjanuri tal-Marea tal-Korea t'Isfel]] *[[Ghadamès]] *[[Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola]] *[[Giacomo Zanella]] *[[Giampiero Galeazzi]] *[[Gianni Vella]] *[[Gigi Riva]] *[[Giorgia Meloni]] *[[Giorgio Vasari]] *[[Giosuè Carducci]] *[[Giotto]] *[[Giovanni Arduino]] *[[Giovanni Battista Belzoni]] *[[Giovanni Boccaccio]] *[[Giovanni Paisiello]] *[[Giovanni Papini]] *[[Giulio Natta]] *[[Gjirokastër]] *[[Glossarju]] *[[Göbekli Tepe]] *[[Goffredo Mameli]] *[[Golf ta' California]] *[[Golf ta' Porto]] *[[Gonbad-e Qābus]] *[[Gordion]] *[[Gösta Mittag-Leffler]] *[[Gotiku]] *[[Gran Ordni tar-Re Tomislav]] *[[Grand Pré]] *[[Grand-Bassam]] *[[Grand Place, Brussell]] *[[Graz]] *[[Grazia Deledda]] *[[Greenland]] *[[Gregorio Allegri]] *[[Gremxula ta' Malta]] *[[Grotta ta' Chauvet]] *[[Grotti ta' Longmen]] *[[Grotti ta' Yungang]] *[[Grupp ta' Monumenti ta' Khajuraho]] *[[Guillaume Cornelis van Beverloo]] *[[Guimarães]] *[[Gustave Charpentier]] * [[Gżejjer Eolji]] * [[Gżejjer Falkland]] * [[Gżejjer Galapagos]] * [[Gżejjer Marquesas]] * [[Gżejjer Solovetsky]] * [[Gżejjer Sub-Antartiċi ta' New Zealand]] * [[Gżejjer ta' Amami-Ōshima, ta' Tokunoshima u ta' Iriomote, u t-Tramuntana ta' Okinawa]] * [[Gżejjer tal-Blat]] * [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Aldabra]] * [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Bikini]] * [[Gżejjer tan-Nofsinhar u Ibħra Awstrali Franċiżi]] * [[Gżira Inaċċessibbli]] * [[Gżira Sagra ta' Okinoshima u Siti Assoċjati fir-Reġjun ta' Munakata]] * [[Gżira ta' Cocos]] * [[Gżira ta' Fraser]] * [[Gżira ta' Gorée]] * [[Gżira ta' Henderson]] *[[Gżira ta' Jeju]] *[[Gżira ta' Kunta Kinteh]] *[[Gżira ta' Mozambique]] *[[Gżira ta' Pico]] *[[Gżira ta' Robben]] *[[Gżira ta' Saint-Louis]] *[[Gżira ta' Wrangel]] *[[Gżira tal-Mużewijiet]] === '''<u>GĦ</u>''' === * [[Għajn Tuffieħa]] * [[Għalliem]] *[[Għar Dalam]] *[[Għar ta' Altamira]] *[[Għar ta' Gorham]] *[[Għar ta' Karain]] *[[Għar ta' Optymistychna]] *[[Għar ta' Vjetrenica]] *[[Għar tal-Apokalissi]] *[[Għar tal-Irħam]] *[[Għar tas-Silġ ta' Dobšiná]] *[[Għarb]] *[[Għelieqi Mtarrġa tar-Ross tal-Cordilleras tal-Filippini]] *[[Għerien Karstiċi ta' Aggtelek u tas-Slovakkja]] *[[Għerien ta' Ajanta]] *[[Għerien ta' Elephanta]] *[[Għerien ta' Ellora]] *[[Għerien ta' Mogao]] *[[Għerien ta’ Škocjan|Għerien ta' Škocjan]] *[[Għerien u Arti tal-Era Glaċjali fil-Jura tas-Swabja]] *[[Għid]] *[[Għoljiet, Djar u Kantini ta' Champagne]] *[[Għoljiet Sagri ta' Piemonte u ta' Lombardia]] *[[Għoljiet ta' Donets]] *[[Għoljiet ta' Matobo]] *[[Għoljiet tal-Prosecco ta' Conegliano u Valdobbiadene]] === '''<u>H</u>''' === * [[Hagia Sophia]] * [[Hahoe]] * [[Haley Bugeja]] * [[Halloumi]] * [[Hallstatt]] * [[Hampi]] *[[Hans Geiger]] *[[Hans Memling]] *[[Hans Spemann]] *[[Harar]] *[[Harry Belafonte]] *[[Hatı Çırpan]] *[[Hatra]] *[[Hattusha]] *[[Hawa Mahal]] *[[Hebron]] *[[Hedeby]] *[[Hegmataneh]] *[[Hegra]] *[[Heinrich Hertz]] *[[Helena Kottler Vurnik]] *[[Henri Fantin-Latour]] *[[Henri Frederic Amiel]] *[[Hermannus Contractus]] *[[Hideki Shirakawa]] *[[Hideki Yukawa]] *[[Hildesheim]] *[[Höga Kusten]] *[[Hoh Xil]] *[[Holašovice]] *[[Hollókő]] *[[Hongcun]] *[[Hospicio Cabañas]] *[[Hospital de Sant Pau]] *[[Hovgården]] *[[Howard Carter]] *[[Hryhorii Kvitka-Osnovianenko]] *[[Huangshan]] *[[Hubert de Givenchy]] === '''<u>Ħ</u>''' === * [[Ħaġar ta' Jelling]] *[[Ħajt il-Kbir taċ-Ċina]] *[[Ħitan Rumani ta' Lugo]] *[[Ħsad tal-Perli fil-Bahrain]] === '''<u>I</u>''' === * [[Ibn Battuta]] * [[ICOMOS]] * [[Idolu ta' Shigir]] * [[Idrija]] * [[Il'ja Prigožini]] * [[Impjant Nukleari ta' Zaporizhzhia]] *[[Impjant tal-Ippompjar bl-Istim ta' Wouda]] *[[Impjanti tan-Nitrat tal-Potassju ta' Humberstone u ta' Santa Laura]] *[[Inara Luigas]] *[[Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f’Valcamonica|Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f'Valcamonica]] *[[Independence Hall]] *[[Indiċi]] *[[Industrija tal-lavanja f'Wales]] *[[Ingredjent]] *[[Intaljatur]] *[[Ipoġew ta’ Ħal Saflieni|Ipoġew ta' Ħal Saflieni]] * [[Ipproċessar testwali]] * [[Irdumijiet ta' Bandiagara]] * [[Iremel]] * [[Irħula Antiki ta' Djenné]] * [[Irħula Kbar bi Spa fl-Ewropa]] * [[Irpin]] * [[Irziezet Imżejnin ta' Hälsingland]] *[[Isabella d'Este]] *[[ISBN]] *[[Istmu Kuronjan]] *[[Ivan Turgenev]] *[[Ivrea]] === '''<u>J</u>''' === * [[Jacinto Benavente]] * [[Jaipur]] * [[Jakob Bogdani]] *[[Jantar Mantar, Jaipur]] *[[Jarrod Sammut]] *[[Jean Antoine Houdon]] *[[Jean Dieudonné]] *[[Jean Picard]] *[[Jeddah]] *[[Jodensavanne]] *[[Joggins]] *[[Johann Christian Bach]] *[[Johan Jensen]] *[[John Edward Critien]] *[[John Kendrew]] *[[John Strutt Rayleigh]] *[[Jongmyo]] *[[Jørgen Pedersen Gram]] *[[Josef Hoffman]] *[[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]] *[[Joya de Cerén]] *[[Jože Plečnik]] *[[Jules Pascin]] *[[Julia Malinova]] *[[Julia Sanina]] *[[Júlia Sigmond]] *[[Julio Baghy]] *[[Julius Wagner-Jauregg]] *[[Jum il-Ġifa]] *[[Jum il-Lingwa Erżjana]] *[[Jum l-Ewropa]] *[[Jum Zamenhof]] === '''<u>K</u>''' === * [[Kairouan]] * [[Kaja Kallas]] *[[Kalwaria Zebrzydowska]] *[[Kampnari tal-Belġju u ta' Franza]] *[[Kanal il-Kbir (iċ-Ċina)]] *[[Kanal ta' Rideau]] *[[Kanali ta' Amsterdam]] *[[Kandy]] *[[Kappella]] *[[Karavanseraj Persjani]] *[[Karbalayi Safikhan Karabakhi]] *[[Karl Ferdinand Braun]] *[[Karl Weierstrass]] *[[Karlskrona]] *[[Karlu III]] *[[Kasbah tal-Alġier]] *[[Kaskati ta' Galdelsha]] *[[Kaskati ta' Vitorja]] *[[Kastell ta' Durham]] *[[Kastell ta' Himeji]] *[[Kastell ta’ Kroměříž|Kastell ta' Kroměříž]] *[[Kastell ta' Kronborg]] *[[Kastell ta' Kuressaare]] *[[Kastell ta’ Litomyšl|Kastell ta' Litomyšl]] *[[Kastell ta' Lubart]] *[[Kastell ta’ Malbork|Kastell ta' Malbork]] *[[Kastell ta' Nesvizh]] *[[Kastell ta' Paphos]] *[[Kastell ta' San Pedro de la Roca]] *[[Kastell ta' Spiš]] *[[Kastell ta' Wartburg]] *[[Kastell ta' Zerzevan]] *[[Kastelli ta' Augustusburg u Falkenlust fi Brühl]] *[[Kastelli ta' Bellinzona]] *[[Kastelli u Swar tal-Irħula tar-Re Dwardu fi Gwynedd]] *[[Katarina Vitale]] * [[Katidral]] *[[Katidral ta' Aachen]] *[[Katidral ta' Amiens]] *[[Katidral ta' Bourges]] *[[Katidral ta' Burgos]] *[[Katidral ta' Canterbury]] *[[Katidral ta' Chartres]] *[[Katidral ta' Köln]] *[[Katidral ta' León, Nikaragwa]] *[[Katidral ta' Naumburg]] *[[Katidral ta' Reims]] *[[Katidral ta' Roskilde]] *[[Katidral ta' Santa Sofija (Kiev)]] *[[Katidral ta’ Šibenik|Katidral ta' Šibenik]] *[[Katidral ta' Speyer]] *[[Katidral ta' Tournai]] *[[Katidral ta' Zvartnots]] *[[Katidral tat-Trasfigurazzjoni, Dnipro]] *[[Katina Muntanjuża ta' Ennedi]] *[[Katina Muntanjuża ta’ Meskheti]] *[[Katsiaryna Barysevich]] *[[Kauksi Ülle]] *[[Kaunas]] *[[Kavallier ta' Madara]] * [[Kavallier ta’ San Ġakbu|Kavallier ta' San Ġakbu]] * [[Kawkasu tal-Punent]] *[[Kelma]] *[[Kerkuane]] *[[Kernavė]] *[[Kewkbet is-Safar]] *[[Khami]] *[[Khinalug]] *[[Khiva]] *[[Khor Rori]] *[[Kinderdijk]] *[[Kirurgu]] *[[Kizhi Pogost]] *[[Kladruby nad Labem]] * [[Klima ta' Malta]] * [[Klondike]] * [[Kluane / Wrangell–St. Elias / Bajja tal-Glaċieri / Tatshenshini-Alsek]] * [[Knarik Vardanyan]] * [[Knejjes Barokki tal-Filippini]] * [[Knejjes Imħaffrin fil-Blat ta' Ivanovo]] * [[Knejjes Imħaffrin fil-Blat ta' Lalibela]] *[[Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta’ Troodos|Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta' Troodos]] *[[Knejjes Rumaneski Katalani tal-Vall de Boí]] *[[Knejjes ta' Chiloé]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam ta' Maramureș]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam tal-Karpazji Slovakki]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam tan-Nofsinhar ta’ Małopolskie]] *[[Knejjes tal-Iskola tal-Arkitettura ta' Pskov]] *[[Knejjes tal-Moldavja]] *[[Knejjes tal-Paċi]] *[[Knejjes u Kunventi ta' Goa]] *[[Knisja Antika ta' Petäjävesi]] *[[Knisja ta' Atlántida]] *[[Knisja ta' Boyana]] *[[Knisja ta' San Ġwann f'Kaneo]] *[[Knisja ta' San Nikola tas-Saqaf]] *[[Knisja ta' Santa Margerita]] *[[Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji (Milan)|Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji, Milan]] *[[Knisja tal-Injam ta' Urnes]] *[[Knisja tal-Paċi fi Świdnica]] *[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk|Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk]] *[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġi ta' Wies]] *[[Knisja tal-Verġni Marija ta' Arakos]] *[[Knisja tal-Vitorja]] *[[Koh Ker]] *[[Kok]] *[[Kolomenskoye]] *[[Kolonja tal-Artisti ta' Darmstadt]] *[[Kolonji tal-Benevolenza]] *[[Kolonna ta' Ġuljanu]] *[[Kolonna tat-Trinità Mqaddsa, Olomouc]] * [[Kolossew]] * [[Konso]] *[[Konversazzjoni]] *[[Korfù]] *[[Kosta Ġurassika]] *[[Kosta ta' Amalfi]] *[[Kosta ta' Ningaloo]] *[[Kostituzzjoni ta’ Malta|Kostituzzjoni ta' Malta]] *[[Kotlovina]] *[[Koutammakou]] *[[Krak des Chevaliers]] *[[Krakovja]] *[[Krater ta' Logoisk]] *[[Krater ta' Vredefort]] *[[Kremlin ta' Kazan]] *[[Kremlin ta’ Moska|Kremlin ta' Moska]] *[[Kreta]] *[[Krisztina Tóth]] *[[Krzemionki]] *[[Ksour Antiki ta' Ouadane, Chinguetti, Tichitt u Oualata]] *[[Kujataa]] *[[Kulangsu]] *[[Kuldīga]] *[[Kulleġġ Navali Rjali Antik]] *[[Kultura ta' Chaco]] *[[Kultura ta' Chinchorro]] *[[Kultura ta' Liangzhu]] *[[Kumpanija Ferrovjarja Retika]] *[[Kumpless Monumentali ta' Brâncuși f'Târgu Jiu]] *[[Kumpless ta' W-Arly-Pendjari]] *[[Kumpless tal-Bażar Storiku ta' Tabriz]] *[[Kumpless tal-Foresti ta' Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai]] *[[Kumpless tal-Foresta ta' Kaeng Krachan]] *[[Kumpless tal-Kastell ta' Mir]] *[[Kumpless tal-Khānegāh u tas-Santwarju tax-Xejikk Safi al-din f'Ardabil]] *[[Kumpless tal-Muntanji u tat-Tempji ta' Chengde]] *[[Kumpless tal-Oqbra ta' Koguryo]] *[[Kumpless tal-Pajsaġġ ta' Tràng An]] *[[Kumplessi Monastiċi Armeni tal-Iran]] *[[Kumplessi Petroglifiċi tal-Altai tal-Mongolja]] *[[Kumitat tal-Wirt Dinji]] *[[Kunvent Benedittin ta' San Ġwann f'Müstair]] *[[Kunvent ta' Kristu f'Tomar]] *[[Kunvent ta' Spiš]] *[[Kunvent ta’ Novodevichy|Kunvent ta' Novodevichy]] *[[Kunya-Urgench]] *[[Kuruna ta' Zvonimir]] *[[Kutná Hora]] === '''<u>L</u>''' === * [[L-Arti]] * [[L-Ewwel Mara jew Raġel ta' Malta]] * [[Lag ta' Baikal]] * [[Lag ta' Laach]] * [[Lag tal-Punent, Hangzhou]] * [[Lagi ta' Ounianga]] * [[Lagi ta' Willandra]] * [[Lake District]] * [[Lamu]] *[[Landier]] *[[Lapponja Żvediża]] *[[Las Médulas]] *[[Lascaux]] *[[Lavaux]] *[[Lavra tat-Trinità ta' San Serġjo]] *[[Lazzaro Pisani]] *[[Le Corbusier]] *[[Le Havre]] *[[Le Locle]] *[[Leptis Magna]] *[[Lessikoloġija]] * [[Lessiku]] * [[Letoon]] * [[Lev Davidovich Landau]] * [[Lev Semenovič Pontrjagin]] * [[Levoča, il-Kastell ta' Spiš u l-monumenti kulturali assoċjati]] * [[Levuka]] * [[Leyla Mammadbeyova]] * [[Liftijiet Idrawliċi tal-Canal du Centre]] *[[Lika Kavzharadze]] *[[Lima]] *[[Lingwa Erżjana]] *[[Lingwa Ġermaniża]] *[[Linja ferrovjarja ta’ Semmering|Linja ferrovjarja ta' Semmering]] *[[Linja Ferrovjarja Trans-Iranjana]] *[[Linji ta' Nazca]] *[[Linji tal-Ilma Difensivi Olandiżi]] *[[Lista ta’ binjiet ta’ Gaudí]] *[[Lista ta' kumpaniji elenkati fil-Borża ta' Malta]] *[[Lista ta' Membri tal-Parlament ta' Malta, 2017–2022]] *[[Lista ta' peniżoli]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Andorra]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Ċipru]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Iżrael]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Kuba]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Madagascar]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Malta]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'San Marino]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fi Franza]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fi Spanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji taċ-Ċekja|Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċekja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċilì]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fid-Danimarka]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bangladesh]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Belarussja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Belġju]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bożnija-Ħerzegovina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Brażil]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bulgarija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Filippini]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Finlandja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġappun]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġermanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġordan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Georgia]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Greċja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Jemen]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kambodja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kanada]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Karibew]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Każakistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kenja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kirgistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kolombja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Korea t'Isfel]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Korea ta' Fuq]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kroazja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Laos]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Latvja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Litwanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lussemburgu]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lvant tal-Asja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lvant tal-Ewropa]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Maċedonja ta' Fuq]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Malażja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Marokk]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Mauritania]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Messiku]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Moldova]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Mongolja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Montenegro]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Myanmar]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Pakistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Palestina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Perù]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Polonja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Portugall]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Punent tal-Asja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Punent tal-Ewropa]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Vjetnam]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nepal]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Netherlands]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nofsinhar tal-Asja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nofsinhar tal-Ewropa]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Norveġja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Renju Unit]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Rumanija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Russja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Serbja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Sirja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovakkja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovenja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Sri Lanka]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Taġikistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tajlandja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tanzanija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tramuntana tal-Asja u fl-Asja Ċentrali]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tramuntana tal-Ewropa]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tuneżija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkmenistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fix-Xlokk tal-Asja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afganistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afrika]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afrika t'Isfel]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Albanija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka Ċentrali]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka t'Isfel]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka ta' Fuq]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Arabja Sawdija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Arġentina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Armenja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstralja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstrija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ażerbajġan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Eġittu]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Estonja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Etjopja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Indja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Indoneżja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iran]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Irlanda]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Istati Għarab]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Istati Uniti]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Italja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżlanda]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżvezja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżvizzera]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Oċeanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ukrajna]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ungerija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Użbekistan]] *[[Liz Truss]] *[[Loġġa tal-Ħarir]] *[[Longobardi fl-Italja: Postijiet tal-Poter (568-774 W.K.)]] *[[Lorenzo de' Medici]] *[[Lorenzo Gafà]] *[[Lorenzo Valla]] *[[Luang Prabang]] *[[Lübeck]] *[[Lucavsala]] *[[Lucia Piussi]] *[[Lučka Kajfež Bogataj]] *[[Ludmila tal-Boemja]] *[[Ludovico Ariosto]] *[[Ludovico Carracci]] *[[Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof]] *[[Luigi Boccherini]] *[[Luigi Galvani]] *[[Luigi Pirandello]] *[[Lumbini]] *[[Luna 26]] *[[Lunenburg]] *[[Lvant ta' Rennell]] *[[Lviv]] *[[Lyon]] *[[Lyubov Panchenko]] === '''<u>M</u>''' === * [[Maċedonit]] * [[Machu Picchu]] * [[Madinat Al-Zahra]] *[[Mafkar tal-Paċi ta' Hiroshima]] *[[Magda Šaturová-Seppová]] *[[Maison Carrée]] * [[Malta taħt il-Franċiżi]] *[[Maltin]] *[[Måneskin]] *[[Manhush]] *[[Manto Mavrogenous]] *[[Mantova]] *[[Margaret Abela]] *[[Maria De Filippi]] *[[Maria Dobroniega ta' Kiev]] *[[Maria Grollmuß]] *[[Marian Smoluchowski]] *[[Mario Draghi]] *[[Mário Zagallo]] *[[Marrakesh]] *[[Marta Kos]] *[[Martinu I ta' Sqallija]] *[[Mary Chronopoulou]] *[[Mary Fenech Adami]] *[[Mary Moser]] *[[Masġar tal-Palm ta' Elche]] *[[Maurizio Costanzo]] *[[Mawżolew ta’ Khoja Ahmed Yasawi]] *[[Maymand]] *[[Mbanza Kongo]] *[[Medina ta' Sousse]] *[[Melka Kunture]] *[[Mérida (Spanja)]] *[[Merill]] *[[Meroe]] *[[Merv]] *[[Meteora]] *[[Michael Refalo]] *[[Michail Glinka]] *[[Mikhail Ostrogradsky]] *[[Milan]] *[[Mileva Filipović]] *[[Mimoza Kusari-Lila]] *[[Mina tal-Imħabba ta' Klevan]] *[[Minaret ta' Jam]] *[[Minjiera Storika tal-Fidda f'Tarnowskie Góry]] *[[Minjiera tal-Faħam ta' Ombilin]] *[[Minjiera tal-Fidda ta' Iwami Ginzan]] *[[Minjiera tal-Melħ ta’ Wieliczka]] *[[Minjiera tar-Ram ta' Falun]] *[[Minjieri tad-Deheb tal-Gżira ta' Sado]] *[[Minjieri taż-Żnied Neolitiċi ta' Spiennes]] *[[Mira Alečković]] *[[Mirella Freni]] *[[Miroslav Řepa]] *[[Missjonijiet Franġiskani fis-Sierra Gorda ta' Querétaro]] *[[Missjonijiet ta' San Antonio]] *[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti ta' Chiquitos]] *[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti ta' La Santísima Trinidad de Paraná u Jesús de Tavarangue]] *[[Mnajdra]] *[[Modena]] *[[Mogħdija tal-Ġgant]] *[[Monasteri fuq ix-xaqlibiet ta' Popocatépetl]] *[[Monasteri ta' Yuso u ta' Suso]] *[[Monasteru ta' Alcobaça]] *[[Monasteru ta' Batalha]] *[[Monasteru ta' Ferapontov]] *[[Monasteru ta' Gelati]] *[[Monasteru ta' Geghard]] *[[Monasteru ta’ Gračanica|Monasteru ta' Gračanica]] *[[Monasteru ta' Haghpat]] *[[Monasteru ta' Horezu]] *[[Monasteru ta' Hosios Loukas]] *[[Monasteru ta' Maulbronn]] *[[Monasteru ta' Poblet]] *[[Monasteru ta' Rila]] *[[Monasteru ta' San Ġwann it-Teologu]] *[[Monasteru ta' San Ilarjun]] *[[Monasteru ta' Sanahin]] *[[Monasteru ta' Santa Katarina]] *[[Monasteru ta' Sopoćani]] *[[Monasteru ta' Studenica]] *[[Monasteru ta' Voroneț]] *[[Monasteru tal-Ġlormini]] *[[Monasteru Rjali ta' Santa Marija ta' Guadalupe]] *[[Monika Kryemadhi]] *[[Mont-Saint-Michel]] *[[Monte Albán]] *[[Monte San Giorgio]] *[[Monte Titano]] *[[Monticello]] * [[Monument]] * [[Monument Nazzjonali ta' Żimbabwe l-Kbir]] * [[Monumenti Bojod ta' Vladimir u ta' Suzdal]] * [[Monumenti Buddisti fl-inħawi ta' Hōryū-ji]] * [[Monumenti Paleokristjani u Biżantini ta' Thessaloniki]] * [[Monumenti Rumani, il-Katidral ta' San Pietru u l-Knisja tal-Madonna fi Trier]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi f'Novgorod u fl-Inħawi]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Kjoto Antika (Bliet ta' Kjoto, Uji u Ōtsu)]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Makli]] *[[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Nara]] *[[Monumenti ta' Oviedo u tar-Renju tal-Asturjas]] *[[Monumenti tal-Ġebel taċ-Ċriev]] *[[Monumenti u Siti Storiċi f'Kaesong]] *[[Monumenti u Siti Storiċi ta' Hiraizumi]] *[[Morelia]] *[[Moritz Cantor]] *[[Moskea Antika ta' Edirne]] *[[Moskea l-Kbira u Sptar ta' Divriği]] *[[Moskea ta' Arif Agha]] *[[Moskea ta’ Selimiye, Edirne]] *[[Moskea tal-Ġimgħa ta' Esfahan]] *[[Moskea tat-Tatari]] *[[Moskej bi stil Sudaniż fit-Tramuntana tal-Kosta tal-Avorju]] *[[Moskej tal-Pilastri tal-Injam tal-Anatolja Medjevali]] *[[Motoori Norinaga]] *[[Mramorje]] *[[Mtskheta]] *[[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] *[[Muħammed]] *[[Muniċipju ta' Bremen]] *[[Muntanja Pelée]] *[[Muntanja Qingcheng]] *[[Muntanja Wutai]] *[[Muntanji Blu u John Crow]] *[[Muntanji Makhonjwa ta' Barberton]] *[[Muntanji ta' Homolje]] *[[Muntanji tad-Deheb ta' Altai]] *[[Muntanji tal-Krimea]] *[[Muntanji Wudang]] *[[Muntanji Wuyi]] *[[Mużew Nazzjonali tal-Montenegro]] *[[Mużew ta' Plantin-Moretus]] *[[Mużew ta' Trojja]] *[[Myśliwska]] *[[Mystras]] === '''<u>N</u>''' === * [[Nærøyfjord]] * [[Nadur]] * [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] * [[Naħla tal-għasel ta' Malta]] * [[Namhansanseong]] * [[Nancy]] * [[Nan Madol]] *[[Napli]] *[[Naryn-Kala]] *[[Nataliya Kobrynska]] *[[Nea Moni ta' Chios]] *[[Nekropoli ta' Monterozzi]] *[[Nemrut Dağı]] *[[Nessebar]] *[[New Lanark]] *[[New Secret (jott)]] *[[Nexhmije Pagarusha]] *[[Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc]] *[[Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot]] *[[Nicolas Flamel]] *[[Nicolau Coelho]] *[[Nida]] *[[Nika Križnar]] *[[Nikkō]] *[[Nino Ramishvili]] *[[Nisa (Turkmenistan)]] *[[Nisa f’Malta]] *[[Nisa fl-elezzjonijiet ġenerali ta’ Malta]] *[[Nizza]] *[[Norman Morrison]] *[[Nutar]] === '''<u>O</u>''' === * [[Oażi ta' Al-Ahsa]] * [[Olga Tass]] *[[Olimpja]] *[[Ophrys caucasica|''Ophrys caucasica'']] *[[Oplontis]] *[[Opri Venezjani tad-Difiża bejn is-sekli 15 u 17: Stato da Terra – Stato da Mar tal-Punent]] *[[Oqbra imperjali tad-dinastiji Ming u Qing]] *[[Oqbra Rjali tad-Dinastija Joseon]] *[[Oqbra ta' Mozu]] *[[Oqbra tar-Rejiet ta' Buganda f'Kasubi]] *[[Ortografija Litwana]] *[[Osservatorji Astronomiċi tal-Università Federali ta' Kazan]] *[[Osservatorju ta' Jodrell Bank]] *[[Osservatorju ta' Rozhen]] *[[Osun-Osogbo]] *[[Otto Toeplitz]] === '''<u>P</u>''' === * [[Pablo Neruda]] * [[Pajsaġġ Agrikolu tan-Nofsinhar ta' Öland]] * [[Pajsaġġ Arkeoloġiku tal-Ewwel Pjantaġġuni tal-Kafè fix-Xlokk ta' Kuba]] * [[Pajsaġġ Arkeoloġiku tas-Sassanidi fil-Provinċja ta' Fars]] * [[Pajsaġġ Industrijali ta' Blaenavon]] * [[Pajsaġġ Karstiku tan-Nofsinhar taċ-Ċina]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' ǂKhomani]] * [[Pajsaġġi Kulturali ta' Bassari, Fula u Bedik]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Budj Bim]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Gedeo]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Hawraman/Uramanat]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Le Morne]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta’ Lednice-Valtice]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Sukur]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Għelieqi Mtarrġa tar-Ross ta' Honghe Hani]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Kafè tal-Kolombja]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Lag ta' Kenozero]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Wied ta' Orkhon]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tat-Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Gobustan]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Zuojiang]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali u Botaniku ta' Richtersveld]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali u l-Fdalijiet Arkeoloġiċi tal-Wied ta' Bamiyan]] * [[Pajsaġġ tal-Kaċċa Medjevali fit-Tramuntana ta' Zealand]] * [[Pajsaġġ tal-Vinji ta' Piemonte: Langhe-Roero u Monferrato]] * [[Pajsaġġ tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Cornwall u l-Punent ta' Devon]] * [[Pajsaġġi ta' Dauria]] * [[Pál Maléter]] * [[Palazz Irjali ta' Aranjuez]] *[[Palazz Irjali ta' Caserta]] *[[Palazz Mariinskyi]] *[[Palazz ta' Blenheim]] *[[Palazz ta’ Djoklezjanu|Palazz ta' Djoklezjanu]] *[[Palazz ta' Drottningholm]] *[[Palazz ta' Eggenberg]] *[[Palazz ta' Fontainebleau]] *[[Palazz ta' Golestan]] *[[Palazz ta' Ishak Paşa]] *[[Palazz ta' Mafra]] *[[Palazz ta' Orbeliani]] *[[Palazz ta' Potala]] *[[Palazz ta’ Schönbrunn|Palazz ta' Schönbrunn]] *[[Palazz ta’ Stoclet|Palazz ta' Stoclet]] *[[Palazz ta' Versailles]] *[[Palazz tal-Khan]] *[[Palazz tas-Sajf]] *[[Palazz tax-Shirvanshah]] *[[Palazzi Rjali ta' Abomey]] *[[Palazzi u Parks ta' Potsdam u Berlin]] *[[Palenque]] *[[Palermo Għarbija-Normanna u l-Katidrali ta' Cefalù u Monreale]] *[[Palestina]] *[[Palianytsia]] *[[Palmaria]] *[[Palmyra]] *[[Pamukkale]] *[[Panamá Viejo]] *[[Papa Ljun XIV]] *[[Papahānaumokuākea]] *[[Paquimé]] *[[Paramaribo]] *[[Park Arkeoloġiku Nazzjonali ta' Tierradentro]] *[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' Hili]] *[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' San Agustín]] *[[Park Irjali ta' Studley]] *[[Park Naturali Nazzjonali tal-Karpazji]] *[[Park Naturali ta' Dinara]] *[[Park Naturali tal-Iskolli tal-Qroll ta' Tubbataha]] *[[Park Naturali tal-Pilastri ta' Lena]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Impenetrabbli ta' Bwindi]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Olimpiku]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Göreme]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Trakai]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Alejandro de Humboldt]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Banc d'Arguin]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Belovezhskaya Pushcha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Canaima]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chiribiquete]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chitwan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Cilento, Vallo di Diano u Alburni]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Coiba]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Comoé]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Darien]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Defileul Jiului]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Desembarco del Granma]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Doñana]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Everglades]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Fertő-Hanság]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garajonay]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garamba]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Great Smoky Mountains]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Gros Morne]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Gunung Mulu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Hortobágy]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Huascarán]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ichkeul]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ivindo]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kahuzi-Biega]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kilimanjaro]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kinabalu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kiskunság]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Komodo]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lahemaa]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lençóis