Wikipedija mtwiki https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il-Pa%C4%A1na_prin%C4%8Bipali MediaWiki 1.46.0-wmf.24 first-letter Medja Speċjali Diskussjoni Utent Diskussjoni utent Wikipedija Diskussjoni Wikipedija Stampa Diskussjoni stampa MediaWiki Diskussjoni MediaWiki Mudell Diskussjoni mudell Għajnuna Diskussjoni għajnuna Kategorija Diskussjoni kategorija Portal Diskussjoni portal TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 26288 329533 298677 2026-04-23T15:00:55Z ~2026-24784-06 27825 /* Storja */ 329533 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:USS John C. Stennis baker.jpg|daqsminuri|Furnar]] '''Furnar''', magħruf ukoll bħala '''ħabbież''', huwa ħaddiem tas-sengħa li jaħmi u xi drabi jbigħ il-[[ħobż]] u prodotti oħra magħmula mid-[[dqiq]] billi juża [[forn]] jew sors ieħor ikkonċentrat tas-sħana. Il-post fejn jaħdem furnar jissejjaħ tal-furnar. == Storja == === Storja antika === === Peress li l-ħbub ilhom ikel bażiku għal millenji, l-attività tal-ħami hija waħda antika ħafna. Il-kontroll tal-[[ħmira]], madankollu, huwa relattivament reċenti. Fil-ħames u s-sitt sekli Q.K., il-Griegi Antiki diġà kienu jużaw fran magħluqa msaħħna bin-nirien mill-ħatab tal-injam; il-komunitajiet normalment kienu jaħmu l-ħobż f’forn komunali kbir.<ref>Wayne Gisslen, ''Professional Baking'' (4th ed.: John Wiley & Sons, 2005), p. 4.</ref> Il-Griegi kienu jaħmu għexieren u possibilment mijiet ta’ tipi ta’ ħobż; Athenaeus iddeskriva tnejn u sebgħin varjetà.<ref>Hoffman, Susanna (2004). ''The Olive and the Caper: Adventures in Greek Cooking''. Workman Publishing. pp. 589.</ref> === [[Stampa:Baker's oven Pompei.JPG|xellug|daqsminuri|284x284px|Forn antik tal-furnara ta’ [[Pompej]]]] F’[[Ruma]] tal-qedem, diversi sekli wara, seħħet l-ewwel produzzjoni tal-massa tal-ħobż, u “jista’ jingħad li l-professjoni tal-ħami bdiet dak iż-żmien”. Il-furnara Rumani tal-qedem kienu jużaw l-għasel u ż-żejt fil-prodotti tagħhom, u kienu joħolqu prodotti bl-għaġina jew pasti iktar milli ħobż. F’Ruma tal-qedem, il-furnara (bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]], ''pistor'' ) xi kultant kienu jkunu lsiera, li xi drabi kienu jkun imwarrba (bħal artiġjani lsiera oħra).<ref>Sandra R. Joshel, ''Work, Identity, and Legal Status at Rome: A Study of the Occupational Inscriptions'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1992), pp. 15, 95-97.</ref> L-unitajiet domestiċi kbar f’Ruma normalment kien ikollhom il-furnara tagħhom stess.<ref>Joshel, p. 96.</ref> Matul dawk iż-żminijiet, ħafna min-nies kienu jaħmu l-ħobż tagħhom stess iżda l-postijiet tal-furnar (''pistrina'') kienu jkunu popolari mal-belt kollha. Il-[[Galli]] jingħad li skoprew li ż-żieda tar-ragħwa tal-birra mal-għaġina tal-ħobż kienet tgħin biex l-għaġina tal-ħobż titla’ sew, u b’hekk indirettament beda l-użu tal-ħmira kkontrollata għall-għaġina tal-ħobż.<ref name=":0">Wayne Gisslen, ''Professional Baking'' (6th ed.: John Wiley & Sons, 2013), p. 5-7.</ref> === Ewropa Medjevali === [[Stampa:Medieval bakerFXD.jpg|daqsminuri|306x306px|Furnar Medjevali u l-apprendist tiegħu]] Fl-[[Ewropa]] [[Medjuevu|Medjevali]], il-fran tal-ħami kienu spiss ikunu sseparati minn bini ieħor (u xi drabi kienu jinsabu ’l barra mill-ħitan tal-belt) sabiex jittaffa r-riskju ta’ nirien. Minħabba li l-ħobż kien ikel bażiku importanti, il-fatturi tal-produzzjoni tal-furnara (bħalma huma r-rendimenti tat-tgħarbil, l-ingredjenti u d-daqsijiet tal-ħobż) kienu rregolati ferm. Pereżempju, [[Enriku III tal-Ingilterra]] ppromulga l-Liġi dwar il-Ħobż u l-Birra fl-1267, u impona diversi miżati fuq il-furnara u l-produtturi tal-[[birra]] kummerċjali kollha sabiex jipprattikaw is-sengħa tagħhom u impona wkoll diversi regolamenti, bħall-ispezzjoni u l-verifika tal-piżijiet u tal-kejl, il-kontroll tal-kwalità, u l-kontrolli tal-prezzijiet. Ftit wara l-promulgazzjoni ta’ din il-liġi, “il-ħami sar industrija stabbli ħafna, u beda jitwettaq ħafna iktar professjonalment mill-produzzjoni tal-birra; dan wassal biex fil-bliet u fl-irħula jkun hemm inqas furnara milli produtturi tal-birra”. Minħabba li l-fran kienu investimenti kapitali għaljin u kienu jeħtieġu tħaddim bir-reqqa, fetħu postijiet speċjalizzati tal-furnara.<ref>Ian Spencer Hornsey, ''A History of Beer and Brewing'' (Royal Society of Chemistry, 2003), p. 292.</ref> Il-furnara spiss kienu parti mis- sistema tax-xirkiet, li kienet stabbilita sew fis-seklu 16: il-furnara ewlenin kienu jagħtu struzzjonijiet lill-apprendisti u kienu megħjuna minn ħaddiema kkwalifikati. F’[[Amsterdam]] fl-1694, pereżempju, il-furnara li kienu jaħmu l-kejkijiet, it-torti, u l-ħobż mixwi u mbaskat isseparaw minn Xirka iktar bikrija tal-Furnara tal-Ħobż u ffurmaw ix-xirka tagħhom stess, filwaqt li rregolaw is-sengħa.<ref>Joop Witteveen, "Rye, A Daily Bread and a Daily Treat" in ''Oxford Symposium on Food & Cookery, 1989: Staple Foods'' (Prospect: 1990), p. 243.</ref> Saħansitra fl-1155, f’Londra kienet teżisti fraternità tal-furnara, skont ir-rekords tal-pagamenti lit-Teżor; il-Worshipful Company of Bakers (il-Kumpanija Illustri tal-Furnara) ġiet iffurmata permezz ta’ dokumenti tal-1486, tal-1569, u tal-1685. Ix-xirka għadha teżisti llum, b’funzjonijiet ċerimonjali u ta’ karità. Ħames furnara kellhom ukoll ir-rwol ta’ sindku ta’ Londra.<ref>John Kennedy Melling, ''London's Guilds and Liveries'' (Shire Publications, 2003), p. 41.</ref><ref>Lipton, James (1991). ''An Exaltation of Larks''. Viking. ISBN <bdi>978-0-670-30044-0</bdi>.</ref> === Ċina fid-dinastija Ming === [[Stampa:The_Baker,_circa_1681,_by_Job_Adriaensz_Berckheyde_(1630-1693)_-_IMG_7331.JPG|xellug|daqsminuri|''Il-Furnar'' (għall-ħabta tal-1681); żejt fuq it-tila ta’ [[Job Adriaensz Berckheyde]] (1630-1693) li issa hija miżmuma fil-Mużew tal-Arti ta’ Worcester.]] Fiċ-[[Ċina]], fi żmien id-dinastija [[Ming]], il-furnara kienu maqsuma fi statuses soċjali differenti skont il-klijenti tagħhom. Il-furnara kienu fost l-eluf ta’ qaddejja li kienu jaħdmu fil-Palazz tad-dinastija Ming<ref name=":1">Chang, K.C. (1977). "Yuan and Ming". ''Food in Chinese Culture''. London: Yale University Press. p. 215.</ref>, fosthom koki reklutati, ewnuki imperjali, u nisa mħarrġa li kienu jservu l-ikel (S''hangshiju'').<ref>Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry. "The Demand and Supply of Ming Eunuchs". ''Journal of Asian History''. (1997): 121–146.</ref><ref>Hsieh, Bao Hua (1999). "From Charwoman to Empress Dowager: Serving-Women in the Ming Palace". ''Ming Studies''. '''42''': 38.</ref> Il-furnara spiss kienu jidħlu għall-okkupazzjoni permezz ta’ apprendistat<ref>Liu, Juren (2011). ''Chinese Food''. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 76.</ref>, jew billi jkunu twieldu f’familja ta’ furnara.<ref name=":2">Feng, Menglong (2009). "Shi Fu Meets a Friend at Tanque". ''Stories to Awaken the World: A Ming Dynasty Collection''. Tradott minn Yang, Shuhui; Yang, Yunqin. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 212.</ref> Minbarra l-aspett lajk tal-ħami, il-furnara tad-dinastija Ming kienu wkoll responsabbli għall-provvista ta’ prodotti tal-għaġina għall-użu f’diversi ritwali, festivals u ċerimonji, bħalż-zongzi.<ref name=":1" /> F’“''Shi Fu Meets a Friend at Tanque''” ġew ipprovduti panini għaċ-ċerimonja tal-kostruzzjoni.<ref name=":2" /> Fi ħdan il-postijiet tal-furnara, kienet tapplika l-ġerarkija patrijarkali tradizzjonali. Fil-postijiet tal-furnara b’sjieda tal-familja, l-ikbar figura maskili (ġeneralment il-missier) kienet tkun fl-ogħla pożizzjoni tal-ġerarkija. Pereżempju, fil-ġrajja ta’ Feng Menglong, meta s-Sur Bo ħareġ ifittex il-fidda mitlufa tal-familja, martu ġiet ordnata tieħu ħsieb il-post tal-furnar.<ref name=":2" /> Il-fizzjoni u l-arti tad-dinastija Ming jiddokumentaw eżempji ta’ diversi furnara; pereżempju, fil-ġrajja ta’ Feng Menglong, il-koppja Bo jkunu sidien ta’ post tal-furnar fejn ibigħu l-kejkijiet u xi bukkuni filwaqt li f’''Water Margin'', il-karattru Wu Dalang ma jkollux post fiss u kien iġorr il-pancakes fuq arblu fuq spalltu u jbigħhom fit-triq.<ref>Nai'an Shi; J H Jackson; Edwin Lowe. ''The water margin : outlaws of the marsh''. ISBN <bdi>9781462902590</bdi>.</ref> Ix-xogħol tal-pittur tal-era Ming [[Qiu Ying]] imsejjaħ ''Tul ix-Xmara Matul il-Festival ta’ Qingming'' juri ħwienet tal-ikel tul it-triq u bejjiegħa li jbigħu l-ikel fit-toroq.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.lnmuseum.com.cn/huxing/show.asp?ID=7096|titlu=仇英清明上河图 卷-辽宁省博物馆|sit=www.lnmuseum.com.cn|data-aċċess=2021-05-08|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510144344/http://www.lnmuseum.com.cn/huxing/show.asp?ID=7096|arkivju-data=2021-05-10|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ix-xogħol tal-era Ming ''Ming Dai Tong Su Ri Yong Lei Shu'', li jiddokumenta t-tekniki u l-oġġetti meħtieġa fil-ħajja ta’ kuljum fl-era Ming, jiddedika kapitlu sħiħ għall-ħiliet kulinarji, inkluż it-tħejjija tal-pancakes u tipi oħra ta’ kejkijiet.<ref>Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (ed.). ''Ming Dai Tong Su Ri Yong Lei Shu''. Southwest University，People's Oriental Publishing. p. 330.</ref> Ix-xogħol ''L-Għanbaqra fil-Vażun tad-Deheb'' isemmi l-baozi (panini mħejjija fuq il-fwar).<ref>Lanling Xiaoxiao Sheng (2011). ''The Plum in the Golden Vase''. '''2'''. Translated by Roy, David. United Kingdom: Princeton University Press. p. 199.</ref> === Skambju Kolombjan === L-[[Iskambju Kolombjan]], li beda fl-1492, kellu influwenza kbira fuq l-okkupazzjoni tal-furnara. L-aċċess għaz-[[zokkor]] żdied ħafna bħala riżultat tal-kultivazzjoni ġdida fil-[[Karibew]], u ingredjenti bħall-[[Solidi tal-kawkaw|kawkaw]] u ċ-[[ċikkulata]] saru disponibbli fid-Dinja l-Qadima. Fis-seklu 18, il-proċessuri tgħallmu kif jirfinaw iz-zokkor mill-[[Pitrava zokkrija|pitravi zokkrija]], u b’hekk l-Ewropej setgħu jkabbru z-zokkor lokalment. Dawn l-iżviluppi wasslu għal żieda fis-sofistikazzjoni tal-ħami u tal-prodotti tal-għaġina, u għall-iżvilupp ta’ prodotti ġodda bħall-għaġina sfiljurata u l-għaġina [[Danimarka|Daniża]].<ref name=":0" /> === Seklu 18 sal-preżent === [[Stampa:Lankckorona_piekarnia.jpg|daqsminuri|Furnar tradizzjonali fil-[[Polonja]] jneħħi l-ħobż frisk mill-forn u jpoġġih fuq tavli tal-injam (garzelli) biex jibred permezz ta’ pala twila tal-injam]] Żewġ kotba importanti dwar il-ħami tal-ħobż ġew ippubblikati fis-snin 70 tas-seklu 18: [[Paul-Jacques Malaouin]] ippubblika ''L'art du meinier, du boulanger et du vermicellier'' (''L-Arti tal-Operatur tat-Tħin, tal-Ħabbież, u tal-Produttur tal-Għaġin'') fl-1762, u [[Antoine-Augustin Parmentier]] ippubblika ''Le parfair boulanger'' (''Il-Ħabbież Perfett'') fl-1778.<ref name=":0" /> Studju tal-belt Ingliża ta’ [[Manchester]] mill-1824 sal-1885, matul ir-[[Rivoluzzjoni Industrijali]], iddetermina li “l-furnar u tal-ħanut” kienu t-tielet l-iktar xogħol komuni, b’178 furnara rġiel, 19-il furnara nisa, u tmien furnara ta’ ġeneru mhux magħruf li kienu jaħdmu fil-belt dak iż-żmien. Din l-okkupazzjoni kienet inqas komuni mill-manifattur tad-drapp u mill-ħaddiem fit-taverni, iżda iktar komuni mill-għażżiel tal-qoton, mill-merkant, mill-istampatur tal-kalikò, jew minn tal-merċa.<ref>Joyce Burnette, ''Gender, Work and Wages in Industrial Revolution Britain'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 35, it-tabella 1.6.</ref> Fl-1895, l-Assemblea tal-Istat ta’ [[New York]] għaddiet “liġi riformista dwar il-ħwienet tal-furnara” li kienet tinkludi protezzjonijiet għall-furnara. Il-liġi kienet “tipprojbixxi lill-impjegati jorqdu fil-post tax-xogħol tagħhom; kienet tispeċifika d-drenaġġ, il-plaming u l-manutenzjoni meħtieġa biex tinżamm is-sanità tal-ħwienet tal-furnara (il-[[Qattus|qtates]] kienu speċifikament jitħallew jibqgħu fil-ħwienet &#x2014; wisq probabbli biex jieħdu ħsieb il-[[Far|firien]]); kienet tillimita s-sigħat massimi ta’ xogħol maħduma; u kienet tistabbilixxi spettorat biex jiżgura li dawn il-kundizzjonijiet kienu qed jiġu ssodisfati”.<ref>Maria Balinska, ''The Bagel: The Surprising History of a Modest Bread'' (Yale University Press, 2008), p. 109.</ref><ref name=":3">Gary R. Hartman, Roy M. Mersky & Cindy L. Tate, ''Landmark Supreme Court Cases: The Most Influential Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States'' (Infobase, 2014), p. 145.</ref> F’qasir żmien Il-leġiżlazzjoni ġiet irreplikata fi stati oħra.<ref>Balinska, p. 109.</ref> [[Joseph Lochner]], sid ħanut tal-furnar f’Utica, New York, sussegwentement ġie kkundannat talli kiser il-liġi u ġiegħel lill-impjegati tiegħu jaħdmu għal iktar minn sittin siegħa fil-ġimgħa. Huwa appella l-każ tiegħu quddiem il-Qorti Suprema tal-Istati Uniti, li ddeċidiet, fil-każ influwenti ħafna ta’ ''Lochner vs.'' ''New York'' (1905), abbażi tal-Imħallef [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]], li l-liġi dwar ix-xogħol kienet tkasbar dritt kostituzzjonali għal-“libertà tal-kuntratt”.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">Balinska, p. 110.</ref> Dan il-każ immarka l-bidu ta’ era “favur min iħaddem”, li iktar tard saret magħrufa bħala l-era ta’ ''Lochner'', li “tefgħet dell twil fuq il-liġi, is-soċjetà u l-politika Amerikana” sa l-aħħar tas-snin 30 tas-seklu 20, meta ''Lochner'' ġie ripudjat.<ref name=":4" /> Frustrati bid-deterjorament mgħaġġel tal-kundizzjonijiet tax-xogħol, il-ħaddiema tal-ħwienet tal-furnara fi New York għamlu strajk f’Awwissu 1905.<ref>Balinska, p. 111.</ref> == Qaddisin patruni Kattoliċi Rumani == Fit[[Knisja Kattolika|-tradizzjoni Kattolika Rumana]], il- [[qaddis patrun]] tal-furnara u tad-dulċiera huwa Honoré ta’ [[Amiens]], isqof ta’ Amiens fis-seklu 6 fit-Tramuntana ta’ Franza, li għalih huwa msemmi l-kejk ta’ San Honoré.<ref name=":5">{{Ċita web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2012/05/16/152818748/thank-the-patron-saint-of-bakers-for-this-cake-today|titlu=Thank The Patron Saint Of Bakers For This Cake Today|sit=NPR.org|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2021-05-08}}</ref> [[Lazzru tal-Betanija]] kien oriġinarjament kompetitur ta’ Honoré għat-titlu ta’ qaddis patrun tal-furnara, iżda fis-[[Seklu XVII|seklu 17]] ix-xirka tal-furnara Franċiżi għażlet lil Honoré.<ref name=":5" /> == Kunjom == ''Baker'' (li tfisser furnar bl-[[Lingwa Ingliża|Ingliż]]) huwa kunjom Ingliż faċilment rikonoxxibbli ta’ oriġini okkupazzjonali Medjevali; ''Baxster'' hija l-forma femminili.<ref>Gregory Clark, ''The Son Also Rises: Surnames and the History of Social Mobility'' (Princeton University Press, 2014), p. 71.</ref><ref name=":6">Elsdon Coles Smith, ''American Surnames'' (Genealogical Publishing Co.: 1969), p. 111.</ref> Kunjomijiet ekwivalenti ta’ oriġini okkupazzjonali li jfissru “furnar” jeżistu b’lingwi oħra: ''Boulanger'', ''Bulinger'', ''Dufour'', u ''Fournier'' bil-Franċiż, ''Bäcker'' bil-Ġermaniż, u ''Piekarz'' bil-[[Lingwa Pollakka|Pollakk]].<ref name=":6" /> == Dmirijiet u perikli fuq ix- xogħol == Skont l-''Occupational Outlook Handbook'' (''OOH - il-Manwal tal-Prospettiva Okkupazzjonali'')<ref name=":7">{{Ċita web|url=https://www.bls.gov/ooh/production/print/bakers.htm|titlu=Bakers : Occupational Outlook Handbook : U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics|sit=www.bls.gov|lingwa=en-us|data-aċċess=2021-05-08}}</ref> ippubblikat mill-Uffiċċju tal-Istatistika tax-Xogħol tad-Dipartiment tax-Xogħol tal-Istati Uniti, il-furnara jagħmlu dan li ġej: * Jivverifikaw il-kwalità tal-ingredjenti tal-ħami * Iħejju t-tagħmir għall-ħami * Ikejlu u jiżnu d-dqiq u ingredjenti oħra * Iħalltu l-ingredjenti bil-qies fit-tagħmir tat-taħlit * Jagħġnu, jirrumblaw, jaqtgħu u jagħtu l-forma lill-għaġina * Ipoġġu l-għaġina f’taġnijiet, f’forom jew fuq folji tal-ħami * Jirranġaw it-temperaturi tal-fran * Idaħħlu l-prodotti fil-fran jew fuq il-grilji * Josservaw il-kulur u l-qagħda tal-prodotti li jkunu qed jinħmew * Ipoġġu glejzing, kisi jew ingredjenti oħra fil-wiċċ tal-prodotti Il-furnara jipproduċu diversi tipi u kwantitajiet ta’ ħobż, prodotti bl-għaġina, pasti, u prodotti moħmija oħra li jinbiegħu minn tal-merċa, mill-bejjiegħa bl-imnut, mir-ristoranti u mis-servizzi tal-ikel istituzzjonali. Xi furnara joħolqu anke riċetti ġodda.<ref name=":7" /> Il-furnara jiltaqgħu ma’ għadd ta’ perikli fuq ix-xogħol. L-''OOH'' jirrapporta li l-postijiet tal-furnar, “speċjalment il-faċilitajiet il-kbar tal-manifattura, huma mimlijin b’perikli potenzjali bħal fran jaħarqu, magni tat-taħlit, u magni tat-tqattigħ tal-għaġina. B’riżultat ta’ dan, il-furnara għandhom rata ogħla ta’ korrimenti u ta’ mard mill-medja nazzjonali. Għalkemm ix-xogħol tagħhom ġeneralment huwa sikur, il-furnara jistgħu jbatu minn strapazz fuq daharhom ikkawżati mill-irfigħ jew miċ-ċaqliq ta’ xkejjer tqal tad-dqiq jew prodotti oħra. Riskji komuni oħra jinkludu qatgħat, selħiet, u ħarqiet. Sabiex inaqqsu dawn ir-riskji, il-furnara spiss jilbsu rfid apposta għal ma’ daharhom, fradal, u ingwanti”.<ref name=":7" /> L-ażżma tal-furnar &#x2014; komunement ikkawżata mill-allerġeni tad-dqiq u mill- enżimi mikrobiċi (ħafna drabi derivati mill-''Aspergillus'') li jintużaw biex jiffaċilitaw il-produzzjoni tal-ħobż &#x2014; hija waħda mill-kawżi komuni tal-ażżma okkupazzjonali fid-dinja kollha.<ref>Paul Cullinan, Torben Sigsgaard & Rolf Merget, "Occupational Asmtha in the Baking Industry" in ''Asthma in the Workplace'' (eds. Jean-Luc Malo, Moira Chan-Yeung & David I. Bernstein: 4th ed., CRC Press, 2013), p. 213.</ref> === Paragun mad-dulċier === Kemm il-furnara kif ukoll id-dulċiera jagħmlu deżerti u ħobż. F’xi ristoranti u ħwienet, individwu wieħed jaqdi ż-żewġ rwoli. F’ambjenti oħra, hemm distinzjoni bejn iż-żewġ pożizzjonijiet, fejn il-furnara jagħmlu l-ħobż, il-bziezen, u l-muffins, u d-dulċiera jagħmlu d-deżerti, bħal kejkijiet, torti tal-ikel, torti tal-ħelu, u cookies. Anke meta kemm il-furnara kif ukoll id-dulċiera jaħdmu fl-istess post, xorta waħda jista’ jkun hemm xi trikkib.<ref>Simone Payment, ''Careers in Restaurants'' (Rosen: 2014), p. 27.</ref> == Tagħmir == Il-furnara jużaw varjetà ta’ tagħmir, inkluż:<ref>Ġużi Gatt, ''Qieghda Fil-Ponta Ta’ Lsieni 2'', ISBN: 978999327539.</ref> * Pala tal-furnar - għodda qisha moqdief kbir u ċatt, jew tal-injam jew tal-metall, li tintuża biex il-ħobżiet jiżżerżqu ’l ġewwa u ’l barra mill-forn<ref name=":8">Rose Levy Beranbaum, ''The Bread Bible'' (W. W. Norton, 2003), p. 595-96.</ref> * Lenbuba - għodda li tintuża biex l-għaġina tiġi rrumblata u ċċattjata<ref name=":8" /> * Għodod qishom sassla tad-dqiq - għodod li jintużaw biex iżżid, tneħħi jew tkejjel id-dqiq<ref name=":8" /> * Xkupilji - għodda li tintuża biex tneħħi d-dqiq żejjed mill-għaġina, u għall-igglejżjar<ref name=":8" /> * Imtieħen tad-dqiq - għodod li jintużaw għat-tħin tal-ħbub; jistgħu jkunu tal-idejn jew mekkaniċi<ref name=":8" /> == Statistika dwar l-impjiegi == === Stati Uniti === Skont il''-Manwal tal-Prospettiva tax''-Xogħol ippubblikat mill-Uffiċċju tal-Istatistika tax-Xogħol tad-Dipartiment tax-Xogħol tal-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]], kien hemm 185,300 furnar fl-Istati Uniti fl-2014, b’paga medjana ta’ $23,600 fis-sena jew $11.35 fis-siegħa. Madwar 28 % tal-furnara tal-Istati Uniti jaħdmu f’postijiet tal-furnara jew tal-manifattura tat-tortillas; 26 % jaħdmu fil-ħwienet tal-merċa; 15 % jaħdmu fir-ristoranti u f’postijiet oħra tal-ikel; u 5 % kienu jaħdmu għal rashom. Madwar 30 % tal-furnara tal-Istati Uniti ħadmu part-time fl-2014.<ref name=":7" /> == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Snajja]] [[Kategorija:Ikel]] fsikxh1ocfhnvmolgasnigodunulszq 0 32372 329536 328464 2026-04-24T08:45:43Z Pchoinsk 7 /* Albums */ Cowboys Don't Cry 329536 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Aidan Cassar''' (imwieled fis-17 ta' Diċembru 1999),<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.zejtunlocalcouncil.com/single-post/2018/03/22/aidan-cassar-u-francesca-mifsud-jingħataw-l-premju-fjamma-żagħżugħa|titlu=Aidan Cassar u Francesca Mifsud jingħataw l-premju 'Fjamma Żagħżugħa'|isem=Sean|awtur=Chircop|data=2018-03-22|sit=Żejtun Local Council|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> magħruf professjonalment bħala '''Aidan''', huwa kittieb tal-kanzunetti u kantant Malti. == Karriera == Fl-2018 huwa kkompeta fil-[[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2018|Malta Eurovision Song Contest]] bil-kanzunetta ''Dai Laga''. Wara rapporti li l-kanzunetta, oriġinarjament ippreżentata bħala kompożizzjoni oriġinali, kienet użat ritmu ta’ produzzjoni disponibbli pubblikament u setgħet potenzjalment tikser ir-regoli tal-Eurovision, ġiet imġedda u maħruġa mill-ġdid.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://wiwibloggs.com/2018/01/19/aidan-publishes-dai-laga-revamp-following-rule-breach-controversy-in-malta/210448/|titlu=Aidan publishes "Dai Laga" revamp following rule breach controversy in Malta|isem=William Lee|awtur=Adams|data=19 January 2018|sit=wiwibloggs|data-aċċess=16 January 2024|url-status=live|arkivju-url=https://archive.today/20240116222355/https://wiwibloggs.com/2018/01/19/aidan-publishes-dai-laga-revamp-following-rule-breach-controversy-in-malta/210448/|arkivju-data=16 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2018-01-10/local-news/PBS-looking-into-possible-breach-of-Eurovision-rules-by-MESC-song-entry-6736183440|titlu=PBS looking into possible breach of Eurovision rules by MESC song entry - The Malta Independent|sit=Malta Independent|data-aċċess=2024-02-18}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta ġiet fir-raba’ post fil-konkors.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://eurovisionworld.com/national/malta/mesc-2018|titlu=Malta: MESC 2018|sit=Eurovisionworld|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2024-02-18}}</ref> Wara dan huwa ħa sehem fl-''[[X Factor Malta]]''.<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/lifestyle/eurovision/exclusive-aidan-submits-upbeat-song-entirely-in-maltese-for-eurovision/|titlu=Exclusive: Aidan Submits Upbeat Song Entirely In Maltese For Eurovision|isem=Tim|awtur=Diacono|data=2021-12-15|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Fl-2019 irrappreżenta lil Malta fl-OGAE Song Contest 2019 bil-kanzunetta ''The Feeling''.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://ogae.uk/ogae-song-contest-2019-malta/|titlu=OGAE Song Contest 2019 - Malta|sit=OGAE UK|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2022-04-01|url-status=dead|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626082417/https://ogae.uk/ogae-song-contest-2019-malta/|arkivju-data=26 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/news/watch-maltas-summer-anthem-aidan-explains-unlikely-success-of-his-latest-hit-single-sung-entirely-in-maltese/|titlu=WATCH: Malta's Summer Anthem? Aidan Explains Unlikely Success Of His Latest Hit Single Sung Entirely In Maltese|isem=Jean Paul|awtur=Azzopardi|data=2021-05-20|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Is-single tiegħu ''[[Naħseb Fik]]'' ġiet imqabbla ma' ''Tick Tock'' ta' Clean Bandit u Mabel u ntqal li kellha progressjoni ta' akkordji simili. Huwa ċaħad li l-beat u l-melodija kienu kkupjati.