Maranhenses]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lorentz]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Katíos]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lushan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Mammoth Cave]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manú]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manovo-Gounda St Floris]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Mesa Verde]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Miguasha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Morne Trois Pitons]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Nahanni]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Niah]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Niokolo-Koba]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Noel Kempff Mercado]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Nyungwe]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Þingvellir]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Pirin]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Purnululu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Rapa Nui]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Rio Abiseo]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sagarmatha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Salonga]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sangay]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sanqingshan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Serengeti]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Simien]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Taï]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Teide]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Tongariro]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ujung Kulon]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Vatnajökull]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Virunga]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Yellowstone]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Yosemite]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Biżonti tal-Boskijiet]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Fortizza tal-Għolja ta' Brimstone]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għadajjar ta' Mana]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Carlsbad]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Naracoorte]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Grand Canyon]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lag tal-Malawi]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lagi ta’ Plitvice]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja tal-Kenja]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanji ta' Bale]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanji ta' Rwenzori]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Vulkani ta' Hawaii]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tat-Taġikistan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tax-Xmara ta' Taħt l-Art ta' Puerto Princesa]] *[[Park Provinċjali ta' Writing-on-Stone]] *[[Park Provinċjali tad-Dinosawri]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Ayutthaya]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Phu Phrabat]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Si Thep]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Sukhothai]] *[[Park ta' Maloti-Drakensberg]] *[[Park ta’ Muskau|Park ta' Muskau]] *[[Park tal-Art Mistagħdra ta' iSimangaliso]] *[[Park tal-Mafkar tar-Rewwixta u tar-Rivoluzzjoni]] *[[Park Trinazzjonali ta' Sangha]] *[[Parks Internazzjonali tal-Paċi ta' Waterton-tal-Glaċieri]] *[[Parks Nazzjonali tal-Lag ta' Turkana]] *[[Parks Nazzjonali u Statali tas-Siġar tal-Injam tal-Aħmar]] *[[Parks tal-Muntanji tar-Rockies Kanadiżi]] *[[Parmigianino]] *[[Parrukkier]] *[[Pasargadae]] *[[Paseo del Prado]] *[[Pattadakal]] *[[Paulo Coelho]] *[[Pavlo Lee]] *[[Pécs]] *[[Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġakbu]] *[[Peña de los Enamorados]] *[[Peniżola]] *[[Pergamon]] *[[Peri-Khan Sofiyeva]] *[[Persepolis]] *[[Peter Carl Fabergé]] *[[Pëtr Kapica]] *[[Petra]] *[[Petra Brocková]] *[[Petroglifiċi tal-Lag ta' Onega u l-Baħar Abjad]] *[[Philipp Otto Runge]] *[[Philippi]] *[[Pienza]] *[[Piero Angela]] *[[Pierre Fatou]] *[[Pietro Longhi]] *[[Pietru l-Kbir]] *[[Pimachiowin Aki]] *[[Ping Yao]] *[[Pirinej-Monte Perdido]] *[[Pitons]] *[[Pitons, Cirques u Rdumijiet tal-Gżira ta' Réunion]] *[[Pjanura ta' Bărăgan]] *[[Pjanura ta’ Stari Grad]] *[[Pjanura tal-Ġarer]] *[[Pjazza]] *[[Pjazza ta' Naqsh-e Jahan]] * [[Pjazza tal-Mirakli]] *[[Plamer]] *[[Planetarju Rjali ta' Eise Eisinga]] *[[Pobiti Kamani]] *[[Politika]] *[[Polonnaruwa]] *[[Pont Antik ta’ Mostar]] *[[Pont ta' Forth]] *[[Pont ta' Malabadi]] *[[Pont ta' Mehmed Paša Sokolović]] *[[Pont tal-Paċi, Tbilisi]] *[[Pont ta' Vizcaya]] *[[Porfirio Barba-Jacob]] *[[Port ta' Mariupol]] *[[Port ta’ Marsamxett]] *[[Porta Nigra]] *[[Portiċi ta' Bologna]] *[[Porto]] *[[Potosí]] *[[Pożati]] *[[Prambanan]] *[[Professjoni]] *[[Proklos]] *[[Promontorju ta' Putorana]] *[[Provins]] *[[Pu'er]] *[[Puebla (belt)]] *[[Pythagoreion]] === '''<u>Q</u>''' === * [[Qabar ta' Askia]] * [[Qabar ta' Humayun]] * [[Qabar Traċjan ta' Kazanlak]] * [[Qabar Traċjan ta' Sveshtari]] * [[Qabża tal-Biżonti Sfrakassati]] * [[Qal'at al-Bahrain]] * [[Qala (Għawdex)]] * [[Qalba Neolitika tal-Gżejjer Orkney]] * [[Qalhat]] * [[Qaryat al-Faw]] * [[Qaytarma]] * [[Qorti Rjali ta' Tiébélé]] * [[Il-Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann|Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann Battista (Caravaggio)]] * [[Quanzhou]] * [[Quedlinburg]] * [[Quito]] * [[Quseir Amra]] * [[Qutb Minar]] === '''<u>R</u>''' === * [[Rachid Chouhal]] * [[Raħal Storiku ta' St. George u l-Fortifikazzjonijiet Relatati, Bermuda]] * [[Rammelsberg]] * [[Ras'ken' Ozks]] * [[Ravenna]] * [[Ravesa Lleshi]] * [[Red Bay]] * [[Regensburg]] * [[Reġjun Naturali, Kulturali u Storiku ta’ Kotor]] * [[Reġjun tal-Estrazzjoni tal-Minerali ta' Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří]] * [[Reġjun tal-Inbid ta' Tokaj]] *[[Reichenau]] *[[Relattività (Maurits Cornelis Escher)]] *[[Rembrandt]] *[[Renata Scotto]] *[[Renju ta' Mapungubwe]] *[[Renju tal-Ġonna ta' Dessau-Wörlitz]] *[[Repubblika Sovjetika ta’ Don|Repubblika Sovjetika ta' Don]] *[[Residenza ta' Würzburg]] *[[Residenza tal-Metropolitani ta' Bukovina u tad-Dalmazja]] *[[Residenzi tal-Familja Savoia]] *[[Residenzi tal-Moderniżmu f'Berlin]] *[[Rewwixta tal-Qassisin]] *[[Riga]] *[[Risco Caído]] *[[Riversleigh]] *[[Riżerva Ekoloġika ta' Mistaken Point]] *[[Riżerva Forestali ta' Sinharaja]] *[[Riżerva Naturali Stretta tal-Muntanja ta' Nimba]] *[[Riżerva Naturali Stretta tat-Tsingy ta' Bemaraha]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Bashkiriya]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Kaniv]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Okapi]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Selous]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Srebarna]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Tigrovaya Balka]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Yulen]] *[[Riżerva Naturali tal-Flora fil-Ġibs]] *[[Riżerva Naturali tas-Suriname Ċentrali]] *[[Riżerva ta' Bijosfera ta' El Pinacate u Gran Desierto de Altar]] *[[Riżerva ta' Bijosfera ta' Río Plátano]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera ta' Tehuacán-Cuicatlán]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera tal-Baħar l-Iswed]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera tal-Friefet Monarki]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera Transkonfinali Ohrid-Prespa]] *[[Riżerva tal-Fawna ta' Dja]] *[[Riżervi Naturali ta' Air u ta' Ténéré]] *[[Riżervi tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Talamanca-La Amistad]] *[[Robert Fico]] *[[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]] *[[Rodi (belt)]] * [[Roi Mata]] * [[Roșia Montană]] * [[Ronald Searle]] * [[Røros]] * [[Rotot ta’ Santiago de Compostela fi Franza]] * [[Royal Exhibition Building]] * [[Róža Domašcyna]] *[[Rudolf Diesel]] *[[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]] === '''<u>S</u>''' === * [[Sabratha]] * [[Saeva Dupka]] * [[Safranbolu]] * [[Saint-Émilion]] * [[Sajjied]] *[[Sala taċ-Ċentenarju]] *[[Salamanca]] *[[Salib ta' Santa Ewfrosina]] *[[Salini Rjali ta' Arc-et-Senans]] *[[Salme Kann]] *[[Saltaire]] *[[Salvatore Accardo]] *[[Salzburg]] *[[Samantha Cristoforetti]] *[[Samarkanda]] *[[Samarra]] *[[Sambor Prei Kuk]] *[[Sammallahdenmäki]] *[[Samuel Deguara]] *[[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]] *[[San Gimignano]] *[[San Lawrenz (Għawdex)]] *[[San Miguel de Allende]] *[[San Pietruburgu]] *[[Sana'a]] *[[Sanchi]] *[[Sandra Milo]] *[[Sandra Mondaini]] *[[Sandro Botticelli]] *[[Sangiran]] *[[Sansa, il-Monasteri Buddisti tal-Muntanji tal-Korea t'Isfel]] *[[Santa Cruz de Mompox]] *[[Santiago de Compostela]] *[[Santiago de Querétaro]] *[[Santwarju Nazzjonali tal-Għasafar ta' Djoudj]] *[[Santwarju ta' Bom Jesus do Monte]] *[[Santwarju tal-Fawna u tal-Flora ta' Malpelo]] *[[Santwarju ta' Itsukushima]] *[[Santwarju tal-Balieni ta' El Vizcaino]] *[[Santwarji tal-Għasafar tal-Passa tul il-Kosta tal-Baħar Isfar u l-Golf ta' Bohai]] *[[Santwarji tal-Pandas Ġganteski ta' Sichuan]] *[[Santwarji tan-Natura Selvaġġa ta' Thungyai-Huai Kha Khaeng]] *[[Santwarju tan-Natura Selvaġġa tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Hamiguitan]] *[[Sarazm]] * [[Saryarka]] * [[Sassi ta' Matera]] *[[Schokland]] *[[Seba’ Għeġubijiet Ġodda tad-Dinja]] *[[Sebastian Brant]] *[[Segovia]] *[[Seka Sablić]] *[[Sengħa]] *[[Seokguram]] *[[Seowon]] *[[Severo Ochoa]] *[[Sevil Shhaideh]] *[[Sewell]] *[[Sferi tal-Ġebel tal-Costa Rica]] *[[SGang Gwaay]] *[[Shahr-e Sukhteh]] *[[Shahrisabz]] *[[Shaken Aimanov]] *[[Shales ta' Maotianshan]] *[[Sheki]] *[[Shennongjia]] *[[Shibam]] *[[Shirakami-Sanchi]] *[[Shiretoko]] *[[Sian Ka'an]] *[[Šibenik]] *[[Sibila Petlevski]] *[[Sidney Webb]] *[[Siega Verde]] *[[Siena]] *[[Sighișoara]] *[[Sigiriya]] *[[Siġra tal-ballut ta' Tamme-Lauri]] *[[Sikhote-Alin]] *[[Sinagoga Antika (Erfurt)]] *[[Sinéad O'Connor]] *[[Sintra]] *[[Siracusa]] *[[Sistema Idrawlika Storika ta' Shushtar]] *[[Sistema tal-Ġestjoni tal-Ilma ta' Augsburg]] *[[Sistema tat-Toroq tal-Inka]] *[[Sit Agrikolu Bikri ta' Kuk]] *[[Sit arkeoloġiku ta' Al-Balid|Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Al-Balid]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Atapuerca]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta’ Paphos]] *[[Sit Storiku Nazzjonali ta' San Juan]] *[[Sit Storiku Statali tat-Tumbati tal-Ħamrija ta' Cahokia]] * [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] * [[Sit ta' Wirt Industrijali ta' Rjukan-Notodden]] *[[Sit tad-Dolmens ta' Antequera]] *[[Sit tar-Raġel ta' Peking f'Zhoukoudian]] *[[Siti tad-Dolmens ta' Gochang, Hwasun u Ganghwa]] *[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Bat, Al-Khutm u Al-Ayn]] *[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Tarraco]] *[[Siti Awstraljani tal-Fossili tal-Mammiferi]] *[[Siti Ewlenin tal-Estrazzjoni fil-Wallonja]] *[[Siti Funebri u Mfakar tal-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija (il-Front tal-Punent)]] *[[Siti Kristjani Moħbija fir-Reġjun ta' Nagasaki]] *[[Siti Metallurġiċi Antiki tal-Burkina Faso]] *[[Siti Penitenzjarji Awstraljani]] *[[Siti preistoriċi bil-puntali madwar l-Alpi|Siti Preistoriċi bil-Puntali Madwar l-Alpi]] *[[Siti Preistoriċi ta' Jōmon fit-Tramuntana tal-Ġappun]] *[[Siti Sagri u Rotot ta' Pellegrinaġġ fil-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Kii]] *[[Siti tal-Fossili tal-Ominidi tal-Afrika t'Isfel]] *[[Siti tar-Rivoluzzjoni Industrijali Meiji tal-Ġappun]] *[[Siti tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Kondoa]] *[[Siti tat-Tusi]] *[[Skarpan]] *[[Skellig Michael]] *[[Skogskyrkogården]] *[[Skojjattlu tal-art ta' Tian Shan]] *[[Skoll il-Kbir tal-Qroll]] *[[Skoll tal-Qroll ta' New Caledonia]] *[[Skoll tal-Qroll tal-Belize]] *[[Skorba]] *[[Skrivan]] *[[Socotra]] *[[Soltaniyeh]] *[[Songo Mnara]] *[[Sophia Loren]] *[[Sophie Germain]] *[[Sophie Liebknecht]] *[[Söyembikä]] *[[Speicherstadt]] *[[Spinalonga]] *[[Sputnik 5]] *[[Stari Ras]] *[[Statwa]] *[[Statwa ta' Roland ta' Bremen]] *[[Statwa tal-Libertà]] *[[Stazzjon ta' Chhatrapati Shivaji]] *[[Stazzjon tar-Radju ta' Grimeton]] *[[Stećak]] *[[Stevns Klint]] *[[Stonehenge]] *[[Stone Town]] *[[Su Nuraxi]] *[[Subak]] *[[Sulaiman-Too]] *[[Sundarbans]] *[[Suq Ċentrali ta' Ljubljana]] *[[Surtsey]] *[[Susa]] *[[Svaneti]] *[[Svetlana Antonovska]] *[[Sviyazhsk]] === '''<u>T</u>''' === * [[Ta' Bakkja]] * [[Ta' Ħaġrat]] * [[Ta' Kandja]] *[[Tabib]] *[[Tadrart Acacus]] *[[Taħdit]] *[[Taishan]] *[[Taj Mahal]] *[[Takht-e Soleyman]] *[[Takht-i-Bahi]] *[[Takkanot Shum]] *[[Taksim]] *[[Tallinn]] *[[Tamgaly]] *[[Tanġier]] *[[Taos Pueblo]] *[[Taputapuātea]] *[[Tarraco]] *[[Tarzna Navali ta' Antigua u s-Siti Arkeoloġiċi Relatati]] *[[Tassili n'Ajjer]] *[[Taxila]] *[[Tchogha Zanbil]] *[[Te Wahipounamu]] *[[Teatru Akkademiku Reġjonali ta' Donetsk]] *[[Teatru Antik ta’ Epidaurus|Teatru Antik ta' Epidaurus]] *[[Teatru Rjal]] *[[Teatru Ruman ta' Orange]] *[[Teatru tal-Opri Margravjali]] *[[Teatru tal-Opri ta' Sydney]] *[[Tebe (Eġittu)]] *[[Tekniku]] *[[Telč]] * [[Tempji Megalitiċi ta’ Malta u Għawdex|Tempji Megalitiċi ta' Malta u Għawdex]] *[[Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f’Bassae|Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f'Bassae]] *[[Tempju ta' Asklepju ta' Epidaurus]] *[[Tempju ta' Haeinsa]] *[[Tempji ta' Ħal Tarxien]] *[[Tempju ta' Mahabodhi]] *[[Tempju ta' Preah Vihear]] *[[Tempju tal-Ġenna]] *[[Tempju tal-Għar ta' Dambulla]] *[[Tempju u Ċimiterju ta' Konfuċju u l-Villa tal-Familja Kong f'Qufu]] *[[Teotihuacan]] *[[Tequila (Belt)]] * [[Terminoloġija]] * [[Tetiana Ostashchenko]] * [[Tétouan]] *[[Teżawru]] *[[Theobald Boehm]] *[[Theodore Géricault]] *[[Thimlich Ohinga]] *[[Tholos ta' El Romeral]] *[[Thomas à Kempis]] *[[Tian Shan]] * [[Tieqa tad-Dwejra]] * [[Tieqa ta' Wied il-Mielaħ]] * [[Tikal]] * [[Timbuktu]] * [[Timgad]] * [[Tina Turner]] * [[Tinetto]] * [[Tino]] * [[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Alta]] *[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Tanum]] *[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat fir-Reġjun ta' Ha'il]] *[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat ta' Dazu]] *[[Tinqix ta' Bisotun]] *[[Tipasa]] *[[Tiryns]] *[[Tiwanaku]] *[[Tiya]] *[[Tlacotalpan]] *[[TNMK]] *[[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]] *[[Toledo]] *[[Tomaso Antonio Vitali]] *[[Tomiri]] *[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: il-Kuritur ta' Zarafshan-Karakum]] *[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: in-Network ta' Rotot tal-Kuritur ta' Chang'an-Tianshan]] * [[Torri Mmejjel ta' Pisa]] * [[Torri ta' Belém]] *[[Torri ta' Erkole]] *[[Torri ta' Londra]] *[[Torri tax-Xebba (Baku)]] *[[Torrijiet residenzjali tas-Svan|Torrijiet Residenzjali tas-Svan]] *[[Toruń]] *[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Sierra de San Francisco]] *[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat tal-Baċir Mediterran Iberiku]] *[[Trattat ta' Kaunas]] *[[Třebíč]] *[[Trinidad, Kuba]] *[[Trogir]] *[[Trojja]] *[[Tropiċi Mistagħdra ta' Queensland]] *[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija, Owczary]] *[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija Omm Alla, Chotyniec]] *[[Tserkva tal-Injam tal-Karpazji fil-Polonja u fl-Ukrajna]] *[[Tsodilo]] *[[Tubeteika]] *[[Tulou ta' Fujian|''Tulou'' ta' Fujian]] *[[Tumbati Ċerimonjali tal-Ħamrija ta' Hopewell]] *[[Tumbati Funebri ta' Dilmun]] *[[Tumbati Funebri ta' Gaya]] *[[Tumbati Monumentali tal-Ħamrija ta' Poverty Point]] *[[Turan]] *[[Tutankhamun]] *[[Twyfelfontein]] *[[Tyre]] === '''<u>U</u>''' === * [[Úbeda]] * [[Ugo Foscolo]] *[[Uluru]] *[[Um er-Rasas]] *[[Umm Al-Jimāl]] *[[UNESCO]] *[[Università Nazzjonali Awtonoma tal-Messiku]] *[[Università ta' Al-Qarawiġin|Università ta' Al-Qarawijin]] *[[Università ta' Coimbra]] *[[Unjoni Sovjetika]] *[[Urbino]] *[['Uruq Bani Mu'arid]] *[[Uxmal]] === '''<u>V</u>''' === * [[Val d'Orcia]] *[[Val di Noto]] *[[Valentyna Radzymovska]] *[[Valeria Bruni Tedeschi]] *[[Vallée de Mai]] *[[Vasco da Gama]] *[[Vat Phou]] *[[Velimir Khlebnikov]] *[[Venera 7]] *[[Verona]] *[[Via Appia]] *[[Victoria Amelina]] *[[Vigan]] *[[Vincent van Gogh]] *[[Vilel u Ġonna tal-Familja Medici]] *[[Villa d'Este]] *[[Villa Romana del Casale]] *[[Villa ta' Adrijanu]] *[[Villa Tugendhat]] *[[Villaġġi Antiki tat-Tramuntana tas-Sirja]] *[[Villaġġi bil-Knejjes Iffortifikati f'Transilvanja]] *[[Villaġġi Storiċi ta' Shirakawa-gō u Gokayama]] *[[Vilnius]] *[[Visby]] *[[Vitaliy Kim]] *[[Vito Volterra]] *[[Vittorio De Sica]] *[[Vjenna]] *[[Vladimir Ashkenazy]] *[[Vlkolínec]] *[[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] *[[Volubilis]] *[[Võros]] *[[Vulkan tat-Tajn ta’ Lökbatan]] *[[Vulkani ta' Kamchatka]] === '''<u>W</u>''' === * [[Wachau]] * [[Wadi Al-Hitan]] *[[Wadi Rum]] *[[Wales]] *[[Weimar Klassika]] *[[Werrej]] *[[Wied Superjuri tar-Renu Nofsani]] *[[Wied t'Isfel tal-Awash]] *[[Wied ta' Kathmandu]] *[[Wied ta' Loire]] *[[Wied ta' Madriu-Perafita-Claror]] *[[Wied ta' M'zab]] *[[Wied ta' Qadisha]] *[[Wied ta' Viñales]] *[[Wied tal-Fondoq il-Kbir]] *[[Wied tat-Tempji]] *[[Wilhelm Grimm]] *[[Wilhelm Röntgen]] *[[Willem de Sitter]] *[[Willemstad]] *[[William Boeing]] *[[Wirt Arkeoloġiku tal-Wied ta' Lenggong]] *[[Wirt tal-Foresti Tropikali ta' Sumatra]] *[[Wismar]] *[[Władysław Horodecki]] *[[Wolfgang Paul]] === '''<u>X</u>''' === * [[Xanadu]] * [[Xanthos]] * [[Xatt it-Tiben]] *[[Xeff]] *[[Xidi]] *[[Xmara Omo]] *[[Xochicalco]] *[[Xogħlijiet ta' Jože Plečnik f'Ljubljana – Disinn Urban Iċċentrat fuq il-Bniedem]] *[[Xogħol Arkitettoniku ta' Le Corbusier]] *[[Xjenza spazjali]] *[[Xtatol]] === '''<u>Y</u>''' === * [[Yagul]] * [[Yakushima]] * [[Yana Zinkevych]] * [[Yangdong]] * [[Yarmak]] * [[Yaroslavl]] * [[Yazd]] * [[Yeni-Kale]] * [[Yin Xu]] * [[Yllka Mujo]] * [[Yogyakarta]] *[[Yuliya Gushchina]] *[[Yuri Lysianskyi]] === '''<u>Ż</u>''' === * [[Żapoteki]] * [[Żiemel Abjad ta' Osmington]] * [[Żona Kulturali ta' Ḥimā]] *[[Żona l-Kbira tal-Muntanji Blu]] *[[Żona Naturali Selvaġġa tat-Tażmanja]] *[[Żona Protetta ta' Jungfrau-Aletsch]] *[[Żona Protetta ta' Pliva, Janj u r-Riżerva ta' Janjske Otoke]] *[[Żona Protetta tal-Gżejjer Phoenix]] *[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku ta' Huanglong]] *[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku tal-Wied ta' Jiuzhaigou]] *[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku ta' Wulingyuan]] *[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Guanacaste]] *[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Ngorongoro]] *[[Żona tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Chongoni]] *[[Żoni Protetti tar-Reġjun tal-Fjuri tal-Kap]] *[[Żoni Protetti tat-Tliet Xmajjar Paralleli ta' Yunnan]] *[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Baekje]] *[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Gyeongju]] *[[Żooloġija]] === '''<u>Z</u>''' === * [[Zabid]] * [[Zacatecas (belt)]] * [[Zagori]] * [[Zamość]] * [[Žatec]] * [[Žehra]] * [[Ziba Ganiyeva]] * [[Zlata Kolarić-Kišur]] *[[Zofia Zamenhof]] *[[Zollverein]] *[[Zond 5]] *[[Zsuzsanna Lorántffy]] ms2yoydxofwym64k6qeju5qew108t3s 0 33701 323823 2025-06-30T16:47:25Z Trigcly 17859 Kontenut inizjali 323823 wikitext text/x-wiki Il-'''Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna''' (bil-[[Lingwa Finlandiża|Finlandiż]]: [ˈsuo̯menˌlinːɑ]), jew '''Sveaborg''' (bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]]: [ˈsvɛːɑˈborj]) hija fortizza tal-baħar magħmula minn tmien gżejjer, sitta minnhom iffortifikati. Il-fortizza tinsab madwar 4 kilometri fix-Xlokk taċ-ċentru ta' [[Ħelsinki|Helsinki]], il-belt kapitali tal-[[Finlandja]], u hija destinazzjoni popolari mat-turisti u man-nies tal-post, li jżuruh l-iktar bħala post pittoresk għall-picnics. Il-kostruzzjoni tal-fortizza bdiet fl-1748 taħt il-monarkija [[Żvezja|Żvediża]] bħala difiża kontra r-[[Russja]]. Ir-responsabbiltà ġenerali għax-xogħol ta' fortifikazzjoni ngħatat lill-Ammirall [[Augustin Ehrensvärd]]. Il-pjanta oriġinali tal-fortizza bħala bastjun ġiet influwenzata ferm minn [[Vauban]], inġinier militari [[Franza|Franċiż]] rinomat, u kienet tinkorpora l-prinċipji tal-fortifikazzjonijiet b'għamla ta' stilla, għalkemm adattati għal grupp ta' gżejjer tal-blat. Matul il-Gwerra Finlandiża, il-qawwiet Russi assedjaw il-fortizza fl-1808. Minkejja r-reputazzjoni mill-aqwa tagħha bħala l-"[[Ġibiltà]] tat-Tramuntana", il-fortizza arrendiet wara xahrejn biss, fit-3 ta' Mejju 1808. It-telf tagħha witta t-triq għall-okkupazzjoni Russa tal-Finlandja fl-1809, u għall-istabbiliment sussegwenti tal-Gran Dukat tal-Finlandja, stat awtonomu fi ħdan l-[[Imperu Russu]]. Taħt it-tmexxija Russa, il-fortizza ntużat bħala bażi għall-Flotta Navali Baltika matul [[l-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija]], u fl-1915 bdiet il-kostruzzjoni fuq is-sistema tad-difiża tal-''Krepost Sveaborg''. Il-qawwiet Russi abbandunaw il-fortizza wara li l-Finlandja ddikjarat l-indipendenza fl-1917. Oriġinarjament il-fortizza kienet imsejħa ''Sveaborg'' (jiġifieri "Fortizza tal-Iżvezja") u bil-Finlandiż kienet magħrufa bħala '''Viapori''' (pronunzja: [ˈviaˌpori]), iżda bdiet tissejjaħ ''Suomenlinna'' (jiġifieri "Fortizza tal-Finlandja") fl-1918. Madankollu, bl-Iżvediż għadha tissejjaħ bl-isem oriġinali. Wara l-Gwerra Ċivili Finlandiża, il-gżejjer kienu jospitaw il-kamp tal-priġunieri ta' Suomenlinna fejn kienu jinżammu s-suldati Ħomor li kienu jinqabdu. Il-Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna baqgħet taħt il-kontroll tad-Dipartiment tad-Difiża tal-Finlandja sal-1973, meta biċċa l-kbira minnha ġiet ittrasferita lill-amministrazzjoni ċivili. Il-fortizza famuża għall-fortifikazzjonijiet u għall-bastjuni tagħha tniżżlet fil-lista tas-[[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji|Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]] fl-1991. == [[Ġeografija]] == Id-distrett ta' Suomenlinna ta' Helsinki jinsab fix-Xlokk taċ-ċentru ta' Helsinki u jikkonsisti minn tmien gżejjer. Ħamsa mill-gżejjer huma kkollegati permezz ta' pontijiet jew bir-radam bejniethom. Länsi-Mustasaari (Västersvartö) hija kkollegata ma' Pikku Mustasaari (Lilla Östersvartö), li hija kkollegata ma' Iso Mustasaari (Stora Östersvartö), li mbagħad hija kkollegata ma' Susisaari (Vargö). Susisaari ġiet ikkollegata ma' Susiluoto (Vargskär) bir-radam li ntefa' fil-passaġġ tal-ilma bejniethom matul żmien ir-Russi. Din il-gżira, li għandha l-ikbar konċentrazzjoni ta' fortifikazzjonijiet ġiet imsejħa ''Gustavssvärd'' (Kustaanmiekka, li tfisser "ix-xabla ta' Gustav") fi żmien il-kostruzzjoni mill-Iżvezja. It-tliet gżejjer mhux ikkollegati huma Särkkä (Långören), Lonna (Lonnan), u Pormestarinluodot (Borgmästargrundet). L-erja tal-art totali tad-distrett fiha 80 ettaru (0.80 kilometri kwadri; 0.31 mili kwadri). Minflok ma jsegwu s-sistema standard Finlandiża tal-indirizzi postali, b'isem it-triq u n-numru tad-dar, l-indirizzi f'Suomenlinna jużaw kodiċi bl-ittri għall-gżira segwit min-numru tad-dar. Pereżempju, "C 83" jirreferi għad-dar nru 83 f'Iso-Mustasaari (iddeżinjata bl-ittra "C"). Il-kodiċi postali tad-distrett ta' Suomenlinna huwa 00190. == [[Storja]] == === Żmien l-Iżvediżi === ==== Sfond ==== Minn kmieni fil-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana, ir-Russja ħadet vantaġġ mid-dgħufija Żvediża f'Ingria (bl-Iżvediż: ''Ingermanland'') u ħatfet l-inħawi qrib ix-xmara Neva kif ukoll il-fortijiet Żvediżi, Nyen u Nöteborg, li nbnew biex jipproteġuha. Fl-1703, [[Pietru l-Kbir]] stabbilixxa l-belt kapitali l-ġdida tiegħu, [[San Pietruburgu]], fil-Golf tal-Finlandja. Qrib il-wasla tal-belt huwa bena l-bażi navali ffortifikata ta' [[Kronstadt]]. Ir-Russja f'qasir żmien saret qawwa marittima u importanti fil-Baħar Baltiku. Din is-sitwazzjoni kienet ta' theddida għall-Iżvezja, li sa dak iż-żmien kienet il-qawwa dominanti fil-Baltiku. Dan ħareġ sew fid-dieher bl-użu tal-forzi navali meta r-Russja ħatfet lil Viborg fl-1710. Il-bażi navali Żvediża prinċipali f'[[Karlskrona]] kienet 'il bogħod wisq lejn in-Nofsinhar biex tissodisfa l-ħtiġijiet il-ġodda tal-forza navali Żvediża fis-seklu 18, u spiss dan wassal biex il-bastimenti Żvediżi kienu jaslu fil-kosta tal-Finlandja wara l-bastimenti u t-truppi Russi diġà kienu bdew jew saħansitra temmew il-kampanji militari tagħhom tar-rebbiegħa. In-nuqqas ta' difiżi kostali nħass sew bl-iżbarki Russi f'Helsingfors fir-rebbiegħa tal-1713 u bil-falliment tal-Iżvezja li timblokka l-[[Peniżola]] ta' Hanko fl-1714. Kampanja militari navali Russa kontra l-kosta Żvediża lejn l-aħħar tal-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana kompliet turi l-ħtieġa li jiġu żviluppati difiżi kostali Finlandiżi. Eżatt wara li ntemmet il-gwerra, daħħlu fis-seħħ l-ewwel pjanijiet fl-Iżvezja biex tinbena flotta tal-[[arċipelagu]] u bażi tal-operazzjonijiet għaliha fil-Finlandja. Madankollu, fir-rigward ta' Sveaborg ma seħħ xejn qabel tmiem il-Gwerra bejn ir-Russja u l-Iżvezja tal-1741–1743. Il-fortifikazzjonijiet tħallew mhux kompluti f'Hamina u f'Lappeenranta filwaqt li Hämeenlinna kienet qed tinbena bħala bażi tal-provvisti. In-nuqqas ta' fondi, in-nuqqas ta' rieda li jiġu allokati fondi għad-difiża tal-Finlandja, u t-twemmin (li beda jfeġġ eżatt qabel il-gwerra) li r-Russja kienet se tiġi obbligata tirtira mill-Baħar Baltiku kienu l-kawżi ewlenin li wasslu għan-nuqqas ta' progress. Il-Gwerra suċċessiva bejn ir-Russja u l-Iżvezja tal-1741–1743, li malajr inbidlet minn attakk Żvediż għal okkupazzjoni Russa tal-Finlandja, mill-ġdid uriet l-importanza li jiġu żviluppati l-fortifikazzjonijiet fil-Finlandja. In-nuqqas ta' bażi għall-operazzjonijiet tal-forzi navali għamilha diffiċli biex il-flotta navali Żvediża topera fl-inħawi. Stati [[Ewropa|Ewropej]] oħra kienu mħassbin ukoll dwar l-iżviluppi rigward ir-Russja, speċjalment Franza, li kienet ikkonkludiet alleanza militari mal-Iżvezja. Wara dibattitu fit-tul, il-parlament Żvediż iddeċieda fl-1747 li jiffortifika l-fruntiera mar-Russja u jistabbilixxi bażi navali f'Helsingfors biex tikkontrabatti l-bażi navali ta' Kronstadt. Augustin Ehrensvärd (1710–1772), kurunell logutenet żagħżugħ, ingħata r-responsabbiltà li jiddisinja l-fortizzi u li jidderieġi l-operazzjonijiet tal-kostruzzjoni. ==== Kostruzzjoni ==== L-Iżvezja bdiet tibni l-fortizzi f'Jannar 1748. Il-pjanta ta' Ehrensvärd kien fiha żewġ fortifikazzjonijiet: fortizza tal-baħar f'Svartholm qrib ir-raħal żgħir ta' Lovisa, u fortizza tal-baħar ikbar u bażi navali (Sveaborg) f'Helsingfors. Kien hemm żewġ aspetti prinċipali tad-disinn ta' Ehrensvärd għal Sveaborg: sensiela ta' fortifikazzjonijiet indipendenti tul diversi gżejjer kollegati, u fil-qalba nett tal-kumpless, tarzna tal-flotta navali. Minbarra l-gżira-fortizza stess, fortifikazzjonijiet iħarsu lejn il-baħar fuq l-art kontinentali kellhom jiżguraw li l-għadu ma jiżbarkax fil-bajjiet biex imbagħad jattakka l-forti tal-baħar. Il-pjanta kienet tinkludi wkoll il-ħżin tal-munizzjon għall-kontinġent Finlandiż kollu tal-Armata Żvediża u tal-Flotta Navali Rjali Żvediża hemmhekk. Saru pjanijiet addizzjonali ta' fortifikazzjoni tal-Peniżola ta' Hanko, iżda dawn ġew posposti. Il-kostruzzjoni bdiet fil-bidu tal-1748 u baqgħet tespandi, tant li sa Settembru kien hemm madwar 2,500 [[raġel]] jibnu l-fortizzi. Inizjalment is-suldati kienu stazzjonati fil-volti tal-fortifikazzjonijiet, filwaqt li l-fizzjali kellhom kwartieri mibnijin apposta li kienu integrati fil-kompożizzjoni [[Barokk|Barokka]] ġenerali tal-belt. L-iżjed pjan ambizzjuż tħalla nofsu komplut biss: [[pjazza]] Barokka f'Iso Mustasaari li kienet parzjalment ibbażata fuq il-mudell ta' Place Vendôme f'[[Pariġi]]. Iktar ma x-xogħlijiet tal-kostruzzjoni mexew 'il quddiem, iktar ma nbnew binjiet residenzjali, bosta minnhom skont l-għamla tal-fortifikazzjonijiet. Ehrensvärd u wħud mill-fizzjali l-oħra kienu artisti akkaniti li kienu jpittru biż-żejt fuq it-tila u kienu jippreżentaw veduta tal-ħajja fil-fortizza matul il-kostruzzjoni tagħha, u kienu jagħtu l-impressjoni ta' komunità ta' "raħal fortizza" fuq tagħha. Minħabba t-theddidiet Russi ripetuti fl-1749 u fl-1750, saru iktar sforzi b'rabta mal-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-gżejjer a skapitu ta' dawk fuq l-art kontinentali, sabiex bażi sikura għall-operazzjonijiet setgħet tiġi żgurata għall-unitajiet navali Żvediżi tul il-kosta Finlandiża. Bl-użu tal-militar fil-gwarniġjon fil-Finlandja bħala l-forza tax-xogħol, il-kostruzzjoni baqgħet għaddejja b'iktar minn 6,000 ħaddiem fl-1750. Il-fortifikazzjonijiet f'Gustavssvärd tlestew fl-1751 u l-fortifikazzjonijiet prinċipali f'Vargö tlestew fl-1754. Il-fortizza kienet operazzjonali għalkollox għalkemm ma kinitx kompluta. Dawn il-kisbiet ma xekklux l-andament tal-kostruzzjoni u fl-1755 kien hemm 7,000 ħaddiem jaħdmu fil-kostruzzjoni tal-fortifikazzjonijiet 'il barra minn Helsingfors li dak iż-żmien kellha madwar 2,000 resident. Ix-xogħol sostanzjali ta' fortifikazzjoni fil-gżejjer fin-Nofsinhar tar-raħal wassal biex ikollha importanza ġdida u mhux mistennija. Il-parteċipazzjoni tal-Iżvezja fil-Gwerra tas-Seba' Snin rażżnet l-isforz ta' kostruzzjoni fl-1757, u wasslet ukoll għat-tmiem tal-fażi ta' kostruzzjoni rapida ta' Sveaborg. This period in Swedish history was known as the Age of Liberty, during which the kingdom was under increased parliamentary control, divided into two political parties, the Hats and the Caps. Ehrensvärd had been supported by the Hats, so when the Caps rose to power in 1766 he was relieved of his post and replaced with ardent Caps supporter Christopher Falkengréen. However, after 1769 when the Hats regained power, Ehrensvärd was again placed in command of the Swedish archipelago fleet in Finland, officially the ''arméens flotta'' ("fleet of the army"), and returned to Sveaborg. But additional progress had not been made on the fortifications when Ehrensvärd died in 1772. Efforts to improve the fortress continued under Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten, but his tenure was cut short by disagreements with King Gustav III. Once again efforts slowed down as garrisons were reduced, and in 1776 Sveaborg's commander reported that he could not even man one-tenth of the artillery placed in the fort. Even at the start of the Russo-Swedish War in 1788 Sveaborg remained in an incomplete state. Facilities for constructing ships for the Swedish archipelago fleet were built at Sveaborg in the 1760s. In 1764 the first three archipelago frigates were launched from there. In addition to the construction of the fortifications and ships, naval officer training was started by Ehrensvärd at his own expense at Sveaborg in 1770. It took until 1779 before a naval military school was formally founded there. ==== Servizz ==== Sveaborg was formed and stocked according to the needs of the Swedish archipelago fleet and thus was unable to repair and refit the Swedish battlefleet after the battle of Hogland. Facilities were also found lacking at Sveaborg, especially in the areas intended for taking care of the sick and wounded. Russian control of the waters outside of Sveaborg practically blockaded the Swedish battlefleet to Sveaborg. By cutting the coastal sea route past Hangö, Russians prevented supplies from being shipped from Sweden to Sveaborg. The Swedish fleet finally managed to set sail for its base at Karlskrona on 20 November when the Baltic Sea had already frozen severely enough that ice had to be sawed open before some ships could move. The fleet could not overwinter at Sveaborg since it lacked the facilities and supplies for fitting the ships. While the route to Sweden was open again in late 1788 and in early 1789, Russian ships cut the connection from Sveaborg to Sweden by forming a blockade at Porkkala cape. Sveaborg was the most important location for archipelago fleet's ship construction and fitting during the war. Even so, and despite efforts, several ships remained unfinished at Sveaborg until the end of the war. The importance of Sveaborg did not escape the Russians whose broad operational plan for 1790 included a siege of Sveaborg both from sea and land. Following a pact between Alexander I and Napoleon, Russia launched a campaign against Sweden and occupied Finland in 1808. The Russians easily took Helsingfors in early 1808 and began bombarding the fortress. Its commander, Carl Olof Cronstedt, negotiated a cease-fire. When no Swedish reinforcements had arrived by May, Sveaborg, with almost 7,000 men, surrendered. The reasons for Cronstedt's actions remain somewhat unclear; but the hopeless situation, psychological warfare by the Russians, some (possibly) bribed advisors, fear for the lives of a large civilian population, lack of gunpowder, and their physical isolation are some likely causes for the surrender. By the Treaty of Fredrikshamn in 1809, Sweden ceded its eastern territory of Finland and the Grand Duchy of Finland was established within the Russian Empire. The Swedish period in Finnish history, which had lasted some seven centuries, came to an end. === Tmexxija Russa === After taking over the fortress, the Russians started an extensive building program, mostly extra barracks, and extended the dockyard and reinforced the fortification lines. The long period of peace following the transfer of power was shattered by the Crimean War of 1853–56. The French–British–Ottoman alliance decided to engage Russia on two fronts and sent an Anglo-French fleet to the Baltic Sea. For two summers during the Åland War the fleet shelled the towns and fortifications along the Finnish coast. The bombardment of Sveaborg (also known then as ''Viapori'') by the forces of Richard Saunders Dundas and Charles Pénaud on 9–10 August 1855 lasted 47 hours and the fortress was badly damaged, but they were unable to knock out the Russian guns. After the bombardment, the Anglo-French fleet sent no troops ashore and instead set sail for Kronstadt. After the Crimean War extensive restoration work was begun at Sveaborg. A new ring of earthworks with artillery emplacements was built at the western and southern edges of the islands. The next stage in the arming of Sveaborg and the Gulf of Finland came in the build-up to World War I. The fortress and its surrounding islands became part of "Peter the Great's naval fortification" designed to safeguard the capital, Saint Petersburg. === Sjieda Finlandiża === Following the Russian Revolution in 1917, Finland declared independence, but Sveaborg remained under the control of Russian military forces. During the Finnish Civil War, they handed part of it over to the Finnish Red Guard in March 1918. The Whites captured the fortress with the support of German forces in early April. Sveaborg received its current name, ''Suomenlinna'' ("Castle of Finland"), on May 12, 1918, when the red-yellow lion flag—used temporarily as Finland's national flag—was ceremoniously raised on the flagpole of Gustavssvärd, and eight salutes were fired from two Russian field cannons. The flag-raising ceremony was attended by distinguished guests, including members of the Senate, the city council, and several high-ranking military officers. The name change of the fortress was proposed by Senator Kyösti Kallio. In 1918 and 1919, the islands housed a large prison camp in the aftermath of the civil war. Of the 10,000 Red Guard prisoners held at the Suomenlinna prison camp, over 1,000 died of hunger and disease. Eighty prisoners were executed. After the civil war, the fortress functioned as a Finnish garrison. A coastal artillery regiment, the Naval Academy, and a base for the mine-sweeping fleet were stationed on the islands. There were small-scale restoration efforts, and interest in the fortress as a tourist destination started to grow. During the Winter War in 1939–1940, Suomenlinna housed anti-aircraft and artillery units and served as a base for the submarine fleet. During the Continuation War, German military forces were stationed in Suomenlinna. The fortress sustained damage from bombings. After the war, the Valmet Shipyard at Suomenlinna built barges and trawlers as war reparations. It also constructed vessels for the Finnish Navy and Coast Guard, and repaired ships. For the 200th anniversary of the fortress in 1948, the courtyard of Susisaari (Vargö) Castle and Kustaanmiekka (Gustavssvärd) were restored. No longer very practical as a military base, Suomenlinna was turned over to civilian administration in 1973. An independent government department, the Governing Body of Suomenlinna, was formed to administer the unique complex. At the time there was some debate over its Finnish name, with some suggesting that the old name ''Viapori'' be restored, but the newer name was retained. The presence of the military on the islands has been drastically scaled down in recent decades. The Suomenlinna garrison houses the Naval Academy (Finnish: ''Merisotakoulu'') of the Finnish Navy on ''Pikku Mustasaari''. Suomenlinna still flies the war flag, or the swallow-tailed state flag of Finland. == Preżent == Suomenlinna is now one of the most popular tourist attractions in Helsinki as well as a popular picnicking spot for the city's inhabitants. In 2009, a record 713,000 people visited Suomenlinna, most between May and September. A number of museums exist on the island, as well as the last surviving Finnish submarine, ''Vesikko''. There are about 900 permanent inhabitants on the islands, and 350 people work there year-round. There is a minimum-security penal labor colony (Finnish: ''työsiirtola'') in Suomenlinna, whose inmates work on the maintenance and reconstruction of the fortifications. Only volunteer inmates who pledge non-use of controlled substances are accepted to the labour colony. For the general public, Suomenlinna is served by ferries all year, and a service tunnel supplying heating, water and electricity was built in 1982. In the beginning of the 1990s, the tunnel was modified so that it can also be used for emergency transport. Transport to and from the island is generally ceased between the hours of 0300 and 0600 daily, but is otherwise regular and frequent. Suomenlinna has been known as a location for avant-garde culture. In the mid-1980s, the Nordic Arts Centre was established on the island. Several buildings have been converted into artists' studios, which are let by the administration at reasonable rates. During the summer there is an art school for children. The performances of the Suomenlinna summer theater regularly draw full houses. Between 2 and 6 September 2015, the Finnish postal service ran a test of the use of drones to deliver parcels between Helsinki and Suomenlinna. The parcels were limited to 3 kg (7 lb) or less, and flights were under the control of a pilot. The island houses a backpackers' hostel operating in a converted school building, built in 1908 and having served as a Russian school (1909-1917), military office (1918-1919), Finnish school (1920-1959), and a canteen and entertainment venue for soldiers (1959-1972). Suomenlinna Church, built in 1854, was adapted in 1929 to include a lighthouse beacon. Both the church and beacon are still active today. The lighthouse beacon was modernised to use LED lighting in 2019. == Kronoloġija == * 1748: Building of Sveaborg begins under command of Augustin Ehrensvärd. * 1808: Sveaborg surrenders to Russia without any opposition during the Finnish War. * 1809: Treaty of Fredrikshamn: Finland becomes part of Russia. * 1855: Crimean War: Anglo–French navy bombards Sveaborg and causes substantial damage. * 1906: Sveaborg Rebellion: Russian soldiers plan to depose the tsar. * 1914–1917: A ring of ground and sea fortifications, called ''Krepost Sveaborg'', is built around Helsinki. * 1917: Finland becomes independent after the Russian Revolution. * 1918: Name ''Suomenlinna'' becomes the official name of the fortress in Finnish. Prison camp of Red rebels is located in Suomenlinna after the Finnish Civil War. * 1921 ''Valtion lentokonetehdas'' (State Aircraft Factory) started building airplanes and powered ice sleighs in Suomenlinna for the Finnish Air Force. In 1936 the factory moved to Tampere. * 1973: Suomenlinna becomes civil administration area. * 1991: Suomenlinna becomes a UNESCO World Heritage Site. == Letteratura == The Finnish-Swedish poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg wrote a poem called ''Sveaborg'', one of the 35 short poems that together constitute his epic ''The Tales of Ensign Stål''. It includes the following two verses about the fortress, which allude specifically to the "Gustav's Sword" (''Gustavssvärd'') bastion and its guns:<blockquote>It looks out over sea and fjord, With eyes of granite. It raises its Gustav's sword high, And proudly says: 'Come hither!' This sword is not lowered to strike, It only flashes and so destroys. Do not let the island be defiantly approached When the war comes. Do not disturb the queen of the sea In her moment of anger: She slings messages of death toward you, In the roar of a thousand cannons.</blockquote>Sveaborg is also mentioned in the lyrics of Gunnar Wennerberg's 1849 hymn ''O Gud, som styrer folkens öden'' ("Oh God, who steers the people's fate"), in which Sweden's "age-old freedom" is described as being "...our protection in gloomy dangers, our consolation in every bleached sorrow, our defence against the hegemon's forces, and stronger than Sveaborg". As these words were written forty years after the Swedish cession of Finland to Russia, the use of Sveaborg as a simile has deliberately historic overtones. George R. R. Martin wrote a short story about the surrender of Sveaborg, "The Fortress", when he was a college student. It was published in his 2007 volume of short stories, ''Dreamsongs''.^{[''non-primary source needed'']} == Referenzi == ra73j6w94hvvusx50gnfkgfp7wmgo6t 323825 323823 2025-06-30T16:51:21Z Trigcly 17859 żieda stampa 323825 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Suomenlinna aerial.JPG|daqsminuri|Veduta tal-Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna mill-ajru.]] Il-'''Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna''' (bil-[[Lingwa Finlandiża|Finlandiż]]: [ˈsuo̯menˌlinːɑ]), jew '''Sveaborg''' (bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]]: [ˈsvɛːɑˈborj]) hija fortizza tal-baħar magħmula minn tmien gżejjer, sitta minnhom iffortifikati. Il-fortizza tinsab madwar 4 kilometri fix-Xlokk taċ-ċentru ta' [[Ħelsinki|Helsinki]], il-belt kapitali tal-[[Finlandja]], u hija destinazzjoni popolari mat-turisti u man-nies tal-post, li jżuruh l-iktar bħala post pittoresk għall-picnics. Il-kostruzzjoni tal-fortizza bdiet fl-1748 taħt il-monarkija [[Żvezja|Żvediża]] bħala difiża kontra r-[[Russja]]. Ir-responsabbiltà ġenerali għax-xogħol ta' fortifikazzjoni ngħatat lill-Ammirall [[Augustin Ehrensvärd]]. Il-pjanta oriġinali tal-fortizza bħala bastjun ġiet influwenzata ferm minn [[Vauban]], inġinier militari [[Franza|Franċiż]] rinomat, u kienet tinkorpora l-prinċipji tal-fortifikazzjonijiet b'għamla ta' stilla, għalkemm adattati għal grupp ta' gżejjer tal-blat. Matul il-Gwerra Finlandiża, il-qawwiet Russi assedjaw il-fortizza fl-1808. Minkejja r-reputazzjoni mill-aqwa tagħha bħala l-"[[Ġibiltà]] tat-Tramuntana", il-fortizza arrendiet wara xahrejn biss, fit-3 ta' Mejju 1808. It-telf tagħha witta t-triq għall-okkupazzjoni Russa tal-Finlandja fl-1809, u għall-istabbiliment sussegwenti tal-Gran Dukat tal-Finlandja, stat awtonomu fi ħdan l-[[Imperu Russu]]. Taħt it-tmexxija Russa, il-fortizza ntużat bħala bażi għall-Flotta Navali Baltika matul [[l-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija]], u fl-1915 bdiet il-kostruzzjoni fuq is-sistema tad-difiża tal-''Krepost Sveaborg''. Il-qawwiet Russi abbandunaw il-fortizza wara li l-Finlandja ddikjarat l-indipendenza fl-1917. Oriġinarjament il-fortizza kienet imsejħa ''Sveaborg'' (jiġifieri "Fortizza tal-Iżvezja") u bil-Finlandiż kienet magħrufa bħala '''Viapori''' (pronunzja: [ˈviaˌpori]), iżda bdiet tissejjaħ ''Suomenlinna'' (jiġifieri "Fortizza tal-Finlandja") fl-1918. Madankollu, bl-Iżvediż għadha tissejjaħ bl-isem oriġinali. Wara l-Gwerra Ċivili Finlandiża, il-gżejjer kienu jospitaw il-kamp tal-priġunieri ta' Suomenlinna fejn kienu jinżammu s-suldati Ħomor li kienu jinqabdu. Il-Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna baqgħet taħt il-kontroll tad-Dipartiment tad-Difiża tal-Finlandja sal-1973, meta biċċa l-kbira minnha ġiet ittrasferita lill-amministrazzjoni ċivili. Il-fortizza famuża għall-fortifikazzjonijiet u għall-bastjuni tagħha tniżżlet fil-lista tas-[[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji|Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]] fl-1991. == [[Ġeografija]] == Id-distrett ta' Suomenlinna ta' Helsinki jinsab fix-Xlokk taċ-ċentru ta' Helsinki u jikkonsisti minn tmien gżejjer. Ħamsa mill-gżejjer huma kkollegati permezz ta' pontijiet jew bir-radam bejniethom. Länsi-Mustasaari (Västersvartö) hija kkollegata ma' Pikku Mustasaari (Lilla Östersvartö), li hija kkollegata ma' Iso Mustasaari (Stora Östersvartö), li mbagħad hija kkollegata ma' Susisaari (Vargö). Susisaari ġiet ikkollegata ma' Susiluoto (Vargskär) bir-radam li ntefa' fil-passaġġ tal-ilma bejniethom matul żmien ir-Russi. Din il-gżira, li għandha l-ikbar konċentrazzjoni ta' fortifikazzjonijiet ġiet imsejħa ''Gustavssvärd'' (Kustaanmiekka, li tfisser "ix-xabla ta' Gustav") fi żmien il-kostruzzjoni mill-Iżvezja. It-tliet gżejjer mhux ikkollegati huma Särkkä (Långören), Lonna (Lonnan), u Pormestarinluodot (Borgmästargrundet). L-erja tal-art totali tad-distrett fiha 80 ettaru (0.80 kilometri kwadri; 0.31 mili kwadri). Minflok ma jsegwu s-sistema standard Finlandiża tal-indirizzi postali, b'isem it-triq u n-numru tad-dar, l-indirizzi f'Suomenlinna jużaw kodiċi bl-ittri għall-gżira segwit min-numru tad-dar. Pereżempju, "C 83" jirreferi għad-dar nru 83 f'Iso-Mustasaari (iddeżinjata bl-ittra "C"). Il-kodiċi postali tad-distrett ta' Suomenlinna huwa 00190. == [[Storja]] == === Żmien l-Iżvediżi === ==== Sfond ==== Minn kmieni fil-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana, ir-Russja ħadet vantaġġ mid-dgħufija Żvediża f'Ingria (bl-Iżvediż: ''Ingermanland'') u ħatfet l-inħawi qrib ix-xmara Neva kif ukoll il-fortijiet Żvediżi, Nyen u Nöteborg, li nbnew biex jipproteġuha. Fl-1703, [[Pietru l-Kbir]] stabbilixxa l-belt kapitali l-ġdida tiegħu, [[San Pietruburgu]], fil-Golf tal-Finlandja. Qrib il-wasla tal-belt huwa bena l-bażi navali ffortifikata ta' [[Kronstadt]]. Ir-Russja f'qasir żmien saret qawwa marittima u importanti fil-Baħar Baltiku. Din is-sitwazzjoni kienet ta' theddida għall-Iżvezja, li sa dak iż-żmien kienet il-qawwa dominanti fil-Baltiku. Dan ħareġ sew fid-dieher bl-użu tal-forzi navali meta r-Russja ħatfet lil Viborg fl-1710. Il-bażi navali Żvediża prinċipali f'[[Karlskrona]] kienet 'il bogħod wisq lejn in-Nofsinhar biex tissodisfa l-ħtiġijiet il-ġodda tal-forza navali Żvediża fis-seklu 18, u spiss dan wassal biex il-bastimenti Żvediżi kienu jaslu fil-kosta tal-Finlandja wara l-bastimenti u t-truppi Russi diġà kienu bdew jew saħansitra temmew il-kampanji militari tagħhom tar-rebbiegħa. In-nuqqas ta' difiżi kostali nħass sew bl-iżbarki Russi f'Helsingfors fir-rebbiegħa tal-1713 u bil-falliment tal-Iżvezja li timblokka l-[[Peniżola]] ta' Hanko fl-1714. Kampanja militari navali Russa kontra l-kosta Żvediża lejn l-aħħar tal-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana kompliet turi l-ħtieġa li jiġu żviluppati difiżi kostali Finlandiżi. Eżatt wara li ntemmet il-gwerra, daħħlu fis-seħħ l-ewwel pjanijiet fl-Iżvezja biex tinbena flotta tal-[[arċipelagu]] u bażi tal-operazzjonijiet għaliha fil-Finlandja. Madankollu, fir-rigward ta' Sveaborg ma seħħ xejn qabel tmiem il-Gwerra bejn ir-Russja u l-Iżvezja tal-1741–1743. Il-fortifikazzjonijiet tħallew mhux kompluti f'Hamina u f'Lappeenranta filwaqt li Hämeenlinna kienet qed tinbena bħala bażi tal-provvisti. In-nuqqas ta' fondi, in-nuqqas ta' rieda li jiġu allokati fondi għad-difiża tal-Finlandja, u t-twemmin (li beda jfeġġ eżatt qabel il-gwerra) li r-Russja kienet se tiġi obbligata tirtira mill-Baħar Baltiku kienu l-kawżi ewlenin li wasslu għan-nuqqas ta' progress. Il-Gwerra suċċessiva bejn ir-Russja u l-Iżvezja tal-1741–1743, li malajr inbidlet minn attakk Żvediż għal okkupazzjoni Russa tal-Finlandja, mill-ġdid uriet l-importanza li jiġu żviluppati l-fortifikazzjonijiet fil-Finlandja. In-nuqqas ta' bażi għall-operazzjonijiet tal-forzi navali għamilha diffiċli biex il-flotta navali Żvediża topera fl-inħawi. Stati [[Ewropa|Ewropej]] oħra kienu mħassbin ukoll dwar l-iżviluppi rigward ir-Russja, speċjalment Franza, li kienet ikkonkludiet alleanza militari mal-Iżvezja. Wara dibattitu fit-tul, il-parlament Żvediż iddeċieda fl-1747 li jiffortifika l-fruntiera mar-Russja u jistabbilixxi bażi navali f'Helsingfors biex tikkontrabatti l-bażi navali ta' Kronstadt. Augustin Ehrensvärd (1710–1772), kurunell logutenet żagħżugħ, ingħata r-responsabbiltà li jiddisinja l-fortizzi u li jidderieġi l-operazzjonijiet tal-kostruzzjoni. ==== Kostruzzjoni ==== L-Iżvezja bdiet tibni l-fortizzi f'Jannar 1748. Il-pjanta ta' Ehrensvärd kien fiha żewġ fortifikazzjonijiet: fortizza tal-baħar f'Svartholm qrib ir-raħal żgħir ta' Lovisa, u fortizza tal-baħar ikbar u bażi navali (Sveaborg) f'Helsingfors. Kien hemm żewġ aspetti prinċipali tad-disinn ta' Ehrensvärd għal Sveaborg: sensiela ta' fortifikazzjonijiet indipendenti tul diversi gżejjer kollegati, u fil-qalba nett tal-kumpless, tarzna tal-flotta navali. Minbarra l-gżira-fortizza stess, fortifikazzjonijiet iħarsu lejn il-baħar fuq l-art kontinentali kellhom jiżguraw li l-għadu ma jiżbarkax fil-bajjiet biex imbagħad jattakka l-forti tal-baħar. Il-pjanta kienet tinkludi wkoll il-ħżin tal-munizzjon għall-kontinġent Finlandiż kollu tal-Armata Żvediża u tal-Flotta Navali Rjali Żvediża hemmhekk. Saru pjanijiet addizzjonali ta' fortifikazzjoni tal-Peniżola ta' Hanko, iżda dawn ġew posposti. Il-kostruzzjoni bdiet fil-bidu tal-1748 u baqgħet tespandi, tant li sa Settembru kien hemm madwar 2,500 [[raġel]] jibnu l-fortizzi. Inizjalment is-suldati kienu stazzjonati fil-volti tal-fortifikazzjonijiet, filwaqt li l-fizzjali kellhom kwartieri mibnijin apposta li kienu integrati fil-kompożizzjoni [[Barokk|Barokka]] ġenerali tal-belt. L-iżjed pjan ambizzjuż tħalla nofsu komplut biss: [[pjazza]] Barokka f'Iso Mustasaari li kienet parzjalment ibbażata fuq il-mudell ta' Place Vendôme f'[[Pariġi]]. Iktar ma x-xogħlijiet tal-kostruzzjoni mexew 'il quddiem, iktar ma nbnew binjiet residenzjali, bosta minnhom skont l-għamla tal-fortifikazzjonijiet. Ehrensvärd u wħud mill-fizzjali l-oħra kienu artisti akkaniti li kienu jpittru biż-żejt fuq it-tila u kienu jippreżentaw veduta tal-ħajja fil-fortizza matul il-kostruzzjoni tagħha, u kienu jagħtu l-impressjoni ta' komunità ta' "raħal fortizza" fuq tagħha. Minħabba t-theddidiet Russi ripetuti fl-1749 u fl-1750, saru iktar sforzi b'rabta mal-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-gżejjer a skapitu ta' dawk fuq l-art kontinentali, sabiex bażi sikura għall-operazzjonijiet setgħet tiġi żgurata għall-unitajiet navali Żvediżi tul il-kosta Finlandiża. Bl-użu tal-militar fil-gwarniġjon fil-Finlandja bħala l-forza tax-xogħol, il-kostruzzjoni baqgħet għaddejja b'iktar minn 6,000 ħaddiem fl-1750. Il-fortifikazzjonijiet f'Gustavssvärd tlestew fl-1751 u l-fortifikazzjonijiet prinċipali f'Vargö tlestew fl-1754. Il-fortizza kienet operazzjonali għalkollox għalkemm ma kinitx kompluta. Dawn il-kisbiet ma xekklux l-andament tal-kostruzzjoni u fl-1755 kien hemm 7,000 ħaddiem jaħdmu fil-kostruzzjoni tal-fortifikazzjonijiet 'il barra minn Helsingfors li dak iż-żmien kellha madwar 2,000 resident. Ix-xogħol sostanzjali ta' fortifikazzjoni fil-gżejjer fin-Nofsinhar tar-raħal wassal biex ikollha importanza ġdida u mhux mistennija. Il-parteċipazzjoni tal-Iżvezja fil-Gwerra tas-Seba' Snin rażżnet l-isforz ta' kostruzzjoni fl-1757, u wasslet ukoll għat-tmiem tal-fażi ta' kostruzzjoni rapida ta' Sveaborg. This period in Swedish history was known as the Age of Liberty, during which the kingdom was under increased parliamentary control, divided into two political parties, the Hats and the Caps. Ehrensvärd had been supported by the Hats, so when the Caps rose to power in 1766 he was relieved of his post and replaced with ardent Caps supporter Christopher Falkengréen. However, after 1769 when the Hats regained power, Ehrensvärd was again placed in command of the Swedish archipelago fleet in Finland, officially the ''arméens flotta'' ("fleet of the army"), and returned to Sveaborg. But additional progress had not been made on the fortifications when Ehrensvärd died in 1772. Efforts to improve the fortress continued under Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten, but his tenure was cut short by disagreements with King Gustav III. Once again efforts slowed down as garrisons were reduced, and in 1776 Sveaborg's commander reported that he could not even man one-tenth of the artillery placed in the fort. Even at the start of the Russo-Swedish War in 1788 Sveaborg remained in an incomplete state. Facilities for constructing ships for the Swedish archipelago fleet were built at Sveaborg in the 1760s. In 1764 the first three archipelago frigates were launched from there. In addition to the construction of the fortifications and ships, naval officer training was started by Ehrensvärd at his own expense at Sveaborg in 1770. It took until 1779 before a naval military school was formally founded there. ==== Servizz ==== Sveaborg was formed and stocked according to the needs of the Swedish archipelago fleet and thus was unable to repair and refit the Swedish battlefleet after the battle of Hogland. Facilities were also found lacking at Sveaborg, especially in the areas intended for taking care of the sick and wounded. Russian control of the waters outside of Sveaborg practically blockaded the Swedish battlefleet to Sveaborg. By cutting the coastal sea route past Hangö, Russians prevented supplies from being shipped from Sweden to Sveaborg. The Swedish fleet finally managed to set sail for its base at Karlskrona on 20 November when the Baltic Sea had already frozen severely enough that ice had to be sawed open before some ships could move. The fleet could not overwinter at Sveaborg since it lacked the facilities and supplies for fitting the ships. While the route to Sweden was open again in late 1788 and in early 1789, Russian ships cut the connection from Sveaborg to Sweden by forming a blockade at Porkkala cape. Sveaborg was the most important location for archipelago fleet's ship construction and fitting during the war. Even so, and despite efforts, several ships remained unfinished at Sveaborg until the end of the war. The importance of Sveaborg did not escape the Russians whose broad operational plan for 1790 included a siege of Sveaborg both from sea and land. Following a pact between Alexander I and Napoleon, Russia launched a campaign against Sweden and occupied Finland in 1808. The Russians easily took Helsingfors in early 1808 and began bombarding the fortress. Its commander, Carl Olof Cronstedt, negotiated a cease-fire. When no Swedish reinforcements had arrived by May, Sveaborg, with almost 7,000 men, surrendered. The reasons for Cronstedt's actions remain somewhat unclear; but the hopeless situation, psychological warfare by the Russians, some (possibly) bribed advisors, fear for the lives of a large civilian population, lack of gunpowder, and their physical isolation are some likely causes for the surrender. By the Treaty of Fredrikshamn in 1809, Sweden ceded its eastern territory of Finland and the Grand Duchy of Finland was established within the Russian Empire. The Swedish period in Finnish history, which had lasted some seven centuries, came to an end. === Tmexxija Russa === After taking over the fortress, the Russians started an extensive building program, mostly extra barracks, and extended the dockyard and reinforced the fortification lines. The long period of peace following the transfer of power was shattered by the Crimean War of 1853–56. The French–British–Ottoman alliance decided to engage Russia on two fronts and sent an Anglo-French fleet to the Baltic Sea. For two summers during the Åland War the fleet shelled the towns and fortifications along the Finnish coast. The bombardment of Sveaborg (also known then as ''Viapori'') by the forces of Richard Saunders Dundas and Charles Pénaud on 9–10 August 1855 lasted 47 hours and the fortress was badly damaged, but they were unable to knock out the Russian guns. After the bombardment, the Anglo-French fleet sent no troops ashore and instead set sail for Kronstadt. After the Crimean War extensive restoration work was begun at Sveaborg. A new ring of earthworks with artillery emplacements was built at the western and southern edges of the islands. The next stage in the arming of Sveaborg and the Gulf of Finland came in the build-up to World War I. The fortress and its surrounding islands became part of "Peter the Great's naval fortification" designed to safeguard the capital, Saint Petersburg. === Sjieda Finlandiża === Following the Russian Revolution in 1917, Finland declared independence, but Sveaborg remained under the control of Russian military forces. During the Finnish Civil War, they handed part of it over to the Finnish Red Guard in March 1918. The Whites captured the fortress with the support of German forces in early April. Sveaborg received