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/news/aidan-responds-to-allegations-that-hit-single-nahseb-fik-was-lifted-from-a-clean-bandit-track/|titlu=Aidan Responds To Allegations That Hit Single 'Naħseb Fik' Was Lifted From A Clean Bandit Track|isem=Johnathan|awtur=Cilia|data=2021-05-27|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/musicians-raise-plagiarism-concerns-over-aidan-cassars-hit-song.874984|titlu=Musicians raise plagiarism concerns over Aidan Cassar's hit song|isem=Jessica|awtur=Arena|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta ddaħħlet fil-konkors [[Mużika Mużika]] fl-2021. Din kienet l-ewwel darba li kiteb kanzunetta bil-Malti, kif ukoll l-ewwel darba li kanta bil-Malti.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.festivals.mt/post/muzika-muzika-a-prestigious-launch-pad|titlu=Mużika Mużika, a prestigious launch pad for up and coming artists|data=2021-08-25|sit=Festivals Malta 2022|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-video mużikali rebaħ il-video mużikali tas-sena fil-Lovin Malta Social Media Awards tal-2021.<ref name=":0" /> Ħa sehem fil- [[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2022|Malta Eurovision Song Contest fl-2022]] bil-kanzunetta ''Ritmu'', u ġie fit-tieni post. <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imhabbra-t-22-semifinalista-tal-malta-eurovision-song-contest-2022/|titlu=Imħabbra t-22 semifinalista tal-Malta Eurovision Song Contest 2022|isem=Owen|awtur=Galea|data=29 December 2021|sit=TVMnews.mt|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/en/news/nofs-miljun-raw-it-tliet-serati-tal-eurovision-song-contest/|titlu=Record TV audience – over half a million viewers watch Eurovision Song Contest|data=20 February 2022|sit=TVMnews.mt|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta għaddiet biex tilħaq il-quċċata tal-klassifiċi tal-airplay fuq ir-radju f'Malti għal tliet ġimgħat konsekuttivi, u ndaqqet ukoll waqt pre-party tal-Eurovision [[Londra|f'Londra]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://maltadaily.mt/aidan-invited-to-perform-fan-favourite-ritmu-in-london/|titlu=Aidan invited to perform fan-favourite 'RITMU' in London|awtur=MaltaDaily|data=2022-04-06|sit=Malta Daily|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-04-07}}</ref> Aidan ħabbar ir-riżultati tal-ġurija għal Malta fil- [[Eurovision Song Contest 2022]] . Fl-24 ta’ Lulju, 2022, kanta live il-kanzunetti Naħseb Fik u “Ritmu”<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v5rFFcGa0Nc|titlu=Isle of MTV 2022|sit=YouTube}}</ref> waqt [[Isle of MTV|Isle Of MTV]] 2022 fil-[[Furjana]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/arts/music/117597/full_lineup_for_this_years_isle_of_mtv_announced|titlu=Full line-up for this year's Isle of MTV announced|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-01-14}}</ref> Fl-2023 reġa’ daħal għall-[[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2023|Malta Eurovision Song Contest]] bil-kanzunetta ''Reġina''. Huwa kien skwalifikat mill-konkors allegatament minħabba posts fuq il-media soċjali dwar il-kanzunetta tiegħu li ma kinux permessi mill-PBS bħala l-organizzaturi. Huwa hedded lill-PBS b'azzjoni legali<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/arts/entertainment/121048/aidan_cassar_withdraws_from_eurovision_legal_challenge|titlu=Aidan Cassar backs out of Eurovision legal challenge|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref> iżda din twarrbet meta kien mistieden ikanta medley tal-kanzunetti tiegħu waqt l-intervall tas-serata finali.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/singer-aidan-cassar-disqualified-malta-eurovision-song-contest.1009047|titlu=Singer Aidan Cassar disqualified from Malta Eurovision Song Contest|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/aidan-return-guest-singer-eurovision-final-show.1012983|titlu=Aidan to return as guest singer in Eurovision final show|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref> == Diskografija == === Albums === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! scope="col" | Titlu ! scope="col" | Dettalji |- ! scope="row" | ''This Is Aidan'' | * Ħruġ: 31 ta' Marzu 2023 * Tikketta: maħruġ mill-kantant stess * Format: download diġitali |- ! scope="row"| ''Cowboys Don't Cry'' | * Ħruġ: 20 ta' Marzu 2026<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://youtube.com/playlist?list=OLAK5uy_mb9jS17nkY20psSmKHG_5g8oDKTh_oQSM|titlu=AIDAN - Cowboys Don't Cry (Album Playlist)|data=2026-03-20|data-aċċess=2026-04-24}}</ref> * Tikketta: maħruġ mill-kantant stess * Format: download diġitali |} |} === Singles === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:15em;" |Title ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:1em;" |Year !Peak chart positions ! rowspan="2" scope="col" |Album |- ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;" |MLT<br /><br /> |- ! scope="row" |"Rule the World"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=919IvcOQSqA|titlu=AIDAN - Rule The World (Audio)|data=2015-12-21|sit=[[YouTube]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2015 |— | rowspan="8" {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Bon Bon"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.reverbnation.com/aidancassar/song/28435191-aidan-bon-bon-official-audio|titlu=Aidan - Bon Bon (Official Audio) by Aidan Cassar {{!}} ReverbNation|data=2017-07-24|sit=[[ReverbNation ]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2017 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Drums"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/6oCD8c0y6LZpJezDCCloKF|titlu=Aidan - Drums {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2017-09-25|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |— |- ! scope="row" |"Dai Laga"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://eurovoix.com/2018/01/19/malta-aidan-revamped-dai-laga/|titlu=Malta: Aidan Releases Revamped Version Of "Dai Laga" After Rule Break|data=2018-01-19|sit=Eurovoix|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2018 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Mine"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-GLQ1Y1pCto|titlu=AIDAN - Mine (Official Audio)|data=2018-10-07|sit=[[YouTube]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |5 |- ! scope="row" |"The Feeling"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/1MNqCc2cIK29mwllUbrp9b|titlu=AIDAN - The Feeling {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2019-07-16|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2019 |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Somebody Like You"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/somebody-like-you-single/1534677084|titlu=Somebody Like You - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2020-10-08|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2020 |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Heart Emoji"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/heart-emoji-single/1552740068|titlu=Heart Emoji - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2021-02-12|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106232616/https://music.apple.com/mt/album/heart-emoji-single/1552740068|arkivju-data=2023-01-06|url-status=dead}}</ref> | rowspan="3" |2021 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Naħseb Fik"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/na%C4%A7seb-fik-single/1557633891|titlu=Naħseb Fik - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2021-03-19|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106232615/https://music.apple.com/mt/album/na%C4%A7seb-fik-single/1557633891|arkivju-data=2023-01-06|url-status=dead}}</ref> |1 |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"24/7"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/5RsPvZWJHt7PJXbeGlMOIH|titlu=24/7 - Single by Carlo Gerada, AIDAN {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2021-09-16|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with Carlo Gerarda)}} |1 | {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Ritmu"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/ritmu-single/1632935126|titlu=Ritmu - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2022-03-02|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2022 |1 |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"Madam"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/madam-single/1652732384|titlu=Madam - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2022-11-21|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2 | {{N/a|Non-album single}} |- ! scope="row" |"Rip (Rest in Peace)"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/rip-rest-in-peace-single/1660660457|titlu=Rip (Rest in Peace) - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2023-01-01|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with [[Ira Losco]])}} | rowspan="5" |2023 |1 | rowspan="3" |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"Reġina"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://mobile.twitter.com/AIDANOfficial__/status/1607815069794029568|titlu=AIDAN 👑 🇲🇹 on Twitter: "Reġina is my entry for Malta #Eurovision 2023, based on a true story and dedicated to my mother 👑 The song is in Maltese, Spanish and English 🇲🇹🇪🇸🇬🇧"|data=2022-12-27|sit=[[Twitter]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-09}}</ref> |2 |- ! scope="row" |"Hey Anna" |— |- ! scope="row" |"Strawberry"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/en/aidan-releases-music-video-for-new-single-strawberry/|titlu=AIDAN releases music video for new single ’Strawberry’|isem=|awtur=|data=2023-09-02|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-09-24}}</ref> |1 | rowspan="2" {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Head & Mind"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/head-mind-single/1704367426|titlu=Head & Mind - Single - Album by naBBoo & AIDAN|data=2023-10-27|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-11-05}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with [[Boban Apostolov|NaBBoo]])}} |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Juliette"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/Juliette/1728296457|titlu=Juliette - Song by AIDAN|data=2024-02-09|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2024-03-29}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2024 |1 | rowspan="2" |Singles mhux minn album |- ! scope="row" |"Hero" |— |- | colspan="4" style="font-size:90%" |"—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. |} === Kanzunetti oħra === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:15em;" | Titlu ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:1em;" | Sena ! L-ogħla pożizzjonijiet fil-klassifika ! rowspan="2" scope="col" | Album |- ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;" | MLT<br /> <ref name="MLT">Peak chart positions for singles in Malta: </ref> |- ! scope="row" | "Pupa" | 2023 | 1 | ''This Is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" | "Juliette" {{Small|([[A cappella]] version)}} | 2024 | 9 | {{N/a|Non-album single}} |- | colspan="4" style="font-size:90%" | |} == Referenzi == {{Referenzi}}{{Awtorità}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Cassar, Aidan}} [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1999]] [[Kategorija:Nies miż-Żejtun]] [[Kategorija:Kantanti Maltin]] 1f0rveskt4apxhiuwanas4hc9wfnlju 329537 329536 2026-04-24T08:45:57Z Pchoinsk 7 /* Albums */ fix 329537 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Aidan Cassar''' (imwieled fis-17 ta' Diċembru 1999),<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.zejtunlocalcouncil.com/single-post/2018/03/22/aidan-cassar-u-francesca-mifsud-jingħataw-l-premju-fjamma-żagħżugħa|titlu=Aidan Cassar u Francesca Mifsud jingħataw l-premju 'Fjamma Żagħżugħa'|isem=Sean|awtur=Chircop|data=2018-03-22|sit=Żejtun Local Council|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> magħruf professjonalment bħala '''Aidan''', huwa kittieb tal-kanzunetti u kantant Malti. == Karriera == Fl-2018 huwa kkompeta fil-[[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2018|Malta Eurovision Song Contest]] bil-kanzunetta ''Dai Laga''. Wara rapporti li l-kanzunetta, oriġinarjament ippreżentata bħala kompożizzjoni oriġinali, kienet użat ritmu ta’ produzzjoni disponibbli pubblikament u setgħet potenzjalment tikser ir-regoli tal-Eurovision, ġiet imġedda u maħruġa mill-ġdid.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://wiwibloggs.com/2018/01/19/aidan-publishes-dai-laga-revamp-following-rule-breach-controversy-in-malta/210448/|titlu=Aidan publishes "Dai Laga" revamp following rule breach controversy in Malta|isem=William Lee|awtur=Adams|data=19 January 2018|sit=wiwibloggs|data-aċċess=16 January 2024|url-status=live|arkivju-url=https://archive.today/20240116222355/https://wiwibloggs.com/2018/01/19/aidan-publishes-dai-laga-revamp-following-rule-breach-controversy-in-malta/210448/|arkivju-data=16 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2018-01-10/local-news/PBS-looking-into-possible-breach-of-Eurovision-rules-by-MESC-song-entry-6736183440|titlu=PBS looking into possible breach of Eurovision rules by MESC song entry - The Malta Independent|sit=Malta Independent|data-aċċess=2024-02-18}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta ġiet fir-raba’ post fil-konkors.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://eurovisionworld.com/national/malta/mesc-2018|titlu=Malta: MESC 2018|sit=Eurovisionworld|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2024-02-18}}</ref> Wara dan huwa ħa sehem fl-''[[X Factor Malta]]''.<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/lifestyle/eurovision/exclusive-aidan-submits-upbeat-song-entirely-in-maltese-for-eurovision/|titlu=Exclusive: Aidan Submits Upbeat Song Entirely In Maltese For Eurovision|isem=Tim|awtur=Diacono|data=2021-12-15|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Fl-2019 irrappreżenta lil Malta fl-OGAE Song Contest 2019 bil-kanzunetta ''The Feeling''.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://ogae.uk/ogae-song-contest-2019-malta/|titlu=OGAE Song Contest 2019 - Malta|sit=OGAE UK|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2022-04-01|url-status=dead|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626082417/https://ogae.uk/ogae-song-contest-2019-malta/|arkivju-data=26 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/news/watch-maltas-summer-anthem-aidan-explains-unlikely-success-of-his-latest-hit-single-sung-entirely-in-maltese/|titlu=WATCH: Malta's Summer Anthem? Aidan Explains Unlikely Success Of His Latest Hit Single Sung Entirely In Maltese|isem=Jean Paul|awtur=Azzopardi|data=2021-05-20|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Is-single tiegħu ''[[Naħseb Fik]]'' ġiet imqabbla ma' ''Tick Tock'' ta' Clean Bandit u Mabel u ntqal li kellha progressjoni ta' akkordji simili. Huwa ċaħad li l-beat u l-melodija kienu kkupjati.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/news/aidan-responds-to-allegations-that-hit-single-nahseb-fik-was-lifted-from-a-clean-bandit-track/|titlu=Aidan Responds To Allegations That Hit Single 'Naħseb Fik' Was Lifted From A Clean Bandit Track|isem=Johnathan|awtur=Cilia|data=2021-05-27|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/musicians-raise-plagiarism-concerns-over-aidan-cassars-hit-song.874984|titlu=Musicians raise plagiarism concerns over Aidan Cassar's hit song|isem=Jessica|awtur=Arena|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta ddaħħlet fil-konkors [[Mużika Mużika]] fl-2021. Din kienet l-ewwel darba li kiteb kanzunetta bil-Malti, kif ukoll l-ewwel darba li kanta bil-Malti.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.festivals.mt/post/muzika-muzika-a-prestigious-launch-pad|titlu=Mużika Mużika, a prestigious launch pad for up and coming artists|data=2021-08-25|sit=Festivals Malta 2022|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-video mużikali rebaħ il-video mużikali tas-sena fil-Lovin Malta Social Media Awards tal-2021.<ref name=":0" /> Ħa sehem fil- [[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2022|Malta Eurovision Song Contest fl-2022]] bil-kanzunetta ''Ritmu'', u ġie fit-tieni post. <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imhabbra-t-22-semifinalista-tal-malta-eurovision-song-contest-2022/|titlu=Imħabbra t-22 semifinalista tal-Malta Eurovision Song Contest 2022|isem=Owen|awtur=Galea|data=29 December 2021|sit=TVMnews.mt|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/en/news/nofs-miljun-raw-it-tliet-serati-tal-eurovision-song-contest/|titlu=Record TV audience – over half a million viewers watch Eurovision Song Contest|data=20 February 2022|sit=TVMnews.mt|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta għaddiet biex tilħaq il-quċċata tal-klassifiċi tal-airplay fuq ir-radju f'Malti għal tliet ġimgħat konsekuttivi, u ndaqqet ukoll waqt pre-party tal-Eurovision [[Londra|f'Londra]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://maltadaily.mt/aidan-invited-to-perform-fan-favourite-ritmu-in-london/|titlu=Aidan invited to perform fan-favourite 'RITMU' in London|awtur=MaltaDaily|data=2022-04-06|sit=Malta Daily|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-04-07}}</ref> Aidan ħabbar ir-riżultati tal-ġurija għal Malta fil- [[Eurovision Song Contest 2022]] . Fl-24 ta’ Lulju, 2022, kanta live il-kanzunetti Naħseb Fik u “Ritmu”<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v5rFFcGa0Nc|titlu=Isle of MTV 2022|sit=YouTube}}</ref> waqt [[Isle of MTV|Isle Of MTV]] 2022 fil-[[Furjana]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/arts/music/117597/full_lineup_for_this_years_isle_of_mtv_announced|titlu=Full line-up for this year's Isle of MTV announced|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-01-14}}</ref> Fl-2023 reġa’ daħal għall-[[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2023|Malta Eurovision Song Contest]] bil-kanzunetta ''Reġina''. Huwa kien skwalifikat mill-konkors allegatament minħabba posts fuq il-media soċjali dwar il-kanzunetta tiegħu li ma kinux permessi mill-PBS bħala l-organizzaturi. Huwa hedded lill-PBS b'azzjoni legali<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/arts/entertainment/121048/aidan_cassar_withdraws_from_eurovision_legal_challenge|titlu=Aidan Cassar backs out of Eurovision legal challenge|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref> iżda din twarrbet meta kien mistieden ikanta medley tal-kanzunetti tiegħu waqt l-intervall tas-serata finali.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/singer-aidan-cassar-disqualified-malta-eurovision-song-contest.1009047|titlu=Singer Aidan Cassar disqualified from Malta Eurovision Song Contest|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/aidan-return-guest-singer-eurovision-final-show.1012983|titlu=Aidan to return as guest singer in Eurovision final show|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref> == Diskografija == === Albums === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! scope="col" | Titlu ! scope="col" | Dettalji |- ! scope="row" | ''This Is Aidan'' | * Ħruġ: 31 ta' Marzu 2023 * Tikketta: maħruġ mill-kantant stess * Format: download diġitali |- ! scope="row"| ''Cowboys Don't Cry'' | * Ħruġ: 20 ta' Marzu 2026<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://youtube.com/playlist?list=OLAK5uy_mb9jS17nkY20psSmKHG_5g8oDKTh_oQSM|titlu=AIDAN - Cowboys Don't Cry (Album Playlist)|data=2026-03-20|data-aċċess=2026-04-24}}</ref> * Tikketta: maħruġ mill-kantant stess * Format: download diġitali |} === Singles === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:15em;" |Title ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:1em;" |Year !Peak chart positions ! rowspan="2" scope="col" |Album |- ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;" |MLT<br /><br /> |- ! scope="row" |"Rule the World"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=919IvcOQSqA|titlu=AIDAN - Rule The World (Audio)|data=2015-12-21|sit=[[YouTube]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2015 |— | rowspan="8" {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Bon Bon"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.reverbnation.com/aidancassar/song/28435191-aidan-bon-bon-official-audio|titlu=Aidan - Bon Bon (Official Audio) by Aidan Cassar {{!