its current name, ''Suomenlinna'' ("Castle of Finland"), on May 12, 1918, when the red-yellow lion flag—used temporarily as Finland's national flag—was ceremoniously raised on the flagpole of Gustavssvärd, and eight salutes were fired from two Russian field cannons. The flag-raising ceremony was attended by distinguished guests, including members of the Senate, the city council, and several high-ranking military officers. The name change of the fortress was proposed by Senator Kyösti Kallio. In 1918 and 1919, the islands housed a large prison camp in the aftermath of the civil war. Of the 10,000 Red Guard prisoners held at the Suomenlinna prison camp, over 1,000 died of hunger and disease. Eighty prisoners were executed. After the civil war, the fortress functioned as a Finnish garrison. A coastal artillery regiment, the Naval Academy, and a base for the mine-sweeping fleet were stationed on the islands. There were small-scale restoration efforts, and interest in the fortress as a tourist destination started to grow. During the Winter War in 1939–1940, Suomenlinna housed anti-aircraft and artillery units and served as a base for the submarine fleet. During the Continuation War, German military forces were stationed in Suomenlinna. The fortress sustained damage from bombings. After the war, the Valmet Shipyard at Suomenlinna built barges and trawlers as war reparations. It also constructed vessels for the Finnish Navy and Coast Guard, and repaired ships. For the 200th anniversary of the fortress in 1948, the courtyard of Susisaari (Vargö) Castle and Kustaanmiekka (Gustavssvärd) were restored. No longer very practical as a military base, Suomenlinna was turned over to civilian administration in 1973. An independent government department, the Governing Body of Suomenlinna, was formed to administer the unique complex. At the time there was some debate over its Finnish name, with some suggesting that the old name ''Viapori'' be restored, but the newer name was retained. The presence of the military on the islands has been drastically scaled down in recent decades. The Suomenlinna garrison houses the Naval Academy (Finnish: ''Merisotakoulu'') of the Finnish Navy on ''Pikku Mustasaari''. Suomenlinna still flies the war flag, or the swallow-tailed state flag of Finland. == Preżent == Suomenlinna is now one of the most popular tourist attractions in Helsinki as well as a popular picnicking spot for the city's inhabitants. In 2009, a record 713,000 people visited Suomenlinna, most between May and September. A number of museums exist on the island, as well as the last surviving Finnish submarine, ''Vesikko''. There are about 900 permanent inhabitants on the islands, and 350 people work there year-round. There is a minimum-security penal labor colony (Finnish: ''työsiirtola'') in Suomenlinna, whose inmates work on the maintenance and reconstruction of the fortifications. Only volunteer inmates who pledge non-use of controlled substances are accepted to the labour colony. For the general public, Suomenlinna is served by ferries all year, and a service tunnel supplying heating, water and electricity was built in 1982. In the beginning of the 1990s, the tunnel was modified so that it can also be used for emergency transport. Transport to and from the island is generally ceased between the hours of 0300 and 0600 daily, but is otherwise regular and frequent. Suomenlinna has been known as a location for avant-garde culture. In the mid-1980s, the Nordic Arts Centre was established on the island. Several buildings have been converted into artists' studios, which are let by the administration at reasonable rates. During the summer there is an art school for children. The performances of the Suomenlinna summer theater regularly draw full houses. Between 2 and 6 September 2015, the Finnish postal service ran a test of the use of drones to deliver parcels between Helsinki and Suomenlinna. The parcels were limited to 3 kg (7 lb) or less, and flights were under the control of a pilot. The island houses a backpackers' hostel operating in a converted school building, built in 1908 and having served as a Russian school (1909-1917), military office (1918-1919), Finnish school (1920-1959), and a canteen and entertainment venue for soldiers (1959-1972). Suomenlinna Church, built in 1854, was adapted in 1929 to include a lighthouse beacon. Both the church and beacon are still active today. The lighthouse beacon was modernised to use LED lighting in 2019. == Kronoloġija == * 1748: Building of Sveaborg begins under command of Augustin Ehrensvärd. * 1808: Sveaborg surrenders to Russia without any opposition during the Finnish War. * 1809: Treaty of Fredrikshamn: Finland becomes part of Russia. * 1855: Crimean War: Anglo–French navy bombards Sveaborg and causes substantial damage. * 1906: Sveaborg Rebellion: Russian soldiers plan to depose the tsar. * 1914–1917: A ring of ground and sea fortifications, called ''Krepost Sveaborg'', is built around Helsinki. * 1917: Finland becomes independent after the Russian Revolution. * 1918: Name ''Suomenlinna'' becomes the official name of the fortress in Finnish. Prison camp of Red rebels is located in Suomenlinna after the Finnish Civil War. * 1921 ''Valtion lentokonetehdas'' (State Aircraft Factory) started building airplanes and powered ice sleighs in Suomenlinna for the Finnish Air Force. In 1936 the factory moved to Tampere. * 1973: Suomenlinna becomes civil administration area. * 1991: Suomenlinna becomes a UNESCO World Heritage Site. == Letteratura == The Finnish-Swedish poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg wrote a poem called ''Sveaborg'', one of the 35 short poems that together constitute his epic ''The Tales of Ensign Stål''. It includes the following two verses about the fortress, which allude specifically to the "Gustav's Sword" (''Gustavssvärd'') bastion and its guns:<blockquote>It looks out over sea and fjord, With eyes of granite. It raises its Gustav's sword high, And proudly says: 'Come hither!' This sword is not lowered to strike, It only flashes and so destroys. Do not let the island be defiantly approached When the war comes. Do not disturb the queen of the sea In her moment of anger: She slings messages of death toward you, In the roar of a thousand cannons.</blockquote>Sveaborg is also mentioned in the lyrics of Gunnar Wennerberg's 1849 hymn ''O Gud, som styrer folkens öden'' ("Oh God, who steers the people's fate"), in which Sweden's "age-old freedom" is described as being "...our protection in gloomy dangers, our consolation in every bleached sorrow, our defence against the hegemon's forces, and stronger than Sveaborg". As these words were written forty years after the Swedish cession of Finland to Russia, the use of Sveaborg as a simile has deliberately historic overtones. George R. R. Martin wrote a short story about the surrender of Sveaborg, "The Fortress", when he was a college student. It was published in his 2007 volume of short stories, ''Dreamsongs''.^{[''non-primary source needed'']} == Referenzi == q2dvfs30zqxhfu7cjnkb8ba7djh4b6z 323826 323825 2025-06-30T16:51:39Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Fortizzi]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 323826 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Suomenlinna aerial.JPG|daqsminuri|Veduta tal-Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna mill-ajru.]] Il-'''Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna''' (bil-[[Lingwa Finlandiża|Finlandiż]]: [ˈsuo̯menˌlinːɑ]), jew '''Sveaborg''' (bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]]: [ˈsvɛːɑˈborj]) hija fortizza tal-baħar magħmula minn tmien gżejjer, sitta minnhom iffortifikati. Il-fortizza tinsab madwar 4 kilometri fix-Xlokk taċ-ċentru ta' [[Ħelsinki|Helsinki]], il-belt kapitali tal-[[Finlandja]], u hija destinazzjoni popolari mat-turisti u man-nies tal-post, li jżuruh l-iktar bħala post pittoresk għall-picnics. Il-kostruzzjoni tal-fortizza bdiet fl-1748 taħt il-monarkija [[Żvezja|Żvediża]] bħala difiża kontra r-[[Russja]]. Ir-responsabbiltà ġenerali għax-xogħol ta' fortifikazzjoni ngħatat lill-Ammirall [[Augustin Ehrensvärd]]. Il-pjanta oriġinali tal-fortizza bħala bastjun ġiet influwenzata ferm minn [[Vauban]], inġinier militari [[Franza|Franċiż]] rinomat, u kienet tinkorpora l-prinċipji tal-fortifikazzjonijiet b'għamla ta' stilla, għalkemm adattati għal grupp ta' gżejjer tal-blat. Matul il-Gwerra Finlandiża, il-qawwiet Russi assedjaw il-fortizza fl-1808. Minkejja r-reputazzjoni mill-aqwa tagħha bħala l-"[[Ġibiltà]] tat-Tramuntana", il-fortizza arrendiet wara xahrejn biss, fit-3 ta' Mejju 1808. It-telf tagħha witta t-triq għall-okkupazzjoni Russa tal-Finlandja fl-1809, u għall-istabbiliment sussegwenti tal-Gran Dukat tal-Finlandja, stat awtonomu fi ħdan l-[[Imperu Russu]]. Taħt it-tmexxija Russa, il-fortizza ntużat bħala bażi għall-Flotta Navali Baltika matul [[l-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija]], u fl-1915 bdiet il-kostruzzjoni fuq is-sistema tad-difiża tal-''Krepost Sveaborg''. Il-qawwiet Russi abbandunaw il-fortizza wara li l-Finlandja ddikjarat l-indipendenza fl-1917. Oriġinarjament il-fortizza kienet imsejħa ''Sveaborg'' (jiġifieri "Fortizza tal-Iżvezja") u bil-Finlandiż kienet magħrufa bħala '''Viapori''' (pronunzja: [ˈviaˌpori]), iżda bdiet tissejjaħ ''Suomenlinna'' (jiġifieri "Fortizza tal-Finlandja") fl-1918. Madankollu, bl-Iżvediż għadha tissejjaħ bl-isem oriġinali. Wara l-Gwerra Ċivili Finlandiża, il-gżejjer kienu jospitaw il-kamp tal-priġunieri ta' Suomenlinna fejn kienu jinżammu s-suldati Ħomor li kienu jinqabdu. Il-Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna baqgħet taħt il-kontroll tad-Dipartiment tad-Difiża tal-Finlandja sal-1973, meta biċċa l-kbira minnha ġiet ittrasferita lill-amministrazzjoni ċivili. Il-fortizza famuża għall-fortifikazzjonijiet u għall-bastjuni tagħha tniżżlet fil-lista tas-[[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji|Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]] fl-1991. == [[Ġeografija]] == Id-distrett ta' Suomenlinna ta' Helsinki jinsab fix-Xlokk taċ-ċentru ta' Helsinki u jikkonsisti minn tmien gżejjer. Ħamsa mill-gżejjer huma kkollegati permezz ta' pontijiet jew bir-radam bejniethom. Länsi-Mustasaari (Västersvartö) hija kkollegata ma' Pikku Mustasaari (Lilla Östersvartö), li hija kkollegata ma' Iso Mustasaari (Stora Östersvartö), li mbagħad hija kkollegata ma' Susisaari (Vargö). Susisaari ġiet ikkollegata ma' Susiluoto (Vargskär) bir-radam li ntefa' fil-passaġġ tal-ilma bejniethom matul żmien ir-Russi. Din il-gżira, li għandha l-ikbar konċentrazzjoni ta' fortifikazzjonijiet ġiet imsejħa ''Gustavssvärd'' (Kustaanmiekka, li tfisser "ix-xabla ta' Gustav") fi żmien il-kostruzzjoni mill-Iżvezja. It-tliet gżejjer mhux ikkollegati huma Särkkä (Långören), Lonna (Lonnan), u Pormestarinluodot (Borgmästargrundet). L-erja tal-art totali tad-distrett fiha 80 ettaru (0.80 kilometri kwadri; 0.31 mili kwadri). Minflok ma jsegwu s-sistema standard Finlandiża tal-indirizzi postali, b'isem it-triq u n-numru tad-dar, l-indirizzi f'Suomenlinna jużaw kodiċi bl-ittri għall-gżira segwit min-numru tad-dar. Pereżempju, "C 83" jirreferi għad-dar nru 83 f'Iso-Mustasaari (iddeżinjata bl-ittra "C"). Il-kodiċi postali tad-distrett ta' Suomenlinna huwa 00190. == [[Storja]] == === Żmien l-Iżvediżi === ==== Sfond ==== Minn kmieni fil-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana, ir-Russja ħadet vantaġġ mid-dgħufija Żvediża f'Ingria (bl-Iżvediż: ''Ingermanland'') u ħatfet l-inħawi qrib ix-xmara Neva kif ukoll il-fortijiet Żvediżi, Nyen u Nöteborg, li nbnew biex jipproteġuha. Fl-1703, [[Pietru l-Kbir]] stabbilixxa l-belt kapitali l-ġdida tiegħu, [[San Pietruburgu]], fil-Golf tal-Finlandja. Qrib il-wasla tal-belt huwa bena l-bażi navali ffortifikata ta' [[Kronstadt]]. Ir-Russja f'qasir żmien saret qawwa marittima u importanti fil-Baħar Baltiku. Din is-sitwazzjoni kienet ta' theddida għall-Iżvezja, li sa dak iż-żmien kienet il-qawwa dominanti fil-Baltiku. Dan ħareġ sew fid-dieher bl-użu tal-forzi navali meta r-Russja ħatfet lil Viborg fl-1710. Il-bażi navali Żvediża prinċipali f'[[Karlskrona]] kienet 'il bogħod wisq lejn in-Nofsinhar biex tissodisfa l-ħtiġijiet il-ġodda tal-forza navali Żvediża fis-seklu 18, u spiss dan wassal biex il-bastimenti Żvediżi kienu jaslu fil-kosta tal-Finlandja wara l-bastimenti u t-truppi Russi diġà kienu bdew jew saħansitra temmew il-kampanji militari tagħhom tar-rebbiegħa. In-nuqqas ta' difiżi kostali nħass sew bl-iżbarki Russi f'Helsingfors fir-rebbiegħa tal-1713 u bil-falliment tal-Iżvezja li timblokka l-[[Peniżola]] ta' Hanko fl-1714. Kampanja militari navali Russa kontra l-kosta Żvediża lejn l-aħħar tal-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana kompliet turi l-ħtieġa li jiġu żviluppati difiżi kostali Finlandiżi. Eżatt wara li ntemmet il-gwerra, daħħlu fis-seħħ l-ewwel pjanijiet fl-Iżvezja biex tinbena flotta tal-[[arċipelagu]] u bażi tal-operazzjonijiet għaliha fil-Finlandja. Madankollu, fir-rigward ta' Sveaborg ma seħħ xejn qabel tmiem il-Gwerra bejn ir-Russja u l-Iżvezja tal-1741–1743. Il-fortifikazzjonijiet tħallew mhux kompluti f'Hamina u f'Lappeenranta filwaqt li Hämeenlinna kienet qed tinbena bħala bażi tal-provvisti. In-nuqqas ta' fondi, in-nuqqas ta' rieda li jiġu allokati fondi għad-difiża tal-Finlandja, u t-twemmin (li beda jfeġġ eżatt qabel il-gwerra) li r-Russja kienet se tiġi obbligata tirtira mill-Baħar Baltiku kienu l-kawżi ewlenin li wasslu għan-nuqqas ta' progress. Il-Gwerra suċċessiva bejn ir-Russja u l-Iżvezja tal-1741–1743, li malajr inbidlet minn attakk Żvediż għal okkupazzjoni Russa tal-Finlandja, mill-ġdid uriet l-importanza li jiġu żviluppati l-fortifikazzjonijiet fil-Finlandja. In-nuqqas ta' bażi għall-operazzjonijiet tal-forzi navali għamilha diffiċli biex il-flotta navali Żvediża topera fl-inħawi. Stati [[Ewropa|Ewropej]] oħra kienu mħassbin ukoll dwar l-iżviluppi rigward ir-Russja, speċjalment Franza, li kienet ikkonkludiet alleanza militari mal-Iżvezja. Wara dibattitu fit-tul, il-parlament Żvediż iddeċieda fl-1747 li jiffortifika l-fruntiera mar-Russja u jistabbilixxi bażi navali f'Helsingfors biex tikkontrabatti l-bażi navali ta' Kronstadt. Augustin Ehrensvärd (1710–1772), kurunell logutenet żagħżugħ, ingħata r-responsabbiltà li jiddisinja l-fortizzi u li jidderieġi l-operazzjonijiet tal-kostruzzjoni. ==== Kostruzzjoni ==== L-Iżvezja bdiet tibni l-fortizzi f'Jannar 1748. Il-pjanta ta' Ehrensvärd kien fiha żewġ fortifikazzjonijiet: fortizza tal-baħar f'Svartholm qrib ir-raħal żgħir ta' Lovisa, u fortizza tal-baħar ikbar u bażi navali (Sveaborg) f'Helsingfors. Kien hemm żewġ aspetti prinċipali tad-disinn ta' Ehrensvärd għal Sveaborg: sensiela ta' fortifikazzjonijiet indipendenti tul diversi gżejjer kollegati, u fil-qalba nett tal-kumpless, tarzna tal-flotta navali. Minbarra l-gżira-fortizza stess, fortifikazzjonijiet iħarsu lejn il-baħar fuq l-art kontinentali kellhom jiżguraw li l-għadu ma jiżbarkax fil-bajjiet biex imbagħad jattakka l-forti tal-baħar. Il-pjanta kienet tinkludi wkoll il-ħżin tal-munizzjon għall-kontinġent Finlandiż kollu tal-Armata Żvediża u tal-Flotta Navali Rjali Żvediża hemmhekk. Saru pjanijiet addizzjonali ta' fortifikazzjoni tal-Peniżola ta' Hanko, iżda dawn ġew posposti. Il-kostruzzjoni bdiet fil-bidu tal-1748 u baqgħet tespandi, tant li sa Settembru kien hemm madwar 2,500 [[raġel]] jibnu l-fortizzi. Inizjalment is-suldati kienu stazzjonati fil-volti tal-fortifikazzjonijiet, filwaqt li l-fizzjali kellhom kwartieri mibnijin apposta li kienu integrati fil-kompożizzjoni [[Barokk|Barokka]] ġenerali tal-belt. L-iżjed pjan ambizzjuż tħalla nofsu komplut biss: [[pjazza]] Barokka f'Iso Mustasaari li kienet parzjalment ibbażata fuq il-mudell ta' Place Vendôme f'[[Pariġi]]. Iktar ma x-xogħlijiet tal-kostruzzjoni mexew 'il quddiem, iktar ma nbnew binjiet residenzjali, bosta minnhom skont l-għamla tal-fortifikazzjonijiet. Ehrensvärd u wħud mill-fizzjali l-oħra kienu artisti akkaniti li kienu jpittru biż-żejt fuq it-tila u kienu jippreżentaw veduta tal-ħajja fil-fortizza matul il-kostruzzjoni tagħha, u kienu jagħtu l-impressjoni ta' komunità ta' "raħal fortizza" fuq tagħha. Minħabba t-theddidiet Russi ripetuti fl-1749 u fl-1750, saru iktar sforzi b'rabta mal-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-gżejjer a skapitu ta' dawk fuq l-art kontinentali, sabiex bażi sikura għall-operazzjonijiet setgħet tiġi żgurata għall-unitajiet navali Żvediżi tul il-kosta Finlandiża. Bl-użu tal-militar fil-gwarniġjon fil-Finlandja bħala l-forza tax-xogħol, il-kostruzzjoni baqgħet għaddejja b'iktar minn 6,000 ħaddiem fl-1750. Il-fortifikazzjonijiet f'Gustavssvärd tlestew fl-1751 u l-fortifikazzjonijiet prinċipali f'Vargö tlestew fl-1754. Il-fortizza kienet operazzjonali għalkollox għalkemm ma kinitx kompluta. Dawn il-kisbiet ma xekklux l-andament tal-kostruzzjoni u fl-1755 kien hemm 7,000 ħaddiem jaħdmu fil-kostruzzjoni tal-fortifikazzjonijiet 'il barra minn Helsingfors li dak iż-żmien kellha madwar 2,000 resident. Ix-xogħol sostanzjali ta' fortifikazzjoni fil-gżejjer fin-Nofsinhar tar-raħal wassal biex ikollha importanza ġdida u mhux mistennija. Il-parteċipazzjoni tal-Iżvezja fil-Gwerra tas-Seba' Snin rażżnet l-isforz ta' kostruzzjoni fl-1757, u wasslet ukoll għat-tmiem tal-fażi ta' kostruzzjoni rapida ta' Sveaborg. This period in Swedish history was known as the Age of Liberty, during which the kingdom was under increased parliamentary control, divided into two political parties, the Hats and the Caps. Ehrensvärd had been supported by the Hats, so when the Caps rose to power in 1766 he was relieved of his post and replaced with ardent Caps supporter Christopher Falkengréen. However, after 1769 when the Hats regained power, Ehrensvärd was again placed in command of the Swedish archipelago fleet in Finland, officially the ''arméens flotta'' ("fleet of the army"), and returned to Sveaborg. But additional progress had not been made on the fortifications when Ehrensvärd died in 1772. Efforts to improve the fortress continued under Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten, but his tenure was cut short by disagreements with King Gustav III. Once again efforts slowed down as garrisons were reduced, and in 1776 Sveaborg's commander reported that he could not even man one-tenth of the artillery placed in the fort. Even at the start of the Russo-Swedish War in 1788 Sveaborg remained in an incomplete state. Facilities for constructing ships for the Swedish archipelago fleet were built at Sveaborg in the 1760s. In 1764 the first three archipelago frigates were launched from there. In addition to the construction of the fortifications and ships, naval officer training was started by Ehrensvärd at his own expense at Sveaborg in 1770. It took until 1779 before a naval military school was formally founded there. ==== Servizz ==== Sveaborg was formed and stocked according to the needs of the Swedish archipelago fleet and thus was unable to repair and refit the Swedish battlefleet after the battle of Hogland. Facilities were also found lacking at Sveaborg, especially in the areas intended for taking care of the sick and wounded. Russian control of the waters outside of Sveaborg practically blockaded the Swedish battlefleet to Sveaborg. By cutting the coastal sea route past Hangö, Russians prevented supplies from being shipped from Sweden to Sveaborg. The Swedish fleet finally managed to set sail for its base at Karlskrona on 20 November when the Baltic Sea had already frozen severely enough that ice had to be sawed open before some ships could move. The fleet could not overwinter at Sveaborg since it lacked the facilities and supplies for fitting the ships. While the route to Sweden was open again in late 1788 and in early 1789, Russian ships cut the connection from Sveaborg to Sweden by forming a blockade at Porkkala cape. Sveaborg was the most important location for archipelago fleet's ship construction and fitting during the war. Even so, and despite efforts, several ships remained unfinished at Sveaborg until the end of the war. The importance of Sveaborg did not escape the Russians whose broad operational plan for 1790 included a siege of Sveaborg both from sea and land. Following a pact between Alexander I and Napoleon, Russia launched a campaign against Sweden and occupied Finland in 1808. The Russians easily took Helsingfors in early 1808 and began bombarding the fortress. Its commander, Carl Olof Cronstedt, negotiated a cease-fire. When no Swedish reinforcements had arrived by May, Sveaborg, with almost 7,000 men, surrendered. The reasons for Cronstedt's actions remain somewhat unclear; but the hopeless situation, psychological warfare by the Russians, some (possibly) bribed advisors, fear for the lives of a large civilian population, lack of gunpowder, and their physical isolation are some likely causes for the surrender. By the Treaty of Fredrikshamn in 1809, Sweden ceded its eastern territory of Finland and the Grand Duchy of Finland was established within the Russian Empire. The Swedish period in Finnish history, which had lasted some seven centuries, came to an end. === Tmexxija Russa === After taking over the fortress, the Russians started an extensive building program, mostly extra barracks, and extended the dockyard and reinforced the fortification lines. The long period of peace following the transfer of power was shattered by the Crimean War of 1853–56. The French–British–Ottoman alliance decided to engage Russia on two fronts and sent an Anglo-French fleet to the Baltic Sea. For two summers during the Åland War the fleet shelled the towns and fortifications along the Finnish coast. The bombardment of Sveaborg (also known then as ''Viapori'') by the forces of Richard Saunders Dundas and Charles Pénaud on 9–10 August 1855 lasted 47 hours and the fortress was badly damaged, but they were unable to knock out the Russian guns. After the bombardment, the Anglo-French fleet sent no troops ashore and instead set sail for Kronstadt. After the Crimean War extensive restoration work was begun at Sveaborg. A new ring of earthworks with artillery emplacements was built at the western and southern edges of the islands. The next stage in the arming of Sveaborg and the Gulf of Finland came in the build-up to World War I. The fortress and its surrounding islands became part of "Peter the Great's naval fortification" designed to safeguard the capital, Saint Petersburg. === Sjieda Finlandiża === Following the Russian Revolution in 1917, Finland declared independence, but Sveaborg remained under the control of Russian military forces. During the Finnish Civil War, they handed part of it over to the Finnish Red Guard in March 1918. The Whites captured the fortress with the support of German forces in early April. Sveaborg received its current name, ''Suomenlinna'' ("Castle of Finland"), on May 12, 1918, when the red-yellow lion flag—used temporarily as Finland's national flag—was ceremoniously raised on the flagpole of Gustavssvärd, and eight salutes were fired from two Russian field cannons. The flag-raising ceremony was attended by distinguished guests, including members of the Senate, the city council, and several high-ranking military officers. The name change of the fortress was proposed by Senator Kyösti Kallio. In 1918 and 1919, the islands housed a large prison camp in the aftermath of the civil war. Of the 10,000 Red Guard prisoners held at the Suomenlinna prison camp, over 1,000 died of hunger and disease. Eighty prisoners were executed. After the civil war, the fortress functioned as a Finnish garrison. A coastal artillery regiment, the Naval Academy, and a base for the mine-sweeping fleet were stationed on the islands. There were small-scale restoration efforts, and interest in the fortress as a tourist destination started to grow. During the Winter War in 1939–1940, Suomenlinna housed anti-aircraft and artillery units and served as a base for the submarine fleet. During the Continuation War, German military forces were stationed in Suomenlinna. The fortress sustained damage from bombings. After the war, the Valmet Shipyard at Suomenlinna built barges and trawlers as war reparations. It also constructed vessels for the Finnish Navy and Coast Guard, and repaired ships. For the 200th anniversary of the fortress in 1948, the courtyard of Susisaari (Vargö) Castle and Kustaanmiekka (Gustavssvärd) were restored. No longer very practical as a military base, Suomenlinna was turned over to civilian administration in 1973. An independent government department, the Governing Body of Suomenlinna, was formed to administer the unique complex. At the time there was some debate over its Finnish name, with some suggesting that the old name ''Viapori'' be restored, but the newer name was retained. The presence of the military on the islands has been drastically scaled down in recent decades. The Suomenlinna garrison houses the Naval Academy (Finnish: ''Merisotakoulu'') of the Finnish Navy on ''Pikku Mustasaari''. Suomenlinna still flies the war flag, or the swallow-tailed state flag of Finland. == Preżent == Suomenlinna is now one of the most popular tourist attractions in Helsinki as well as a popular picnicking spot for the city's inhabitants. In 2009, a record 713,000 people visited Suomenlinna, most between May and September. A number of museums exist on the island, as well as the last surviving Finnish submarine, ''Vesikko''. There are about 900 permanent inhabitants on the islands, and 350 people work there year-round. There is a minimum-security penal labor colony (Finnish: ''työsiirtola'') in Suomenlinna, whose inmates work on the maintenance and reconstruction of the fortifications. Only volunteer inmates who pledge non-use of controlled substances are accepted to the labour colony. For the general public, Suomenlinna is served by ferries all year, and a service tunnel supplying heating, water and electricity was built in 1982. In the beginning of the 1990s, the tunnel was modified so that it can also be used for emergency transport. Transport to and from the island is generally ceased between the hours of 0300 and 0600 daily, but is otherwise regular and frequent. Suomenlinna has been known as a location for avant-garde culture. In the mid-1980s, the Nordic Arts Centre was established on the island. Several buildings have been converted into artists' studios, which are let by the administration at reasonable rates. During the summer there is an art school for children. The performances of the Suomenlinna summer theater regularly draw full houses. Between 2 and 6 September 2015, the Finnish postal service ran a test of the use of drones to deliver parcels between Helsinki and Suomenlinna. The parcels were limited to 3 kg (7 lb) or less, and flights were under the control of a pilot. The island houses a backpackers' hostel operating in a converted school building, built in 1908 and having served as a Russian school (1909-1917), military office (1918-1919), Finnish school (1920-1959), and a canteen and entertainment venue for soldiers (1959-1972). Suomenlinna Church, built in 1854, was adapted in 1929 to include a lighthouse beacon. Both the church and beacon are still active today. The lighthouse beacon was modernised to use LED lighting in 2019. == Kronoloġija == * 1748: Building of Sveaborg begins under command of Augustin Ehrensvärd. * 1808: Sveaborg surrenders to Russia without any opposition during the Finnish War. * 1809: Treaty of Fredrikshamn: Finland becomes part of Russia. * 1855: Crimean War: Anglo–French navy bombards Sveaborg and causes substantial damage. * 1906: Sveaborg Rebellion: Russian soldiers plan to depose the tsar. * 1914–1917: A ring of ground and sea fortifications, called ''Krepost Sveaborg'', is built around Helsinki. * 1917: Finland becomes independent after the Russian Revolution. * 1918: Name ''Suomenlinna'' becomes the official name of the fortress in Finnish. Prison camp of Red rebels is located in Suomenlinna after the Finnish Civil War. * 1921 ''Valtion lentokonetehdas'' (State Aircraft Factory) started building airplanes and powered ice sleighs in Suomenlinna for the Finnish Air Force. In 1936 the factory moved to Tampere. * 1973: Suomenlinna becomes civil administration area. * 1991: Suomenlinna becomes a UNESCO World Heritage Site. == Letteratura == The Finnish-Swedish poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg wrote a poem called ''Sveaborg'', one of the 35 short poems that together constitute his epic ''The Tales of Ensign Stål''. It includes the following two verses about the fortress, which allude specifically to the "Gustav's Sword" (''Gustavssvärd'') bastion and its guns:<blockquote>It looks out over sea and fjord, With eyes of granite. It raises its Gustav's sword high, And proudly says: 'Come hither!' This sword is not lowered to strike, It only flashes and so destroys. Do not let the island be defiantly approached When the war comes. Do not disturb the queen of the sea In her moment of anger: She slings messages of death toward you, In the roar of a thousand cannons.