}} ReverbNation|data=2017-07-24|sit=[[ReverbNation ]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2017 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Drums"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/6oCD8c0y6LZpJezDCCloKF|titlu=Aidan - Drums {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2017-09-25|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |— |- ! scope="row" |"Dai Laga"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://eurovoix.com/2018/01/19/malta-aidan-revamped-dai-laga/|titlu=Malta: Aidan Releases Revamped Version Of "Dai Laga" After Rule Break|data=2018-01-19|sit=Eurovoix|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2018 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Mine"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-GLQ1Y1pCto|titlu=AIDAN - Mine (Official Audio)|data=2018-10-07|sit=[[YouTube]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |5 |- ! scope="row" |"The Feeling"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/1MNqCc2cIK29mwllUbrp9b|titlu=AIDAN - The Feeling {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2019-07-16|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2019 |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Somebody Like You"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/somebody-like-you-single/1534677084|titlu=Somebody Like You - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2020-10-08|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2020 |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Heart Emoji"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/heart-emoji-single/1552740068|titlu=Heart Emoji - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2021-02-12|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106232616/https://music.apple.com/mt/album/heart-emoji-single/1552740068|arkivju-data=2023-01-06|url-status=dead}}</ref> | rowspan="3" |2021 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Naħseb Fik"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/na%C4%A7seb-fik-single/1557633891|titlu=Naħseb Fik - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2021-03-19|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106232615/https://music.apple.com/mt/album/na%C4%A7seb-fik-single/1557633891|arkivju-data=2023-01-06|url-status=dead}}</ref> |1 |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"24/7"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/5RsPvZWJHt7PJXbeGlMOIH|titlu=24/7 - Single by Carlo Gerada, AIDAN {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2021-09-16|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with Carlo Gerarda)}} |1 | {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Ritmu"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/ritmu-single/1632935126|titlu=Ritmu - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2022-03-02|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2022 |1 |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"Madam"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/madam-single/1652732384|titlu=Madam - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2022-11-21|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2 | {{N/a|Non-album single}} |- ! scope="row" |"Rip (Rest in Peace)"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/rip-rest-in-peace-single/1660660457|titlu=Rip (Rest in Peace) - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2023-01-01|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with [[Ira Losco]])}} | rowspan="5" |2023 |1 | rowspan="3" |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"Reġina"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://mobile.twitter.com/AIDANOfficial__/status/1607815069794029568|titlu=AIDAN 👑 🇲🇹 on Twitter: "Reġina is my entry for Malta #Eurovision 2023, based on a true story and dedicated to my mother 👑 The song is in Maltese, Spanish and English 🇲🇹🇪🇸🇬🇧"|data=2022-12-27|sit=[[Twitter]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-09}}</ref> |2 |- ! scope="row" |"Hey Anna" |— |- ! scope="row" |"Strawberry"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/en/aidan-releases-music-video-for-new-single-strawberry/|titlu=AIDAN releases music video for new single ’Strawberry’|isem=|awtur=|data=2023-09-02|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-09-24}}</ref> |1 | rowspan="2" {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Head & Mind"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/head-mind-single/1704367426|titlu=Head & Mind - Single - Album by naBBoo & AIDAN|data=2023-10-27|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-11-05}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with [[Boban Apostolov|NaBBoo]])}} |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Juliette"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/Juliette/1728296457|titlu=Juliette - Song by AIDAN|data=2024-02-09|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2024-03-29}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2024 |1 | rowspan="2" |Singles mhux minn album |- ! scope="row" |"Hero" |— |- | colspan="4" style="font-size:90%" |"—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. |} === Kanzunetti oħra === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:15em;" | Titlu ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:1em;" | Sena ! L-ogħla pożizzjonijiet fil-klassifika ! rowspan="2" scope="col" | Album |- ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;" | MLT<br /> <ref name="MLT">Peak chart positions for singles in Malta: </ref> |- ! scope="row" | "Pupa" | 2023 | 1 | ''This Is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" | "Juliette" {{Small|([[A cappella]] version)}} | 2024 | 9 | {{N/a|Non-album single}} |- | colspan="4" style="font-size:90%" | |} == Referenzi == {{Referenzi}}{{Awtorità}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Cassar, Aidan}} [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1999]] [[Kategorija:Nies miż-Żejtun]] [[Kategorija:Kantanti Maltin]] fn8v3buk07q55kycm42n0y7ved7ulif 329541 329537 2026-04-24T11:43:04Z Pchoinsk 7 /* Albums */ 329541 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Aidan Cassar''' (imwieled fis-17 ta' Diċembru 1999),<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.zejtunlocalcouncil.com/single-post/2018/03/22/aidan-cassar-u-francesca-mifsud-jingħataw-l-premju-fjamma-żagħżugħa|titlu=Aidan Cassar u Francesca Mifsud jingħataw l-premju 'Fjamma Żagħżugħa'|isem=Sean|awtur=Chircop|data=2018-03-22|sit=Żejtun Local Council|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> magħruf professjonalment bħala '''Aidan''', huwa kittieb tal-kanzunetti u kantant Malti. == Karriera == Fl-2018 huwa kkompeta fil-[[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2018|Malta Eurovision Song Contest]] bil-kanzunetta ''Dai Laga''. Wara rapporti li l-kanzunetta, oriġinarjament ippreżentata bħala kompożizzjoni oriġinali, kienet użat ritmu ta’ produzzjoni disponibbli pubblikament u setgħet potenzjalment tikser ir-regoli tal-Eurovision, ġiet imġedda u maħruġa mill-ġdid.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://wiwibloggs.com/2018/01/19/aidan-publishes-dai-laga-revamp-following-rule-breach-controversy-in-malta/210448/|titlu=Aidan publishes "Dai Laga" revamp following rule breach controversy in Malta|isem=William Lee|awtur=Adams|data=19 January 2018|sit=wiwibloggs|data-aċċess=16 January 2024|url-status=live|arkivju-url=https://archive.today/20240116222355/https://wiwibloggs.com/2018/01/19/aidan-publishes-dai-laga-revamp-following-rule-breach-controversy-in-malta/210448/|arkivju-data=16 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2018-01-10/local-news/PBS-looking-into-possible-breach-of-Eurovision-rules-by-MESC-song-entry-6736183440|titlu=PBS looking into possible breach of Eurovision rules by MESC song entry - The Malta Independent|sit=Malta Independent|data-aċċess=2024-02-18}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta ġiet fir-raba’ post fil-konkors.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://eurovisionworld.com/national/malta/mesc-2018|titlu=Malta: MESC 2018|sit=Eurovisionworld|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2024-02-18}}</ref> Wara dan huwa ħa sehem fl-''[[X Factor Malta]]''.<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/lifestyle/eurovision/exclusive-aidan-submits-upbeat-song-entirely-in-maltese-for-eurovision/|titlu=Exclusive: Aidan Submits Upbeat Song Entirely In Maltese For Eurovision|isem=Tim|awtur=Diacono|data=2021-12-15|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Fl-2019 irrappreżenta lil Malta fl-OGAE Song Contest 2019 bil-kanzunetta ''The Feeling''.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://ogae.uk/ogae-song-contest-2019-malta/|titlu=OGAE Song Contest 2019 - Malta|sit=OGAE UK|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2022-04-01|url-status=dead|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626082417/https://ogae.uk/ogae-song-contest-2019-malta/|arkivju-data=26 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/news/watch-maltas-summer-anthem-aidan-explains-unlikely-success-of-his-latest-hit-single-sung-entirely-in-maltese/|titlu=WATCH: Malta's Summer Anthem? Aidan Explains Unlikely Success Of His Latest Hit Single Sung Entirely In Maltese|isem=Jean Paul|awtur=Azzopardi|data=2021-05-20|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Is-single tiegħu ''[[Naħseb Fik]]'' ġiet imqabbla ma' ''Tick Tock'' ta' Clean Bandit u Mabel u ntqal li kellha progressjoni ta' akkordji simili. Huwa ċaħad li l-beat u l-melodija kienu kkupjati.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/news/aidan-responds-to-allegations-that-hit-single-nahseb-fik-was-lifted-from-a-clean-bandit-track/|titlu=Aidan Responds To Allegations That Hit Single 'Naħseb Fik' Was Lifted From A Clean Bandit Track|isem=Johnathan|awtur=Cilia|data=2021-05-27|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/musicians-raise-plagiarism-concerns-over-aidan-cassars-hit-song.874984|titlu=Musicians raise plagiarism concerns over Aidan Cassar's hit song|isem=Jessica|awtur=Arena|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta ddaħħlet fil-konkors [[Mużika Mużika]] fl-2021. Din kienet l-ewwel darba li kiteb kanzunetta bil-Malti, kif ukoll l-ewwel darba li kanta bil-Malti.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.festivals.mt/post/muzika-muzika-a-prestigious-launch-pad|titlu=Mużika Mużika, a prestigious launch pad for up and coming artists|data=2021-08-25|sit=Festivals Malta 2022|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-video mużikali rebaħ il-video mużikali tas-sena fil-Lovin Malta Social Media Awards tal-2021.<ref name=":0" /> Ħa sehem fil- [[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2022|Malta Eurovision Song Contest fl-2022]] bil-kanzunetta ''Ritmu'', u ġie fit-tieni post. <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imhabbra-t-22-semifinalista-tal-malta-eurovision-song-contest-2022/|titlu=Imħabbra t-22 semifinalista tal-Malta Eurovision Song Contest 2022|isem=Owen|awtur=Galea|data=29 December 2021|sit=TVMnews.mt|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/en/news/nofs-miljun-raw-it-tliet-serati-tal-eurovision-song-contest/|titlu=Record TV audience – over half a million viewers watch Eurovision Song Contest|data=20 February 2022|sit=TVMnews.mt|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta għaddiet biex tilħaq il-quċċata tal-klassifiċi tal-airplay fuq ir-radju f'Malti għal tliet ġimgħat konsekuttivi, u ndaqqet ukoll waqt pre-party tal-Eurovision [[Londra|f'Londra]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://maltadaily.mt/aidan-invited-to-perform-fan-favourite-ritmu-in-london/|titlu=Aidan invited to perform fan-favourite 'RITMU' in London|awtur=MaltaDaily|data=2022-04-06|sit=Malta Daily|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-04-07}}</ref> Aidan ħabbar ir-riżultati tal-ġurija għal Malta fil- [[Eurovision Song Contest 2022]] . Fl-24 ta’ Lulju, 2022, kanta live il-kanzunetti Naħseb Fik u “Ritmu”<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v5rFFcGa0Nc|titlu=Isle of MTV 2022|sit=YouTube}}</ref> waqt [[Isle of MTV|Isle Of MTV]] 2022 fil-[[Furjana]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/arts/music/117597/full_lineup_for_this_years_isle_of_mtv_announced|titlu=Full line-up for this year's Isle of MTV announced|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-01-14}}</ref> Fl-2023 reġa’ daħal għall-[[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2023|Malta Eurovision Song Contest]] bil-kanzunetta ''Reġina''. Huwa kien skwalifikat mill-konkors allegatament minħabba posts fuq il-media soċjali dwar il-kanzunetta tiegħu li ma kinux permessi mill-PBS bħala l-organizzaturi. Huwa hedded lill-PBS b'azzjoni legali<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/arts/entertainment/121048/aidan_cassar_withdraws_from_eurovision_legal_challenge|titlu=Aidan Cassar backs out of Eurovision legal challenge|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref> iżda din twarrbet meta kien mistieden ikanta medley tal-kanzunetti tiegħu waqt l-intervall tas-serata finali.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/singer-aidan-cassar-disqualified-malta-eurovision-song-contest.1009047|titlu=Singer Aidan Cassar disqualified from Malta Eurovision Song Contest|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/aidan-return-guest-singer-eurovision-final-show.1012983|titlu=Aidan to return as guest singer in Eurovision final show|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref> == Diskografija == === Albums === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! scope="col" | Titlu ! scope="col" | Dettalji |- ! scope="row" | ''This Is Aidan'' | * Ħruġ: 31 ta' Marzu 2023 * Tikketta: maħruġ mill-kantant stess * Format: download diġitali |- ! scope="row"| ''Cowboys Don't Cry'' | * Ħruġ: 20 ta' Marzu 2026<ref name=":cowboys">{{Ċita web|url=https://youtube.com/playlist?list=OLAK5uy_mb9jS17nkY20psSmKHG_5g8oDKTh_oQSM|titlu=AIDAN - Cowboys Don't Cry (Album Playlist)|data=2026-03-20|data-aċċess=2026-04-24}}</ref> * Tikketta: maħruġ mill-kantant stess * Format: download diġitali |} === Singles === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:15em;" |Title ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:1em;" |Year !Peak chart positions ! rowspan="2" scope="col" |Album |- ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;" |MLT<br /><br /> |- ! scope="row" |"Rule the World"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=919IvcOQSqA|titlu=AIDAN - Rule The World (Audio)|data=2015-12-21|sit=[[YouTube]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2015 |— | rowspan="8" {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Bon Bon"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.reverbnation.com/aidancassar/song/28435191-aidan-bon-bon-official-audio|titlu=Aidan - Bon Bon (Official Audio) by Aidan Cassar {{!}} ReverbNation|data=2017-07-24|sit=[[ReverbNation ]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2017 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Drums"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/6oCD8c0y6LZpJezDCCloKF|titlu=Aidan - Drums {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2017-09-25|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |— |- ! scope="row" |"Dai Laga"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://eurovoix.com/2018/01/19/malta-aidan-revamped-dai-laga/|titlu=Malta: Aidan Releases Revamped Version Of "Dai Laga" After Rule Break|data=2018-01-19|sit=Eurovoix|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2018 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Mine"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-GLQ1Y1pCto|titlu=AIDAN - Mine (Official Audio)|data=2018-10-07|sit=[[YouTube]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |5 |- ! scope="row" |"The Feeling"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/1MNqCc2cIK29mwllUbrp9b|titlu=AIDAN - The Feeling {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2019-07-16|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2019 |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Somebody Like You"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/somebody-like-you-single/1534677084|titlu=Somebody Like You - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2020-10-08|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2020 |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Heart Emoji"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/heart-emoji-single/1552740068|titlu=Heart Emoji - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2021-02-12|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106232616/https://music.apple.com/mt/album/heart-emoji-single/1552740068|arkivju-data=2023-01-06|url-status=dead}}</ref> | rowspan="3" |2021 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Naħseb Fik"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/na%C4%A7seb-fik-single/1557633891|titlu=Naħseb Fik - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2021-03-19|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106232615/https://music.apple.com/mt/album/na%C4%A7seb-fik-single/1557633891|arkivju-data=2023-01-06|url-status=dead}}</ref> |1 |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"24/7"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/5RsPvZWJHt7PJXbeGlMOIH|titlu=24/7 - Single by Carlo Gerada, AIDAN {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2021-09-16|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with Carlo Gerarda)}} |1 | {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Ritmu"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/ritmu-single/1632935126|titlu=Ritmu - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2022-03-02|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2022 |1 |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"Madam"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/madam-single/1652732384|titlu=Madam - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2022-11-21|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2 | {{N/a|Non-album single}} |- ! scope="row" |"Rip (Rest in Peace)"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/rip-rest-in-peace-single/1660660457|titlu=Rip (Rest in Peace) - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2023-01-01|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with [[Ira Losco]])}} | rowspan="5" |2023 |1 | rowspan="3" |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"Reġina"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://mobile.twitter.com/AIDANOfficial__/status/1607815069794029568|titlu=AIDAN 👑 🇲🇹 on Twitter: "Reġina is my entry for Malta #Eurovision 2023, based on a true story and dedicated to my mother 👑 The song is in Maltese, Spanish and English 🇲🇹🇪🇸🇬🇧"|data=2022-12-27|sit=[[Twitter]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-09}}</ref> |2 |- ! scope="row" |"Hey Anna" |— |- ! scope="row" |"Strawberry"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/en/aidan-releases-music-video-for-new-single-strawberry/|titlu=AIDAN releases music video for new single ’Strawberry’|isem=|awtur=|data=2023-09-02|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-09-24}}</ref> |1 | rowspan="2" {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Head & Mind"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/head-mind-single/1704367426|titlu=Head & Mind - Single - Album by naBBoo & AIDAN|data=2023-10-27|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-11-05}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with [[Boban Apostolov|NaBBoo]])}} |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Juliette"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/Juliette/1728296457|titlu=Juliette - Song by AIDAN|data=2024-02-09|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2024-03-29}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2024 |1 | rowspan="2" |Singles mhux minn album |- ! scope="row" |"Hero" |— |- | colspan="4" style="font-size:90%" |"—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. |} === Kanzunetti oħra === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:15em;" | Titlu ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:1em;" | Sena ! L-ogħla pożizzjonijiet fil-klassifika ! rowspan="2" scope="col" | Album |- ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;" | MLT<br /> <ref name="MLT">Peak chart positions for singles in Malta: </ref> |- ! scope="row" | "Pupa" | 2023 | 1 | ''This Is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" | "Juliette" {{Small|([[A cappella]] version)}} | 2024 | 9 | {{N/a|Non-album single}} |- | colspan="4" style="font-size:90%" | |} == Referenzi == {{Referenzi}}{{Awtorità}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Cassar, Aidan}} [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1999]] [[Kategorija:Nies miż-Żejtun]] [[Kategorija:Kantanti Maltin]] sazhm7fjmakyd4ndu7nl2d0l1lmon8b 2 34120 329538 329270 2026-04-24T11:11:31Z BanedMGh 24977 /* Marċi Brijużi */ 329538 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Din hija lista ta' CDs u USB li ħarġu mill-Baned f'Malta u f' Għawdex matul is-sena 2026.''' ==Tnedija F'Malta== ==Baned== =Marċi Brijużi= {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! '''No''' !! '''Lokal''' !! '''Baned u Oħrajn''' !! '''Isem ta' Cd's jew USB's''' !! '''Data tat-Tnedija''' !! '''Post''' !! '''Ġeneru''' !! '''Ipprezenta''' |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" |- | 01||[[Valletta]]||[[Società Filarmonica Nazionale La Valette]]||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Marċi Brijużi Festa San Pawl 2026|Marċi Brijużi Festa San Pawl 2026]] ||24.01.2026||Società Filarmonica Nazionale La Valette ||Marċi Brijużi||[[Kumitat]] |- | 02||[[Valletta]]||[[Società Filarmonica Nazionale La Valette]]||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Marċi Brijużi Festa San Pawl 2026|Marċi Brijużi Festa San Pawl 2026]] ||24.01.2026||Società Filarmonica Nazionale La Valette ||Marċi Brijużi||[[Kumitat]] |- | 03||[[Valletta]]||[[Società Filarmonica Nazionale La Valette]]||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Marċi Brijużi Festa San Pawl 2026|Marċi Brijużi Festa San Pawl 2026]] ||24.01.2026||Società Filarmonica Nazionale La Valette ||Marċi Brijużi||[[Kumitat]] |- |} ==Indivdwali - Marċi Funebri== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! '''No''' !! '''Lokal''' !! '''Baned u Oħrajn''' !! '''Isem ta' Cd's jew USB's''' !! '''Data tat-Tnedija''' !! '''Post''' !! '''Ġeneru''' !! '''Ipprezenta''' |- | 01||[[Ħaż-Żebbuġ]]||Mro.[[Raymond Fenech]] (Personali)||[[Utent:BanedMGh/ ]]||Is-Sibt 11.04.2026 ||Sede [[Għaqda Każin Banda San Filep]] ||Marċi Brijużi||[[Daniel Vella]] |- |} =Valzi ta' Għid= {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! '''No''' !! '''Lokal''' !! '''Baned u Oħrajn''' !! '''Isem ta' Cd's jew USB's''' !! '''Data tat-Tnedija''' !! '''Post''' !!'''Ġeneru''' !! '''Ipprezenta''' |- | 01||[[Żejtun]]||[[Soċjeta' Mużikali Beland]]||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Resuirrexit Sicut Dixit ''Irxoxta Kif Kien Qal''|Resuirrexit Sicut Dixit <nowiki>''Irxoxta Kif Kien Qal''</nowiki>]]||Il-Ħadd 22.02.2026||[[Sala Hector Dalli]] ||Valzi ta' Għid||[[Daniel Vella]] |- |} =Marċi Funebri= {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! '''No''' !! '''Lokal''' !! '''Baned u Oħrajn''' !! '''Isem ta' Cd's jew USB's''' !! '''Data tat-Tnedija''' !! '''Post''' !!'''Ġeneru''' !! '''Ipprezenta''' |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" |- | 01||[[Żejtun]]||[[Soċjeta' Mużikali Beland]]||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Mater Dolorosa ''L-Omm Imnikkta''|Mater Dolorosa <nowiki>''</nowiki>L-Omm Imnikkta<nowiki>''</nowiki>]]||[[Sala Hector Dalli]] ||Il-Ħadd 22.02.2026||Marċi Funebri||[[Daniel Vella]] |- | 02||[[Żejtun]]||[[Soċjeta' Mużikali Beland]]||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Resuirrexit Sicut Dixit ''Irxoxta Kif Kien Qal''|Resuirrexit Sicut Dixit <nowiki>''Irxoxta Kif Kien Qal''</nowiki>]]||[[Sala Hector Dalli]] ||Il-Ħadd 22.02.2026||Marċi Funebri||[[Daniel Vella]] |- | 03||[[Mosta]]||[[Soċjeta Filarmonika Nicolo Isouard]]||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Jesu Rex Miserricordiae|Jesu Rex Miserricordiae]]|| ||Il-Ġimgħa 27.02.2026||Marċi Funebri||[[Daniel Vella]] |- | 04||[[Mosta]]||[[Soċjetà Filarmonika Santa Marija Mosta]]||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Fl-okkażjoni tal-40 anniversarju mit-twaqqif mill-ġdid tal-Filarmonika Santa Marija u l-Parteċipazzjoni fil-purċissjoni tal-Ġimgħa l-Kbira fil-Mosta|Fl-okkażjoni tal-40 anniversarju mit-twaqqif mill-ġdid tal-Filarmonika Santa Marija u l-Parteċipazzjoni fil-purċissjoni tal-Ġimgħa l-Kbira fil-Mosta]]||Sede - [[Soċjetà Filarmonika Santa Marija Mosta]] ||Il-Ħadd 08.03.2026||Marċi Funebri||[[Joe Chetcuti]] [[Pauline Marie Chetcuti]] |- |} ==Indivdwali - Marċi Funebri== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! '''No''' !! '''Lokal''' !! '''Baned u Oħrajn''' !! '''Isem ta' Cd's jew USB's''' !! '''Data tat-Tnedija''' !! '''Post''' !! '''Ġeneru''' !! '''Ipprezenta''' |- | 01||[[Ħaż-Żebbuġ]]||Mro.