</blockquote>Sveaborg is also mentioned in the lyrics of Gunnar Wennerberg's 1849 hymn ''O Gud, som styrer folkens öden'' ("Oh God, who steers the people's fate"), in which Sweden's "age-old freedom" is described as being "...our protection in gloomy dangers, our consolation in every bleached sorrow, our defence against the hegemon's forces, and stronger than Sveaborg". As these words were written forty years after the Swedish cession of Finland to Russia, the use of Sveaborg as a simile has deliberately historic overtones. George R. R. Martin wrote a short story about the surrender of Sveaborg, "The Fortress", when he was a college student. It was published in his 2007 volume of short stories, ''Dreamsongs''.^{[''non-primary source needed'']} == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Fortizzi]] kwvrjk1dny6a51tqr8atbqr2etpywx0 323827 323826 2025-06-30T16:51:47Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Fortifikazzjonijiet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 323827 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Suomenlinna aerial.JPG|daqsminuri|Veduta tal-Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna mill-ajru.]] Il-'''Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna''' (bil-[[Lingwa Finlandiża|Finlandiż]]: [ˈsuo̯menˌlinːɑ]), jew '''Sveaborg''' (bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]]: [ˈsvɛːɑˈborj]) hija fortizza tal-baħar magħmula minn tmien gżejjer, sitta minnhom iffortifikati. Il-fortizza tinsab madwar 4 kilometri fix-Xlokk taċ-ċentru ta' [[Ħelsinki|Helsinki]], il-belt kapitali tal-[[Finlandja]], u hija destinazzjoni popolari mat-turisti u man-nies tal-post, li jżuruh l-iktar bħala post pittoresk għall-picnics. Il-kostruzzjoni tal-fortizza bdiet fl-1748 taħt il-monarkija [[Żvezja|Żvediża]] bħala difiża kontra r-[[Russja]]. Ir-responsabbiltà ġenerali għax-xogħol ta' fortifikazzjoni ngħatat lill-Ammirall [[Augustin Ehrensvärd]]. Il-pjanta oriġinali tal-fortizza bħala bastjun ġiet influwenzata ferm minn [[Vauban]], inġinier militari [[Franza|Franċiż]] rinomat, u kienet tinkorpora l-prinċipji tal-fortifikazzjonijiet b'għamla ta' stilla, għalkemm adattati għal grupp ta' gżejjer tal-blat. Matul il-Gwerra Finlandiża, il-qawwiet Russi assedjaw il-fortizza fl-1808. Minkejja r-reputazzjoni mill-aqwa tagħha bħala l-"[[Ġibiltà]] tat-Tramuntana", il-fortizza arrendiet wara xahrejn biss, fit-3 ta' Mejju 1808. It-telf tagħha witta t-triq għall-okkupazzjoni Russa tal-Finlandja fl-1809, u għall-istabbiliment sussegwenti tal-Gran Dukat tal-Finlandja, stat awtonomu fi ħdan l-[[Imperu Russu]]. Taħt it-tmexxija Russa, il-fortizza ntużat bħala bażi għall-Flotta Navali Baltika matul [[l-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija]], u fl-1915 bdiet il-kostruzzjoni fuq is-sistema tad-difiża tal-''Krepost Sveaborg''. Il-qawwiet Russi abbandunaw il-fortizza wara li l-Finlandja ddikjarat l-indipendenza fl-1917. Oriġinarjament il-fortizza kienet imsejħa ''Sveaborg'' (jiġifieri "Fortizza tal-Iżvezja") u bil-Finlandiż kienet magħrufa bħala '''Viapori''' (pronunzja: [ˈviaˌpori]), iżda bdiet tissejjaħ ''Suomenlinna'' (jiġifieri "Fortizza tal-Finlandja") fl-1918. Madankollu, bl-Iżvediż għadha tissejjaħ bl-isem oriġinali. Wara l-Gwerra Ċivili Finlandiża, il-gżejjer kienu jospitaw il-kamp tal-priġunieri ta' Suomenlinna fejn kienu jinżammu s-suldati Ħomor li kienu jinqabdu. Il-Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna baqgħet taħt il-kontroll tad-Dipartiment tad-Difiża tal-Finlandja sal-1973, meta biċċa l-kbira minnha ġiet ittrasferita lill-amministrazzjoni ċivili. Il-fortizza famuża għall-fortifikazzjonijiet u għall-bastjuni tagħha tniżżlet fil-lista tas-[[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji|Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]] fl-1991. == [[Ġeografija]] == Id-distrett ta' Suomenlinna ta' Helsinki jinsab fix-Xlokk taċ-ċentru ta' Helsinki u jikkonsisti minn tmien gżejjer. Ħamsa mill-gżejjer huma kkollegati permezz ta' pontijiet jew bir-radam bejniethom. Länsi-Mustasaari (Västersvartö) hija kkollegata ma' Pikku Mustasaari (Lilla Östersvartö), li hija kkollegata ma' Iso Mustasaari (Stora Östersvartö), li mbagħad hija kkollegata ma' Susisaari (Vargö). Susisaari ġiet ikkollegata ma' Susiluoto (Vargskär) bir-radam li ntefa' fil-passaġġ tal-ilma bejniethom matul żmien ir-Russi. Din il-gżira, li għandha l-ikbar konċentrazzjoni ta' fortifikazzjonijiet ġiet imsejħa ''Gustavssvärd'' (Kustaanmiekka, li tfisser "ix-xabla ta' Gustav") fi żmien il-kostruzzjoni mill-Iżvezja. It-tliet gżejjer mhux ikkollegati huma Särkkä (Långören), Lonna (Lonnan), u Pormestarinluodot (Borgmästargrundet). L-erja tal-art totali tad-distrett fiha 80 ettaru (0.80 kilometri kwadri; 0.31 mili kwadri). Minflok ma jsegwu s-sistema standard Finlandiża tal-indirizzi postali, b'isem it-triq u n-numru tad-dar, l-indirizzi f'Suomenlinna jużaw kodiċi bl-ittri għall-gżira segwit min-numru tad-dar. Pereżempju, "C 83" jirreferi għad-dar nru 83 f'Iso-Mustasaari (iddeżinjata bl-ittra "C"). Il-kodiċi postali tad-distrett ta' Suomenlinna huwa 00190. == [[Storja]] == === Żmien l-Iżvediżi === ==== Sfond ==== Minn kmieni fil-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana, ir-Russja ħadet vantaġġ mid-dgħufija Żvediża f'Ingria (bl-Iżvediż: ''Ingermanland'') u ħatfet l-inħawi qrib ix-xmara Neva kif ukoll il-fortijiet Żvediżi, Nyen u Nöteborg, li nbnew biex jipproteġuha. Fl-1703, [[Pietru l-Kbir]] stabbilixxa l-belt kapitali l-ġdida tiegħu, [[San Pietruburgu]], fil-Golf tal-Finlandja. Qrib il-wasla tal-belt huwa bena l-bażi navali ffortifikata ta' [[Kronstadt]]. Ir-Russja f'qasir żmien saret qawwa marittima u importanti fil-Baħar Baltiku. Din is-sitwazzjoni kienet ta' theddida għall-Iżvezja, li sa dak iż-żmien kienet il-qawwa dominanti fil-Baltiku. Dan ħareġ sew fid-dieher bl-użu tal-forzi navali meta r-Russja ħatfet lil Viborg fl-1710. Il-bażi navali Żvediża prinċipali f'[[Karlskrona]] kienet 'il bogħod wisq lejn in-Nofsinhar biex tissodisfa l-ħtiġijiet il-ġodda tal-forza navali Żvediża fis-seklu 18, u spiss dan wassal biex il-bastimenti Żvediżi kienu jaslu fil-kosta tal-Finlandja wara l-bastimenti u t-truppi Russi diġà kienu bdew jew saħansitra temmew il-kampanji militari tagħhom tar-rebbiegħa. In-nuqqas ta' difiżi kostali nħass sew bl-iżbarki Russi f'Helsingfors fir-rebbiegħa tal-1713 u bil-falliment tal-Iżvezja li timblokka l-[[Peniżola]] ta' Hanko fl-1714. Kampanja militari navali Russa kontra l-kosta Żvediża lejn l-aħħar tal-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana kompliet turi l-ħtieġa li jiġu żviluppati difiżi kostali Finlandiżi. Eżatt wara li ntemmet il-gwerra, daħħlu fis-seħħ l-ewwel pjanijiet fl-Iżvezja biex tinbena flotta tal-[[arċipelagu]] u bażi tal-operazzjonijiet għaliha fil-Finlandja. Madankollu, fir-rigward ta' Sveaborg ma seħħ xejn qabel tmiem il-Gwerra bejn ir-Russja u l-Iżvezja tal-1741–1743. Il-fortifikazzjonijiet tħallew mhux kompluti f'Hamina u f'Lappeenranta filwaqt li Hämeenlinna kienet qed tinbena bħala bażi tal-provvisti. In-nuqqas ta' fondi, in-nuqqas ta' rieda li jiġu allokati fondi għad-difiża tal-Finlandja, u t-twemmin (li beda jfeġġ eżatt qabel il-gwerra) li r-Russja kienet se tiġi obbligata tirtira mill-Baħar Baltiku kienu l-kawżi ewlenin li wasslu għan-nuqqas ta' progress. Il-Gwerra suċċessiva bejn ir-Russja u l-Iżvezja tal-1741–1743, li malajr inbidlet minn attakk Żvediż għal okkupazzjoni Russa tal-Finlandja, mill-ġdid uriet l-importanza li jiġu żviluppati l-fortifikazzjonijiet fil-Finlandja. In-nuqqas ta' bażi għall-operazzjonijiet tal-forzi navali għamilha diffiċli biex il-flotta navali Żvediża topera fl-inħawi. Stati [[Ewropa|Ewropej]] oħra kienu mħassbin ukoll dwar l-iżviluppi rigward ir-Russja, speċjalment Franza, li kienet ikkonkludiet alleanza militari mal-Iżvezja. Wara dibattitu fit-tul, il-parlament Żvediż iddeċieda fl-1747 li jiffortifika l-fruntiera mar-Russja u jistabbilixxi bażi navali f'Helsingfors biex tikkontrabatti l-bażi navali ta' Kronstadt. Augustin Ehrensvärd (1710–1772), kurunell logutenet żagħżugħ, ingħata r-responsabbiltà li jiddisinja l-fortizzi u li jidderieġi l-operazzjonijiet tal-kostruzzjoni. ==== Kostruzzjoni ==== L-Iżvezja bdiet tibni l-fortizzi f'Jannar 1748. Il-pjanta ta' Ehrensvärd kien fiha żewġ fortifikazzjonijiet: fortizza tal-baħar f'Svartholm qrib ir-raħal żgħir ta' Lovisa, u fortizza tal-baħar ikbar u bażi navali (Sveaborg) f'Helsingfors. Kien hemm żewġ aspetti prinċipali tad-disinn ta' Ehrensvärd għal Sveaborg: sensiela ta' fortifikazzjonijiet indipendenti tul diversi gżejjer kollegati, u fil-qalba nett tal-kumpless, tarzna tal-flotta navali. Minbarra l-gżira-fortizza stess, fortifikazzjonijiet iħarsu lejn il-baħar fuq l-art kontinentali kellhom jiżguraw li l-għadu ma jiżbarkax fil-bajjiet biex imbagħad jattakka l-forti tal-baħar. Il-pjanta kienet tinkludi wkoll il-ħżin tal-munizzjon għall-kontinġent Finlandiż kollu tal-Armata Żvediża u tal-Flotta Navali Rjali Żvediża hemmhekk. Saru pjanijiet addizzjonali ta' fortifikazzjoni tal-Peniżola ta' Hanko, iżda dawn ġew posposti. Il-kostruzzjoni bdiet fil-bidu tal-1748 u baqgħet tespandi, tant li sa Settembru kien hemm madwar 2,500 [[raġel]] jibnu l-fortizzi. Inizjalment is-suldati kienu stazzjonati fil-volti tal-fortifikazzjonijiet, filwaqt li l-fizzjali kellhom kwartieri mibnijin apposta li kienu integrati fil-kompożizzjoni [[Barokk|Barokka]] ġenerali tal-belt. L-iżjed pjan ambizzjuż tħalla nofsu komplut biss: [[pjazza]] Barokka f'Iso Mustasaari li kienet parzjalment ibbażata fuq il-mudell ta' Place Vendôme f'[[Pariġi]]. Iktar ma x-xogħlijiet tal-kostruzzjoni mexew 'il quddiem, iktar ma nbnew binjiet residenzjali, bosta minnhom skont l-għamla tal-fortifikazzjonijiet. Ehrensvärd u wħud mill-fizzjali l-oħra kienu artisti akkaniti li kienu jpittru biż-żejt fuq it-tila u kienu jippreżentaw veduta tal-ħajja fil-fortizza matul il-kostruzzjoni tagħha, u kienu jagħtu l-impressjoni ta' komunità ta' "raħal fortizza" fuq tagħha. Minħabba t-theddidiet Russi ripetuti fl-1749 u fl-1750, saru iktar sforzi b'rabta mal-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-gżejjer a skapitu ta' dawk fuq l-art kontinentali, sabiex bażi sikura għall-operazzjonijiet setgħet tiġi żgurata għall-unitajiet navali Żvediżi tul il-kosta Finlandiża. Bl-użu tal-militar fil-gwarniġjon fil-Finlandja bħala l-forza tax-xogħol, il-kostruzzjoni baqgħet għaddejja b'iktar minn 6,000 ħaddiem fl-1750. Il-fortifikazzjonijiet f'Gustavssvärd tlestew fl-1751 u l-fortifikazzjonijiet prinċipali f'Vargö tlestew fl-1754. Il-fortizza kienet operazzjonali għalkollox għalkemm ma kinitx kompluta. Dawn il-kisbiet ma xekklux l-andament tal-kostruzzjoni u fl-1755 kien hemm 7,000 ħaddiem jaħdmu fil-kostruzzjoni tal-fortifikazzjonijiet 'il barra minn Helsingfors li dak iż-żmien kellha madwar 2,000 resident. Ix-xogħol sostanzjali ta' fortifikazzjoni fil-gżejjer fin-Nofsinhar tar-raħal wassal biex ikollha importanza ġdida u mhux mistennija. Il-parteċipazzjoni tal-Iżvezja fil-Gwerra tas-Seba' Snin rażżnet l-isforz ta' kostruzzjoni fl-1757, u wasslet ukoll għat-tmiem tal-fażi ta' kostruzzjoni rapida ta' Sveaborg. This period in Swedish history was known as the Age of Liberty, during which the kingdom was under increased parliamentary control, divided into two political parties, the Hats and the Caps. Ehrensvärd had been supported by the Hats, so when the Caps rose to power in 1766 he was relieved of his post and replaced with ardent Caps supporter Christopher Falkengréen. However, after 1769 when the Hats regained power, Ehrensvärd was again placed in command of the Swedish archipelago fleet in Finland, officially the ''arméens flotta'' ("fleet of the army"), and returned to Sveaborg. But additional progress had not been made on the fortifications when Ehrensvärd died in 1772. Efforts to improve the fortress continued under Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten, but his tenure was cut short by disagreements with King Gustav III. Once again efforts slowed down as garrisons were reduced, and in 1776 Sveaborg's commander reported that he could not even man one-tenth of the artillery placed in the fort. Even at the start of the Russo-Swedish War in 1788 Sveaborg remained in an incomplete state. Facilities for constructing ships for the Swedish archipelago fleet were built at Sveaborg in the 1760s. In 1764 the first three archipelago frigates were launched from there. In addition to the construction of the fortifications and ships, naval officer training was started by Ehrensvärd at his own expense at Sveaborg in 1770. It took until 1779 before a naval military school was formally founded there. ==== Servizz ==== Sveaborg was formed and stocked according to the needs of the Swedish archipelago fleet and thus was unable to repair and refit the Swedish battlefleet after the battle of Hogland. Facilities were also found lacking at Sveaborg, especially in the areas intended for taking care of the sick and wounded. Russian control of the waters outside of Sveaborg practically blockaded the Swedish battlefleet to Sveaborg. By cutting the coastal sea route past Hangö, Russians prevented supplies from being shipped from Sweden to Sveaborg. The Swedish fleet finally managed to set sail for its base at Karlskrona on 20 November when the Baltic Sea had already frozen severely enough that ice had to be sawed open before some ships could move. The fleet could not overwinter at Sveaborg since it lacked the facilities and supplies for fitting the ships. While the route to Sweden was open again in late 1788 and in early 1789, Russian ships cut the connection from Sveaborg to Sweden by forming a blockade at Porkkala cape. Sveaborg was the most important location for archipelago fleet's ship construction and fitting during the war. Even so, and despite efforts, several ships remained unfinished at Sveaborg until the end of the war. The importance of Sveaborg did not escape the Russians whose broad operational plan for 1790 included a siege of Sveaborg both from sea and land. Following a pact between Alexander I and Napoleon, Russia launched a campaign against Sweden and occupied Finland in 1808. The Russians easily took Helsingfors in early 1808 and began bombarding the fortress. Its commander, Carl Olof Cronstedt, negotiated a cease-fire. When no Swedish reinforcements had arrived by May, Sveaborg, with almost 7,000 men, surrendered. The reasons for Cronstedt's actions remain somewhat unclear; but the hopeless situation, psychological warfare by the Russians, some (possibly) bribed advisors, fear for the lives of a large civilian population, lack of gunpowder, and their physical isolation are some likely causes for the surrender. By the Treaty of Fredrikshamn in 1809, Sweden ceded its eastern territory of Finland and the Grand Duchy of Finland was established within the Russian Empire. The Swedish period in Finnish history, which had lasted some seven centuries, came to an end. === Tmexxija Russa === After taking over the fortress, the Russians started an extensive building program, mostly extra barracks, and extended the dockyard and reinforced the fortification lines. The long period of peace following the transfer of power was shattered by the Crimean War of 1853–56. The French–British–Ottoman alliance decided to engage Russia on two fronts and sent an Anglo-French fleet to the Baltic Sea. For two summers during the Åland War the fleet shelled the towns and fortifications along the Finnish coast. The bombardment of Sveaborg (also known then as ''Viapori'') by the forces of Richard Saunders Dundas and Charles Pénaud on 9–10 August 1855 lasted 47 hours and the fortress was badly damaged, but they were unable to knock out the Russian guns. After the bombardment, the Anglo-French fleet sent no troops ashore and instead set sail for Kronstadt. After the Crimean War extensive restoration work was begun at Sveaborg. A new ring of earthworks with artillery emplacements was built at the western and southern edges of the islands. The next stage in the arming of Sveaborg and the Gulf of Finland came in the build-up to World War I. The fortress and its surrounding islands became part of "Peter the Great's naval fortification" designed to safeguard the capital, Saint Petersburg. === Sjieda Finlandiża === Following the Russian Revolution in 1917, Finland declared independence, but Sveaborg remained under the control of Russian military forces. During the Finnish Civil War, they handed part of it over to the Finnish Red Guard in March 1918. The Whites captured the fortress with the support of German forces in early April. Sveaborg received its current name, ''Suomenlinna'' ("Castle of Finland"), on May 12, 1918, when the red-yellow lion flag—used temporarily as Finland's national flag—was ceremoniously raised on the flagpole of Gustavssvärd, and eight salutes were fired from two Russian field cannons. The flag-raising ceremony was attended by distinguished guests, including members of the Senate, the city council, and several high-ranking military officers. The name change of the fortress was proposed by Senator Kyösti Kallio. In 1918 and 1919, the islands housed a large prison camp in the aftermath of the civil war. Of the 10,000 Red Guard prisoners held at the Suomenlinna prison camp, over 1,000 died of hunger and disease. Eighty prisoners were executed. After the civil war, the fortress functioned as a Finnish garrison. A coastal artillery regiment, the Naval Academy, and a base for the mine-sweeping fleet were stationed on the islands. There were small-scale restoration efforts, and interest in the fortress as a tourist destination started to grow. During the Winter War in 1939–1940, Suomenlinna housed anti-aircraft and artillery units and served as a base for the submarine fleet. During the Continuation War, German military forces were stationed in Suomenlinna. The fortress sustained damage from bombings. After the war, the Valmet Shipyard at Suomenlinna built barges and trawlers as war reparations. It also constructed vessels for the Finnish Navy and Coast Guard, and repaired ships. For the 200th anniversary of the fortress in 1948, the courtyard of Susisaari (Vargö) Castle and Kustaanmiekka (Gustavssvärd) were restored. No longer very practical as a military base, Suomenlinna was turned over to civilian administration in 1973. An independent government department, the Governing Body of Suomenlinna, was formed to administer the unique complex. At the time there was some debate over its Finnish name, with some suggesting that the old name ''Viapori'' be restored, but the newer name was retained. The presence of the military on the islands has been drastically scaled down in recent decades. The Suomenlinna garrison houses the Naval Academy (Finnish: ''Merisotakoulu'') of the Finnish Navy on ''Pikku Mustasaari''. Suomenlinna still flies the war flag, or the swallow-tailed state flag of Finland. == Preżent == Suomenlinna is now one of the most popular tourist attractions in Helsinki as well as a popular picnicking spot for the city's inhabitants. In 2009, a record 713,000 people visited Suomenlinna, most between May and September. A number of museums exist on the island, as well as the last surviving Finnish submarine, ''Vesikko''. There are about 900 permanent inhabitants on the islands, and 350 people work there year-round. There is a minimum-security penal labor colony (Finnish: ''työsiirtola'') in Suomenlinna, whose inmates work on the maintenance and reconstruction of the fortifications. Only volunteer inmates who pledge non-use of controlled substances are accepted to the labour colony. For the general public, Suomenlinna is served by ferries all year, and a service tunnel supplying heating, water and electricity was built in 1982. In the beginning of the 1990s, the tunnel was modified so that it can also be used for emergency transport. Transport to and from the island is generally ceased between the hours of 0300 and 0600 daily, but is otherwise regular and frequent. Suomenlinna has been known as a location for avant-garde culture. In the mid-1980s, the Nordic Arts Centre was established on the island. Several buildings have been converted into artists' studios, which are let by the administration at reasonable rates. During the summer there is an art school for children. The performances of the Suomenlinna summer theater regularly draw full houses. Between 2 and 6 September 2015, the Finnish postal service ran a test of the use of drones to deliver parcels between Helsinki and Suomenlinna. The parcels were limited to 3 kg (7 lb) or less, and flights were under the control of a pilot. The island houses a backpackers' hostel operating in a converted school building, built in 1908 and having served as a Russian school (1909-1917), military office (1918-1919), Finnish school (1920-1959), and a canteen and entertainment venue for soldiers (1959-1972). Suomenlinna Church, built in 1854, was adapted in 1929 to include a lighthouse beacon. Both the church and beacon are still active today. The lighthouse beacon was modernised to use LED lighting in 2019. == Kronoloġija == * 1748: Building of Sveaborg begins under command of Augustin Ehrensvärd. * 1808: Sveaborg surrenders to Russia without any opposition during the Finnish War. * 1809: Treaty of Fredrikshamn: Finland becomes part of Russia. * 1855: Crimean War: Anglo–French navy bombards Sveaborg and causes substantial damage. * 1906: Sveaborg Rebellion: Russian soldiers plan to depose the tsar. * 1914–1917: A ring of ground and sea fortifications, called ''Krepost Sveaborg'', is built around Helsinki. * 1917: Finland becomes independent after the Russian Revolution. * 1918: Name ''Suomenlinna'' becomes the official name of the fortress in Finnish. Prison camp of Red rebels is located in Suomenlinna after the Finnish Civil War. * 1921 ''Valtion lentokonetehdas'' (State Aircraft Factory) started building airplanes and powered ice sleighs in Suomenlinna for the Finnish Air Force. In 1936 the factory moved to Tampere. * 1973: Suomenlinna becomes civil administration area. * 1991: Suomenlinna becomes a UNESCO World Heritage Site. == Letteratura == The Finnish-Swedish poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg wrote a poem called ''Sveaborg'', one of the 35 short poems that together constitute his epic ''The Tales of Ensign Stål''. It includes the following two verses about the fortress, which allude specifically to the "Gustav's Sword" (''Gustavssvärd'') bastion and its guns:<blockquote>It looks out over sea and fjord, With eyes of granite. It raises its Gustav's sword high, And proudly says: 'Come hither!' This sword is not lowered to strike, It only flashes and so destroys. Do not let the island be defiantly approached When the war comes. Do not disturb the queen of the sea In her moment of anger: She slings messages of death toward you, In the roar of a thousand cannons.</blockquote>Sveaborg is also mentioned in the lyrics of Gunnar Wennerberg's 1849 hymn ''O Gud, som styrer folkens öden'' ("Oh God, who steers the people's fate"), in which Sweden's "age-old freedom" is described as being "...our protection in gloomy dangers, our consolation in every bleached sorrow, our defence against the hegemon's forces, and stronger than Sveaborg". As these words were written forty years after the Swedish cession of Finland to Russia, the use of Sveaborg as a simile has deliberately historic overtones. George R. R. Martin wrote a short story about the surrender of Sveaborg, "The Fortress", when he was a college student. It was published in his 2007 volume of short stories, ''Dreamsongs''.^{[''non-primary source needed'']} == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Fortizzi]] [[Kategorija:Fortifikazzjonijiet]] 7gqc50r2espms3dvkrrndqj5vteipjq 323828 323827 2025-06-30T16:51:56Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji Kulturali]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 323828 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Suomenlinna aerial.JPG|daqsminuri|Veduta tal-Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna mill-ajru.]] Il-'''Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna''' (bil-[[Lingwa Finlandiża|Finlandiż]]: [ˈsuo̯menˌlinːɑ]), jew '''Sveaborg''' (bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]]: [ˈsvɛːɑˈborj]) hija fortizza tal-baħar magħmula minn tmien gżejjer, sitta minnhom iffortifikati. Il-fortizza tinsab madwar 4 kilometri fix-Xlokk taċ-ċentru ta' [[Ħelsinki|Helsinki]], il-belt kapitali tal-[[Finlandja]], u hija destinazzjoni popolari mat-turisti u man-nies tal-post, li jżuruh l-iktar bħala post pittoresk għall-picnics. Il-kostruzzjoni tal-fortizza bdiet fl-1748 taħt il-monarkija [[Żvezja|Żvediża]] bħala difiża kontra r-[[Russja]]. Ir-responsabbiltà ġenerali għax-xogħol ta' fortifikazzjoni ngħatat lill-Ammirall [[Augustin Ehrensvärd]]. Il-pjanta oriġinali tal-fortizza bħala bastjun ġiet influwenzata ferm minn [[Vauban]], inġinier militari [[Franza|Franċiż]] rinomat, u kienet tinkorpora l-prinċipji tal-fortifikazzjonijiet b'għamla ta' stilla, għalkemm adattati għal grupp ta' gżejjer tal-blat. Matul il-Gwerra Finlandiża, il-qawwiet Russi assedjaw il-fortizza fl-1808. Minkejja r-reputazzjoni mill-aqwa tagħha bħala l-"[[Ġibiltà]] tat-Tramuntana", il-fortizza arrendiet wara xahrejn biss, fit-3 ta' Mejju 1808. It-telf tagħha witta t-triq għall-okkupazzjoni Russa tal-Finlandja fl-1809, u għall-istabbiliment sussegwenti tal-Gran Dukat tal-Finlandja, stat awtonomu fi ħdan l-[[Imperu Russu]]. Taħt it-tmexxija Russa, il-fortizza ntużat bħala bażi għall-Flotta Navali Baltika matul [[l-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija]], u fl-1915 bdiet il-kostruzzjoni fuq is-sistema tad-difiża tal-''Krepost Sveaborg''. Il-qawwiet Russi abbandunaw il-fortizza wara li l-Finlandja ddikjarat l-indipendenza fl-1917. Oriġinarjament il-fortizza kienet imsejħa ''Sveaborg'' (jiġifieri "Fortizza tal-Iżvezja") u bil-Finlandiż kienet magħrufa bħala '''Viapori''' (pronunzja: [ˈviaˌpori]), iżda bdiet tissejjaħ ''Suomenlinna'' (jiġifieri "Fortizza tal-Finlandja") fl-1918. Madankollu, bl-Iżvediż għadha tissejjaħ bl-isem oriġinali. Wara l-Gwerra Ċivili Finlandiża, il-gżejjer kienu jospitaw il-kamp tal-priġunieri ta' Suomenlinna fejn kienu jinżammu s-suldati Ħomor li kienu jinqabdu. Il-Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna baqgħet taħt il-kontroll tad-Dipartiment tad-Difiża tal-Finlandja sal-1973, meta biċċa l-kbira minnha ġiet ittrasferita lill-amministrazzjoni ċivili. Il-fortizza famuża għall-fortifikazzjonijiet u għall-bastjuni tagħha tniżżlet fil-lista tas-[[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji|Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]] fl-1991. == [[Ġeografija]] == Id-distrett ta' Suomenlinna ta' Helsinki jinsab fix-Xlokk taċ-ċentru ta' Helsinki u jikkonsisti minn tmien gżejjer. Ħamsa mill-gżejjer huma kkollegati permezz ta' pontijiet jew bir-radam bejniethom. Länsi-Mustasaari (Västersvartö) hija kkollegata ma' Pikku Mustasaari (Lilla Östersvartö), li hija kkollegata ma' Iso Mustasaari (Stora Östersvartö), li mbagħad hija kkollegata ma' Susisaari (Vargö). Susisaari ġiet ikkollegata ma' Susiluoto (Vargskär) bir-radam li ntefa' fil-passaġġ tal-ilma bejniethom matul żmien ir-Russi. Din il-gżira, li għandha l-ikbar konċentrazzjoni ta' fortifikazzjonijiet ġiet imsejħa ''Gustavssvärd'' (Kustaanmiekka, li tfisser "ix-xabla ta' Gustav") fi żmien il-kostruzzjoni mill-Iżvezja. It-tliet gżejjer mhux ikkollegati huma Särkkä (Långören), Lonna (Lonnan), u Pormestarinluodot (Borgmästargrundet). L-erja tal-art totali tad-distrett fiha 80 ettaru (0.80 kilometri kwadri; 0.31 mili kwadri). Minflok ma jsegwu s-sistema standard Finlandiża tal-indirizzi postali, b'isem it-triq u n-numru tad-dar, l-indirizzi f'Suomenlinna jużaw kodiċi bl-ittri għall-gżira segwit min-numru tad-dar. Pereżempju, "C 83" jirreferi għad-dar nru 83 f'Iso-Mustasaari (iddeżinjata bl-ittra "C"). Il-kodiċi postali tad-distrett ta' Suomenlinna huwa 00190. == [[Storja]] == === Żmien l-Iżvediżi === ==== Sfond ==== Minn kmieni fil-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana, ir-Russja ħadet vantaġġ mid-dgħufija Żvediża f'Ingria (bl-Iżvediż: ''Ingermanland'') u ħatfet l-inħawi qrib ix-xmara Neva kif ukoll il-fortijiet Żvediżi, Nyen u Nöteborg, li nbnew biex jipproteġuha. Fl-1703, [[Pietru l-Kbir]] stabbilixxa l-belt kapitali l-ġdida tiegħu, [[San Pietruburgu]], fil-Golf tal-Finlandja. Qrib il-wasla tal-belt huwa bena l-bażi navali ffortifikata ta' [[Kronstadt]]. Ir-Russja f'qasir żmien saret qawwa marittima u importanti fil-Baħar Baltiku. Din is-sitwazzjoni kienet ta' theddida għall-Iżvezja, li sa dak iż-żmien kienet il-qawwa dominanti fil-Baltiku. Dan ħareġ sew fid-dieher bl-użu tal-forzi navali meta r-Russja ħatfet lil Viborg fl-1710. Il-bażi navali Żvediża prinċipali f'[[Karlskrona]] kienet 'il bogħod wisq lejn in-Nofsinhar biex tissodisfa l-ħtiġijiet il-ġodda tal-forza navali Żvediża fis-seklu 18, u spiss dan wassal biex il-bastimenti Żvediżi kienu jaslu fil-kosta tal-Finlandja wara l-bastimenti u t-truppi Russi diġà kienu bdew jew saħansitra temmew il-kampanji militari tagħhom tar-rebbiegħa. In-nuqqas ta' difiżi kostali nħass sew bl-iżbarki Russi f'Helsingfors fir-rebbiegħa tal-1713 u bil-falliment tal-Iżvezja li timblokka l-[[Peniżola]] ta' Hanko fl-1714. Kampanja militari navali Russa kontra l-kosta Żvediża lejn l-aħħar tal-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana kompliet turi l-ħtieġa li jiġu żviluppati difiżi kostali Finlandiżi. Eżatt wara li ntemmet il-gwerra, daħħlu fis-seħħ l-ewwel pjanijiet fl-Iżvezja biex tinbena flotta tal-[[arċipelagu]] u bażi tal-operazzjonijiet għaliha fil-Finlandja. Madankollu, fir-rigward ta' Sveaborg ma seħħ xejn qabel tmiem il-Gwerra bejn ir-Russja u l-Iżvezja tal-1741–1743. Il-fortifikazzjonijiet tħallew mhux kompluti f'Hamina u f'Lappeenranta filwaqt li Hämeenlinna kienet qed tinbena bħala bażi tal-provvisti. In-nuqqas ta' fondi, in-nuqqas ta' rieda li jiġu allokati fondi għad-difiża tal-Finlandja, u t-twemmin (li beda jfeġġ eżatt qabel il-gwerra) li r-Russja kienet se tiġi obbligata tirtira mill-Baħar Baltiku kienu l-kawżi ewlenin li wasslu għan-nuqqas ta' progress. Il-Gwerra suċċessiva bejn ir-Russja u l-Iżvezja tal-1741–1743, li malajr inbidlet minn attakk Żvediż għal okkupazzjoni Russa tal-Finlandja, mill-ġdid uriet l-importanza li jiġu żviluppati l-fortifikazzjonijiet fil-Finlandja. In-nuqqas ta' bażi għall-operazzjonijiet tal-forzi navali għamilha diffiċli biex il-flotta navali Żvediża topera fl-inħawi. Stati [[Ewropa|Ewropej]] oħra kienu mħassbin ukoll dwar l-iżviluppi rigward ir-Russja, speċjalment Franza, li kienet ikkonkludiet alleanza militari mal-Iżvezja. Wara dibattitu fit-tul, il-parlament Żvediż iddeċieda fl-1747 li jiffortifika l-fruntiera mar-Russja u jistabbilixxi bażi navali f'Helsingfors biex tikkontrabatti l-bażi navali ta' Kronstadt. Augustin Ehrensvärd (1710–1772), kurunell logutenet żagħżugħ, ingħata r-responsabbiltà li jiddisinja l-fortizzi u li jidderieġi l-operazzjonijiet tal-kostruzzjoni. ==== Kostruzzjoni ==== L-Iżvezja bdiet tibni l-fortizzi f'Jannar 1748. Il-pjanta ta' Ehrensvärd kien fiha żewġ fortifikazzjonijiet: fortizza tal-baħar f'Svartholm qrib ir-raħal żgħir ta' Lovisa, u fortizza tal-baħar ikbar u bażi navali (Sveaborg) f'Helsingfors. Kien hemm żewġ aspetti prinċipali tad-disinn ta' Ehrensvärd għal Sveaborg: sensiela ta' fortifikazzjonijiet indipendenti tul diversi gżejjer kollegati, u fil-qalba nett tal-kumpless, tarzna tal-flotta navali. Minbarra l-gżira-fortizza stess, fortifikazzjonijiet iħarsu lejn il-baħar fuq l-art kontinentali kellhom jiżguraw li l-għadu ma jiżbarkax fil-bajjiet biex imbagħad jattakka l-forti tal-baħar. Il-pjanta kienet tinkludi wkoll il-ħżin tal-munizzjon għall-kontinġent Finlandiż kollu tal-Armata Żvediża u tal-Flotta Navali Rjali Żvediża hemmhekk. Saru pjanijiet addizzjonali ta' fortifikazzjoni tal-Peniżola ta' Hanko, iżda dawn ġew posposti. Il-kostruzzjoni bdiet fil-bidu tal-1748 u baqgħet tespandi, tant li sa Settembru kien hemm madwar 2,500 [[raġel]] jibnu l-fortizzi. Inizjalment is-suldati kienu stazzjonati fil-volti tal-fortifikazzjonijiet, filwaqt li l-fizzjali kellhom kwartieri mibnijin apposta li kienu integrati fil-kompożizzjoni [[Barokk|Barokka]] ġenerali tal-belt. L-iżjed pjan ambizzjuż tħalla nofsu komplut biss: [[pjazza]] Barokka f'Iso Mustasaari li kienet parzjalment ibbażata fuq il-mudell ta' Place Vendôme f'[[Pariġi]]. Iktar ma x-xogħlijiet tal-kostruzzjoni mexew 'il quddiem, iktar ma nbnew binjiet residenzjali, bosta minnhom skont l-għamla tal-fortifikazzjonijiet. Ehrensvärd u wħud mill-fizzjali l-oħra kienu artisti akkaniti li kienu jpittru biż-żejt fuq it-tila u kienu jippreżentaw veduta tal-ħajja fil-fortizza matul il-kostruzzjoni tagħha, u kienu jagħtu l-impressjoni ta' komunità ta' "raħal fortizza" fuq tagħha. Minħabba t-theddidiet Russi ripetuti fl-1749 u fl-1750, saru iktar sforzi b'rabta mal-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-gżejjer a skapitu ta' dawk fuq l-art kontinentali, sabiex bażi sikura għall-operazzjonijiet setgħet tiġi żgurata għall-unitajiet navali Żvediżi tul il-kosta Finlandiża. Bl-użu tal-militar fil-gwarniġjon fil-Finlandja bħala l-forza tax-xogħol, il-kostruzzjoni baqgħet għaddejja b'iktar minn 6,000 ħaddiem fl-1750. Il-fortifikazzjonijiet f'Gustavssvärd tlestew fl-1751 u l-fortifikazzjonijiet prinċipali f'Vargö tlestew fl-1754. Il-fortizza kienet operazzjonali għalkollox għalkemm ma kinitx kompluta. Dawn il-kisbiet ma xekklux l-andament tal-kostruzzjoni u fl-1755 kien hemm 7,000 ħaddiem jaħdmu fil-kostruzzjoni tal-fortifikazzjonijiet 'il barra minn Helsingfors li dak iż-żmien kellha madwar 2,000 resident. Ix-xogħol sostanzjali ta' fortifikazzjoni fil-gżejjer fin-Nofsinhar tar-raħal wassal biex ikollha importanza ġdida u mhux mistennija. Il-parteċipazzjoni tal-Iżvezja fil-Gwerra tas-Seba' Snin rażżnet l-isforz ta' kostruzzjoni fl-1757, u wasslet ukoll għat-tmiem tal-fażi ta' kostruzzjoni rapida ta' Sveaborg. This period in Swedish history was known as the Age of Liberty, during which the kingdom was under increased parliamentary control, divided into two political parties, the Hats and the Caps. Ehrensvärd had been supported by the Hats, so when the Caps rose to power in 1766 he was relieved of his post and replaced with ardent Caps supporter Christopher Falkengréen. However, after 1769 when the Hats regained power, Ehrensvärd was again placed in command of the Swedish archipelago fleet in Finland, officially the ''arméens flotta'' ("fleet of the army"), and returned to Sveaborg. But additional progress had not been made on the fortifications when Ehrensvärd died in 1772. Efforts to improve the fortress continued under Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten, but his tenure was cut short by disagreements with King Gustav III. Once again efforts slowed down as garrisons were reduced, and in 1776 Sveaborg's commander reported that he could not even man one-tenth of the artillery placed in the fort. Even at the start of the Russo-Swedish War in 1788 Sveaborg remained in an incomplete state. Facilities for constructing ships for the Swedish archipelago fleet were built at Sveaborg in the 1760s. In 1764 the first three archipelago frigates were launched from there. In addition to the construction of the fortifications and ships, naval officer training was started by Ehrensvärd at his own expense at Sveaborg in 1770. It took until 1779 before a naval military school was formally founded there. ==== Servizz ==== Sveaborg was formed and stocked according to the needs of the Swedish archipelago fleet and thus was unable to repair and refit the Swedish battlefleet after the battle of Hogland. Facilities were also found lacking at Sveaborg, especially in the areas intended for taking care of the sick and wounded. Russian control of the waters outside of Sveaborg practically blockaded the Swedish battlefleet to Sveaborg. By cutting the coastal sea route past Hangö, Russians prevented supplies from being shipped from Sweden to Sveaborg. The Swedish fleet finally managed to set sail for its base at Karlskrona on 20 November when the Baltic Sea had already frozen severely enough that ice had to be sawed open before some ships could move. The fleet could not overwinter at Sveaborg since it lacked the facilities and supplies for fitting the ships. While the route to Sweden was open again in late 1788 and in early 1789, Russian ships cut the connection from Sveaborg to Sweden by forming a blockade at Porkkala cape. Sveaborg was the most important location for archipelago fleet's ship construction and fitting during the war. Even so, and despite efforts, several ships remained unfinished at Sveaborg until the end of the war. The importance of Sveaborg did not escape the Russians whose broad operational plan for 1790 included a siege of Sveaborg both from sea and land. Following a pact between Alexander I and Napoleon, Russia launched a campaign against Sweden and occupied Finland in 1808. The Russians easily took Helsingfors in early 1808 and began bombarding the fortress. Its commander, Carl Olof Cronstedt, negotiated a cease-fire. When no Swedish reinforcements had arrived by May, Sveaborg, with almost 7,000 men, surrendered. The reasons for Cronstedt's actions remain somewhat unclear; but the hopeless situation, psychological warfare by the Russians, some (possibly) bribed advisors, fear for the lives of a large civilian population, lack of gunpowder, and their physical isolation are some likely causes for the surrender. By the Treaty of Fredrikshamn in 1809, Sweden ceded its eastern territory of Finland and the Grand Duchy of Finland was established within the Russian Empire. The Swedish period in Finnish history, which had lasted some seven centuries, came to an end. === Tmexxija Russa === After taking over the fortress, the Russians started an extensive building program, mostly extra barracks, and extended the dockyard and reinforced the fortification lines. The long period of peace following the transfer of power was shattered by the Crimean War of 1853–56. The French–British–Ottoman alliance decided to engage Russia on two fronts and sent an Anglo-French fleet to the Baltic Sea. For two summers during the Åland War the fleet shelled the towns and fortifications along the Finnish coast. The bombardment of Sveaborg (also known then as ''Viapori'') by the forces of Richard Saunders Dundas and Charles Pénaud on 9–10 August 1855 lasted 47 hours and the fortress was badly damaged, but they were unable to knock out the Russian guns. After the bombardment, the Anglo-French fleet sent no troops ashore and instead set sail for Kronstadt. After the Crimean War extensive restoration work was begun at Sveaborg. A new ring of earthworks with artillery emplacements was built at the western and southern edges of the islands. The next stage in the arming of Sveaborg and the Gulf of Finland came in the build-up to World War I. The fortress and its surrounding islands became part of "Peter the Great's naval fortification" designed to safeguard the capital, Saint Petersburg. === Sjieda Finlandiża === Following the Russian Revolution in 1917, Finland declared independence, but Sveaborg remained under the control of Russian military forces. During the Finnish Civil War, they handed part of it over to the Finnish Red Guard in March 1918. The Whites captured the fortress with the support of German forces in early April. Sveaborg received its current name, ''Suomenlinna'' ("Castle of Finland"), on May 12, 1918, when the red-yellow lion flag—used temporarily as Finland's national flag—was ceremoniously raised on the flagpole of Gustavssvärd, and eight salutes were fired from two Russian field cannons. The flag-raising ceremony was attended by distinguished guests, including members of the Senate, the city council, and several high-ranking military officers. The name change of the fortress was proposed by Senator Kyösti Kallio. In 1918 and 1919, the islands housed a large prison camp in the aftermath of the civil war. Of the 10,000 Red Guard prisoners held at the Suomenlinna prison camp, over 1,000 died of hunger and disease. Eighty prisoners were executed. After the civil war, the fortress functioned as a Finnish garrison. A coastal artillery regiment, the Naval Academy, and a base for the mine-sweeping fleet were stationed on the islands. There were small-scale restoration efforts, and interest in the fortress as a tourist destination started to grow. During the Winter War in 1939–1940, Suomenlinna housed anti-aircraft and artillery units and served as a base for the submarine fleet. During the Continuation War, German military forces were stationed in Suomenlinna. The fortress sustained damage from bombings. After the war, the Valmet Shipyard at Suomenlinna built barges and trawlers as war reparations. It also constructed vessels for the Finnish Navy and Coast Guard, and repaired ships. For the 200th anniversary of the fortress in 1948, the courtyard of Susisaari (Vargö) Castle and Kustaanmiekka (Gustavssvärd) were restored. No longer very practical as a military base, Suomenlinna was turned over to civilian administration in 1973. An independent government department, the Governing Body of Suomenlinna, was formed to administer the unique complex. At the time there was some debate over its Finnish name, with some suggesting that the old name ''Viapori'' be restored, but the newer name was retained. The presence of the military on the islands has been drastically scaled down in recent decades. The Suomenlinna garrison houses the Naval Academy (Finnish: ''Merisotakoulu'') of the Finnish Navy on ''Pikku Mustasaari''. Suomenlinna still flies the war flag, or the swallow-tailed state flag of Finland. == Preżent == Suomenlinna is now one of the most popular tourist attractions in Helsinki as well as a popular picnicking spot for the city's inhabitants. In 2009, a record 713,000 people visited Suomenlinna, most between May and September. A number of museums exist on the island, as well as the last surviving Finnish submarine, ''Vesikko''. There are about 900 permanent inhabitants on the islands, and 350 people work there year-round. There is a minimum-security penal labor colony (Finnish: ''työsiirtola'') in Suomenlinna, whose inmates work on the maintenance and reconstruction of the fortifications. Only volunteer inmates who pledge non-use of controlled substances are accepted to the labour colony. For the general public, Suomenlinna is served by ferries all year, and a service tunnel supplying heating, water and electricity was built in 1982. In the beginning of the 1990s, the tunnel was modified so that it can also be used for emergency transport. Transport to and from the island is generally ceased between the hours of 0300 and 0600 daily, but is otherwise regular and frequent. Suomenlinna has been known as a location for avant-garde culture. In the mid-1980s, the Nordic Arts Centre was established on the island. Several buildings have been converted into artists' studios, which are let by the administration at reasonable rates. During the summer there is an art school for children. The performances of the Suomenlinna summer theater regularly draw full houses. Between 2 and 6 September 2015, the Finnish postal service ran a test of the use of drones to deliver parcels between Helsinki and Suomenlinna. The parcels were limited to 3 kg (7 lb) or less, and flights were under the control of a pilot. The island houses a backpackers' hostel operating in a converted school building, built in 1908 and having served as a Russian school (1909-1917), military office (1918-1919), Finnish school (1920-1959), and a canteen and entertainment venue for soldiers (1959-1972). Suomenlinna Church, built in 1854, was adapted in 1929 to include a lighthouse beacon. Both the church and beacon are still active today. The lighthouse beacon was modernised to use LED lighting in 2019. == Kronoloġija == * 1748: Building of Sveaborg begins under command of Augustin Ehrensvärd. * 1808: Sveaborg surrenders to Russia without any opposition during the Finnish War. * 1809: Treaty of Fredrikshamn: Finland becomes part of Russia. * 1855: Crimean War: Anglo–French navy bombards Sveaborg and causes substantial damage. * 1906: Sveaborg Rebellion: Russian soldiers plan to depose the tsar. * 1914–1917: A ring of ground and sea fortifications, called ''Krepost Sveaborg'', is built around Helsinki. * 1917: Finland becomes independent after the Russian Revolution. * 1918: Name ''Suomenlinna'' becomes the official name of the fortress in Finnish. Prison camp of Red rebels is located in Suomenlinna after the Finnish Civil War. * 1921 ''Valtion lentokonetehdas'' (State Aircraft Factory) started building airplanes and powered ice sleighs in Suomenlinna for the Finnish Air Force. In 1936 the factory moved to Tampere. * 1973: Suomenlinna becomes civil administration area. * 1991: Suomenlinna becomes a UNESCO World Heritage Site. == Letteratura == The Finnish-Swedish poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg wrote a poem called ''Sveaborg'', one of the 35 short poems that together constitute his epic ''The Tales of Ensign Stål''. It includes the following two verses about the fortress, which allude specifically to the "Gustav's Sword" (''Gustavssvärd'') bastion and its guns:<blockquote>It looks out over sea and fjord, With eyes of granite. It raises its Gustav's sword high, And proudly says: 'Come hither!' This sword is not lowered to strike, It only flashes and so destroys. Do not let the island be defiantly approached When the war comes. Do not disturb the queen of the sea In her moment of anger: She slings messages of death toward you, In the roar of a thousand cannons.</blockquote>Sveaborg is also mentioned in the lyrics of Gunnar Wennerberg's 1849 hymn ''O Gud, som styrer folkens öden'' ("Oh God, who steers the people's fate"), in which Sweden's "age-old freedom" is described as being "...our protection in gloomy dangers, our consolation in every bleached sorrow, our defence against the hegemon's forces, and stronger than Sveaborg". As these words were written forty years after the Swedish cession of Finland to Russia, the use of Sveaborg as a simile has deliberately historic overtones. George R. R. Martin wrote a short story about the surrender of Sveaborg, "The Fortress", when he was a college student. It was published in his 2007 volume of short stories, ''Dreamsongs''.^{[''non-primary source needed'']} == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Fortizzi]] [[Kategorija:Fortifikazzjonijiet]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji Kulturali]] dfpexw0cnza81a96g81875z5w848oqm 323829 323828 2025-06-30T16:52:05Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Finlandja]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 323829 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Suomenlinna aerial.JPG|daqsminuri|Veduta tal-Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna mill-ajru.]] Il-'''Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna''' (bil-[[Lingwa Finlandiża|Finlandiż]]: [ˈsuo̯menˌlinːɑ]), jew '''Sveaborg''' (bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]]: [ˈsvɛːɑˈborj]) hija fortizza tal-baħar magħmula minn tmien gżejjer, sitta minnhom iffortifikati. Il-fortizza tinsab madwar 4 kilometri fix-Xlokk taċ-ċentru ta' [[Ħelsinki|Helsinki]], il-belt kapitali tal-[[Finlandja]], u hija destinazzjoni popolari mat-turisti u man-nies tal-post, li jżuruh l-iktar bħala post pittoresk għall-picnics. Il-kostruzzjoni tal-fortizza bdiet fl-1748 taħt il-monarkija [[Żvezja|Żvediża]] bħala difiża kontra r-[[Russja]]. Ir-responsabbiltà ġenerali għax-xogħol ta' fortifikazzjoni ngħatat lill-Ammirall [[Augustin Ehrensvärd]]. Il-pjanta oriġinali tal-fortizza bħala bastjun ġiet influwenzata ferm minn [[Vauban]], inġinier militari [[Franza|Franċiż]] rinomat, u kienet tinkorpora l-prinċipji tal-fortifikazzjonijiet b'għamla ta' stilla, għalkemm adattati għal grupp ta' gżejjer tal-blat. Matul il-Gwerra Finlandiża, il-qawwiet Russi assedjaw il-fortizza fl-1808. Minkejja r-reputazzjoni mill-aqwa tagħha bħala l-"[[Ġibiltà]] tat-Tramuntana", il-fortizza arrendiet wara xahrejn biss, fit-3 ta' Mejju 1808. It-telf tagħha witta t-triq għall-okkupazzjoni Russa tal-Finlandja fl-1809, u għall-istabbiliment sussegwenti tal-Gran Dukat tal-Finlandja, stat awtonomu fi ħdan l-[[Imperu Russu]]. Taħt it-tmexxija Russa, il-fortizza ntużat bħala bażi għall-Flotta Navali Baltika matul [[l-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija]], u fl-1915 bdiet il-kostruzzjoni fuq is-sistema tad-difiża tal-''Krepost Sveaborg''. Il-qawwiet Russi abbandunaw il-fortizza wara li l-Finlandja ddikjarat l-indipendenza fl-1917. Oriġinarjament il-fortizza kienet imsejħa ''Sveaborg'' (jiġifieri "Fortizza tal-Iżvezja") u bil-Finlandiż kienet magħrufa bħala '''Viapori''' (pronunzja: [ˈviaˌpori]), iżda bdiet tissejjaħ ''Suomenlinna'' (jiġifieri "Fortizza tal-Finlandja") fl-1918. Madankollu, bl-Iżvediż għadha tissejjaħ bl-isem oriġinali. Wara l-Gwerra Ċivili Finlandiża, il-gżejjer kienu jospitaw il-kamp tal-priġunieri ta' Suomenlinna fejn kienu jinżammu s-suldati Ħomor li kienu jinqabdu. Il-Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna baqgħet taħt il-kontroll tad-Dipartiment tad-Difiża tal-Finlandja sal-1973, meta biċċa l-kbira minnha ġiet ittrasferita lill-amministrazzjoni ċivili. Il-fortizza famuża għall-fortifikazzjonijiet u għall-bastjuni tagħha tniżżlet fil-lista tas-[[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji|Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]] fl-1991. == [[Ġeografija]] == Id-distrett ta' Suomenlinna ta' Helsinki jinsab fix-Xlokk taċ-ċentru ta' Helsinki u jikkonsisti minn tmien gżejjer. Ħamsa mill-gżejjer huma kkollegati permezz ta' pontijiet jew bir-radam bejniethom. Länsi-Mustasaari (Västersvartö) hija kkollegata ma' Pikku Mustasaari (Lilla Östersvartö), li hija kkollegata ma' Iso Mustasaari (Stora Östersvartö), li mbagħad hija kkollegata ma' Susisaari (Vargö). Susisaari ġiet ikkollegata ma' Susiluoto (Vargskär) bir-radam li ntefa' fil-passaġġ tal-ilma bejniethom matul żmien ir-Russi. Din il-gżira, li għandha l-ikbar konċentrazzjoni ta' fortifikazzjonijiet ġiet imsejħa ''Gustavssvärd'' (Kustaanmiekka, li tfisser "ix-xabla ta' Gustav") fi żmien il-kostruzzjoni mill-Iżvezja. It-tliet gżejjer mhux ikkollegati huma Särkkä (Långören), Lonna (Lonnan), u Pormestarinluodot (Borgmästargrundet). L-erja tal-art totali tad-distrett fiha 80 ettaru (0.80 kilometri kwadri; 0.31 mili kwadri). Minflok ma jsegwu s-sistema standard Finlandiża tal-indirizzi postali, b'isem it-triq u n-numru tad-dar, l-indirizzi f'Suomenlinna jużaw kodiċi bl-ittri għall-gżira segwit min-numru tad-dar. Pereżempju, "C 83" jirreferi għad-dar nru 83 f'Iso-Mustasaari (iddeżinjata bl-ittra "C"). Il-kodiċi postali tad-distrett ta' Suomenlinna huwa 00190. == [[Storja]] == === Żmien l-Iżvediżi === ==== Sfond ==== Minn kmieni fil-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana, ir-Russja ħadet vantaġġ mid-dgħufija Żvediża f'Ingria (bl-Iżvediż: ''Ingermanland'') u ħatfet l-inħawi qrib ix-xmara Neva kif ukoll il-fortijiet Żvediżi, Nyen u Nöteborg, li nbnew biex jipproteġuha. Fl-1703, [[Pietru l-Kbir]] stabbilixxa l-belt kapitali l-ġdida tiegħu, [[San Pietruburgu]], fil-Golf tal-Finlandja. Qrib il-wasla tal-belt huwa bena l-bażi navali ffortifikata ta' [[Kronstadt]]. Ir-Russja f'qasir żmien saret qawwa marittima u importanti fil-Baħar Baltiku. Din is-sitwazzjoni kienet ta' theddida għall-Iżvezja, li sa dak iż-żmien kienet il-qawwa dominanti fil-Baltiku. Dan ħareġ sew fid-dieher bl-użu tal-forzi navali meta r-Russja ħatfet lil Viborg fl-1710. Il-bażi navali Żvediża prinċipali f'[[Karlskrona]] kienet 'il bogħod wisq lejn in-Nofsinhar biex tissodisfa l-ħtiġijiet il-ġodda tal-forza navali Żvediża fis-seklu 18, u spiss dan wassal biex il-bastimenti Żvediżi kienu jaslu fil-kosta tal-Finlandja wara l-bastimenti u t-truppi Russi diġà kienu bdew jew saħansitra temmew il-kampanji militari tagħhom tar-rebbiegħa. In-nuqqas ta' difiżi kostali nħass sew bl-iżbarki Russi f'Helsingfors fir-rebbiegħa tal-1713 u bil-falliment tal-Iżvezja li timblokka l-[[Peniżola]] ta' Hanko fl-1714. Kampanja militari navali Russa kontra l-kosta Żvediża lejn l-aħħar tal-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana kompliet turi l-ħtieġa li jiġu żviluppati difiżi kostali Finlandiżi. Eżatt wara li ntemmet il-gwerra, daħħlu fis-seħħ l-ewwel pjanijiet fl-Iżvezja biex tinbena flotta tal-[[arċipelagu]] u bażi tal-operazzjonijiet għaliha fil-Finlandja. Madankollu, fir-rigward ta' Sveaborg ma seħħ xejn qabel tmiem il-Gwerra bejn ir-Russja u l-Iżvezja tal-1741–1743. Il-fortifikazzjonijiet tħallew mhux kompluti f'Hamina u f'Lappeenranta filwaqt li Hämeenlinna kienet qed tinbena bħala bażi tal-provvisti. In-nuqqas ta' fondi, in-nuqqas ta' rieda li jiġu allokati fondi għad-difiża tal-Finlandja, u t-twemmin (li beda jfeġġ eżatt qabel il-gwerra) li r-Russja kienet se tiġi obbligata tirtira mill-Baħar Baltiku kienu l-kawżi ewlenin li wasslu għan-nuqqas ta' progress. Il-Gwerra suċċessiva bejn ir-Russja u l-Iżvezja tal-1741–1743, li malajr inbidlet minn attakk Żvediż għal okkupazzjoni Russa tal-Finlandja, mill-ġdid uriet l-importanza li jiġu żviluppati l-fortifikazzjonijiet fil-Finlandja. In-nuqqas ta' bażi għall-operazzjonijiet tal-forzi navali għamilha diffiċli biex il-flotta navali Żvediża topera fl-inħawi. Stati [[Ewropa|Ewropej]] oħra kienu mħassbin ukoll dwar l-iżviluppi rigward ir-Russja, speċjalment Franza, li kienet ikkonkludiet alleanza militari mal-Iżvezja. Wara dibattitu fit-tul, il-parlament Żvediż iddeċieda fl-1747 li jiffortifika l-fruntiera mar-Russja u jistabbilixxi bażi navali f'Helsingfors biex tikkontrabatti l-bażi navali ta' Kronstadt. Augustin Ehrensvärd (1710–1772), kurunell logutenet żagħżugħ, ingħata r-responsabbiltà li jiddisinja l-fortizzi u li jidderieġi l-operazzjonijiet tal-kostruzzjoni. ==== Kostruzzjoni ==== L-Iżvezja bdiet tibni l-fortizzi f'Jannar 1748. Il-pjanta ta' Ehrensvärd kien fiha żewġ fortifikazzjonijiet: fortizza tal-baħar f'Svartholm qrib ir-raħal żgħir ta' Lovisa, u fortizza tal-baħar ikbar u bażi navali (Sveaborg) f'Helsingfors. Kien hemm żewġ aspetti prinċipali tad-disinn ta' Ehrensvärd għal Sveaborg: sensiela ta' fortifikazzjonijiet indipendenti tul diversi gżejjer kollegati, u fil-qalba nett tal-kumpless, tarzna tal-flotta navali. Minbarra l-gżira-fortizza stess, fortifikazzjonijiet iħarsu lejn il-baħar fuq l-art kontinentali kellhom jiżguraw li l-għadu ma jiżbarkax fil-bajjiet biex imbagħad jattakka l-forti tal-baħar. Il-pjanta kienet tinkludi wkoll il-ħżin tal-munizzjon għall-kontinġent Finlandiż kollu tal-Armata Żvediża u tal-Flotta Navali Rjali Żvediża hemmhekk. Saru pjanijiet addizzjonali ta' fortifikazzjoni tal-Peniżola ta' Hanko, iżda dawn ġew posposti. Il-kostruzzjoni bdiet fil-bidu tal-1748 u baqgħet tespandi, tant li sa Settembru kien hemm madwar 2,500 [[raġel]] jibnu l-fortizzi. Inizjalment is-suldati kienu stazzjonati fil-volti tal-fortifikazzjonijiet, filwaqt li l-fizzjali kellhom kwartieri mibnijin apposta li kienu integrati fil-kompożizzjoni [[Barokk|Barokka]] ġenerali tal-belt. L-iżjed pjan ambizzjuż tħalla nofsu komplut biss: [[pjazza]] Barokka f'Iso Mustasaari li kienet parzjalment ibbażata fuq il-mudell ta' Place Vendôme f'[[Pariġi]]. Iktar ma x-xogħlijiet tal-kostruzzjoni mexew 'il quddiem, iktar ma nbnew binjiet residenzjali, bosta minnhom skont l-għamla tal-fortifikazzjonijiet. Ehrensvärd u wħud mill-fizzjali l-oħra kienu artisti akkaniti li kienu jpittru biż-żejt fuq it-tila u kienu jippreżentaw veduta tal-ħajja fil-fortizza matul il-kostruzzjoni tagħha, u kienu jagħtu l-impressjoni ta' komunità ta' "raħal fortizza" fuq tagħha. Minħabba t-theddidiet Russi ripetuti fl-1749 u fl-1750, saru iktar sforzi b'rabta mal-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-gżejjer a skapitu ta' dawk fuq l-art kontinentali, sabiex bażi sikura għall-operazzjonijiet setgħet tiġi żgurata għall-unitajiet navali Żvediżi tul il-kosta Finlandiża. Bl-użu tal-militar fil-gwarniġjon fil-Finlandja bħala l-forza tax-xogħol, il-kostruzzjoni baqgħet għaddejja b'iktar minn 6,000 ħaddiem fl-1750. Il-fortifikazzjonijiet f'Gustavssvärd tlestew fl-1751 u l-fortifikazzjonijiet prinċipali f'Vargö tlestew fl-1754. Il-fortizza kienet operazzjonali għalkollox għalkemm ma kinitx kompluta. Dawn il-kisbiet ma xekklux l-andament tal-kostruzzjoni u fl-1755 kien hemm 7,000 ħaddiem jaħdmu fil-kostruzzjoni tal-fortifikazzjonijiet 'il barra minn Helsingfors li dak iż-żmien kellha madwar 2,000 resident. Ix-xogħol sostanzjali ta' fortifikazzjoni fil-gżejjer fin-Nofsinhar tar-raħal wassal biex ikollha importanza ġdida u mhux mistennija. Il-parteċipazzjoni tal-Iżvezja fil-Gwerra tas-Seba' Snin rażżnet l-isforz ta' kostruzzjoni fl-1757, u wasslet ukoll għat-tmiem tal-fażi ta' kostruzzjoni rapida ta' Sveaborg. This period in Swedish history was known as the Age of Liberty, during which the kingdom was under increased parliamentary control, divided into two political parties, the Hats and the Caps. Ehrensvärd had been supported by the Hats, so when the Caps rose to power in 1766 he was relieved of his post and replaced with ardent Caps supporter Christopher Falkengréen. However, after 1769 when the Hats regained power, Ehrensvärd was again placed in command of the Swedish archipelago fleet in Finland, officially the ''arméens flotta'' ("fleet of the army"), and returned to Sveaborg. But additional progress had not been made on the fortifications when Ehrensvärd died in 1772. Efforts to improve the fortress continued under Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten, but his