[[Sean Anthony Scicluna]] (Personali)||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Lacrimae Adternae|Lacrimae Adternae]]||Il-Ħadd 01.03.2026 ||Sede [[Għaqda Każin Banda San Filep]] ||Marċi Furnebri||[[Daniel Vella]] |- | 02||[[Bormla]]||Mro.[[Etienne Spiteri]] (Personali)||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Il-Ħabib ta' Kulħadd - Marċi Funebri (2026)|Il-Ħabib ta' Kulħadd - Marċi Funebri (2026)]] ||Il-Ħadd 08.03.2026||Sede [[Palazzo Paolino Vassallo ]] ||Marċi Funebri||[[Daniel Vella]] |- |} 0ivt5zubuakurzg3ctyxj1zr8dnt68m 329539 329538 2026-04-24T11:20:39Z BanedMGh 24977 /* Marċi Brijużi */ 329539 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Din hija lista ta' CDs u USB li ħarġu mill-Baned f'Malta u f' Għawdex matul is-sena 2026.''' ==Tnedija F'Malta== ==Baned== =Marċi Brijużi= {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! '''No''' !! '''Lokal''' !! '''Baned u Oħrajn''' !! '''Isem ta' Cd's jew USB's''' !! '''Data tat-Tnedija''' !! '''Post''' !! '''Ġeneru''' !! '''Ipprezenta''' |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" |- | 01||[[Valletta]]||[[Società Filarmonica Nazionale La Valette]]||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Marċi Brijużi Festa San Pawl 2026|Marċi Brijużi Festa San Pawl 2026]] ||24.01.2026||Società Filarmonica Nazionale La Valette ||Marċi Brijużi||[[Kumitat]] |- | 02||[[G'Mangia]]/[[Pieta']]||[[Società Filarmonika Madonna Ta' Fatima G'Mangia-Pieta']]||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Marċi Brijużi Festa Madonna ta' Fatima 2026|Marċi Brijużi Festa Madonna ta' Fatima2026]] ||08.05.2026||Società Filarmonika Madonna Ta' Fatima G'Mangia-Pieta||Marċi Brijużi||[[ ]] |- | 03||[[Żebbuġ]]||[[12th May Banda and Social Club]]||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Marċi Brijużi 12th May Banda and Social Club 2026|Marċi Brijużi 12th May Banda and Social Club 2026]] ||10.05.2026||12th May Banda and Social Club ||Marċi Brijużi||[[]] |- |} ==Indivdwali - Marċi Funebri== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! '''No''' !! '''Lokal''' !! '''Baned u Oħrajn''' !! '''Isem ta' Cd's jew USB's''' !! '''Data tat-Tnedija''' !! '''Post''' !! '''Ġeneru''' !! '''Ipprezenta''' |- | 01||[[Ħaż-Żebbuġ]]||Mro.[[Raymond Fenech]] (Personali)||[[Utent:BanedMGh/ ]]||Is-Sibt 11.04.2026 ||Sede [[Għaqda Każin Banda San Filep]] ||Marċi Brijużi||[[Daniel Vella]] |- |} =Valzi ta' Għid= {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! '''No''' !! '''Lokal''' !! '''Baned u Oħrajn''' !! '''Isem ta' Cd's jew USB's''' !! '''Data tat-Tnedija''' !! '''Post''' !!'''Ġeneru''' !! '''Ipprezenta''' |- | 01||[[Żejtun]]||[[Soċjeta' Mużikali Beland]]||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Resuirrexit Sicut Dixit ''Irxoxta Kif Kien Qal''|Resuirrexit Sicut Dixit <nowiki>''Irxoxta Kif Kien Qal''</nowiki>]]||Il-Ħadd 22.02.2026||[[Sala Hector Dalli]] ||Valzi ta' Għid||[[Daniel Vella]] |- |} =Marċi Funebri= {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! '''No''' !! '''Lokal''' !! '''Baned u Oħrajn''' !! '''Isem ta' Cd's jew USB's''' !! '''Data tat-Tnedija''' !! '''Post''' !!'''Ġeneru''' !! '''Ipprezenta''' |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" |- | 01||[[Żejtun]]||[[Soċjeta' Mużikali Beland]]||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Mater Dolorosa ''L-Omm Imnikkta''|Mater Dolorosa <nowiki>''</nowiki>L-Omm Imnikkta<nowiki>''</nowiki>]]||[[Sala Hector Dalli]] ||Il-Ħadd 22.02.2026||Marċi Funebri||[[Daniel Vella]] |- | 02||[[Żejtun]]||[[Soċjeta' Mużikali Beland]]||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Resuirrexit Sicut Dixit ''Irxoxta Kif Kien Qal''|Resuirrexit Sicut Dixit <nowiki>''Irxoxta Kif Kien Qal''</nowiki>]]||[[Sala Hector Dalli]] ||Il-Ħadd 22.02.2026||Marċi Funebri||[[Daniel Vella]] |- | 03||[[Mosta]]||[[Soċjeta Filarmonika Nicolo Isouard]]||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Jesu Rex Miserricordiae|Jesu Rex Miserricordiae]]|| ||Il-Ġimgħa 27.02.2026||Marċi Funebri||[[Daniel Vella]] |- | 04||[[Mosta]]||[[Soċjetà Filarmonika Santa Marija Mosta]]||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Fl-okkażjoni tal-40 anniversarju mit-twaqqif mill-ġdid tal-Filarmonika Santa Marija u l-Parteċipazzjoni fil-purċissjoni tal-Ġimgħa l-Kbira fil-Mosta|Fl-okkażjoni tal-40 anniversarju mit-twaqqif mill-ġdid tal-Filarmonika Santa Marija u l-Parteċipazzjoni fil-purċissjoni tal-Ġimgħa l-Kbira fil-Mosta]]||Sede - [[Soċjetà Filarmonika Santa Marija Mosta]] ||Il-Ħadd 08.03.2026||Marċi Funebri||[[Joe Chetcuti]] [[Pauline Marie Chetcuti]] |- |} ==Indivdwali - Marċi Funebri== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! '''No''' !! '''Lokal''' !! '''Baned u Oħrajn''' !! '''Isem ta' Cd's jew USB's''' !! '''Data tat-Tnedija''' !! '''Post''' !! '''Ġeneru''' !! '''Ipprezenta''' |- | 01||[[Ħaż-Żebbuġ]]||Mro.[[Sean Anthony Scicluna]] (Personali)||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Lacrimae Adternae|Lacrimae Adternae]]||Il-Ħadd 01.03.2026 ||Sede [[Għaqda Każin Banda San Filep]] ||Marċi Furnebri||[[Daniel Vella]] |- | 02||[[Bormla]]||Mro.[[Etienne Spiteri]] (Personali)||[[Utent:BanedMGh/Il-Ħabib ta' Kulħadd - Marċi Funebri (2026)|Il-Ħabib ta' Kulħadd - Marċi Funebri (2026)]] ||Il-Ħadd 08.03.2026||Sede [[Palazzo Paolino Vassallo ]] ||Marċi Funebri||[[Daniel Vella]] |- |} pf71vy8vi30si0q4dh7ouofktr3obb8 0 34383 329532 329531 2026-04-23T13:04:34Z Trigcly 17859 /* Filoġenetika u definizzjoni moderna */ 329532 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:TWC Wildlife Centre• Stewart Nimmo • MRD 8910.jpg|daqsminuri|Tuatara.]] '''Rettilu''', xi kultant imsejjaħ '''rettili''' b'mod invarjabbli bejn is-singular u l-plural, spiss jiġi definit bħala [[annimal]] vertebrat tetrapodu b'metaboliżmu ektotermiku u bi żvilupp amnijotiku. Tradizzjonalment ir-rettili huma magħmula minn erba' [[Ordni (bijoloġija)|ordnijiet]]: ''Testudines'' (fkieren), ''Crocodilia'' (kukkudrilli, alligaturi u garjal), ''Squamata'' (gremxul u [[Serp|sriep]]) u ''Rhynchocephalia'' (tuatara), b'madwar 12,000 [[speċi]] eżistenti fil-Bażi tad-Data tar-Rettili.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.reptile-database.org/db-info/news.html|titlu=Reptile Database News|sit=www.reptile-database.org|data-aċċess=2026-04-23}}</ref> L-istudju tal-ordnijiet tar-rettili tradizzjonali, normalment flimkien mal-istudju tal-[[Anfibju|anfibji]] moderni, jissejjaħ erpetoloġija. Ir-rettili ġew soġġetti għal diversi definizzjonijiet tassonomiċi kunfliġġenti.<ref>Modesto, S.P.; Anderson, J.S. (2004). "The phylogenetic definition of Reptilia". ''Systematic Biology''. '''53''' (5): 815–821. doi:10.1080/10635150490503026. <nowiki>PMID 15545258</nowiki>.</ref> Fit-tassonomija evoluzzjonarja klassika, ir-rettili jinġabru taħt il-[[Klassi (bijoloġija)|klassi]] '''''Reptilia''''' (pronunzja: /rɛpˈtɪliə/ ''rep-TIL-ee-ə''), skont l-użu komuni. It-tassonomija kladistika moderna tqis lil dak il-grupp bħala parafiletiku, peress li l-evidenza ġenetika u paleontoloġika ddeterminat li l-[[Għasfur|għasafar]] (il-klassi ''Aves'') huma l-uniku grupp li għadu eżistenti ta' ''Dinosauria'', grupp monofiletiku ewlieni ta' diapsidi li huma relatati iktar mill-qrib mal-''Crocodilia'' milli ma rettili ħajjin oħra, u għaldaqstant l-għasafar jinsabu fost ir-rettili (taħt l-''Archosauria'') minn perspettiva filoġenetika. Għalhekk, bosta sistemi kladistiċi jiddefinixxi mill-ġdid ir-''Reptilia'' bħala grupp monofiletiku li jinkludi l-għasafar, għalkemm id-definizzjoni preċiża ta' dan il-grupp monofiletiku jvarja minn awtur għal ieħor. Kunċett simili huwa dak tal-grupp monofiletiku tas-''Sauropsida'', li jirreferi għall-amnijoti kollha bħala relatati iktar mill-qrib mar-rettili moderni milli mal-mammiferi.<ref>Gauthier, J.A. (1994). "The diversification of the amniotes". In Prothero, D.R.; Schoch, R.M. (eds.). ''Major Features of Vertebrate Evolution''. Vol. 7. Knoxville, TN: The Paleontological Society. pp. 129–159. doi:10.1017/S247526300000129X.</ref> L-iżjed membri bikrin magħrufa tan-nisel tar-rettili tfaċċaw matul il-perjodu Karboniferu aħħari, wara li evolvew minn tetrapodi rettilomorfi avvanzati li kulma jmur adattaw ruħhom iktar għall-ħajja fuq l-art niexfa.<ref>Reisz, R. R. (1981). ''A diapsid reptile from the Pennsylvanian of Kansas''. Natural History Museum, University of Kansas.</ref> Id-data ġenetika u tal-fossili ssostni li l-ikbar żewġ insla tar-rettili, l-arkosawromorfi (il-kukkudrilli, l-għasafar u l-annimali relatati) u l-lepidosawromorfi (il-gremxul u l-annimali relatati), varjaw minn xulxin matul il-perjodu Permjan.<ref>Ezcurra, M.D.; Scheyer, T.M.; Butler, R.J. (2014). "The origin and early evolution of Sauria: Reassessing the Permian saurian fossil record and the timing of the crocodile-lizard divergence". ''PLOS ONE''. '''9''' (2) e89165. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...989165E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089165. PMC 3937355. <nowiki>PMID 24586565</nowiki>.</ref> Minbarra r-rettili ħajjin, hemm diversità kbira ta' gruppi li issa huma estinti, f'xi każijiet minħabba avvenimenti ta' estinzjoni tal-massa. B'mod partikolari, l-avveniment tal-estinzjoni fil-perjodu Kretaċju–Paleoġen qered għalkollox il-pterosawri, il-plesjosawri u d-[[Dinosawru|dinosawri]] kollha li ma kinux tjur, flimkien ma' bosta speċijiet ta' kukkudrilloformi u ''Squamata'' (eż. możasawri). Ir-rettili moderni li mhumiex tjur huma mifruxa mal-[[Kontinent|kontinenti]] kollha għajr l-[[Antartika]]. Ir-rettili eżistenti jvarjaw bħala daqs mill-wiżgħa nana ċkejkna ta' Jaragua (''Sphaerodactylus ariasae''), li tikber biss sa 17-il millimetru (0.7 pulzieri); sal-kukkudrill tal-baħar (''Crocodylus porosus''), li jista' jaqbeż tul ta' 6 metri (19.7 pied) u jiżen iktar minn 1,000 kilogramma (2,200 libbra). Bħala tetrapodi, ir-rettili ġeneralment ikollhom erba' saqajn, jew fil-każ tas-sriep u l-gremxul bla saqajn, ikunu dixxendenti minn antenati b'erba' saqajn iżda jkunu tilfu saqajhom matul l-[[evoluzzjoni]]. Għad-differenza tal-anfibji anamnijotiċi, ir-rettili ma jiddependux fuq il-korpi tal-ilma għar-riproduzzjoni u ma jkollhom l-ebda stadju ta' larvi akkwatiċi. Il-biċċa l-kbira tar-rettili huma ovipari b'bajd bil-qoxra, għalkemm diversi speċijiet ta' ''Squamata'' huma vivipari, bħal uħud mir-rettili monofiletiċi estinti tal-baħar.<ref>Sander, P. Martin (2012). "Reproduction in early amniotes". ''Science''. '''337''' (6096): 806–808. Bibcode:2012Sci...337..806S. doi:10.1126/science.1224301. <nowiki>PMID 22904001</nowiki>. S2CID 7041966.</ref> Bħala amnijoti, il-bajd tar-rettili jkollu membrana ekstraembrijonika li żżomm l-ilma u li tiffaċilita l-iskambju bijokimiku mal-ambjent estern, u b'hekk ir-rettili jkunu jistgħu jirriproduċu fuq l-art niexfa, saħansitra f'ħabitats aridi u estremi. L-ispeċijiet vivipari jkollhom il-bajd li jiżviluppa u li jfaqqas fi ħdan il-ġisem tal-omm, normalment b'inkubazzjoni interna, għalkemm xi speċijiet jistgħu jitimgħu l-bajd bħala feti permezz ta' diversi forom ta' plaċenti analogi, u wħud jipprovdu l-indukrar parentali inizjali għall-frieħ tagħhom. == Klassifikazzjoni == === Tassonomija klassika u riċerka === [[Stampa:Reptile003d (group).jpg|daqsminuri|Ir-rettili minn ''Nouveau Larousse Illustré'', 1897–1904, ta' min jinnota l-inklużjoni tal-anfibji (taħt il-''Crocodilia'').]] Fis-seklu 13, il-kategorija tar-''rettili'' ġiet rikonoxxuta fl-[[Ewropa]] bħala waħda li tikkonsisti minn taħlita ta' ħlejqiet li jbidu l-bajd, fosthom "is-sriep, diversi mostri fantastiċi, gremxul, diversi anfibji, u dud", kif irreġistrat minn Beauvais fil-''Mera tan-Natura'' tiegħu. Fis-seklu 18, ir-rettili mill-bidu nett tal-klassifikazzjoni, ġew raggruppati mal-anfibji. [[Carl Linnaeus]], li kien jaħdem fl-[[Żvezja|Iżvezja]] li ma tantx kellha wisq speċijiet, u fejn il-lifgħa u s-serp tal-ħaxix spiss jinstabu jikkaċċjaw fl-ilma, inkluda r-rettili u l-anfibji kollha fil-klassi "III – ''Amphibia''" fis-''Systema Naturæ'' tiegħu. It-[[Terminoloġija|termini]] "rettilu" u "anfibju" fil-biċċa l-kbira kienu interkambjabbli, għalkemm "rettilu" (mil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]] ''repere'', "tkaxkar") kien ippreferut mill-[[Franza|Franċiżi]]. [[J.N. Laurenti]] kien l-ewwel wieħed li uża formalment it-terminu ''Reptilia'' għal għażla wiesgħa ta' rettili u ta' anfibji bażikament kif kien għamel Linnaeus. Illum il-ġurnata, iż-żewġ gruppi għadhom trattati bl-istess intestatura unika, jiġifieri l-erpetoloġija. Ma kienx qabel il-bidu tas-seklu 19 li kien ċar li r-rettili u l-anfibji fil-fatt huma annimali pjuttost differenti, u [[P.A. Latreille]] ħoloq il-klassi ''Batracia'' (1825) għal dawn tal-aħħar, u qasam it-tetrapodi fl-erba' klassijiet ta' familji ta' rettili, anfibji, għasafar u mammiferi. L-anatomista [[Renju Unit|Brittaniku]] [[T.H. Huxley]] wassal biex id-definizzjoni ta' Latreille ssir popolari, u flimkien ma' [[Richard Owen]], wessa' r-''Reptilia'' biex jinkludu d-diversi fossili ta' "mostri antedilluvjani", fosthom id-dinosawri u d-''Dicynodon'', li huwa sinapsidu qisu mammiferu li huwa għen biex jiġi deskritt. Din ma kinitx l-unika skema ta' klassifikazzjoni possibbli: fil-lekċers ta' Hunter mogħtija fil-Kulleġġ Irjali tal-[[Kirurgu|Kirurgi]] fl-1863, Huxley ġabar il-vertebrati mal-mammiferi, mas-sawrojdi u mal-iktjojdi (dawn tal-aħħar jinkludu l-ħut u l-anfibji). Sussegwentement huwa ppropona l-ismijiet tas-sawropsidi u tal-iktjopsidi għal dawn iż-żewġ gruppi tal-aħħar. Fl-1866, Haeckel wera li l-vertebrati setgħu jinqasmu abbażi tal-istrateġiji riproduttivi tagħhom, u li r-rettili, l-għasafar u l-mammiferi kienu magħqudin mill-bajd amnijotiku. It-termini ''sawropsidi'' ("uċuħ tal-gremxul") u ''teropsidi'' ("uċuħ tal-bestji") reġgħu ntużaw fl-1916 minn [[E.S. Goodrich]] biex jiddistingwi bejn il-gremxul, l-għasafar u l-qrabat tagħhom minn naħa waħda (sawropsidi) u l-mammiferi u l-qrabat estinti tagħhom (teropsidi) fuq in-naħa l-oħra. Goodrich appoġġa din id-diviżjoni skont in-natura tal-[[Qalb|qlub]] u tal-istrutturi taċ-ċirkolazzjoni tad-[[demm]] f'kull grupp, u karatteristiċi oħra, bħall-istruttura tal-parti ta' quddiem tal-[[moħħ]]. Skont Goodrich, iż-żewġ insla evolvew minn grupp uniku bikri, il-protosawri ("l-ewwel gremxul"), fejn huwa inkluda xi annimali li llum il-ġurnata jitqiesu bħala anfibji qishom rettili, kif ukoll rettili bikrin. [[Stampa:MosasaurDiscovery.jpg|daqsminuri|Inċiżjoni tas-seklu 18 ta' "mostru antedilluvjan", il-możasawru, skopert f'barriera tal-[[ġebla tal-ġir]] f'[[Maastricht]] fl-1770.]] Fl-1956, [[D.M.S. Watson]] osserva li l-ewwel żewġ gruppi nfirdu fi stadju bikri ħafna fl-istorja tar-rettili, għaldaqstant huwa qasam il-protosawri ta' Goodrich bejniethom. Huwa ta interpretazzjoni mill-ġdid tas-sawropsidi u tat-teropsidi sabiex jeskludi l-għasafar u l-mammiferi, rispettivament. B'hekk is-sawropsidi tiegħu kienu jinkludu l-''Procolophonia'', l-''Eosuchia'', il-''Millerosauria'', il-''Chelonia'' (fkieren), l-''iSquamata'' (gremxul u sriep), ir-''Rhynchocephalia'', il-''Crocodilia'', it-"tecodonti" (l-''Archosauria'' bażiċi parafiletiċi), id-dinosawri li ma kinux tjur, il-pterosawri, l-iktijosawri u s-sawropteriġjani. Fl-aħħar tas-seklu 19 ġew offruti għadd ta' definizzjonijiet tar-''Reptilia''. Il-karatteristiċi [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġiċi]] elenkati minn Lydekker fl-1896, pereżempju, jinkludu kondil oċċipitali uniku, ġog tax-xedaq iffurmat mill-għadam tal-kwadrat u artikolari, u ċerti karatteristiċi tal-vertebri. L-annimali li spikkaw permezz ta' dawn il-formulazzjonijiet, l-amnijoti għajr il-mammiferi u l-għasafar, għadhom jitqiesu bħala r-rettili llum il-ġurnata. Id-diviżjoni bejn is-sinapsidi u s-sawropsidi ssupplimentat approċċ ieħor, wieħed li jaqsam ir-rettili f'erba' subklassijiet abbażi tal-għadd u tal-pożizzjoni ta' fetħiet fil-ġnub tal-kranju wara l-għajnejn. Din il-klassifikazzjoni nbdiet minn [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] u ġiet elaborata u saret popolari permezz tal-''Paleontoloġija tal-Vertebrati'' ta' Romer. Dawn l-erba' subklassijiet kienu: * l-anapsidi – l-ebda fetħa fil-ġnub tal-kranju – kotilosawri u l-''chelonia'' (fkieren u qrabathom); * is-sinapsidi – fetħa baxxa waħda fil-ġnub tal-kranju – pelikosawri u terapsidi (ir-"rettili qishom mammiferi"); * l-ewriapsidi – fetħa għolja waħda fil-ġnub tal-kranju (fuq iż-żona postorbitali u skwamożali) – protorosawri (rettili żgħar u bikrin qishom gremxul) u s-sawropteriġjani u l-iktijosawri tal-baħar, dawn tal-aħħar imsejħa parapsidi fix-xogħol ta' Osborn; * id-diapsidi – żewġ fetħiet fil-ġnub tal-kranju – il-biċċa l-kbira tar-rettili, fosthom il-gremxul, is-sriep, il-kukkudrilli, id-dinosawri u l-pterosawri. Il-kompożizzjoni tal-ewriapsidi ma kinitx ċerta. Xi kultant, l-iktijosawri tqiesu donnhom żdiedu b'mod indipendenti mill-ewriapsidi l-oħra, u ngħataw l-isem iktar antik ta' parapsidi. Iktar 'il quddiem il-parapsidi ġew skartati fil-biċċa l-kbira bħala grupp (l-iktijosawri ġew ikklassifikati bħala ''incertae sedis'' jew mal-ewriapsidi). Madankollu, erba' subklassijiet (jew tlieta jekk l-ewriapsidi jitwaħħdu mad-diapsidi) baqgħu bejn wieħed u ieħor universali għax-xogħol mhux speċjalist matul is-seklu 20. Din fil-biċċa l-kbira ġiet abbandunata mir-riċerkaturi reċenti. B'mod partikolari, instab li l-kundizzjoni tal-anapsidi tant tokkorri b'mod varjabbli fost il-gruppi mhux relatati li issa ma titqiesx bħala distinzjoni utli. === Filoġenetika u definizzjoni moderna === [[Stampa:Varanodon1DB.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-klassifikazzjonijiet filoġenetiċi jiġbru flimkien lir-"rettili qishom mammiferi", bħal dan il-''varanodon'', flimkien ma' sinapsidi oħra, mhux ma' rettili eżistenti.]] By the early 21st century, vertebrate paleontologists were beginning to adopt phylogenetic taxonomy, in which all groups are defined in such a way as to be monophyletic; that is, groups which include all descendants of a particular ancestor. The reptiles as historically defined are paraphyletic, since they exclude both birds and mammals. These respectively evolved from dinosaurs and from early therapsids, both of which were traditionally called "reptiles". Birds are more closely related to crocodilians than the latter are to the rest of extant reptiles. Colin Tudge wrote:<blockquote>Mammals are a clade, and therefore the cladists are happy to acknowledge the traditional taxon Mammalia; and birds, too, are a clade, universally ascribed to the formal taxon Aves. Mammalia and Aves are, in fact, subclades within the grand clade of the Amniota. But the traditional class Reptilia is not a clade. It is just a section of the clade Amniota: The section that is left after the Mammalia and Aves have been hived off. It cannot be defined by synapomorphies, as is the proper way. Instead, it is defined by a combination of the features it has and the features it lacks: reptiles are the amniotes that lack fur or feathers. At best, the cladists suggest, we could say that the traditional Reptilia are 'non-avian, non-mammalian amniotes'.</blockquote>Despite the early proposals for replacing the paraphyletic Reptilia with a monophyletic Sauropsida, which includes birds, that term was never adopted widely or, when it was, was not applied consistently. When Sauropsida was used, it often had the same content or even the same definition as Reptilia. In 1988, Jacques Gauthier proposed a cladistic definition of Reptilia as a monophyletic node-based crown group containing turtles, lizards and snakes, crocodilians, and birds, their common ancestor and all its descendants. While Gauthier's definition was close to the modern consensus, nonetheless, it became considered inadequate because the actual relationship of turtles to other reptiles was not yet well understood at this time. Major revisions since have included the reassignment of synapsids as non-reptiles, and classification of turtles as diapsids. Gauthier 1994 and Laurin and Reisz 1995's definition of Sauropsida defined the scope of the group as distinct and broader than that of Reptilia, encompassing Mesosauridae as well as Reptilia ''sensu stricto''. A variety of other definitions were proposed by other scientists in the years following Gauthier's paper. The first such new definition, which attempted to adhere to the standards of the PhyloCode, was published by Modesto and Anderson in 2004. Modesto and Anderson reviewed the many previous definitions and proposed a modified definition, which they intended to retain most traditional content of the group while keeping it stable and monophyletic. They defined Reptilia as all amniotes closer to ''Lacerta agilis'' and ''Crocodylus niloticus'' than to ''Homo sapiens''. This stem-based definition is equivalent to the more common definition of Sauropsida, which Modesto and Anderson synonymized with Reptilia, since the latter is better known and more frequently used. Unlike most previous definitions of Reptilia, however, Modesto and Anderson's definition includes birds, as they are within the clade that includes both lizards and crocodiles. === Tassonomija === General classification of extinct and living reptiles, focusing on major groups. * '''Reptilia'''/'''Sauropsida''' ** Araeoscelidia? ** <abbr>†</abbr>'''Parareptilia''' (likely paraphyletic) *** '''Diapsida'''/'''Neodiapsida''' **** <abbr>†</abbr>Drepanosauromorpha (placement uncertain) **** <abbr>†</abbr>Younginiformes (likely paraphyletic) **** <abbr>†</abbr>Ichthyosauromorpha (placement uncertain) **** <abbr>†</abbr>Thalattosauria (placement uncertain) **** <abbr>†</abbr>Sauropterygia (placement uncertain) **** <abbr>†</abbr>Choristodera (placement uncertain) **** '''Sauria''' ***** '''Lepidosauromorpha''' ****** Lepidosauria ******* Rhynchocephalia (tuatara) ******* Squamata (lizards and snakes) ***** '''Pantestudines''' (turtles and kin, placement uncertain) ***** '''Archosauromorpha''' ****** <abbr>†</abbr>Protorosauria (paraphyletic) ****** <abbr>†</abbr>Rhynchosauria ****** <abbr>†</abbr>Allokotosauria ****** Archosauriformes ******* <abbr>†</abbr>Phytosauria ******* '''Archosauria''' ******** Pseudosuchia ********* Crocodilia (crocodilians) ******** Avemetatarsalia/Ornithodira ********* <abbr>†</abbr>Pterosauria ********* Dinosauria ********** <abbr>†</abbr>Ornithischia ********** Saurischia (including birds ('''Aves''')) === Filoġenija === The cladogram presented here illustrates the "family tree" of reptiles, and follows a simplified version of the relationships found by M.S. Lee, in 2013. All genetic studies have supported the hypothesis that turtles are diapsids; some have placed turtles within Archosauromorpha, though a few have recovered turtles as Lepidosauromorpha instead. The cladogram below used a combination of genetic (molecular) and fossil (morphological) data to obtain its results. === Il-pożizzjoni tal-fkieren tal-ilma === The placement of turtles has historically been highly variable. Classically, turtles were considered to be related to the primitive anapsid reptiles. In their comparative analysis of the timing of organogenesis, Werneburg and Sánchez-Villagra (2009) found support for the hypothesis that turtles belong to a separate clade within Sauropsida, outside the saurian clade altogether. Molecular work has usually placed turtles within the diapsids. As of 2013, three turtle genomes have been sequenced.