tenure was cut short by disagreements with King Gustav III. Once again efforts slowed down as garrisons were reduced, and in 1776 Sveaborg's commander reported that he could not even man one-tenth of the artillery placed in the fort. Even at the start of the Russo-Swedish War in 1788 Sveaborg remained in an incomplete state. Facilities for constructing ships for the Swedish archipelago fleet were built at Sveaborg in the 1760s. In 1764 the first three archipelago frigates were launched from there. In addition to the construction of the fortifications and ships, naval officer training was started by Ehrensvärd at his own expense at Sveaborg in 1770. It took until 1779 before a naval military school was formally founded there. ==== Servizz ==== Sveaborg was formed and stocked according to the needs of the Swedish archipelago fleet and thus was unable to repair and refit the Swedish battlefleet after the battle of Hogland. Facilities were also found lacking at Sveaborg, especially in the areas intended for taking care of the sick and wounded. Russian control of the waters outside of Sveaborg practically blockaded the Swedish battlefleet to Sveaborg. By cutting the coastal sea route past Hangö, Russians prevented supplies from being shipped from Sweden to Sveaborg. The Swedish fleet finally managed to set sail for its base at Karlskrona on 20 November when the Baltic Sea had already frozen severely enough that ice had to be sawed open before some ships could move. The fleet could not overwinter at Sveaborg since it lacked the facilities and supplies for fitting the ships. While the route to Sweden was open again in late 1788 and in early 1789, Russian ships cut the connection from Sveaborg to Sweden by forming a blockade at Porkkala cape. Sveaborg was the most important location for archipelago fleet's ship construction and fitting during the war. Even so, and despite efforts, several ships remained unfinished at Sveaborg until the end of the war. The importance of Sveaborg did not escape the Russians whose broad operational plan for 1790 included a siege of Sveaborg both from sea and land. Following a pact between Alexander I and Napoleon, Russia launched a campaign against Sweden and occupied Finland in 1808. The Russians easily took Helsingfors in early 1808 and began bombarding the fortress. Its commander, Carl Olof Cronstedt, negotiated a cease-fire. When no Swedish reinforcements had arrived by May, Sveaborg, with almost 7,000 men, surrendered. The reasons for Cronstedt's actions remain somewhat unclear; but the hopeless situation, psychological warfare by the Russians, some (possibly) bribed advisors, fear for the lives of a large civilian population, lack of gunpowder, and their physical isolation are some likely causes for the surrender. By the Treaty of Fredrikshamn in 1809, Sweden ceded its eastern territory of Finland and the Grand Duchy of Finland was established within the Russian Empire. The Swedish period in Finnish history, which had lasted some seven centuries, came to an end. === Tmexxija Russa === After taking over the fortress, the Russians started an extensive building program, mostly extra barracks, and extended the dockyard and reinforced the fortification lines. The long period of peace following the transfer of power was shattered by the Crimean War of 1853–56. The French–British–Ottoman alliance decided to engage Russia on two fronts and sent an Anglo-French fleet to the Baltic Sea. For two summers during the Åland War the fleet shelled the towns and fortifications along the Finnish coast. The bombardment of Sveaborg (also known then as ''Viapori'') by the forces of Richard Saunders Dundas and Charles Pénaud on 9–10 August 1855 lasted 47 hours and the fortress was badly damaged, but they were unable to knock out the Russian guns. After the bombardment, the Anglo-French fleet sent no troops ashore and instead set sail for Kronstadt. After the Crimean War extensive restoration work was begun at Sveaborg. A new ring of earthworks with artillery emplacements was built at the western and southern edges of the islands. The next stage in the arming of Sveaborg and the Gulf of Finland came in the build-up to World War I. The fortress and its surrounding islands became part of "Peter the Great's naval fortification" designed to safeguard the capital, Saint Petersburg. === Sjieda Finlandiża === Following the Russian Revolution in 1917, Finland declared independence, but Sveaborg remained under the control of Russian military forces. During the Finnish Civil War, they handed part of it over to the Finnish Red Guard in March 1918. The Whites captured the fortress with the support of German forces in early April. Sveaborg received its current name, ''Suomenlinna'' ("Castle of Finland"), on May 12, 1918, when the red-yellow lion flag—used temporarily as Finland's national flag—was ceremoniously raised on the flagpole of Gustavssvärd, and eight salutes were fired from two Russian field cannons. The flag-raising ceremony was attended by distinguished guests, including members of the Senate, the city council, and several high-ranking military officers. The name change of the fortress was proposed by Senator Kyösti Kallio. In 1918 and 1919, the islands housed a large prison camp in the aftermath of the civil war. Of the 10,000 Red Guard prisoners held at the Suomenlinna prison camp, over 1,000 died of hunger and disease. Eighty prisoners were executed. After the civil war, the fortress functioned as a Finnish garrison. A coastal artillery regiment, the Naval Academy, and a base for the mine-sweeping fleet were stationed on the islands. There were small-scale restoration efforts, and interest in the fortress as a tourist destination started to grow. During the Winter War in 1939–1940, Suomenlinna housed anti-aircraft and artillery units and served as a base for the submarine fleet. During the Continuation War, German military forces were stationed in Suomenlinna. The fortress sustained damage from bombings. After the war, the Valmet Shipyard at Suomenlinna built barges and trawlers as war reparations. It also constructed vessels for the Finnish Navy and Coast Guard, and repaired ships. For the 200th anniversary of the fortress in 1948, the courtyard of Susisaari (Vargö) Castle and Kustaanmiekka (Gustavssvärd) were restored. No longer very practical as a military base, Suomenlinna was turned over to civilian administration in 1973. An independent government department, the Governing Body of Suomenlinna, was formed to administer the unique complex. At the time there was some debate over its Finnish name, with some suggesting that the old name ''Viapori'' be restored, but the newer name was retained. The presence of the military on the islands has been drastically scaled down in recent decades. The Suomenlinna garrison houses the Naval Academy (Finnish: ''Merisotakoulu'') of the Finnish Navy on ''Pikku Mustasaari''. Suomenlinna still flies the war flag, or the swallow-tailed state flag of Finland. == Preżent == Suomenlinna is now one of the most popular tourist attractions in Helsinki as well as a popular picnicking spot for the city's inhabitants. In 2009, a record 713,000 people visited Suomenlinna, most between May and September. A number of museums exist on the island, as well as the last surviving Finnish submarine, ''Vesikko''. There are about 900 permanent inhabitants on the islands, and 350 people work there year-round. There is a minimum-security penal labor colony (Finnish: ''työsiirtola'') in Suomenlinna, whose inmates work on the maintenance and reconstruction of the fortifications. Only volunteer inmates who pledge non-use of controlled substances are accepted to the labour colony. For the general public, Suomenlinna is served by ferries all year, and a service tunnel supplying heating, water and electricity was built in 1982. In the beginning of the 1990s, the tunnel was modified so that it can also be used for emergency transport. Transport to and from the island is generally ceased between the hours of 0300 and 0600 daily, but is otherwise regular and frequent. Suomenlinna has been known as a location for avant-garde culture. In the mid-1980s, the Nordic Arts Centre was established on the island. Several buildings have been converted into artists' studios, which are let by the administration at reasonable rates. During the summer there is an art school for children. The performances of the Suomenlinna summer theater regularly draw full houses. Between 2 and 6 September 2015, the Finnish postal service ran a test of the use of drones to deliver parcels between Helsinki and Suomenlinna. The parcels were limited to 3 kg (7 lb) or less, and flights were under the control of a pilot. The island houses a backpackers' hostel operating in a converted school building, built in 1908 and having served as a Russian school (1909-1917), military office (1918-1919), Finnish school (1920-1959), and a canteen and entertainment venue for soldiers (1959-1972). Suomenlinna Church, built in 1854, was adapted in 1929 to include a lighthouse beacon. Both the church and beacon are still active today. The lighthouse beacon was modernised to use LED lighting in 2019. == Kronoloġija == * 1748: Building of Sveaborg begins under command of Augustin Ehrensvärd. * 1808: Sveaborg surrenders to Russia without any opposition during the Finnish War. * 1809: Treaty of Fredrikshamn: Finland becomes part of Russia. * 1855: Crimean War: Anglo–French navy bombards Sveaborg and causes substantial damage. * 1906: Sveaborg Rebellion: Russian soldiers plan to depose the tsar. * 1914–1917: A ring of ground and sea fortifications, called ''Krepost Sveaborg'', is built around Helsinki. * 1917: Finland becomes independent after the Russian Revolution. * 1918: Name ''Suomenlinna'' becomes the official name of the fortress in Finnish. Prison camp of Red rebels is located in Suomenlinna after the Finnish Civil War. * 1921 ''Valtion lentokonetehdas'' (State Aircraft Factory) started building airplanes and powered ice sleighs in Suomenlinna for the Finnish Air Force. In 1936 the factory moved to Tampere. * 1973: Suomenlinna becomes civil administration area. * 1991: Suomenlinna becomes a UNESCO World Heritage Site. == Letteratura == The Finnish-Swedish poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg wrote a poem called ''Sveaborg'', one of the 35 short poems that together constitute his epic ''The Tales of Ensign Stål''. It includes the following two verses about the fortress, which allude specifically to the "Gustav's Sword" (''Gustavssvärd'') bastion and its guns:<blockquote>It looks out over sea and fjord, With eyes of granite. It raises its Gustav's sword high, And proudly says: 'Come hither!' This sword is not lowered to strike, It only flashes and so destroys. Do not let the island be defiantly approached When the war comes. Do not disturb the queen of the sea In her moment of anger: She slings messages of death toward you, In the roar of a thousand cannons.</blockquote>Sveaborg is also mentioned in the lyrics of Gunnar Wennerberg's 1849 hymn ''O Gud, som styrer folkens öden'' ("Oh God, who steers the people's fate"), in which Sweden's "age-old freedom" is described as being "...our protection in gloomy dangers, our consolation in every bleached sorrow, our defence against the hegemon's forces, and stronger than Sveaborg". As these words were written forty years after the Swedish cession of Finland to Russia, the use of Sveaborg as a simile has deliberately historic overtones. George R. R. Martin wrote a short story about the surrender of Sveaborg, "The Fortress", when he was a college student. It was published in his 2007 volume of short stories, ''Dreamsongs''.^{[''non-primary source needed'']} == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Fortizzi]] [[Kategorija:Fortifikazzjonijiet]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji Kulturali]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Finlandja]] 8dwcm6le88v9vg5e0b9057flm1czvvf 323830 323829 2025-06-30T16:52:11Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Finlandja]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 323830 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Suomenlinna aerial.JPG|daqsminuri|Veduta tal-Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna mill-ajru.]] Il-'''Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna''' (bil-[[Lingwa Finlandiża|Finlandiż]]: [ˈsuo̯menˌlinːɑ]), jew '''Sveaborg''' (bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]]: [ˈsvɛːɑˈborj]) hija fortizza tal-baħar magħmula minn tmien gżejjer, sitta minnhom iffortifikati. Il-fortizza tinsab madwar 4 kilometri fix-Xlokk taċ-ċentru ta' [[Ħelsinki|Helsinki]], il-belt kapitali tal-[[Finlandja]], u hija destinazzjoni popolari mat-turisti u man-nies tal-post, li jżuruh l-iktar bħala post pittoresk għall-picnics. Il-kostruzzjoni tal-fortizza bdiet fl-1748 taħt il-monarkija [[Żvezja|Żvediża]] bħala difiża kontra r-[[Russja]]. Ir-responsabbiltà ġenerali għax-xogħol ta' fortifikazzjoni ngħatat lill-Ammirall [[Augustin Ehrensvärd]]. Il-pjanta oriġinali tal-fortizza bħala bastjun ġiet influwenzata ferm minn [[Vauban]], inġinier militari [[Franza|Franċiż]] rinomat, u kienet tinkorpora l-prinċipji tal-fortifikazzjonijiet b'għamla ta' stilla, għalkemm adattati għal grupp ta' gżejjer tal-blat. Matul il-Gwerra Finlandiża, il-qawwiet Russi assedjaw il-fortizza fl-1808. Minkejja r-reputazzjoni mill-aqwa tagħha bħala l-"[[Ġibiltà]] tat-Tramuntana", il-fortizza arrendiet wara xahrejn biss, fit-3 ta' Mejju 1808. It-telf tagħha witta t-triq għall-okkupazzjoni Russa tal-Finlandja fl-1809, u għall-istabbiliment sussegwenti tal-Gran Dukat tal-Finlandja, stat awtonomu fi ħdan l-[[Imperu Russu]]. Taħt it-tmexxija Russa, il-fortizza ntużat bħala bażi għall-Flotta Navali Baltika matul [[l-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija]], u fl-1915 bdiet il-kostruzzjoni fuq is-sistema tad-difiża tal-''Krepost Sveaborg''. Il-qawwiet Russi abbandunaw il-fortizza wara li l-Finlandja ddikjarat l-indipendenza fl-1917. Oriġinarjament il-fortizza kienet imsejħa ''Sveaborg'' (jiġifieri "Fortizza tal-Iżvezja") u bil-Finlandiż kienet magħrufa bħala '''Viapori''' (pronunzja: [ˈviaˌpori]), iżda bdiet tissejjaħ ''Suomenlinna'' (jiġifieri "Fortizza tal-Finlandja") fl-1918. Madankollu, bl-Iżvediż għadha tissejjaħ bl-isem oriġinali. Wara l-Gwerra Ċivili Finlandiża, il-gżejjer kienu jospitaw il-kamp tal-priġunieri ta' Suomenlinna fejn kienu jinżammu s-suldati Ħomor li kienu jinqabdu. Il-Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna baqgħet taħt il-kontroll tad-Dipartiment tad-Difiża tal-Finlandja sal-1973, meta biċċa l-kbira minnha ġiet ittrasferita lill-amministrazzjoni ċivili. Il-fortizza famuża għall-fortifikazzjonijiet u għall-bastjuni tagħha tniżżlet fil-lista tas-[[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji|Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]] fl-1991. == [[Ġeografija]] == Id-distrett ta' Suomenlinna ta' Helsinki jinsab fix-Xlokk taċ-ċentru ta' Helsinki u jikkonsisti minn tmien gżejjer. Ħamsa mill-gżejjer huma kkollegati permezz ta' pontijiet jew bir-radam bejniethom. Länsi-Mustasaari (Västersvartö) hija kkollegata ma' Pikku Mustasaari (Lilla Östersvartö), li hija kkollegata ma' Iso Mustasaari (Stora Östersvartö), li mbagħad hija kkollegata ma' Susisaari (Vargö). Susisaari ġiet ikkollegata ma' Susiluoto (Vargskär) bir-radam li ntefa' fil-passaġġ tal-ilma bejniethom matul żmien ir-Russi. Din il-gżira, li għandha l-ikbar konċentrazzjoni ta' fortifikazzjonijiet ġiet imsejħa ''Gustavssvärd'' (Kustaanmiekka, li tfisser "ix-xabla ta' Gustav") fi żmien il-kostruzzjoni mill-Iżvezja. It-tliet gżejjer mhux ikkollegati huma Särkkä (Långören), Lonna (Lonnan), u Pormestarinluodot (Borgmästargrundet). L-erja tal-art totali tad-distrett fiha 80 ettaru (0.80 kilometri kwadri; 0.31 mili kwadri). Minflok ma jsegwu s-sistema standard Finlandiża tal-indirizzi postali, b'isem it-triq u n-numru tad-dar, l-indirizzi f'Suomenlinna jużaw kodiċi bl-ittri għall-gżira segwit min-numru tad-dar. Pereżempju, "C 83" jirreferi għad-dar nru 83 f'Iso-Mustasaari (iddeżinjata bl-ittra "C"). Il-kodiċi postali tad-distrett ta' Suomenlinna huwa 00190. == [[Storja]] == === Żmien l-Iżvediżi === ==== Sfond ==== Minn kmieni fil-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana, ir-Russja ħadet vantaġġ mid-dgħufija Żvediża f'Ingria (bl-Iżvediż: ''Ingermanland'') u ħatfet l-inħawi qrib ix-xmara Neva kif ukoll il-fortijiet Żvediżi, Nyen u Nöteborg, li nbnew biex jipproteġuha. Fl-1703, [[Pietru l-Kbir]] stabbilixxa l-belt kapitali l-ġdida tiegħu, [[San Pietruburgu]], fil-Golf tal-Finlandja. Qrib il-wasla tal-belt huwa bena l-bażi navali ffortifikata ta' [[Kronstadt]]. Ir-Russja f'qasir żmien saret qawwa marittima u importanti fil-Baħar Baltiku. Din is-sitwazzjoni kienet ta' theddida għall-Iżvezja, li sa dak iż-żmien kienet il-qawwa dominanti fil-Baltiku. Dan ħareġ sew fid-dieher bl-użu tal-forzi navali meta r-Russja ħatfet lil Viborg fl-1710. Il-bażi navali Żvediża prinċipali f'[[Karlskrona]] kienet 'il bogħod wisq lejn in-Nofsinhar biex tissodisfa l-ħtiġijiet il-ġodda tal-forza navali Żvediża fis-seklu 18, u spiss dan wassal biex il-bastimenti Żvediżi kienu jaslu fil-kosta tal-Finlandja wara l-bastimenti u t-truppi Russi diġà kienu bdew jew saħansitra temmew il-kampanji militari tagħhom tar-rebbiegħa. In-nuqqas ta' difiżi kostali nħass sew bl-iżbarki Russi f'Helsingfors fir-rebbiegħa tal-1713 u bil-falliment tal-Iżvezja li timblokka l-[[Peniżola]] ta' Hanko fl-1714. Kampanja militari navali Russa kontra l-kosta Żvediża lejn l-aħħar tal-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana kompliet turi l-ħtieġa li jiġu żviluppati difiżi kostali Finlandiżi. Eżatt wara li ntemmet il-gwerra, daħħlu fis-seħħ l-ewwel pjanijiet fl-Iżvezja biex tinbena flotta tal-[[arċipelagu]] u bażi tal-operazzjonijiet għaliha fil-Finlandja. Madankollu, fir-rigward ta' Sveaborg ma seħħ xejn qabel tmiem il-Gwerra bejn ir-Russja u l-Iżvezja tal-1741–1743. Il-fortifikazzjonijiet tħallew mhux kompluti f'Hamina u f'Lappeenranta filwaqt li Hämeenlinna kienet qed tinbena bħala bażi tal-provvisti. In-nuqqas ta' fondi, in-nuqqas ta' rieda li jiġu allokati fondi għad-difiża tal-Finlandja, u t-twemmin (li beda jfeġġ eżatt qabel il-gwerra) li r-Russja kienet se tiġi obbligata tirtira mill-Baħar Baltiku kienu l-kawżi ewlenin li wasslu għan-nuqqas ta' progress. Il-Gwerra suċċessiva bejn ir-Russja u l-Iżvezja tal-1741–1743, li malajr inbidlet minn attakk Żvediż għal okkupazzjoni Russa tal-Finlandja, mill-ġdid uriet l-importanza li jiġu żviluppati l-fortifikazzjonijiet fil-Finlandja. In-nuqqas ta' bażi għall-operazzjonijiet tal-forzi navali għamilha diffiċli biex il-flotta navali Żvediża topera fl-inħawi. Stati [[Ewropa|Ewropej]] oħra kienu mħassbin ukoll dwar l-iżviluppi rigward ir-Russja, speċjalment Franza, li kienet ikkonkludiet alleanza militari mal-Iżvezja. Wara dibattitu fit-tul, il-parlament Żvediż iddeċieda fl-1747 li jiffortifika l-fruntiera mar-Russja u jistabbilixxi bażi navali f'Helsingfors biex tikkontrabatti l-bażi navali ta' Kronstadt. Augustin Ehrensvärd (1710–1772), kurunell logutenet żagħżugħ, ingħata r-responsabbiltà li jiddisinja l-fortizzi u li jidderieġi l-operazzjonijiet tal-kostruzzjoni. ==== Kostruzzjoni ==== L-Iżvezja bdiet tibni l-fortizzi f'Jannar 1748. Il-pjanta ta' Ehrensvärd kien fiha żewġ fortifikazzjonijiet: fortizza tal-baħar f'Svartholm qrib ir-raħal żgħir ta' Lovisa, u fortizza tal-baħar ikbar u bażi navali (Sveaborg) f'Helsingfors. Kien hemm żewġ aspetti prinċipali tad-disinn ta' Ehrensvärd għal Sveaborg: sensiela ta' fortifikazzjonijiet indipendenti tul diversi gżejjer kollegati, u fil-qalba nett tal-kumpless, tarzna tal-flotta navali. Minbarra l-gżira-fortizza stess, fortifikazzjonijiet iħarsu lejn il-baħar fuq l-art kontinentali kellhom jiżguraw li l-għadu ma jiżbarkax fil-bajjiet biex imbagħad jattakka l-forti tal-baħar. Il-pjanta kienet tinkludi wkoll il-ħżin tal-munizzjon għall-kontinġent Finlandiż kollu tal-Armata Żvediża u tal-Flotta Navali Rjali Żvediża hemmhekk. Saru pjanijiet addizzjonali ta' fortifikazzjoni tal-Peniżola ta' Hanko, iżda dawn ġew posposti. Il-kostruzzjoni bdiet fil-bidu tal-1748 u baqgħet tespandi, tant li sa Settembru kien hemm madwar 2,500 [[raġel]] jibnu l-fortizzi. Inizjalment is-suldati kienu stazzjonati fil-volti tal-fortifikazzjonijiet, filwaqt li l-fizzjali kellhom kwartieri mibnijin apposta li kienu integrati fil-kompożizzjoni [[Barokk|Barokka]] ġenerali tal-belt. L-iżjed pjan ambizzjuż tħalla nofsu komplut biss: [[pjazza]] Barokka f'Iso Mustasaari li kienet parzjalment ibbażata fuq il-mudell ta' Place Vendôme f'[[Pariġi]]. Iktar ma x-xogħlijiet tal-kostruzzjoni mexew 'il quddiem, iktar ma nbnew binjiet residenzjali, bosta minnhom skont l-għamla tal-fortifikazzjonijiet. Ehrensvärd u wħud mill-fizzjali l-oħra kienu artisti akkaniti li kienu jpittru biż-żejt fuq it-tila u kienu jippreżentaw veduta tal-ħajja fil-fortizza matul il-kostruzzjoni tagħha, u kienu jagħtu l-impressjoni ta' komunità ta' "raħal fortizza" fuq tagħha. Minħabba t-theddidiet Russi ripetuti fl-1749 u fl-1750, saru iktar sforzi b'rabta mal-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-gżejjer a skapitu ta' dawk fuq l-art kontinentali, sabiex bażi sikura għall-operazzjonijiet setgħet tiġi żgurata għall-unitajiet navali Żvediżi tul il-kosta Finlandiża. Bl-użu tal-militar fil-gwarniġjon fil-Finlandja bħala l-forza tax-xogħol, il-kostruzzjoni baqgħet għaddejja b'iktar minn 6,000 ħaddiem fl-1750. Il-fortifikazzjonijiet f'Gustavssvärd tlestew fl-1751 u l-fortifikazzjonijiet prinċipali f'Vargö tlestew fl-1754. Il-fortizza kienet operazzjonali għalkollox għalkemm ma kinitx kompluta. Dawn il-kisbiet ma xekklux l-andament tal-kostruzzjoni u fl-1755 kien hemm 7,000 ħaddiem jaħdmu fil-kostruzzjoni tal-fortifikazzjonijiet 'il barra minn Helsingfors li dak iż-żmien kellha madwar 2,000 resident. Ix-xogħol sostanzjali ta' fortifikazzjoni fil-gżejjer fin-Nofsinhar tar-raħal wassal biex ikollha importanza ġdida u mhux mistennija. Il-parteċipazzjoni tal-Iżvezja fil-Gwerra tas-Seba' Snin rażżnet l-isforz ta' kostruzzjoni fl-1757, u wasslet ukoll għat-tmiem tal-fażi ta' kostruzzjoni rapida ta' Sveaborg. This period in Swedish history was known as the Age of Liberty, during which the kingdom was under increased parliamentary control, divided into two political parties, the Hats and the Caps. Ehrensvärd had been supported by the Hats, so when the Caps rose to power in 1766 he was relieved of his post and replaced with ardent Caps supporter Christopher Falkengréen. However, after 1769 when the Hats regained power, Ehrensvärd was again placed in command of the Swedish archipelago fleet in Finland, officially the ''arméens flotta'' ("fleet of the army"), and returned to Sveaborg. But additional progress had not been made on the fortifications when Ehrensvärd died in 1772. Efforts to improve the fortress continued under Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten, but his tenure was cut short by disagreements with King Gustav III. Once again efforts slowed down as garrisons were reduced, and in 1776 Sveaborg's commander reported that he could not even man one-tenth of the artillery placed in the fort. Even at the start of the Russo-Swedish War in 1788 Sveaborg remained in an incomplete state. Facilities for constructing ships for the Swedish archipelago fleet were built at Sveaborg in the 1760s. In 1764 the first three archipelago frigates were launched from there. In addition to the construction of the fortifications and ships, naval officer training was started by Ehrensvärd at his own expense at Sveaborg in 1770. It took until 1779 before a naval military school was formally founded there. ==== Servizz ==== Sveaborg was formed and stocked according to the needs of the Swedish archipelago fleet and thus was unable to repair and refit the Swedish battlefleet after the battle of Hogland. Facilities were also found lacking at Sveaborg, especially in the areas intended for taking care of the sick and wounded. Russian control of the waters outside of Sveaborg practically blockaded the Swedish battlefleet to Sveaborg. By cutting the coastal sea route past Hangö, Russians prevented supplies from being shipped from Sweden to Sveaborg. The Swedish fleet finally managed to set sail for its base at Karlskrona on 20 November when the Baltic Sea had already frozen severely enough that ice had to be sawed open before some ships could move. The fleet could not overwinter at Sveaborg since it lacked the facilities and supplies for fitting the ships. While the route to Sweden was open again in late 1788 and in early 1789, Russian ships cut the connection from Sveaborg to Sweden by forming a blockade at Porkkala cape. Sveaborg was the most important location for archipelago fleet's ship construction and fitting during the war. Even so, and despite efforts, several ships remained unfinished at Sveaborg until the end of the war. The importance of Sveaborg did not escape the Russians whose broad operational plan for 1790 included a siege of Sveaborg both from sea and land. Following a pact between Alexander I and Napoleon, Russia launched a campaign against Sweden and occupied Finland in 1808. The Russians easily took Helsingfors in early 1808 and began bombarding the fortress. Its commander, Carl Olof Cronstedt, negotiated a cease-fire. When no Swedish reinforcements had arrived by May, Sveaborg, with almost 7,000 men, surrendered. The reasons for Cronstedt's actions remain somewhat unclear; but the hopeless situation, psychological warfare by the Russians, some (possibly) bribed advisors, fear for the lives of a large civilian population, lack of gunpowder, and their physical isolation are some likely causes for the surrender. By the Treaty of Fredrikshamn in 1809, Sweden ceded its eastern territory of Finland and the Grand Duchy of Finland was established within the Russian Empire. The Swedish period in Finnish history, which had lasted some seven centuries, came to an end. === Tmexxija Russa === After taking over the fortress, the Russians started an extensive building program, mostly extra barracks, and extended the dockyard and reinforced the fortification lines. The long period of peace following the transfer of power was shattered by the Crimean War of 1853–56. The French–British–Ottoman alliance decided to engage Russia on two fronts and sent an Anglo-French fleet to the Baltic Sea. For two summers during the Åland War the fleet shelled the towns and fortifications along the Finnish coast. The bombardment of Sveaborg (also known then as ''Viapori'') by the forces of Richard Saunders Dundas and Charles Pénaud on 9–10 August 1855 lasted 47 hours and the fortress was badly damaged, but they were unable to knock out the Russian guns. After the bombardment, the Anglo-French fleet sent no troops ashore and instead set sail for Kronstadt. After the Crimean War extensive restoration work was begun at Sveaborg. A new ring of earthworks with artillery emplacements was built at the western and southern edges of the islands. The next stage in the arming of Sveaborg and the Gulf of Finland came in the build-up to World War I. The fortress and its surrounding islands became part of "Peter the Great's naval fortification" designed to safeguard the capital, Saint Petersburg. === Sjieda Finlandiża === Following the Russian Revolution in 1917, Finland declared independence, but Sveaborg remained under the control of Russian military forces. During the Finnish Civil War, they handed part of it over to the Finnish Red Guard in March 1918. The Whites captured the fortress with the support of German forces in early April. Sveaborg received its current name, ''Suomenlinna'' ("Castle of Finland"), on May 12, 1918, when the red-yellow lion flag—used temporarily as Finland's national flag—was ceremoniously raised on the flagpole of Gustavssvärd, and eight salutes were fired from two Russian field cannons. The flag-raising ceremony was attended by distinguished guests, including members of the Senate, the city council, and several high-ranking military officers. The name change of the fortress was proposed by Senator Kyösti Kallio. In 1918 and 1919, the islands housed a large prison camp in the aftermath of the civil war. Of the 10,000 Red Guard prisoners held at the Suomenlinna prison camp, over 1,000 died of hunger and disease. Eighty prisoners were executed. After the civil war, the fortress functioned as a Finnish garrison. A coastal artillery regiment, the Naval Academy, and a base for the mine-sweeping fleet were stationed on the islands. There were small-scale restoration efforts, and interest in the fortress as a tourist destination started to grow. During the Winter War in 1939–1940, Suomenlinna housed anti-aircraft and artillery units and served as a base for the submarine fleet. During the Continuation War, German military forces were