^{[''needs update'']} The results place turtles as a sister clade to the archosaurs, the group that includes crocodilians, non-avian dinosaurs, and birds. == Storja evoluzzjonarja == === Oriġini tar-rettili === The origin of the reptiles lies about 310–320 million years ago, in the steaming swamps of the late Carboniferous period, when the first reptiles evolved from advanced reptiliomorphs.^{[''failed verification'']} The oldest known animal that may have been an amniote is ''Casineria'' (though it may have been a temnospondyl). A series of footprints from the fossil strata of Nova Scotia dated to 315 Ma show typical reptilian toes and imprints of scales. These tracks are now attributed to ''Hylonomus'', historically widely regarded as the oldest known reptile, but whose placement in the group has been recently questioned. It was a small, lizard-like animal, about 20 to 30 centimetres (7.9 to 11.8 in) long, with numerous sharp teeth indicating an insectivorous diet. Other examples include ''Westlothiana'' (for the moment considered a reptiliomorph rather than a true amniote) and ''Paleothyris'', both of similar build and presumably similar habit. However, microsaurs have been at times considered true reptiles, so an earlier origin is possible. Among the unambiguous true reptiles from the Carboniferous are ''Erpetonyx'' and ''Carbonodraco,'' both from North America. === Żieda tar-rettili === The earliest amniotes, including stem-reptiles (those amniotes closer to modern reptiles than to mammals), were largely overshadowed by larger stem-tetrapods, such as ''Cochleosaurus'', and remained a small, inconspicuous part of the fauna until the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse. This sudden collapse affected several large groups. Primitive tetrapods were particularly devastated, while stem-reptiles fared better, being ecologically adapted to the drier conditions that followed. Primitive tetrapods, like modern amphibians, need to return to water to lay eggs; in contrast, amniotes, like modern reptiles – whose eggs possess a shell that allows them to be laid on land – were better adapted to the new conditions. Amniotes acquired new niches at a faster rate than before the collapse and at a much faster rate than primitive tetrapods. They acquired new feeding strategies including herbivory and carnivory, previously only having been insectivores and piscivores. From this point forward, reptiles dominated communities and had a greater diversity than primitive tetrapods, setting the stage for the Mesozoic (known as the Age of Reptiles). A 2021 examination of reptile diversity in the Carboniferous and the Permian suggests a much higher degree of diversity than previously thought, comparable or even exceeding that of synapsids. Thus, the "First Age of Reptiles" was proposed. === Anapsidi, sinapsidi, diapsidi u sawropsidi === It was traditionally assumed that the first reptiles retained an anapsid skull inherited from their ancestors. This type of skull has a skull roof with only holes for the nostrils, eyes and a pineal eye. The discoveries of synapsid-like openings (see below) in the skull roof of the skulls of several members of Parareptilia (the group containing most of the amniotes traditionally referred to as "anapsids"), including lanthanosuchoids, millerettids, bolosaurids, some nycteroleterids, some procolophonoids and at least some mesosaurs made it more ambiguous and it is currently uncertain whether the ancestral amniote had an anapsid-like or synapsid-like skull. These animals are traditionally referred to as "anapsids", and form a paraphyletic basic stock from which other groups evolved. Very shortly after the first amniotes appeared, a lineage called Synapsida split off; this group was characterized by a temporal opening in the skull behind each eye giving room for the jaw muscle to move. These are the "mammal-like amniotes", or stem-mammals, that later gave rise to the true mammals. Soon after, another group evolved a similar trait, this time with a double opening behind each eye, earning them the name Diapsida ("two arches"). The function of the holes in these groups was to lighten the skull and give room for the jaw muscles to move, allowing for a more powerful bite. Historically, while the late Carboniferous-early Permian lizard-like reptile group Araeoscelidia, which are (generally) morphologically diapsid, were considered to be the earliest representatives of the clade Diapsida, phylogenetic studies from the 2020s has brought into serious doubt their relationship with other diapsids (Neodiapsida), and they have been found as very early diverging branch of Reptilia or even outside of Reptilia entirely. Turtles have been traditionally believed to be surviving parareptiles, on the basis of their anapsid skull structure, which was assumed to be primitive trait. The rationale for this classification has been disputed, with some arguing that turtles are diapsids that evolved anapsid skulls, improving their armor. Later morphological phylogenetic studies with this in mind placed turtles firmly within Diapsida. All molecular studies have strongly upheld the placement of turtles within diapsids, most commonly as a sister group to extant archosaurs. === Rettili Permjani === With the close of the Carboniferous, the amniotes became the dominant tetrapod fauna. While primitive, terrestrial reptiliomorphs still existed, the synapsid amniotes evolved the first truly terrestrial megafauna (giant animals) in the form of pelycosaurs, such as ''Edaphosaurus'' and the carnivorous ''Dimetrodon''. In the mid-Permian period, the climate became drier, resulting in a change of fauna: The pelycosaurs were replaced by the therapsids. Many stem reptile groups continued to flourish throughout the Permian. The herbivorous pareiasaurs were the first lineage of reptiles to reach a large body size, with the largest representatives of the group having a body mass estimated to exceed 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb). One of the best known early stem-reptiles is ''Mesosaurus'', a genus from the Early Permian of Southern Africa and South America that had returned to water and gained webbed feet, feeding on crustaceans in marine or lagoonal environments. The earliest true diapsids (Neodiapsida), such as ''Youngina'', appeared during the Middle-Late Permian. The Weigeltisauridae, a group of diapsids from the Late Permian, are the oldest known tetrapods to have engaged in flight, using novel rod-like bones extending from the trunk which formed wings to glide between trees. The ancestors of modern reptiles (which belong to the clade Sauria) had diverged from each other by the Late Permian, as evidenced by species such as the monitor lizard-like ''Protorosaurus'' known from the Late Permian of Europe, which is clearly an archosauromorph, more closely related to archosaurs (crocodilians and birds) than to lizards, snakes or turtles. === Rettili Mesożojċi === The close of the Permian saw the greatest mass extinction known (see the Permian–Triassic extinction event), an event prolonged by the combination of two or more distinct extinction pulses. Most of the earlier parareptile and synapsid megafauna disappeared, being replaced by the true reptiles, particularly archosauromorphs. These were characterized by elongated hind legs and an erect pose, the early forms looking somewhat like long-legged crocodiles. The archosaurs became the dominant group during the Triassic period, though it took 30 million years before their diversity was as great as the animals that lived in the Permian. Archosaurs developed into the well-known dinosaurs and pterosaurs, as well as the ancestors of crocodilians. Since reptiles, first rauisuchians and then dinosaurs, dominated the Mesozoic era, the interval is popularly known as the "Age of Reptiles". The dinosaurs also developed smaller forms, including the feather-bearing smaller theropods. In the Cretaceous period, these gave rise to the first true birds. The sister group to Archosauromorpha is Lepidosauromorpha, containing lizards and tuataras, as well as their fossil relatives. Lepidosauromorpha contained at least one major group of the Mesozoic sea reptiles: the mosasaurs, which lived during the Cretaceous period. The phylogenetic placement of other main groups of fossil sea reptiles – the ichthyopterygians (including ichthyosaurs) and the sauropterygians, which evolved in the early Triassic – is more controversial. Different authors linked these groups either to lepidosauromorphs or to archosauromorphs, and ichthyopterygians were also argued to be diapsids that did not belong to the least inclusive clade containing lepidosauromorphs and archosauromorphs. === Rettili Ċenożojċi === The close of the Cretaceous period saw the demise of the Mesozoic era reptilian megafauna (see the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, also known as K-T extinction event). Of the large marine reptiles, only sea turtles were left; and of the non-marine large reptiles, only the semi-aquatic crocodilians and broadly similar choristoderes survived the extinction, with last members of the latter, the lizard-like ''Lazarussuchus'', becoming extinct in the Miocene. Of the great host of dinosaurs dominating the Mesozoic, only the small beaked birds survived. This dramatic extinction pattern at the end of the Mesozoic led into the Cenozoic. Mammals and birds filled the empty niches left behind by the reptilian megafauna and, while reptile diversification slowed, bird and mammal diversification took an exponential turn. However, reptiles were still important components of the megafauna, particularly in the form of large and giant tortoises. After the extinction of most archosaur and marine reptile lines by the end of the Cretaceous, reptile diversification continued throughout the Cenozoic. Squamates took a massive hit during the K–Pg event, only recovering ten million years after it, but they underwent a great radiation event once they recovered, and today squamates make up the majority of living reptiles (> 95%). Approximately 10,000 extant species of traditional reptiles are known, with birds adding about 10,000 more, almost twice the number of mammals, represented by about 5,700 living species (excluding domesticated species). {| class="wikitable" |+Diversità ta' speċijiet ta' rettili ħajjin (2013) !Grupp ta' rettili !Speċijiet deskritti !Persentaġġ tal-ispeċijiet ta' rettili |- |Squamates |9193 |96.3 % |- |''- Lizards'' |''5634'' |''59'' ''%'' |- |''- Snakes'' |''3378'' |''35'' ''%'' |- |''- Amphisbaenians'' |''181'' |''2'' ''%'' |- |Turtles |327 |3.4 % |- |Crocodilians |25 |0.3 % |- |Rhynchocephalians |1 |0.01 % |- |Total |9546 |100 % |} == Morfoloġija u fiżjoloġija == === Ċirkolazzjoni === All lepidosaurs and turtles have a three-chambered heart consisting of two atria, one variably partitioned ventricle, and two aortas that lead to the systemic circulation. The degree of mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the three-chambered heart varies depending on the species and physiological state. Under different conditions, deoxygenated blood can be shunted back to the body or oxygenated blood can be shunted back to the lungs. This variation in blood flow has been hypothesized to allow more effective thermoregulation and longer diving times for aquatic species, but has not been shown to be a fitness advantage. For example, iguana hearts, like the majority of the squamate hearts, are composed of three chambers–two atria and one ventricle–and cardiac involuntary muscles. The main structures of the heart are the sinus venosus, the pacemaker, the left atrium, the right atrium, the atrioventricular valve, the cavum venosum, cavum arteriosum, the cavum pulmonale, the muscular ridge, the ventricular ridge, pulmonary veins, and paired aortic arches. Some squamate species (e.g., pythons and monitor lizards) have three-chambered hearts that become functionally four-chambered hearts during contraction. This is made possible by a muscular ridge that subdivides the ventricle during ventricular diastole and completely divides it during ventricular systole. Because of this ridge, some of these squamates are capable of producing ventricular pressure differentials that are equivalent to those seen in mammalian and avian hearts. Crocodilians have an anatomically four-chambered heart, similar to birds, but also have two systemic aortas and are therefore capable of bypassing their pulmonary circulation. In turtles, the ventricle is not perfectly divided, so a mix of aerated and nonaerated blood can occur. === Metaboliżmu === Modern non-avian reptiles exhibit some form of cold-bloodedness (i.e. some mix of poikilothermy, ectothermy, and bradymetabolism) so that they have limited physiological means of keeping the body temperature constant and often rely on external sources of heat. Due to a less stable core temperature than birds and mammals, reptilian biochemistry requires enzymes capable of maintaining efficiency over a greater range of temperatures than in the case for warm-blooded animals. The optimum body temperature range varies with species, but is typically below that of warm-blooded animals; for many lizards, it falls in the 24–35 °C (75–95 °F) range, while extreme heat-adapted species, like the American desert iguana ''Dipsosaurus dorsalis'', can have optimal physiological temperatures in the mammalian range, between 35 and 40 °C (95 and 104 °F). While the optimum temperature is often encountered when the animal is active, the low basal metabolism makes body temperature drop rapidly when the animal is inactive. As in all animals, reptilian muscle action produces heat. In large reptiles, like leatherback turtles, the low surface-to-volume ratio allows this metabolically produced heat to keep the animals warmer than their environment even though they do not have a warm-blooded metabolism. This form of homeothermy is called gigantothermy; it has been suggested as having been common in large dinosaurs and other extinct large-bodied reptiles. The benefit of a low resting metabolism is that it requires far less fuel to sustain bodily functions. By using temperature variations in their surroundings, or by remaining cold when they do not need to move, reptiles can save considerable amounts of energy compared to endothermic animals of the same size. A crocodile needs from a tenth to a fifth of the food necessary for a lion of the same weight and can live half a year without eating. Lower food requirements and adaptive metabolisms allow reptiles to dominate the animal life in regions where net calorie availability is too low to sustain large-bodied mammals and birds. It is generally assumed that reptiles are unable to produce the sustained high energy output necessary for long distance chases or flying. Higher energetic capacity might have been responsible for the evolution of warm-bloodedness in birds and mammals. However, investigation of correlations between active capacity and thermophysiology show a weak relationship. Most extant reptiles are carnivores with a sit-and-wait feeding strategy; whether reptiles are cold blooded due to their ecology is not clear. Energetic studies on some reptiles have shown active capacities equal to or greater than similar sized warm-blooded animals. === Sistema respiratorja === [[/wiki/File:X-ray_video_of_a_female_American_alligator_(Alligator_mississippiensis)_while_breathing_-_pone.0004497.s009.ogv|lemin|daqsminuri|Filmati ta' fluworoskopija bir-raġġi X ta' alligatur Amerikan femminili li juru l-kontrazzjoni tal-pulmuni waqt it-teħid tan-nifs.]] All reptiles breathe using lungs. Aquatic turtles have developed more permeable skin, and some species have modified their cloaca to increase the area for gas exchange. Even with these adaptations, breathing is never fully accomplished without lungs. Lung ventilation is accomplished differently in each main reptile group. In squamates, the lungs are ventilated almost exclusively by the axial musculature. This is also the same musculature that is used during locomotion. Because of this constraint, most squamates are forced to hold their breath during intense runs. Some, however, have found a way around it. Varanids, and a few other lizard species, employ buccal pumping as a complement to their normal "axial breathing". This allows the animals to completely fill their lungs during intense locomotion, and thus remain aerobically active for a long time. Tegu lizards are known to possess a proto-diaphragm, which separates the pulmonary cavity from the visceral cavity. While not actually capable of movement, it does allow for greater lung inflation, by taking the weight of the viscera off the lungs. Crocodilians actually have a muscular diaphragm that is analogous to the mammalian diaphragm. The difference is that the muscles for the crocodilian diaphragm pull the pubis (part of the pelvis, which is movable in crocodilians) back, which brings the liver down, thus freeing space for the lungs to expand. This type of diaphragmatic setup has been referred to as the "hepatic piston". The airways form a number of double tubular chambers within each lung. On inhalation and exhalation air moves through the airways in the same direction, thus creating a unidirectional airflow through the lungs. A similar system is found in birds, monitor lizards and iguanas. Most reptiles lack a secondary palate, meaning that they must hold their breath while swallowing. Crocodilians have evolved a bony secondary palate that allows them to continue breathing while remaining submerged (and protect their brains against damage by struggling prey). Skinks (family Scincidae) also have evolved a bony secondary palate, to varying degrees. Snakes took a different approach and extended their trachea instead. Their tracheal extension sticks out like a fleshy straw, and allows these animals to swallow large prey without suffering from asphyxiation. ==== Fkieren tal-ilma u fkieren tal-art ==== How turtles breathe has been the subject of much study. To date, only a few species have been studied thoroughly enough to get an idea of how those turtles breathe. The varied results indicate that turtles have found a variety of solutions to this problem. The difficulty is that most turtle shells are rigid and do not allow for the type of expansion and contraction that other amniotes use to ventilate their lungs. Some turtles, such as the Indian flapshell (''Lissemys punctata''), have a sheet of muscle that envelops the lungs. When it contracts, the turtle can exhale. When at rest, the turtle can retract the limbs into the body cavity and force air out of the lungs. When the turtle protracts its limbs, the pressure inside the lungs is reduced, and the turtle can suck air in. Turtle lungs are attached to the inside of the top of the shell (carapace), with the bottom of the lungs attached (via connective tissue) to the rest of the viscera. By using a series of special muscles (roughly equivalent to a diaphragm), turtles are capable of pushing their viscera up and down, resulting in effective respiration, since many of these muscles have attachment points in conjunction with their forelimbs (indeed, many of the muscles expand into the limb pockets during contraction). Breathing during locomotion has been studied in three species, and they show different patterns. Adult female green sea turtles do not breathe as they crutch along their nesting beaches. They hold their breath during terrestrial locomotion and breathe in bouts as they rest. North American box turtles breathe continuously during locomotion, and the ventilation cycle is not coordinated with the limb movements. This is because they use their abdominal muscles to breathe during locomotion. The last species to have been studied is the red-eared slider, which also breathes during locomotion, but takes smaller breaths during locomotion than during small pauses between locomotor bouts, indicating that there may be mechanical interference between the limb movements and the breathing apparatus. Box turtles have also been observed to breathe while completely sealed up inside their shells. === Produzzjoni tal-ħsejjes === Compared with frogs, birds, and mammals, reptiles are less vocal. Sound production is usually limited to hissing, which is produced merely by forcing air though a partly closed glottis and is not considered to be a true vocalization. The ability to vocalize exists in crocodilians, some lizards and turtles; and typically involves vibrating fold-like structures in the larynx or glottis. Some geckos and turtles possess true vocal cords, which have elastin-rich connective tissue. ==== Smigħ fis-sriep ==== Hearing in humans relies on 3 parts of the ear; the outer ear that directs sound waves into the ear canal, the middle ear that transmits incoming sound waves to the inner ear, and the inner ear that helps in hearing and keeping their balance. Unlike humans and other mammals, snakes do not possess an outer ear, a middle ear, and a tympanum but have an inner ear structure with cochleas directly connected to their jawbone. They are able to feel the vibrations generated from the sound waves in their jaw as they move on the ground. This is done by the use of mechanoreceptors, sensory nerves that run along the body of snakes directing the vibrations along the spinal nerves to the brain. Snakes have a sensitive auditory perception and can tell which direction sound being made is coming from so that they can sense the presence of prey or predator but it is still unclear how sensitive snakes are to sound waves traveling through the air. === Ġilda === Reptilian skin is covered in a horny epidermis, making it watertight and enabling reptiles to live on dry land, in contrast to amphibians. Compared to mammalian skin, that of reptiles is rather thin and lacks the thick dermal layer that produces leather in mammals. Exposed parts of reptiles are protected by scales or scutes, sometimes with a bony base (osteoderms), forming armor. In lepidosaurs, such as lizards and snakes, the whole skin is covered in overlapping epidermal scales. Such scales were once thought to be typical of the class Reptilia as a whole, but are now known to occur only in lepidosaurs. The scales found in turtles and crocodiles are of dermal, rather than epidermal, origin and are properly termed scutes. In turtles, the body is hidden inside a hard shell composed of fused scutes. Lacking a thick dermis, reptilian leather is not as strong as mammalian leather. It is used in leather-wares for decorative purposes for shoes, belts and handbags, particularly crocodile skin. ==== Bdil tal-qxur ==== Reptiles shed their skin through a process called ecdysis which occurs continuously throughout their lifetime. In particular, younger reptiles tend to shed once every five to six weeks while adults shed three to four times a year. Younger reptiles shed more because of their rapid growth rate. Once full size, the frequency of shedding drastically decreases. The process of ecdysis involves forming a new layer of skin under the old one. Proteolytic enzymes and lymphatic fluid is secreted between the old and new layers of skin. Consequently, this lifts the old skin from the new one allowing shedding to occur. Snakes will shed from the head to the tail while lizards shed in a "patchy pattern". Dysecdysis, a common skin disease in snakes and lizards, will occur when ecdysis, or shedding, fails. There are numerous reasons why shedding fails and can be related to inadequate humidity and temperature, nutritional deficiencies, dehydration and traumatic injuries. Nutritional deficiencies decrease proteolytic enzymes while dehydration reduces lymphatic fluids to separate the skin layers. Traumatic injuries on the other hand, form scars that will not allow new scales to form and disrupt the process of ecdysis. === Eskrezzjoni === Excretion is performed mainly by two small kidneys. In diapsids, uric acid is the main nitrogenous waste product; turtles, like mammals, excrete mainly urea. Unlike the kidneys of mammals and birds, reptile kidneys are unable to produce liquid urine more concentrated than their body fluid. This is because they lack a specialized structure called a loop of Henle, which is present in the nephrons of birds and mammals. Because of this, many reptiles use the colon to aid in the reabsorption of water. Some are also able to take up water stored in the bladder. Excess salts are also excreted by nasal and lingual salt glands in some reptiles. In all reptiles, the urinogenital ducts and the rectum both empty into an organ called a cloaca. In some reptiles, a midventral wall in the cloaca may open into a urinary bladder, but not all. It is present in all turtles and tortoises as well as most lizards, but is lacking in the monitor lizard, the legless lizards. It is absent in the snakes, alligators, and crocodiles. Many turtles and lizards have proportionally very large bladders. Charles Darwin noted that the Galapagos tortoise had a bladder which could store up to 20% of its body weight. Such adaptations are the result of environments such as remote islands and deserts where water is very scarce. Other desert-dwelling reptiles have large bladders that can store a long-term reservoir of water for up to several months and aid in osmoregulation. Turtles have two or more accessory urinary bladders, located lateral to the neck of the urinary bladder and dorsal to the pubis, occupying a significant portion of their body cavity. Their bladder is also usually bilobed with a left and right section. The right section is located under the liver, which prevents large stones from remaining in that side while the left section is more likely to have calculi. === Diġestjoni === Most reptiles are insectivorous or carnivorous and have simple and comparatively short digestive tracts due to meat being fairly simple to break down and digest. Digestion is slower than in mammals, reflecting their lower resting metabolism and their inability to divide and masticate their food. Their poikilotherm metabolism has very low energy requirements, allowing large reptiles like crocodiles and large constrictors to live from a single large meal for months, digesting it slowly. While modern reptiles are predominantly carnivorous, during the early history of reptiles several groups produced some herbivorous megafauna: in the Paleozoic, the pareiasaurs; and in the Mesozoic several lines of dinosaurs. Today, turtles are the only predominantly herbivorous reptile group, but several lines of agamas and iguanas have evolved to live wholly or partly on plants. Herbivorous reptiles face the same problems of mastication as herbivorous mammals but, lacking the complex teeth of mammals, many species swallow rocks and pebbles (so called gastroliths) to aid in digestion: The rocks are washed around in the stomach, helping to grind up plant matter. Fossil gastroliths have been found associated with both ornithopods and sauropods, though whether they actually functioned as a gastric mill in the latter is disputed. Salt water crocodiles also use gastroliths as ballast, stabilizing them in the water or helping them to dive. A dual function as both stabilizing ballast and digestion aid has been suggested for gastroliths found in plesiosaurs. === Nervituri === The reptilian nervous system contains the same basic part of the amphibian brain, but the reptile cerebrum and cerebellum are slightly larger. Most typical sense organs are well developed with certain exceptions, most notably the snake's lack of external ears (middle and inner ears are present). There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves. Due to their short cochlea, reptiles use electrical tuning to expand their range of audible frequencies. === Vista === Most reptiles are diurnal animals. The vision is typically adapted to daylight conditions, with color vision and more advanced visual depth perception than in amphibians and most mammals. Reptiles usually have excellent vision, allowing them to detect shapes and motions at long distances. They often have poor vision in low-light conditions. Birds, crocodiles and turtles have three types of photoreceptor: rods, single cones and double cones, which gives them sharp color vision and enables them to see ultraviolet wavelengths. The lepidosaurs appear to have lost the duplex retina and only have a single class of receptor that is cone-like or rod-like depending on whether the species is diurnal or nocturnal. In many burrowing species, such as blind snakes, vision is reduced. Many lepidosaurs have a photosensory organ on the top of their heads called the parietal eye, which are also called third eye, pineal eye or pineal gland. This "eye" does not work the same way as a normal eye does as it has only a rudimentary retina and lens and thus, cannot form images. It is, however, sensitive to changes in light and dark and can detect movement. Some snakes have extra sets of visual organs (in the loosest sense of the word) in the form of pits sensitive to infrared radiation (heat). Such heat-sensitive pits are particularly well developed in the pit vipers, but are also found in boas and pythons. These pits allow the snakes to sense the body heat of birds and mammals, enabling pit vipers to hunt rodents in the dark. Most reptiles, as well as birds, possess a nictitating membrane, a translucent third eyelid which is drawn over the eye from the inner corner. In crocodilians, it protects its eyeball surface while allowing a degree of vision underwater. However, many squamates, geckos and snakes in particular, lack eyelids, which are replaced by a transparent scale. This is called the brille, spectacle, or eyecap. The brille is usually not visible, except for when the snake molts, and it protects the eyes from dust and dirt. === Riproduzzjoni === Reptiles generally reproduce sexually, though some are capable of asexual reproduction. All reproductive activity occurs through the cloaca, the single exit/entrance at the base of the tail where waste is also eliminated. Most reptiles have copulatory organs, which are usually retracted or inverted and stored inside the body. In turtles and crocodilians, the male has a single median penis, while squamates, including snakes and lizards, possess a pair of hemipenes, only one of which is typically used in each session. Tuatara, however, lack copulatory organs, and so the male and female simply press their cloacas together as the male discharges sperm. Most reptiles lay amniotic eggs covered with leathery or calcareous shells. An amnion (5), chorion (6), and allantois (8) are present during embryonic life. The eggshell (1) protects the crocodile embryo (11) and keeps it from drying out, but it is flexible to allow gas exchange. The chorion (6) aids in gas exchange between the inside and outside of the egg. It allows carbon dioxide to exit the egg and oxygen gas to enter the egg. The albumin (9) further protects the embryo and serves as a reservoir for water and protein. The allantois (8) is a sac that collects the metabolic waste produced by the embryo. The amniotic sac (10) contains amniotic fluid (12) which protects and cushions the embryo. The amnion (5) aids in osmoregulation and serves as a saltwater reservoir. The yolk sac (2) surrounding the yolk (3) contains protein and fat rich nutrients that are absorbed by the embryo via vessels (4) that allow the embryo to grow and metabolize. The air space (7) provides the embryo with oxygen while it is hatching. This ensures that the embryo will not suffocate while it is hatching. There are no larval stages of development. Viviparity and ovoviviparity have evolved in squamates and many extinct clades of reptiles. Among squamates, many species, including all boas and most vipers, use this mode of reproduction. The degree of viviparity varies; some species simply retain the eggs until just before hatching, others provide maternal nourishment to supplement the yolk, and yet others lack any yolk and provide all nutrients via a structure similar to the mammalian placenta. The earliest documented case of viviparity in reptiles is the Early Permian mesosaurs, although some individuals or taxa in that clade may also have been oviparous because a putative isolated egg has also been found. Several groups of Mesozoic marine reptiles also exhibited viviparity, such as mosasaurs, ichthyosaurs, and Sauropterygia, a group that includes pachypleurosaurs and Plesiosauria. Asexual reproduction has been identified in squamates in six families of lizards and one snake. In some species of squamates, a population of females is able to produce a unisexual diploid clone of the mother. This form of asexual reproduction, called parthenogenesis, occurs in several species of gecko, and is particularly widespread in the teiids (especially ''Aspidocelis'') and lacertids (''Lacerta''). In captivity, Komodo dragons (Varanidae) have reproduced by parthenogenesis. Parthenogenetic species are suspected to occur among chameleons, agamids, xantusiids, and typhlopids. Some reptiles exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination (TDSD), in which the incubation temperature determines whether a particular egg hatches as male or female. TDSD is most common in turtles and crocodiles, but also occurs in lizards and tuatara. To date, there has been no confirmation of whether TDSD occurs in snakes. === Lonġevità === Giant tortoises are among the longest-lived vertebrate animals (over 100 years by some estimates) and have been used as a model for studying longevity. DNA analysis of the genomes of Lonesome George, the iconic last member of ''Chelonoidis abingdonii'', and the Aldabra giant tortoise ''Aldabrachelys gigantea'' led to the detection of lineage-specific variants affecting DNA repair genes that might contribute to our understanding of increased lifespan. == Konjizzjoni == Reptiles were traditionally considered less intelligent on average than mammals and birds, but this is increasingly suspected to be the result of poor methodologies in past research and overreliance on brain size as indicators of intelligence rather than a genuine trait of reptiles. The size of their brain relative to their body is much less than that of mammals, the encephalization quotient being about one tenth of that of mammals, though larger reptiles can show more complex brain development. Larger lizards, like the monitors, are known to exhibit complex behavior, including cooperation and cognitive abilities allowing them to optimize their foraging and territoriality over time. Crocodiles have relatively larger brains and show a fairly complex social structure. The Komodo dragon is even known to engage in play, as are turtles, which are also considered to be social creatures, and sometimes switch between monogamy and promiscuity in their sexual behavior.^{[''citation needed'']} One study found that wood turtles were better than white rats at learning to navigate mazes. Another study found that giant tortoises are capable of learning through operant conditioning, visual discrimination and retained learned behaviors with long-term memory. Sea turtles have been regarded as having simple brains, but their flippers are used for a variety of foraging tasks (holding, bracing, corralling) in common with marine mammals. There is evidence that reptiles are sentient and able to feel emotions including anxiety and pleasure. == Mekkaniżmi ta' difiża == Many small reptiles, such as snakes and lizards, that live on the ground or in the water are vulnerable to being preyed on by all kinds of carnivorous animals. Thus, avoidance is the most common form of defense in reptiles. At the first sign of danger, most snakes and lizards crawl away into the undergrowth, and turtles and crocodiles will plunge into water and sink out of sight. === Mimetizzazzjoni u twissija === Reptiles tend to avoid confrontation through camouflage. Two major groups of reptile predators are birds and other reptiles, both of which have well-developed color vision. Thus the skins of many reptiles have cryptic coloration of plain or mottled gray, green, and brown to allow them to blend into the background of their natural environment. Aided by the reptiles' capacity for remaining motionless for long periods, the camouflage of many snakes is so effective that people or domestic animals are most typically bitten because they accidentally step on them. When camouflage fails to protect them, blue-tongued skinks will try to ward off attackers by displaying their blue tongues, and the frill-necked lizard will display its brightly colored frill. These same displays are used in territorial disputes and during courtship. If danger arises so suddenly that flight is useless, crocodiles, turtles, some lizards, and some snakes hiss loudly when confronted by an enemy. Rattlesnakes rapidly vibrate the tip of the tail, which is composed of a series of nested, hollow beads to ward off approaching danger. In contrast to the normal drab coloration of most reptiles, the lizards of the genus ''Heloderma'' (the Gila monster and the beaded lizard) and many of the coral snakes have high-contrast warning coloration, warning potential predators they are venomous. A number of non-venomous North American snake species have colorful markings similar to those of the coral snake, an oft cited example of Batesian mimicry. === Difiża alternattiva fis-sriep === Camouflage does not always fool a predator. When caught out, snake species adopt different defensive tactics and use a complicated set of behaviors when attacked. Some species, like cobras or hognose snakes, first elevate their head and spread out the skin of their neck in an effort to look large and threatening. Failure of this strategy may lead to other measures practiced particularly by cobras, vipers, and closely related species, which use venom to attack. The venom is modified saliva, delivered through fangs from a venom gland. Some non-venomous snakes, such as American hognose snakes or European grass snake, play dead when in danger; some, including the grass snake, exude a foul-smelling liquid to deter attackers. === Difiża fil-kukkudrilli === When a crocodilian is concerned about its safety, it will gape to expose the teeth and tongue. If this does not work, the crocodilian gets a little more agitated and typically begins to make hissing sounds. After this, the crocodilian will start to change its posture dramatically to make itself look more intimidating. The body is inflated to increase apparent size. If absolutely necessary, it may decide to attack an enemy. Some species try to bite immediately. Some will use their heads as sledgehammers and literally smash an opponent, some will rush or swim toward the threat from a distance, even chasing the opponent onto land or galloping after it. The main weapon in all crocodiles is the bite, which can generate very high bite force. Many species also possess canine-like teeth. These are used primarily for seizing prey, but are also used in fighting and display. === Bdil tal-qxur u riġenerazzjoni tad-denb === Geckos, skinks, and some other lizards that are captured by the tail will shed part of the tail structure through a process called autotomy and thus be able to flee. The detached tail will continue to thrash, creating a deceptive sense of continued struggle and distracting the predator's attention from the fleeing prey animal. The detached tails of leopard geckos can wiggle for up to 20 minutes. The tail grows back in most species, but some, like crested geckos, lose their tails for the rest of their lives. In many species the tails are of a separate and dramatically more intense color than the rest of the body so as to encourage potential predators to strike for the tail first. In the shingleback skink and some species of geckos, the tail is short and broad and resembles the head, so that the predators may attack it rather than the more vulnerable front part. Reptiles that are capable of shedding their tails can partially regenerate them over a period of weeks. The new section will however contain cartilage rather than bone, and will never grow to the same length as the original tail. It is often also distinctly discolored compared to the rest of the body and may lack some of the external sculpting features seen in the original tail. == Rabtiet mal-bniedem == === Fil-kulturi u fir-reliġjonijiet === Dinosaurs have been widely depicted in culture since the English palaeontologist Richard Owen coined the name ''dinosaur'' in 1842. As soon as 1854, the Crystal Palace Dinosaurs were on display to the public in south London. One dinosaur appeared in literature even earlier, as Charles Dickens placed a ''Megalosaurus'' in the first chapter of his novel ''Bleak House'' in 1852. The dinosaurs featured in books, films, television programs, artwork, and other media have been used for both education and entertainment. The depictions range from the realistic, as in the television documentaries of the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, to the fantastic, as in the monster movies of the 1950s and 1960s. The snake or serpent has played a powerful symbolic role in different cultures. In Egyptian history, the Nile cobra adorned the crown of the pharaoh. It was worshipped as one of the gods and was also used for sinister purposes: murder of an adversary and ritual suicide (Cleopatra). In Greek mythology, snakes are associated with deadly antagonists, as a chthonic symbol, roughly translated as ''earthbound''. The nine-headed Lernaean Hydra that Hercules defeated and the three Gorgon sisters are children of Gaia, the earth. Medusa was one of the three Gorgon sisters who Perseus defeated. Medusa is described as a hideous mortal, with snakes instead of hair and the power to turn men to stone with her gaze. After killing her, Perseus gave her head to Athena who fixed it to her shield called the Aegis. The Titans are depicted in art with their legs replaced by bodies of snakes for the same reason: They are children of Gaia, so they are bound to the earth. In Hinduism, snakes are worshipped as gods, with many women pouring milk on snake pits. The cobra is seen on the neck of Shiva, while Vishnu is depicted often as sleeping on a seven-headed snake or within the coils of a serpent. There are temples in India solely for cobras sometimes called ''Nagraj'' (King of Snakes), and it is believed that snakes are symbols of fertility. In the annual Hindu festival of Nag Panchami, snakes are venerated and prayed to. In religious terms, the snake and jaguar are arguably the most important animals in ancient Mesoamerica. "In states of ecstasy, lords dance a serpent dance; great descending snakes adorn and support buildings from Chichen Itza to Tenochtitlan, and the Nahuatl word ''coatl'' meaning serpent or twin, forms part of primary deities such as Mixcoatl, Quetzalcoatl, and Coatlicue." In Christianity and Judaism, a serpent appears in Genesis to tempt Adam and Eve with the forbidden fruit from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. The turtle has a prominent position as a symbol of steadfastness and tranquility in religion, mythology, and folklore from around the world. A tortoise's longevity is suggested by its long lifespan and its shell, which was thought to protect it from any foe. In the cosmological myths of several cultures a ''World Turtle'' carries the world upon its back or supports the heavens. === Mediċina === Deaths from snakebites are uncommon in many parts of the world, but are still counted in tens of thousands per year in India. Snakebite can be treated with antivenom made from the venom of the snake. To produce antivenom, a mixture of the venoms of different species of snake is injected into the body of a horse in ever-increasing dosages until the horse is immunized. Blood is then extracted; the serum is separated, purified and freeze-dried. The cytotoxic effect of snake venom is being researched as a potential treatment for cancers. '''Gila monsters''' produce