stationed in Suomenlinna. The fortress sustained damage from bombings. After the war, the Valmet Shipyard at Suomenlinna built barges and trawlers as war reparations. It also constructed vessels for the Finnish Navy and Coast Guard, and repaired ships. For the 200th anniversary of the fortress in 1948, the courtyard of Susisaari (Vargö) Castle and Kustaanmiekka (Gustavssvärd) were restored. No longer very practical as a military base, Suomenlinna was turned over to civilian administration in 1973. An independent government department, the Governing Body of Suomenlinna, was formed to administer the unique complex. At the time there was some debate over its Finnish name, with some suggesting that the old name ''Viapori'' be restored, but the newer name was retained. The presence of the military on the islands has been drastically scaled down in recent decades. The Suomenlinna garrison houses the Naval Academy (Finnish: ''Merisotakoulu'') of the Finnish Navy on ''Pikku Mustasaari''. Suomenlinna still flies the war flag, or the swallow-tailed state flag of Finland. == Preżent == Suomenlinna is now one of the most popular tourist attractions in Helsinki as well as a popular picnicking spot for the city's inhabitants. In 2009, a record 713,000 people visited Suomenlinna, most between May and September. A number of museums exist on the island, as well as the last surviving Finnish submarine, ''Vesikko''. There are about 900 permanent inhabitants on the islands, and 350 people work there year-round. There is a minimum-security penal labor colony (Finnish: ''työsiirtola'') in Suomenlinna, whose inmates work on the maintenance and reconstruction of the fortifications. Only volunteer inmates who pledge non-use of controlled substances are accepted to the labour colony. For the general public, Suomenlinna is served by ferries all year, and a service tunnel supplying heating, water and electricity was built in 1982. In the beginning of the 1990s, the tunnel was modified so that it can also be used for emergency transport. Transport to and from the island is generally ceased between the hours of 0300 and 0600 daily, but is otherwise regular and frequent. Suomenlinna has been known as a location for avant-garde culture. In the mid-1980s, the Nordic Arts Centre was established on the island. Several buildings have been converted into artists' studios, which are let by the administration at reasonable rates. During the summer there is an art school for children. The performances of the Suomenlinna summer theater regularly draw full houses. Between 2 and 6 September 2015, the Finnish postal service ran a test of the use of drones to deliver parcels between Helsinki and Suomenlinna. The parcels were limited to 3 kg (7 lb) or less, and flights were under the control of a pilot. The island houses a backpackers' hostel operating in a converted school building, built in 1908 and having served as a Russian school (1909-1917), military office (1918-1919), Finnish school (1920-1959), and a canteen and entertainment venue for soldiers (1959-1972). Suomenlinna Church, built in 1854, was adapted in 1929 to include a lighthouse beacon. Both the church and beacon are still active today. The lighthouse beacon was modernised to use LED lighting in 2019. == Kronoloġija == * 1748: Building of Sveaborg begins under command of Augustin Ehrensvärd. * 1808: Sveaborg surrenders to Russia without any opposition during the Finnish War. * 1809: Treaty of Fredrikshamn: Finland becomes part of Russia. * 1855: Crimean War: Anglo–French navy bombards Sveaborg and causes substantial damage. * 1906: Sveaborg Rebellion: Russian soldiers plan to depose the tsar. * 1914–1917: A ring of ground and sea fortifications, called ''Krepost Sveaborg'', is built around Helsinki. * 1917: Finland becomes independent after the Russian Revolution. * 1918: Name ''Suomenlinna'' becomes the official name of the fortress in Finnish. Prison camp of Red rebels is located in Suomenlinna after the Finnish Civil War. * 1921 ''Valtion lentokonetehdas'' (State Aircraft Factory) started building airplanes and powered ice sleighs in Suomenlinna for the Finnish Air Force. In 1936 the factory moved to Tampere. * 1973: Suomenlinna becomes civil administration area. * 1991: Suomenlinna becomes a UNESCO World Heritage Site. == Letteratura == The Finnish-Swedish poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg wrote a poem called ''Sveaborg'', one of the 35 short poems that together constitute his epic ''The Tales of Ensign Stål''. It includes the following two verses about the fortress, which allude specifically to the "Gustav's Sword" (''Gustavssvärd'') bastion and its guns:<blockquote>It looks out over sea and fjord, With eyes of granite. It raises its Gustav's sword high, And proudly says: 'Come hither!' This sword is not lowered to strike, It only flashes and so destroys. Do not let the island be defiantly approached When the war comes. Do not disturb the queen of the sea In her moment of anger: She slings messages of death toward you, In the roar of a thousand cannons.</blockquote>Sveaborg is also mentioned in the lyrics of Gunnar Wennerberg's 1849 hymn ''O Gud, som styrer folkens öden'' ("Oh God, who steers the people's fate"), in which Sweden's "age-old freedom" is described as being "...our protection in gloomy dangers, our consolation in every bleached sorrow, our defence against the hegemon's forces, and stronger than Sveaborg". As these words were written forty years after the Swedish cession of Finland to Russia, the use of Sveaborg as a simile has deliberately historic overtones. George R. R. Martin wrote a short story about the surrender of Sveaborg, "The Fortress", when he was a college student. It was published in his 2007 volume of short stories, ''Dreamsongs''.^{[''non-primary source needed'']} == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Fortizzi]] [[Kategorija:Fortifikazzjonijiet]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji Kulturali]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Finlandja]] [[Kategorija:Finlandja]] 6lb0pnllv72ruqq5lpwdqxcgg14cl2o 323831 323830 2025-06-30T16:52:22Z Trigcly 17859 323831 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Suomenlinna aerial.JPG|daqsminuri|Veduta tal-Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna mill-ajru.]] Il-'''Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna''' (bil-[[Lingwa Finlandiża|Finlandiż]]: [ˈsuo̯menˌlinːɑ]), jew '''Sveaborg''' (bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]]: [ˈsvɛːɑˈborj]) hija fortizza tal-baħar magħmula minn tmien gżejjer, sitta minnhom iffortifikati. Il-fortizza tinsab madwar 4 kilometri fix-Xlokk taċ-ċentru ta' [[Ħelsinki|Helsinki]], il-belt kapitali tal-[[Finlandja]], u hija destinazzjoni popolari mat-turisti u man-nies tal-post, li jżuruh l-iktar bħala post pittoresk għall-picnics. Il-kostruzzjoni tal-fortizza bdiet fl-1748 taħt il-monarkija [[Żvezja|Żvediża]] bħala difiża kontra r-[[Russja]]. Ir-responsabbiltà ġenerali għax-xogħol ta' fortifikazzjoni ngħatat lill-Ammirall [[Augustin Ehrensvärd]]. Il-pjanta oriġinali tal-fortizza bħala bastjun ġiet influwenzata ferm minn [[Vauban]], inġinier militari [[Franza|Franċiż]] rinomat, u kienet tinkorpora l-prinċipji tal-fortifikazzjonijiet b'għamla ta' stilla, għalkemm adattati għal grupp ta' gżejjer tal-blat. Matul il-Gwerra Finlandiża, il-qawwiet Russi assedjaw il-fortizza fl-1808. Minkejja r-reputazzjoni mill-aqwa tagħha bħala l-"[[Ġibiltà]] tat-Tramuntana", il-fortizza arrendiet wara xahrejn biss, fit-3 ta' Mejju 1808. It-telf tagħha witta t-triq għall-okkupazzjoni Russa tal-Finlandja fl-1809, u għall-istabbiliment sussegwenti tal-Gran Dukat tal-Finlandja, stat awtonomu fi ħdan l-[[Imperu Russu]]. Taħt it-tmexxija Russa, il-fortizza ntużat bħala bażi għall-Flotta Navali Baltika matul [[l-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija]], u fl-1915 bdiet il-kostruzzjoni fuq is-sistema tad-difiża tal-''Krepost Sveaborg''. Il-qawwiet Russi abbandunaw il-fortizza wara li l-Finlandja ddikjarat l-indipendenza fl-1917. Oriġinarjament il-fortizza kienet imsejħa ''Sveaborg'' (jiġifieri "Fortizza tal-Iżvezja") u bil-Finlandiż kienet magħrufa bħala '''Viapori''' (pronunzja: [ˈviaˌpori]), iżda bdiet tissejjaħ ''Suomenlinna'' (jiġifieri "Fortizza tal-Finlandja") fl-1918. Madankollu, bl-Iżvediż għadha tissejjaħ bl-isem oriġinali. Wara l-Gwerra Ċivili Finlandiża, il-gżejjer kienu jospitaw il-kamp tal-priġunieri ta' Suomenlinna fejn kienu jinżammu s-suldati Ħomor li kienu jinqabdu. Il-Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna baqgħet taħt il-kontroll tad-Dipartiment tad-Difiża tal-Finlandja sal-1973, meta biċċa l-kbira minnha ġiet ittrasferita lill-amministrazzjoni ċivili. Il-fortizza famuża għall-fortifikazzjonijiet u għall-bastjuni tagħha tniżżlet fil-lista tas-[[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji|Siti ta' Wirt Dinji]] tal-[[UNESCO]] fl-1991. == [[Ġeografija]] == Id-distrett ta' Suomenlinna ta' Helsinki jinsab fix-Xlokk taċ-ċentru ta' Helsinki u jikkonsisti minn tmien gżejjer. Ħamsa mill-gżejjer huma kkollegati permezz ta' pontijiet jew bir-radam bejniethom. Länsi-Mustasaari (Västersvartö) hija kkollegata ma' Pikku Mustasaari (Lilla Östersvartö), li hija kkollegata ma' Iso Mustasaari (Stora Östersvartö), li mbagħad hija kkollegata ma' Susisaari (Vargö). Susisaari ġiet ikkollegata ma' Susiluoto (Vargskär) bir-radam li ntefa' fil-passaġġ tal-ilma bejniethom matul żmien ir-Russi. Din il-gżira, li għandha l-ikbar konċentrazzjoni ta' fortifikazzjonijiet ġiet imsejħa ''Gustavssvärd'' (Kustaanmiekka, li tfisser "ix-xabla ta' Gustav") fi żmien il-kostruzzjoni mill-Iżvezja. It-tliet gżejjer mhux ikkollegati huma Särkkä (Långören), Lonna (Lonnan), u Pormestarinluodot (Borgmästargrundet). L-erja tal-art totali tad-distrett fiha 80 ettaru (0.80 kilometri kwadri; 0.31 mili kwadri). Minflok ma jsegwu s-sistema standard Finlandiża tal-indirizzi postali, b'isem it-triq u n-numru tad-dar, l-indirizzi f'Suomenlinna jużaw kodiċi bl-ittri għall-gżira segwit min-numru tad-dar. Pereżempju, "C 83" jirreferi għad-dar nru 83 f'Iso-Mustasaari (iddeżinjata bl-ittra "C"). Il-kodiċi postali tad-distrett ta' Suomenlinna huwa 00190. == [[Storja]] == === Żmien l-Iżvediżi === ==== Sfond ==== Minn kmieni fil-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana, ir-Russja ħadet vantaġġ mid-dgħufija Żvediża f'Ingria (bl-Iżvediż: ''Ingermanland'') u ħatfet l-inħawi qrib ix-xmara Neva kif ukoll il-fortijiet Żvediżi, Nyen u Nöteborg, li nbnew biex jipproteġuha. Fl-1703, [[Pietru l-Kbir]] stabbilixxa l-belt kapitali l-ġdida tiegħu, [[San Pietruburgu]], fil-Golf tal-Finlandja. Qrib il-wasla tal-belt huwa bena l-bażi navali ffortifikata ta' [[Kronstadt]]. Ir-Russja f'qasir żmien saret qawwa marittima u importanti fil-Baħar Baltiku. Din is-sitwazzjoni kienet ta' theddida għall-Iżvezja, li sa dak iż-żmien kienet il-qawwa dominanti fil-Baltiku. Dan ħareġ sew fid-dieher bl-użu tal-forzi navali meta r-Russja ħatfet lil Viborg fl-1710. Il-bażi navali Żvediża prinċipali f'[[Karlskrona]] kienet 'il bogħod wisq lejn in-Nofsinhar biex tissodisfa l-ħtiġijiet il-ġodda tal-forza navali Żvediża fis-seklu 18, u spiss dan wassal biex il-bastimenti Żvediżi kienu jaslu fil-kosta tal-Finlandja wara l-bastimenti u t-truppi Russi diġà kienu bdew jew saħansitra temmew il-kampanji militari tagħhom tar-rebbiegħa. In-nuqqas ta' difiżi kostali nħass sew bl-iżbarki Russi f'Helsingfors fir-rebbiegħa tal-1713 u bil-falliment tal-Iżvezja li timblokka l-[[Peniżola]] ta' Hanko fl-1714. Kampanja militari navali Russa kontra l-kosta Żvediża lejn l-aħħar tal-Gwerra l-Kbira tat-Tramuntana kompliet turi l-ħtieġa li jiġu żviluppati difiżi kostali Finlandiżi. Eżatt wara li ntemmet il-gwerra, daħħlu fis-seħħ l-ewwel pjanijiet fl-Iżvezja biex tinbena flotta tal-[[arċipelagu]] u bażi tal-operazzjonijiet għaliha fil-Finlandja. Madankollu, fir-rigward ta' Sveaborg ma seħħ xejn qabel tmiem il-Gwerra bejn ir-Russja u l-Iżvezja tal-1741–1743. Il-fortifikazzjonijiet tħallew mhux kompluti f'Hamina u f'Lappeenranta filwaqt li Hämeenlinna kienet qed tinbena bħala bażi tal-provvisti. In-nuqqas ta' fondi, in-nuqqas ta' rieda li jiġu allokati fondi għad-difiża tal-Finlandja, u t-twemmin (li beda jfeġġ eżatt qabel il-gwerra) li r-Russja kienet se tiġi obbligata tirtira mill-Baħar Baltiku kienu l-kawżi ewlenin li wasslu għan-nuqqas ta' progress. Il-Gwerra suċċessiva bejn ir-Russja u l-Iżvezja tal-1741–1743, li malajr inbidlet minn attakk Żvediż għal okkupazzjoni Russa tal-Finlandja, mill-ġdid uriet l-importanza li jiġu żviluppati l-fortifikazzjonijiet fil-Finlandja. In-nuqqas ta' bażi għall-operazzjonijiet tal-forzi navali għamilha diffiċli biex il-flotta navali Żvediża topera fl-inħawi. Stati [[Ewropa|Ewropej]] oħra kienu mħassbin ukoll dwar l-iżviluppi rigward ir-Russja, speċjalment Franza, li kienet ikkonkludiet alleanza militari mal-Iżvezja. Wara dibattitu fit-tul, il-parlament Żvediż iddeċieda fl-1747 li jiffortifika l-fruntiera mar-Russja u jistabbilixxi bażi navali f'Helsingfors biex tikkontrabatti l-bażi navali ta' Kronstadt. Augustin Ehrensvärd (1710–1772), kurunell logutenet żagħżugħ, ingħata r-responsabbiltà li jiddisinja l-fortizzi u li jidderieġi l-operazzjonijiet tal-kostruzzjoni. ==== Kostruzzjoni ==== L-Iżvezja bdiet tibni l-fortizzi f'Jannar 1748. Il-pjanta ta' Ehrensvärd kien fiha żewġ fortifikazzjonijiet: fortizza tal-baħar f'Svartholm qrib ir-raħal żgħir ta' Lovisa, u fortizza tal-baħar ikbar u bażi navali (Sveaborg) f'Helsingfors. Kien hemm żewġ aspetti prinċipali tad-disinn ta' Ehrensvärd għal Sveaborg: sensiela ta' fortifikazzjonijiet indipendenti tul diversi gżejjer kollegati, u fil-qalba nett tal-kumpless, tarzna tal-flotta navali. Minbarra l-gżira-fortizza stess, fortifikazzjonijiet iħarsu lejn il-baħar fuq l-art kontinentali kellhom jiżguraw li l-għadu ma jiżbarkax fil-bajjiet biex imbagħad jattakka l-forti tal-baħar. Il-pjanta kienet tinkludi wkoll il-ħżin tal-munizzjon għall-kontinġent Finlandiż kollu tal-Armata Żvediża u tal-Flotta Navali Rjali Żvediża hemmhekk. Saru pjanijiet addizzjonali ta' fortifikazzjoni tal-Peniżola ta' Hanko, iżda dawn ġew posposti. Il-kostruzzjoni bdiet fil-bidu tal-1748 u baqgħet tespandi, tant li sa Settembru kien hemm madwar 2,500 [[raġel]] jibnu l-fortizzi. Inizjalment is-suldati kienu stazzjonati fil-volti tal-fortifikazzjonijiet, filwaqt li l-fizzjali kellhom kwartieri mibnijin apposta li kienu integrati fil-kompożizzjoni [[Barokk|Barokka]] ġenerali tal-belt. L-iżjed pjan ambizzjuż tħalla nofsu komplut biss: [[pjazza]] Barokka f'Iso Mustasaari li kienet parzjalment ibbażata fuq il-mudell ta' Place Vendôme f'[[Pariġi]]. Iktar ma x-xogħlijiet tal-kostruzzjoni mexew 'il quddiem, iktar ma nbnew binjiet residenzjali, bosta minnhom skont l-għamla tal-fortifikazzjonijiet. Ehrensvärd u wħud mill-fizzjali l-oħra kienu artisti akkaniti li kienu jpittru biż-żejt fuq it-tila u kienu jippreżentaw veduta tal-ħajja fil-fortizza matul il-kostruzzjoni tagħha, u kienu jagħtu l-impressjoni ta' komunità ta' "raħal fortizza" fuq tagħha. Minħabba t-theddidiet Russi ripetuti fl-1749 u fl-1750, saru iktar sforzi b'rabta mal-fortifikazzjonijiet tal-gżejjer a skapitu ta' dawk fuq l-art kontinentali, sabiex bażi sikura għall-operazzjonijiet setgħet tiġi żgurata għall-unitajiet navali Żvediżi tul il-kosta Finlandiża. Bl-użu tal-militar fil-gwarniġjon fil-Finlandja bħala l-forza tax-xogħol, il-kostruzzjoni baqgħet għaddejja b'iktar minn 6,000 ħaddiem fl-1750. Il-fortifikazzjonijiet f'Gustavssvärd tlestew fl-1751 u l-fortifikazzjonijiet prinċipali f'Vargö tlestew fl-1754. Il-fortizza kienet operazzjonali għalkollox għalkemm ma kinitx kompluta. Dawn il-kisbiet ma xekklux l-andament tal-kostruzzjoni u fl-1755 kien hemm 7,000 ħaddiem jaħdmu fil-kostruzzjoni tal-fortifikazzjonijiet 'il barra minn Helsingfors li dak iż-żmien kellha madwar 2,000 resident. Ix-xogħol sostanzjali ta' fortifikazzjoni fil-gżejjer fin-Nofsinhar tar-raħal wassal biex ikollha importanza ġdida u mhux mistennija. Il-parteċipazzjoni tal-Iżvezja fil-Gwerra tas-Seba' Snin rażżnet l-isforz ta' kostruzzjoni fl-1757, u wasslet ukoll għat-tmiem tal-fażi ta' kostruzzjoni rapida ta' Sveaborg. This period in Swedish history was known as the Age of Liberty, during which the kingdom was under increased parliamentary control, divided into two political parties, the Hats and the Caps. Ehrensvärd had been supported by the Hats, so when the Caps rose to power in 1766 he was relieved of his post and replaced with ardent Caps supporter Christopher Falkengréen. However, after 1769 when the Hats regained power, Ehrensvärd was again placed in command of the Swedish archipelago fleet in Finland, officially the ''arméens flotta'' ("fleet of the army"), and returned to Sveaborg. But additional progress had not been made on the fortifications when Ehrensvärd died in 1772. Efforts to improve the fortress continued under Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten, but his tenure was cut short by disagreements with King Gustav III. Once again efforts slowed down as garrisons were reduced, and in 1776 Sveaborg's commander reported that he could not even man one-tenth of the artillery placed in the fort. Even at the start of the Russo-Swedish War in 1788 Sveaborg remained in an incomplete state. Facilities for constructing ships for the Swedish archipelago fleet were built at Sveaborg in the 1760s. In 1764 the first three archipelago frigates were launched from there. In addition to the construction of the fortifications and ships, naval officer training was started by Ehrensvärd at his own expense at Sveaborg in 1770. It took until 1779 before a naval military school was formally founded there. ==== Servizz ==== Sveaborg was formed and stocked according to the needs of the Swedish archipelago fleet and thus was unable to repair and refit the Swedish battlefleet after the battle of Hogland. Facilities were also found lacking at Sveaborg, especially in the areas intended for taking care of the sick and wounded. Russian control of the waters outside of Sveaborg practically blockaded the Swedish battlefleet to Sveaborg. By cutting the coastal sea route past Hangö, Russians prevented supplies from being shipped from Sweden to Sveaborg. The Swedish fleet finally managed to set sail for its base at Karlskrona on 20 November when the Baltic Sea had already frozen severely enough that ice had to be sawed open before some ships could move. The fleet could not overwinter at Sveaborg since it lacked the facilities and supplies for fitting the ships. While the route to Sweden was open again in late 1788 and in early 1789, Russian ships cut the connection from Sveaborg to Sweden by forming a blockade at Porkkala cape. Sveaborg was the most important location for archipelago fleet's ship construction and fitting during the war. Even so, and despite efforts, several ships remained unfinished at Sveaborg until the end of the war. The importance of Sveaborg did not escape the Russians whose broad operational plan for 1790 included a siege of Sveaborg both from sea and land. Following a pact between Alexander I and Napoleon, Russia launched a campaign against Sweden and occupied Finland in 1808. The Russians easily took Helsingfors in early 1808 and began bombarding the fortress. Its commander, Carl Olof Cronstedt, negotiated a cease-fire. When no Swedish reinforcements had arrived by May, Sveaborg, with almost 7,000 men, surrendered. The reasons for Cronstedt's actions remain somewhat unclear; but the hopeless situation, psychological warfare by the Russians, some (possibly) bribed advisors, fear for the lives of a large civilian population, lack of gunpowder, and their physical isolation are some likely causes for the surrender. By the Treaty of Fredrikshamn in 1809, Sweden ceded its eastern territory of Finland and the Grand Duchy of Finland was established within the Russian Empire. The Swedish period in Finnish history, which had lasted some seven centuries, came to an end. === Tmexxija Russa === After taking over the fortress, the Russians started an extensive building program, mostly extra barracks, and extended the dockyard and reinforced the fortification lines. The long period of peace following the transfer of power was shattered by the Crimean War of 1853–56. The French–British–Ottoman alliance decided to engage Russia on two fronts and sent an Anglo-French fleet to the Baltic Sea. For two summers during the Åland War the fleet shelled the towns and fortifications along the Finnish coast. The bombardment of Sveaborg (also known then as ''Viapori'') by the forces of Richard Saunders Dundas and Charles Pénaud on 9–10 August 1855 lasted 47 hours and the fortress was badly damaged, but they were unable to knock out the Russian guns. After the bombardment, the Anglo-French fleet sent no troops ashore and instead set sail for Kronstadt. After the Crimean War extensive restoration work was begun at Sveaborg. A new ring of earthworks with artillery emplacements was built at the western and southern edges of the islands. The next stage in the arming of Sveaborg and the Gulf of Finland came in the build-up to World War I. The fortress and its surrounding islands became part of "Peter the Great's naval fortification" designed to safeguard the capital, Saint Petersburg. === Sjieda Finlandiża === Following the Russian Revolution in 1917, Finland declared independence, but Sveaborg remained under the control of Russian military forces. During the Finnish Civil War, they handed part of it over to the Finnish Red Guard in March 1918. The Whites captured the fortress with the support of German forces in early April. Sveaborg received its current name, ''Suomenlinna'' ("Castle of Finland"), on May 12, 1918, when the red-yellow lion flag—used temporarily as Finland's national flag—was ceremoniously raised on the flagpole of Gustavssvärd, and eight salutes were fired from two Russian field cannons. The flag-raising ceremony was attended by distinguished guests, including members of the Senate, the city council, and several high-ranking military officers. The name change of the fortress was proposed by Senator Kyösti Kallio. In 1918 and 1919, the islands housed a large prison camp in the aftermath of the civil war. Of the 10,000 Red Guard prisoners held at the Suomenlinna prison camp, over 1,000 died of hunger and disease. Eighty prisoners were executed. After the civil war, the fortress functioned as a Finnish garrison. A coastal artillery regiment, the Naval Academy, and a base for the mine-sweeping fleet were stationed on the islands. There were small-scale restoration efforts, and interest in the fortress as a tourist destination started to grow. During the Winter War in 1939–1940, Suomenlinna housed anti-aircraft and artillery units and served as a base for the submarine fleet. During the Continuation War, German military forces were stationed in Suomenlinna. The fortress sustained damage from bombings. After the war, the Valmet Shipyard at Suomenlinna built barges and trawlers as war reparations. It also constructed vessels for the Finnish Navy and Coast Guard, and repaired ships. For the 200th anniversary of the fortress in 1948, the courtyard of Susisaari (Vargö) Castle and Kustaanmiekka (Gustavssvärd) were restored. No longer very practical as a military base, Suomenlinna was turned over to civilian administration in 1973. An independent government department, the Governing Body of Suomenlinna, was formed to administer the unique complex. At the time there was some debate over its Finnish name, with some suggesting that the old name ''Viapori'' be restored, but the newer name was retained. The presence of the military on the islands has been drastically scaled down in recent decades. The Suomenlinna garrison houses the Naval Academy (Finnish: ''Merisotakoulu'') of the Finnish Navy on ''Pikku Mustasaari''. Suomenlinna still flies the war flag, or the swallow-tailed state flag of Finland. == Preżent == Suomenlinna is now one of the most popular tourist attractions in Helsinki as well as a popular picnicking spot for the city's inhabitants. In 2009, a record 713,000 people visited Suomenlinna, most between May and September. A number of museums exist on the island, as well as the last surviving Finnish submarine, ''Vesikko''. There are about 900 permanent inhabitants on the islands, and 350 people work there year-round. There is a minimum-security penal labor colony (Finnish: ''työsiirtola'') in Suomenlinna, whose inmates work on the maintenance and reconstruction of the fortifications. Only volunteer inmates who pledge non-use of controlled substances are accepted to the labour colony. For the general public, Suomenlinna is served by ferries all year, and a service tunnel supplying heating, water and electricity was built in 1982. In the beginning of the 1990s, the tunnel was modified so that it can also be used for emergency transport. Transport to and from the island is generally ceased between the hours of 0300 and 0600 daily, but is otherwise regular and frequent. Suomenlinna has been known as a location for avant-garde culture. In the mid-1980s, the Nordic Arts Centre was established on the island. Several buildings have been converted into artists' studios, which are let by the administration at reasonable rates. During the summer there is an art school for children. The performances of the Suomenlinna summer theater regularly draw full houses. Between 2 and 6 September 2015, the Finnish postal service ran a test of the use of drones to deliver parcels between Helsinki and Suomenlinna. The parcels were limited to 3 kg (7 lb) or less, and flights were under the control of a pilot. The island houses a backpackers' hostel operating in a converted school building, built in 1908 and having served as a Russian school (1909-1917), military office (1918-1919), Finnish school (1920-1959), and a canteen and entertainment venue for soldiers (1959-1972). Suomenlinna Church, built in 1854, was adapted in 1929 to include a lighthouse beacon. Both the church and beacon are still active today. The lighthouse beacon was modernised to use LED lighting in 2019. == Kronoloġija == * 1748: Building of Sveaborg begins under command of Augustin Ehrensvärd. * 1808: Sveaborg surrenders to Russia without any opposition during the Finnish War. * 1809: Treaty of Fredrikshamn: Finland becomes part of Russia. * 1855: Crimean War: Anglo–French navy bombards Sveaborg and causes substantial damage. * 1906: Sveaborg Rebellion: Russian soldiers plan to depose the tsar. * 1914–1917: A ring of ground and sea fortifications, called ''Krepost Sveaborg'', is built around Helsinki. * 1917: Finland becomes independent after the Russian Revolution. * 1918: Name ''Suomenlinna'' becomes the official name of the fortress in Finnish. Prison camp of Red rebels is located in Suomenlinna after the Finnish Civil War. * 1921 ''Valtion lentokonetehdas'' (State Aircraft Factory) started building airplanes and powered ice sleighs in Suomenlinna for the Finnish Air Force. In 1936 the factory moved to Tampere. * 1973: Suomenlinna becomes civil administration area. * 1991: Suomenlinna becomes a UNESCO World Heritage Site. == Letteratura == The Finnish-Swedish poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg wrote a poem called ''Sveaborg'', one of the 35 short poems that together constitute his epic ''The Tales of Ensign Stål''. It includes the following two verses about the fortress, which allude specifically to the "Gustav's Sword" (''Gustavssvärd'') bastion and its guns:<blockquote>It looks out over sea and fjord, With eyes of granite. It raises its Gustav's sword high, And proudly says: 'Come hither!' This sword is not lowered to strike, It only flashes and so destroys. Do not let the island be defiantly approached When the war comes. Do not disturb the queen of the sea In her moment of anger: She slings messages of death toward you, In the roar of a thousand cannons.</blockquote>Sveaborg is also mentioned in the lyrics of Gunnar Wennerberg's 1849 hymn ''O Gud, som styrer folkens öden'' ("Oh God, who steers the people's fate"), in which Sweden's "age-old freedom" is described as being "...our protection in gloomy dangers, our consolation in every bleached sorrow, our defence against the hegemon's forces, and stronger than Sveaborg". As these words were written forty years after the Swedish cession of Finland to Russia, the use of Sveaborg as a simile has deliberately historic overtones. George R. R. Martin wrote a short story about the surrender of Sveaborg, "The Fortress", when he was a college student. It was published in his 2007 volume of short stories, ''Dreamsongs''. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Fortizzi]] [[Kategorija:Fortifikazzjonijiet]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji Kulturali]] [[Kategorija:Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Finlandja]] [[Kategorija:Finlandja]] ljfspu6shzninuhj2z14v9i0rbnmx1h