compounds that reduce plasma glucose; one of these substances is now used in the anti-diabetes drug exenatide (Byetta), a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist like semiglutide (Ozempic). Another toxin from Gila monster saliva has been studied for use as an anti-Alzheimer's drug. Geckos have also been used as '''folk medicine''', especially in China, without any evidence that they have any active compounds. Turtles have been used in Chinese traditional medicine for thousands of years, with every part of the turtle believed to have medical benefits (again, without scientific evidence). Growing demand for '''turtle meat''' has placed pressure on vulnerable wild populations of turtles. === Trobbija kummerċjali === Crocodiles are protected in many parts of the world, and are farmed commercially. Their hides are tanned and used to make leather goods such as shoes and handbags; crocodile meat is also considered a delicacy. The most commonly farmed species are the saltwater and Nile crocodiles. Farming has resulted in an increase in the saltwater crocodile population in Australia, as eggs are usually harvested from the wild, so landowners have an incentive to conserve their habitat. Crocodile leather is made into wallets, briefcases, purses, handbags, belts, hats, and shoes. Crocodile oil has been used for various purposes. Snakes are also farmed, primarily in East and Southeast Asia, and their production has become more intensive in the last decade. Snake farming has been troubling for conservation in the past as it can lead to overexploitation of wild snakes and their natural prey to supply the farms. However, farming snakes can limit the hunting of wild snakes, while reducing the slaughter of higher-order vertebrates like cows. The energy efficiency of snakes is higher than expected for carnivores, due to their ectothermy and low metabolism. Waste protein from the poultry and pig industries is used as feed in snake farms. Snake farms produce meat, snake skin, and antivenom. Turtle farming is another known but controversial practice. Turtles have been farmed for a variety of reasons, ranging from food to traditional medicine, the pet trade, and scientific conservation. Demand for turtle meat and medicinal products is one of the main threats to turtle conservation in Asia. Though commercial breeding would seem to insulate wild populations, it can stoke the demand for them and increase wild captures. Even the potentially appealing concept of raising turtles at a farm to release into the wild is questioned by some veterinarians who have had some experience with farm operations. They caution that this may introduce into the wild populations infectious diseases that occur on the farm, but have not (yet) been occurring in the wild. === Rettili fil-magħluq === A herpetarium is a zoological exhibition space for reptiles and amphibians. In the Western world, some snakes (especially relatively docile species such as the ball python and corn snake) are sometimes kept as pets. Numerous species of lizard are kept as pets, including bearded dragons, iguanas, anoles, and geckos (such as the popular leopard gecko and the crested gecko). Turtles and tortoises are increasingly popular pets, but keeping them can be challenging due to their particular requirements, such as temperature control, the need for UV light sources, and a varied diet. The long lifespans of turtles and especially tortoises mean they can potentially outlive their owners. Good hygiene and significant maintenance is necessary when keeping reptiles, due to the risks of ''Salmonella'' and other pathogens. Regular hand-washing after handling is an important measure to prevent infection. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Rettili]] [[Kategorija:Klassifikazzjoni xjentifika]] nktmxhw1p5hx80twfbidt7ahjnaez8u 329534 329532 2026-04-24T06:19:10Z Trigcly 17859 /* Filoġenetika u definizzjoni moderna */ 329534 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:TWC Wildlife Centre• Stewart Nimmo • MRD 8910.jpg|daqsminuri|Tuatara.]] '''Rettilu''', xi kultant imsejjaħ '''rettili''' b'mod invarjabbli bejn is-singular u l-plural, spiss jiġi definit bħala [[annimal]] vertebrat tetrapodu b'metaboliżmu ektotermiku u bi żvilupp amnijotiku. Tradizzjonalment ir-rettili huma magħmula minn erba' [[Ordni (bijoloġija)|ordnijiet]]: ''Testudines'' (fkieren), ''Crocodilia'' (kukkudrilli, alligaturi u garjal), ''Squamata'' (gremxul u [[Serp|sriep]]) u ''Rhynchocephalia'' (tuatara), b'madwar 12,000 [[speċi]] eżistenti fil-Bażi tad-Data tar-Rettili.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.reptile-database.org/db-info/news.html|titlu=Reptile Database News|sit=www.reptile-database.org|data-aċċess=2026-04-23}}</ref> L-istudju tal-ordnijiet tar-rettili tradizzjonali, normalment flimkien mal-istudju tal-[[Anfibju|anfibji]] moderni, jissejjaħ erpetoloġija. Ir-rettili ġew soġġetti għal diversi definizzjonijiet tassonomiċi kunfliġġenti.<ref>Modesto, S.P.; Anderson, J.S. (2004). "The phylogenetic definition of Reptilia". ''Systematic Biology''. '''53''' (5): 815–821. doi:10.1080/10635150490503026. <nowiki>PMID 15545258</nowiki>.</ref> Fit-tassonomija evoluzzjonarja klassika, ir-rettili jinġabru taħt il-[[Klassi (bijoloġija)|klassi]] '''''Reptilia''''' (pronunzja: /rɛpˈtɪliə/ ''rep-TIL-ee-ə''), skont l-użu komuni. It-tassonomija kladistika moderna tqis lil dak il-grupp bħala parafiletiku, peress li l-evidenza ġenetika u paleontoloġika ddeterminat li l-[[Għasfur|għasafar]] (il-klassi ''Aves'') huma l-uniku grupp li għadu eżistenti ta' ''Dinosauria'', grupp monofiletiku ewlieni ta' diapsidi li huma relatati iktar mill-qrib mal-''Crocodilia'' milli ma rettili ħajjin oħra, u għaldaqstant l-għasafar jinsabu fost ir-rettili (taħt l-''Archosauria'') minn perspettiva filoġenetika. Għalhekk, bosta sistemi kladistiċi jiddefinixxi mill-ġdid ir-''Reptilia'' bħala grupp monofiletiku li jinkludi l-għasafar, għalkemm id-definizzjoni preċiża ta' dan il-grupp monofiletiku jvarja minn awtur għal ieħor. Kunċett simili huwa dak tal-grupp monofiletiku tas-''Sauropsida'', li jirreferi għall-amnijoti kollha bħala relatati iktar mill-qrib mar-rettili moderni milli mal-mammiferi.<ref>Gauthier, J.A. (1994). "The diversification of the amniotes". In Prothero, D.R.; Schoch, R.M. (eds.). ''Major Features of Vertebrate Evolution''. Vol. 7. Knoxville, TN: The Paleontological Society. pp. 129–159. doi:10.1017/S247526300000129X.</ref> L-iżjed membri bikrin magħrufa tan-nisel tar-rettili tfaċċaw matul il-perjodu Karboniferu aħħari, wara li evolvew minn tetrapodi rettilomorfi avvanzati li kulma jmur adattaw ruħhom iktar għall-ħajja fuq l-art niexfa.<ref>Reisz, R. R. (1981). ''A diapsid reptile from the Pennsylvanian of Kansas''. Natural History Museum, University of Kansas.</ref> Id-data ġenetika u tal-fossili ssostni li l-ikbar żewġ insla tar-rettili, l-arkosawromorfi (il-kukkudrilli, l-għasafar u l-annimali relatati) u l-lepidosawromorfi (il-gremxul u l-annimali relatati), varjaw minn xulxin matul il-perjodu Permjan.<ref>Ezcurra, M.D.; Scheyer, T.M.; Butler, R.J. (2014). "The origin and early evolution of Sauria: Reassessing the Permian saurian fossil record and the timing of the crocodile-lizard divergence". ''PLOS ONE''. '''9''' (2) e89165. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...989165E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089165. PMC 3937355. <nowiki>PMID 24586565</nowiki>.</ref> Minbarra r-rettili ħajjin, hemm diversità kbira ta' gruppi li issa huma estinti, f'xi każijiet minħabba avvenimenti ta' estinzjoni tal-massa. B'mod partikolari, l-avveniment tal-estinzjoni fil-perjodu Kretaċju–Paleoġen qered għalkollox il-pterosawri, il-plesjosawri u d-[[Dinosawru|dinosawri]] kollha li ma kinux tjur, flimkien ma' bosta speċijiet ta' kukkudrilloformi u ''Squamata'' (eż. możasawri). Ir-rettili moderni li mhumiex tjur huma mifruxa mal-[[Kontinent|kontinenti]] kollha għajr l-[[Antartika]]. Ir-rettili eżistenti jvarjaw bħala daqs mill-wiżgħa nana ċkejkna ta' Jaragua (''Sphaerodactylus ariasae''), li tikber biss sa 17-il millimetru (0.7 pulzieri); sal-kukkudrill tal-baħar (''Crocodylus porosus''), li jista' jaqbeż tul ta' 6 metri (19.7 pied) u jiżen iktar minn 1,000 kilogramma (2,200 libbra). Bħala tetrapodi, ir-rettili ġeneralment ikollhom erba' saqajn, jew fil-każ tas-sriep u l-gremxul bla saqajn, ikunu dixxendenti minn antenati b'erba' saqajn iżda jkunu tilfu saqajhom matul l-[[evoluzzjoni]]. Għad-differenza tal-anfibji anamnijotiċi, ir-rettili ma jiddependux fuq il-korpi tal-ilma għar-riproduzzjoni u ma jkollhom l-ebda stadju ta' larvi akkwatiċi. Il-biċċa l-kbira tar-rettili huma ovipari b'bajd bil-qoxra, għalkemm diversi speċijiet ta' ''Squamata'' huma vivipari, bħal uħud mir-rettili monofiletiċi estinti tal-baħar.<ref>Sander, P. Martin (2012). "Reproduction in early amniotes". ''Science''. '''337''' (6096): 806–808. Bibcode:2012Sci...337..806S. doi:10.1126/science.1224301. <nowiki>PMID 22904001</nowiki>. S2CID 7041966.</ref> Bħala amnijoti, il-bajd tar-rettili jkollu membrana ekstraembrijonika li żżomm l-ilma u li tiffaċilita l-iskambju bijokimiku mal-ambjent estern, u b'hekk ir-rettili jkunu jistgħu jirriproduċu fuq l-art niexfa, saħansitra f'ħabitats aridi u estremi. L-ispeċijiet vivipari jkollhom il-bajd li jiżviluppa u li jfaqqas fi ħdan il-ġisem tal-omm, normalment b'inkubazzjoni interna, għalkemm xi speċijiet jistgħu jitimgħu l-bajd bħala feti permezz ta' diversi forom ta' plaċenti analogi, u wħud jipprovdu l-indukrar parentali inizjali għall-frieħ tagħhom. == Klassifikazzjoni == === Tassonomija klassika u riċerka === [[Stampa:Reptile003d (group).jpg|daqsminuri|Ir-rettili minn ''Nouveau Larousse Illustré'', 1897–1904, ta' min jinnota l-inklużjoni tal-anfibji (taħt il-''Crocodilia'').]] Fis-seklu 13, il-kategorija tar-''rettili'' ġiet rikonoxxuta fl-[[Ewropa]] bħala waħda li tikkonsisti minn taħlita ta' ħlejqiet li jbidu l-bajd, fosthom "is-sriep, diversi mostri fantastiċi, gremxul, diversi anfibji, u dud", kif irreġistrat minn Beauvais fil-''Mera tan-Natura'' tiegħu. Fis-seklu 18, ir-rettili mill-bidu nett tal-klassifikazzjoni, ġew raggruppati mal-anfibji. [[Carl Linnaeus]], li kien jaħdem fl-[[Żvezja|Iżvezja]] li ma tantx kellha wisq speċijiet, u fejn il-lifgħa u s-serp tal-ħaxix spiss jinstabu jikkaċċjaw fl-ilma, inkluda r-rettili u l-anfibji kollha fil-klassi "III – ''Amphibia''" fis-''Systema Naturæ'' tiegħu. It-[[Terminoloġija|termini]] "rettilu" u "anfibju" fil-biċċa l-kbira kienu interkambjabbli, għalkemm "rettilu" (mil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]] ''repere'', "tkaxkar") kien ippreferut mill-[[Franza|Franċiżi]]. [[J.N. Laurenti]] kien l-ewwel wieħed li uża formalment it-terminu ''Reptilia'' għal għażla wiesgħa ta' rettili u ta' anfibji bażikament kif kien għamel Linnaeus. Illum il-ġurnata, iż-żewġ gruppi għadhom trattati bl-istess intestatura unika, jiġifieri l-erpetoloġija. Ma kienx qabel il-bidu tas-seklu 19 li kien ċar li r-rettili u l-anfibji fil-fatt huma annimali pjuttost differenti, u [[P.A. Latreille]] ħoloq il-klassi ''Batracia'' (1825) għal dawn tal-aħħar, u qasam it-tetrapodi fl-erba' klassijiet ta' familji ta' rettili, anfibji, għasafar u mammiferi. L-anatomista [[Renju Unit|Brittaniku]] [[T.H. Huxley]] wassal biex id-definizzjoni ta' Latreille ssir popolari, u flimkien ma' [[Richard Owen]], wessa' r-''Reptilia'' biex jinkludu d-diversi fossili ta' "mostri antedilluvjani", fosthom id-dinosawri u d-''Dicynodon'', li huwa sinapsidu qisu mammiferu li huwa għen biex jiġi deskritt. Din ma kinitx l-unika skema ta' klassifikazzjoni possibbli: fil-lekċers ta' Hunter mogħtija fil-Kulleġġ Irjali tal-[[Kirurgu|Kirurgi]] fl-1863, Huxley ġabar il-vertebrati mal-mammiferi, mas-sawrojdi u mal-iktjojdi (dawn tal-aħħar jinkludu l-ħut u l-anfibji). Sussegwentement huwa ppropona l-ismijiet tas-sawropsidi u tal-iktjopsidi għal dawn iż-żewġ gruppi tal-aħħar. Fl-1866, Haeckel wera li l-vertebrati setgħu jinqasmu abbażi tal-istrateġiji riproduttivi tagħhom, u li r-rettili, l-għasafar u l-mammiferi kienu magħqudin mill-bajd amnijotiku. It-termini ''sawropsidi'' ("uċuħ tal-gremxul") u ''teropsidi'' ("uċuħ tal-bestji") reġgħu ntużaw fl-1916 minn [[E.S. Goodrich]] biex jiddistingwi bejn il-gremxul, l-għasafar u l-qrabat tagħhom minn naħa waħda (sawropsidi) u l-mammiferi u l-qrabat estinti tagħhom (teropsidi) fuq in-naħa l-oħra. Goodrich appoġġa din id-diviżjoni skont in-natura tal-[[Qalb|qlub]] u tal-istrutturi taċ-ċirkolazzjoni tad-[[demm]] f'kull grupp, u karatteristiċi oħra, bħall-istruttura tal-parti ta' quddiem tal-[[moħħ]]. Skont Goodrich, iż-żewġ insla evolvew minn grupp uniku bikri, il-protosawri ("l-ewwel gremxul"), fejn huwa inkluda xi annimali li llum il-ġurnata jitqiesu bħala anfibji qishom rettili, kif ukoll rettili bikrin. [[Stampa:MosasaurDiscovery.jpg|daqsminuri|Inċiżjoni tas-seklu 18 ta' "mostru antedilluvjan", il-możasawru, skopert f'barriera tal-[[ġebla tal-ġir]] f'[[Maastricht]] fl-1770.]] Fl-1956, [[D.M.S. Watson]] osserva li l-ewwel żewġ gruppi nfirdu fi stadju bikri ħafna fl-istorja tar-rettili, għaldaqstant huwa qasam il-protosawri ta' Goodrich bejniethom. Huwa ta interpretazzjoni mill-ġdid tas-sawropsidi u tat-teropsidi sabiex jeskludi l-għasafar u l-mammiferi, rispettivament. B'hekk is-sawropsidi tiegħu kienu jinkludu l-''Procolophonia'', l-''Eosuchia'', il-''Millerosauria'', il-''Chelonia'' (fkieren), l-''iSquamata'' (gremxul u sriep), ir-''Rhynchocephalia'', il-''Crocodilia'', it-"tecodonti" (l-''Archosauria'' bażiċi parafiletiċi), id-dinosawri li ma kinux tjur, il-pterosawri, l-iktijosawri u s-sawropteriġjani. Fl-aħħar tas-seklu 19 ġew offruti għadd ta' definizzjonijiet tar-''Reptilia''. Il-karatteristiċi [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġiċi]] elenkati minn Lydekker fl-1896, pereżempju, jinkludu kondil oċċipitali uniku, ġog tax-xedaq iffurmat mill-għadam tal-kwadrat u artikolari, u ċerti karatteristiċi tal-vertebri. L-annimali li spikkaw permezz ta' dawn il-formulazzjonijiet, l-amnijoti għajr il-mammiferi u l-għasafar, għadhom jitqiesu bħala r-rettili llum il-ġurnata. Id-diviżjoni bejn is-sinapsidi u s-sawropsidi ssupplimentat approċċ ieħor, wieħed li jaqsam ir-rettili f'erba' subklassijiet abbażi tal-għadd u tal-pożizzjoni ta' fetħiet fil-ġnub tal-kranju wara l-għajnejn. Din il-klassifikazzjoni nbdiet minn [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] u ġiet elaborata u saret popolari permezz tal-''Paleontoloġija tal-Vertebrati'' ta' Romer. Dawn l-erba' subklassijiet kienu: * l-anapsidi – l-ebda fetħa fil-ġnub tal-kranju – kotilosawri u l-''chelonia'' (fkieren u qrabathom); * is-sinapsidi – fetħa baxxa waħda fil-ġnub tal-kranju – pelikosawri u terapsidi (ir-"rettili qishom mammiferi"); * l-ewriapsidi – fetħa għolja waħda fil-ġnub tal-kranju (fuq iż-żona postorbitali u skwamożali) – protorosawri (rettili żgħar u bikrin qishom gremxul) u s-sawropteriġjani u l-iktijosawri tal-baħar, dawn tal-aħħar imsejħa parapsidi fix-xogħol ta' Osborn; * id-diapsidi – żewġ fetħiet fil-ġnub tal-kranju – il-biċċa l-kbira tar-rettili, fosthom il-gremxul, is-sriep, il-kukkudrilli, id-dinosawri u l-pterosawri. Il-kompożizzjoni tal-ewriapsidi ma kinitx ċerta. Xi kultant, l-iktijosawri tqiesu donnhom żdiedu b'mod indipendenti mill-ewriapsidi l-oħra, u ngħataw l-isem iktar antik ta' parapsidi. Iktar 'il quddiem il-parapsidi ġew skartati fil-biċċa l-kbira bħala grupp (l-iktijosawri ġew ikklassifikati bħala ''incertae sedis'' jew mal-ewriapsidi). Madankollu, erba' subklassijiet (jew tlieta jekk l-ewriapsidi jitwaħħdu mad-diapsidi) baqgħu bejn wieħed u ieħor universali għax-xogħol mhux speċjalist matul is-seklu 20. Din fil-biċċa l-kbira ġiet abbandunata mir-riċerkaturi reċenti. B'mod partikolari, instab li l-kundizzjoni tal-anapsidi tant tokkorri b'mod varjabbli fost il-gruppi mhux relatati li issa ma titqiesx bħala distinzjoni utli. === Filoġenetika u definizzjoni moderna === [[Stampa:Varanodon1DB.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-klassifikazzjonijiet filoġenetiċi jiġbru flimkien lir-"rettili qishom mammiferi", bħal dan il-''varanodon'', flimkien ma' sinapsidi oħra, mhux ma' rettili eżistenti.]] Sal-bidu tas-seklu 21, il-paleontologi tal-vertebrati bdew jadottaw tassonomija filoġenetika, fejn il-gruppi kollha jiġu defini b'tali mod li jkunu monofiletiċi; jiġifieri, gruppi li jinkludu d-dixxendenti kollha ta' antenat partikolari. Storikament ir-rettili ġew definiti bħala parafiletiċi, peress li jeskludu l-għasafar u l-mammiferi. Dawn evolvew rispettivament mid-dinosawri u minn terapsidi bikrin, li t-tnejn li huma tradizzjonalment kienu jissejħu "rettili". L-għasafar huma relatati iktar mill-qrib mal-''Crocodilia'' milli dawn tal-aħħar huma mal-bqija tar-rettili eżistenti. [[Colin Tudge]] kiteb:<blockquote>Il-mammiferi huma grupp monofiletiku, u għaldaqstant dawk li jippreferu tali klassifikazzjoni lesti li jirrikonoxxu t-[[takson]] tradizzjonali ''Mammalia''; u l-għasafar ukoll huma grupp monofiletiku, li universalment jitqies li jappartjeni għat-takson formali ''Aves''. Il-''Mammalia'' u l-''Aves'' fil-fatt huma sottogruppi monofiletiċi fi ħdan grupp monofiletiku kbir tal-''Amniota''. Iżda l-klassi tradizzjonali tar-''Reptilia'' mhijiex grupp monofiletiku. Hija biss sezzjoni mill-grupp monofiletiku tal-''Amniota'': is-sezzjoni li jifdal wara li jitneħħew il-''Mammalia'' u l-''Aves''. Ma tistax tiġi definita kif suppost skont is-sinapomorfji. Minflok, tiġi definita skont taħlita tal-karatteristiċi li għandha u tal-karatteristiċi li ma għandhiex: ir-rettili huma l-amnijoti li ma jkollhomx pil jew rix. L-iktar l-iktar, dawk li jippreferu tali klassifikazzjoni jissuġġerixxu li wieħed jista' jgħid li r-''Reptilia'' tradizzjonali huma amnijoti "li ma jkunux tjur u li ma jkunux mammiferi".</blockquote>Minkejja l-proposti bikrin biex ir-''Reptilia'' parafiletiċi jiġu sostitwiti bis-sawropsidi monofiletiċi, li jinkludu l-għasafar, dak it-terminu qatt ma ġie adottat b'mod mifrux, jew meta beda jiġi adottat, ma ġiex applikat b'mod konsistenti. Meta ntuża t-terminu sawropsidi, spiss kien jinkludi l-istess kontenut jew saħansitra kellu l-istess definizzjoni bħar-''Reptilia''. Fl-1988, [[Jacques Gauthier]] ippropona definizzjonali tar-''Reptilia'' bħala grupp monofiletiku ewlieni li jinkludi l-fkieren, il-gremxul u s-sriep, il-kukkudrilli u l-għasafar, flimkien mal-antenati komuni tagħhom u d-dixxendenti kollha tagħhom. Filwaqt li d-definizzjoni ta' Gauthier kienet qrib għall-konsensus modern, minkejja dan bdiet titqies bħala mhux adegwata minħabba r-relazzjoni effettiva tal-fkieren ma' rettili oħra dak iż-żmien ma kinitx mifhuma sew. Minn dak iż-żmien saru reviżjonijiet kbar li inkludew l-assenjar mill-ġdid tas-sinapsidi bħala mhux rettili, u l-klassifikazzjoni tal-fkieren bħala diapsidi. Id-definizzjoni ta' Gauthier fl-1994 u ta' Laurin u Reisz fl-1995 tas-sawropsidi wasslet għal definizzjoni tal-ambitu tal-grupp bħala wieħed distint u usa' minn dak tar-''Reptilia'', u jħaddan il-''Mesosauridae'' kif ukoll ir-''Reptilia'' ''sensu stricto''. Varjetà sħiħa ta' definizzjonijiet oħra ġew proposti minn xjenzati oħra fis-snin ta' wara d-dokument ta' Gauthier. L-ewwel waħda fost tali definizzjonijiet, li ppruvat taderixxi mal-istandards tal-Kodiċi Filoġenetiku ġiet ippubblikata minn Modesto u Anderson fl-2004. Modesto u Anderson irrieżaminaw il-bosta definizzjonijiet preċedenti u pproponew definizzjoni modifikata, u kellhom il-ħsieb li jżommu l-iżjed kontenut tradizzjonali tal-grupp filwaqt li jħalluh stabbli u monofiletiku. Huma ddefinew ir-''Reptilia'' bħala l-amnijoti kollha li huma eqreb għal-''Lacerta agilis'' u għall-''Crocodylus niloticus'' mill-''[[Homo sapiens]]''. Din id-definizzjoni hija ekwivalenti għall-iktar definizzjoni komuni tas-sawropsidi, li Modesto u Anderson sostnew li kienu sinonimu tar-''Reptilia'', peress li dan it-terminu tal-aħħar huwa magħruf iktar u jintuża iktar spiss. Madankollu, għad-differenza tal-biċċa l-kbira tad-definizzjonijiet preċedenti tar-''Reptilia'', id-definizzjoni ta' Modesto u Anderson tinkludi l-għasafar, peress li huma fi ħdan il-grupp monofiletiku li jinkludi kemm il-gremxul kif ukoll il-kukkudrilli. === Tassonomija === Klassifikazzjoni ġenerali tar-rettili estinti u ħajjin, li tiffoka fuq il-gruppi ewlenin: * '''''Reptilia'''/'''Sauropsida''''' ** ''Araeoscelidia?'' ** <abbr>†</abbr>'''''Parareptilia''''' (x'aktarx parafiletiċi) *** '''''Diapsida'''/'''Neodiapsida''''' **** <abbr>†</abbr>''Drepanosauromorpha'' (kollokazzjoni inċerta) **** <abbr>†</abbr>''Younginiformes'' (x'aktarx parafiletiċi) **** <abbr>†</abbr>Ichthyosauromorpha (kollokazzjoni inċerta) **** <abbr>†</abbr>''Thalattosauria'' (kollokazzjoni inċerta) **** <abbr>†</abbr>''Sauropterygia'' (kollokazzjoni inċerta) **** <abbr>†</abbr>''Choristodera'' (kollokazzjoni inċerta) **** '''''Sauria''''' ***** '''''Lepidosauromorpha''''' ****** ''Lepidosauria'' ******* ''Rhynchocephalia'' (tuatara) ******* ''Squamata'' (gremxul u sriep) ***** '''''Pantestudines''''' (fkieren u qrabat, kollokazzjoni inċerta) ***** '''''Archosauromorpha''''' ****** <abbr>†</abbr>''Protorosauria'' (parafiletiċi) ****** <abbr>†</abbr>''Rhynchosauria'' ****** <abbr>†</abbr>''Allokotosauria'' ****** ''Archosauriformes'' ******* <abbr>†</abbr>''Phytosauria'' ******* '''''Archosauria''''' ******** ''Pseudosuchia'' ********* ''Crocodilia'' (kukkudrilli u qrabat) ******** ''Avemetatarsalia/Ornithodira'' ********* <abbr>†</abbr>''Pterosauria'' ********* ''Dinosauria'' ********** <abbr>†</abbr>''Ornithischia'' ********** ''Saurischia'' (inkluż l-għasafar ('''''Aves''''')) === Filoġenija === L-"arblu tar-razza" tar-rettili jsegwi verżjoni ssimplifikata tar-relazzjonijiet li nstabu minn M.S. Lee fl-2013. L-istudji ġenetiċi kollha appoġġaw l-ipoteżi li l-fkieren huma diapsidi; uħud poġġew il-fkieren fi ħdan l-''Archosauromorpha'', għalkemm uħud minflok poġġew il-fkieren bħala ''Lepidosauromorpha''. === Il-pożizzjoni tal-fkieren === Il-kollokazzjoni tal-fkieren storikament kienet varjabbli ferm. Klassikament, il-fkieren ġew meqjusa bħala relatati mar-rettili anapsidi primittivi. Fl-analiżi komparattiva tagħhom tal-kronoloġija tal-organoġenesi, Werneburg u Sánchez-Villagra (2009) sabu appoġġ għall-ipoteżi li l-fkieren jagħmlu parti minn grupp monofiletiku separat fi ħdan is-sawropsidi, barra mill-grupp monofiletiku sawrjan. Normalment ix-xogħol molekolari wassal għall-kollokazzjoni tal-fkieren fi ħdan id-diapsidi. Sal-2013 ġew sekwenzjati tliet ġenomi tal-fkieren. Ir-riżultati jikkollokaw il-fkieren bħala grupp monofiletiku relatat mal-arċosawri, li huma l-grupp li jinkludi l-''Crocodilia'', id-dinosawri li mhumiex tjur u l-għasafar. == Storja evoluzzjonarja == === Oriġini tar-rettili === The origin of the reptiles lies about 310–320 million years ago, in the steaming swamps of the late Carboniferous period, when the first reptiles evolved from advanced reptiliomorphs.^{[''failed verification'']} The oldest known animal that may have been an amniote is ''Casineria'' (though it may have been a temnospondyl). A series of footprints from the fossil strata of Nova Scotia dated to 315 Ma show typical reptilian toes and imprints of scales. These tracks are now attributed to ''Hylonomus'', historically widely regarded as the oldest known reptile, but whose placement in the group has been recently questioned. It was a small, lizard-like animal, about 20 to 30 centimetres (7.9 to 11.8 in) long, with numerous sharp teeth indicating an insectivorous diet. Other examples include ''Westlothiana'' (for the moment considered a reptiliomorph rather than a true amniote) and ''Paleothyris'', both of similar build and presumably similar habit. However, microsaurs have been at times considered true reptiles, so an earlier origin is possible. Among the unambiguous true reptiles from the Carboniferous are ''Erpetonyx'' and ''Carbonodraco,'' both from North America. === Żieda tar-rettili === The earliest amniotes, including stem-reptiles (those amniotes closer to modern reptiles than to mammals), were largely overshadowed by larger stem-tetrapods, such as ''Cochleosaurus'', and remained a small, inconspicuous part of the fauna until the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse. This sudden collapse affected several large groups. Primitive tetrapods were particularly devastated, while stem-reptiles fared better, being ecologically adapted to the drier conditions that followed. Primitive tetrapods, like modern amphibians, need to return to water to lay eggs; in contrast, amniotes, like modern reptiles – whose eggs possess a shell that allows them to be laid on land – were better adapted to the new conditions. Amniotes acquired new niches at a faster rate than before the collapse and at a much faster rate than primitive tetrapods. They acquired new feeding strategies including herbivory and carnivory, previously only having been insectivores and piscivores. From this point forward, reptiles dominated communities and had a greater diversity than primitive tetrapods, setting the stage for the Mesozoic (known as the Age of Reptiles). A 2021 examination of reptile diversity in the Carboniferous and the Permian suggests a much higher degree of diversity than previously thought, comparable or even exceeding that of synapsids. Thus, the "First Age of Reptiles" was proposed. === Anapsidi, sinapsidi, diapsidi u sawropsidi === It was traditionally assumed that the first reptiles retained an anapsid skull inherited from their ancestors. This type of skull has a skull roof with only holes for the nostrils, eyes and a pineal eye. The discoveries of synapsid-like openings (see below) in the skull roof of the skulls of several members of Parareptilia (the group containing most of the amniotes traditionally referred to as "anapsids"), including lanthanosuchoids, millerettids, bolosaurids, some nycteroleterids, some procolophonoids and at least some mesosaurs made it more ambiguous and it is currently uncertain whether the ancestral amniote had an anapsid-like or synapsid-like skull. These animals are traditionally referred to as "anapsids", and form a paraphyletic basic stock from which other groups evolved. Very shortly after the first amniotes appeared, a lineage called Synapsida split off; this group was characterized by a temporal opening in the skull behind each eye giving room for the jaw muscle to move. These are the "mammal-like amniotes", or stem-mammals, that later gave rise to the true mammals. Soon after, another group evolved a similar trait, this time with a double opening behind each eye, earning them the name Diapsida ("two arches"). The function of the holes in these groups was to lighten the skull and give room for the jaw muscles to move, allowing for a more powerful bite. Historically, while the late Carboniferous-early Permian lizard-like reptile group Araeoscelidia, which are (generally) morphologically diapsid, were considered to be the earliest representatives of the clade Diapsida, phylogenetic studies from the 2020s has brought into serious doubt their relationship with other diapsids (Neodiapsida), and they have been found as very early diverging branch of Reptilia or even outside of Reptilia entirely. Turtles have been traditionally believed to be surviving parareptiles, on the basis of their anapsid skull structure, which was assumed to be primitive trait. The rationale for this classification has been disputed, with some arguing that turtles are diapsids that evolved anapsid skulls, improving their armor. Later morphological phylogenetic studies with this in mind placed turtles firmly within Diapsida. All molecular studies have strongly upheld the placement of turtles within diapsids, most commonly as a sister group to extant archosaurs. === Rettili Permjani === With the close of the Carboniferous, the amniotes became the dominant tetrapod fauna. While primitive, terrestrial reptiliomorphs still existed, the synapsid amniotes evolved the first truly terrestrial megafauna (giant animals) in the form of pelycosaurs, such as ''Edaphosaurus'' and the carnivorous ''Dimetrodon''. In the mid-Permian period, the climate became drier, resulting in a change of fauna: The pelycosaurs were replaced by the therapsids. Many stem reptile groups continued to flourish throughout the Permian. The herbivorous pareiasaurs were the first lineage of reptiles to reach a large body size, with the largest representatives of the group having a body mass estimated to exceed 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb). One of the best known early stem-reptiles is ''Mesosaurus'', a genus from the Early Permian of Southern Africa and South America that had returned to water and gained webbed feet, feeding on crustaceans in marine or lagoonal environments. The earliest true diapsids (Neodiapsida), such as ''Youngina'', appeared during the Middle-Late Permian. The Weigeltisauridae, a group of diapsids from the Late Permian, are the oldest known tetrapods to have engaged in flight, using novel rod-like bones extending from the trunk which formed wings to glide between trees. The ancestors of modern reptiles (which belong to the clade Sauria) had diverged from each other by the Late Permian, as evidenced by species such as the monitor lizard-like ''Protorosaurus'' known from the Late Permian of Europe, which is clearly an archosauromorph, more closely related to archosaurs (crocodilians and birds) than to lizards, snakes or turtles. === Rettili Mesożojċi === The close of the Permian saw the greatest mass extinction known (see the Permian–Triassic extinction event), an event prolonged by the combination of two or more distinct extinction pulses. Most of the earlier parareptile and synapsid megafauna disappeared, being replaced by the true reptiles, particularly archosauromorphs. These were characterized by elongated hind legs and an erect pose, the early forms looking somewhat like long-legged crocodiles. The archosaurs became the dominant group during the Triassic period, though it took 30 million years before their diversity was as great as the animals that lived in the Permian. Archosaurs developed into the well-known dinosaurs and pterosaurs, as well as the ancestors of crocodilians. Since reptiles, first rauisuchians and then dinosaurs, dominated the Mesozoic era, the interval is popularly known as the "Age of Reptiles". The dinosaurs also developed smaller forms, including the feather-bearing smaller theropods. In the Cretaceous period, these gave rise to the first true birds. The sister group to Archosauromorpha is Lepidosauromorpha, containing lizards and tuataras, as well as their fossil relatives. Lepidosauromorpha contained at least one major group of the Mesozoic sea reptiles: the mosasaurs, which lived during the Cretaceous period. The phylogenetic placement of other main groups of fossil sea reptiles – the ichthyopterygians (including ichthyosaurs) and the sauropterygians, which evolved in the early Triassic – is more controversial. Different authors linked these groups either to lepidosauromorphs or to archosauromorphs, and ichthyopterygians were also argued to be diapsids that did not belong to the least inclusive clade containing lepidosauromorphs and archosauromorphs. === Rettili Ċenożojċi === The close of the Cretaceous period saw the demise of the Mesozoic era reptilian megafauna (see the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, also known as K-T extinction event). Of the large marine reptiles, only sea turtles were left; and of the non-marine large reptiles, only the semi-aquatic crocodilians and broadly similar choristoderes survived the extinction, with last members of the latter, the lizard-like ''Lazarussuchus'', becoming extinct in the Miocene. Of the great host of dinosaurs dominating the Mesozoic, only the small beaked birds survived. This dramatic extinction pattern at the end of the Mesozoic led into the Cenozoic. Mammals and birds filled the empty niches left behind by the reptilian megafauna and, while reptile diversification slowed, bird and mammal diversification took an exponential turn. However, reptiles were still important components of the megafauna, particularly in the form of large and giant tortoises. After the extinction of most archosaur and marine reptile lines by the end of the Cretaceous, reptile diversification continued throughout the Cenozoic. Squamates took a massive hit during the K–Pg event, only recovering ten million years after it, but they underwent a great radiation event once they recovered, and today squamates make up the majority of living reptiles (> 95%). Approximately 10,000 extant species of traditional reptiles are known, with birds adding about 10,000 more, almost twice the number of mammals, represented by about 5,700 living species (excluding domesticated species). {| class="wikitable" |+Diversità ta' speċijiet ta' rettili ħajjin (2013) !Grupp ta' rettili !Speċijiet deskritti !Persentaġġ tal-ispeċijiet ta' rettili |- |Squamates |9193 |96.3 % |- |''- Lizards'' |''5634'' |''59'' ''%'' |- |''- Snakes'' |''3378'' |''35'' ''%'' |- |''- Amphisbaenians'' |''181'' |''2'' ''%'' |- |Turtles |327 |3.4 % |- |Crocodilians |25 |0.3 % |- |Rhynchocephalians |1 |0.01 % |- |Total |9546 |100 % |} == Morfoloġija u fiżjoloġija == === Ċirkolazzjoni === All lepidosaurs and turtles have a three-chambered heart consisting of two atria, one variably partitioned ventricle, and two aortas that lead to the systemic circulation. The degree of mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the three-chambered heart varies depending on the species and physiological state. Under different conditions, deoxygenated blood can be shunted back to the body or oxygenated blood can be shunted back to the lungs. This variation in blood flow has been hypothesized to allow more effective thermoregulation and longer diving times for aquatic species, but has not been shown to be a fitness advantage. For example, iguana hearts, like the majority of the squamate hearts, are composed of three chambers–two atria and one ventricle–and cardiac involuntary muscles. The main structures of the heart are the sinus venosus, the pacemaker, the left atrium, the right atrium, the atrioventricular valve, the cavum venosum, cavum arteriosum, the cavum pulmonale, the muscular ridge, the ventricular ridge, pulmonary veins, and paired aortic arches. Some squamate species (e.g., pythons and monitor lizards) have three-chambered hearts that become functionally four-chambered hearts during contraction. This is made possible by a muscular ridge that subdivides the ventricle during ventricular diastole and completely divides it during ventricular systole. Because of this ridge, some of these squamates are capable of producing ventricular pressure differentials that are equivalent to those seen in mammalian and avian hearts. Crocodilians have an anatomically four-chambered heart, similar to birds, but also have two systemic aortas and are therefore capable of bypassing their pulmonary circulation. In turtles, the ventricle is not perfectly divided, so a mix of aerated and nonaerated blood can occur. === Metaboliżmu === Modern non-avian reptiles exhibit some form of cold-bloodedness (i.e. some mix of poikilothermy, ectothermy, and bradymetabolism) so that they have limited physiological means of keeping the body temperature constant and often rely on external sources of heat. Due to a less stable core temperature than birds and mammals, reptilian biochemistry requires enzymes capable of maintaining efficiency over a greater range of temperatures than in the case for warm-blooded animals. The optimum body temperature range varies with species, but is typically below that of warm-blooded animals; for many lizards, it falls in the 24–35 °C (75–95 °F) range, while extreme heat-adapted species, like the American desert iguana ''Dipsosaurus dorsalis'', can have optimal physiological temperatures in the mammalian range, between 35 and 40 °C (95 and 104 °F). While the optimum temperature is often encountered when the animal is active, the low basal metabolism makes body temperature drop rapidly when the animal is inactive. As in all animals, reptilian muscle action produces heat. In large reptiles, like leatherback turtles, the low surface-to-volume ratio allows this metabolically produced heat to keep the animals warmer than their environment even though they do not have a warm-blooded metabolism. This form of homeothermy is called gigantothermy; it has been suggested as having been common in large dinosaurs and other extinct large-bodied reptiles. The benefit of a low resting metabolism is that it requires far less fuel to sustain bodily functions. By using temperature variations in their surroundings, or by remaining cold when they do not need to move, reptiles can save considerable amounts of energy compared to endothermic animals of the same size. A crocodile needs from a tenth to a fifth of the food necessary for a lion of the same weight and can live half a year without eating. Lower food requirements and adaptive metabolisms allow reptiles to dominate the animal life in regions where net calorie availability is too low to sustain large-bodied mammals and birds. It is generally assumed that reptiles are unable to produce the sustained high energy output necessary for long distance chases or flying. Higher energetic capacity might have been responsible for the evolution of warm-bloodedness in birds and mammals. However, investigation of correlations between active capacity and thermophysiology show a weak relationship. Most extant reptiles are carnivores with a sit-and-wait feeding strategy; whether reptiles are cold blooded due to their ecology is not clear. Energetic studies on some reptiles have shown active capacities equal to or greater than similar sized warm-blooded animals. === Sistema respiratorja === [[/wiki/File:X-ray_video_of_a_female_American_alligator_(Alligator_mississippiensis)_while_breathing_-_pone.0004497.s009.ogv|lemin|daqsminuri|Filmati ta' fluworoskopija bir-raġġi X ta' alligatur Amerikan femminili li juru l-kontrazzjoni tal-pulmuni waqt it-teħid tan-nifs.]] All reptiles breathe using lungs. Aquatic turtles have developed more permeable skin, and some species have modified their cloaca to increase the area for gas exchange. Even with these adaptations, breathing is never fully accomplished without lungs. Lung ventilation is accomplished differently in each main reptile group. In squamates, the lungs are ventilated almost exclusively by the axial musculature. This is also the same musculature that is used during locomotion. Because of this constraint, most squamates are forced to hold their breath during intense runs. Some, however, have found a way around it. Varanids, and a few other lizard species, employ buccal pumping as a complement to their normal "axial breathing". This allows the animals to completely fill their lungs during intense locomotion, and thus remain aerobically active for a long time. Tegu lizards are known to possess a proto-diaphragm, which separates the pulmonary cavity from the visceral cavity. While not actually capable of movement, it does allow for greater lung inflation, by taking the weight of the viscera off the lungs. Crocodilians actually have a muscular diaphragm that is analogous to the mammalian diaphragm. The difference is that the muscles for the crocodilian diaphragm pull the pubis (part of the pelvis, which is movable in crocodilians) back, which brings the liver down, thus freeing space for the lungs to expand. This type of diaphragmatic setup has been referred to as the "hepatic piston". The airways form a number of double tubular chambers within each lung. On inhalation and exhalation air moves through the airways in the same direction, thus creating a unidirectional airflow through the lungs. A similar system is found in birds, monitor lizards and iguanas. Most reptiles lack a secondary palate, meaning that they must hold their breath while swallowing. Crocodilians have evolved a bony secondary palate that allows them to continue breathing while remaining submerged (and protect their brains against damage by struggling prey). Skinks (family Scincidae) also have evolved a bony secondary palate, to varying degrees. Snakes took a different approach and extended their trachea instead. Their tracheal extension sticks out like a fleshy straw, and allows these animals to swallow large prey without suffering from asphyxiation. ==== Fkieren tal-ilma u fkieren tal-art ==== How turtles breathe has been the subject of much study. To date, only a few species have been studied thoroughly enough to get an idea of how those turtles breathe. The varied results indicate that turtles have found a variety of solutions to this problem. The difficulty is that most turtle shells are rigid and do not allow for the type of expansion and contraction that other amniotes use to ventilate their lungs. Some turtles, such as the Indian flapshell (''Lissemys punctata''), have a sheet of muscle that envelops the lungs. When it contracts, the turtle can exhale. When at rest, the turtle can retract the limbs into the body cavity and force air out of the lungs. When the turtle protracts its limbs, the pressure inside the lungs is reduced, and the turtle can suck air in. Turtle lungs are attached to the inside of the top of the shell (carapace), with the bottom of the lungs attached (via connective tissue) to the rest of the viscera. By using a series of special muscles (roughly equivalent to a diaphragm), turtles are capable of pushing their viscera up and down, resulting in effective respiration, since many of these muscles have attachment points in conjunction with their forelimbs (indeed, many of the muscles expand into the limb pockets during contraction). Breathing during locomotion has been studied in three species, and they show different patterns. Adult female green sea turtles do not breathe as they crutch along their nesting beaches. They hold their breath during terrestrial locomotion and breathe in bouts as they rest. North American box turtles breathe continuously during locomotion, and the ventilation cycle is not coordinated with the limb movements. This is because they use their abdominal muscles to breathe during locomotion. The last species to have been studied is the red-eared slider, which also breathes during locomotion, but takes smaller breaths during locomotion than during small pauses between locomotor bouts, indicating that there may be mechanical interference between the limb movements and the breathing apparatus. Box turtles have also been observed to breathe while completely sealed up inside their shells. === Produzzjoni tal-ħsejjes === Compared with frogs, birds, and mammals, reptiles are less vocal. Sound production is usually limited to hissing, which is produced merely by forcing air though a partly closed glottis and is not considered to be a true vocalization. The ability to vocalize exists in crocodilians, some lizards and turtles; and typically involves vibrating fold-like structures in the larynx or glottis. Some geckos and turtles possess true vocal cords, which have elastin-rich connective tissue. ==== Smigħ fis-sriep ==== Hearing in humans relies on 3 parts of the ear; the outer ear that directs sound waves into the ear canal, the middle ear that transmits incoming sound waves to the inner ear, and the inner ear that helps in hearing and keeping their balance. Unlike humans and other mammals, snakes do not possess an outer ear, a middle ear, and a tympanum but have an inner ear structure with cochleas directly connected to their jawbone. They are able to feel the vibrations generated from the sound waves in their jaw as they move on the ground. This is done by the use of mechanoreceptors, sensory nerves that run along the body of snakes directing the vibrations along the spinal nerves to the brain. Snakes have a sensitive auditory perception and can tell which direction sound being made is coming from so that they can sense the presence of prey or predator but it is still unclear how sensitive snakes are to sound waves traveling through the air. === Ġilda === Reptilian skin is covered in a horny epidermis, making it watertight and enabling reptiles to live on dry land, in contrast to amphibians. Compared to mammalian skin, that of reptiles is rather thin and lacks the thick dermal layer that produces leather in mammals. Exposed parts of reptiles are protected by scales or scutes, sometimes with a bony base (osteoderms), forming armor. In lepidosaurs, such as lizards and snakes, the whole skin is covered in overlapping epidermal scales. Such scales were once thought to be typical of the class Reptilia as a whole, but are now known to occur only in lepidosaurs. The scales found in turtles and crocodiles are of dermal, rather than epidermal, origin and are properly termed scutes. In turtles, the body is hidden inside a hard shell composed of fused scutes. Lacking a thick dermis, reptilian leather is not as strong as mammalian leather. It is used in leather-wares for decorative purposes for shoes, belts and handbags, particularly crocodile skin. ==== Bdil tal-qxur ==== Reptiles shed their skin through a process called ecdysis which occurs continuously throughout their lifetime. In particular, younger reptiles tend to shed once every five to six weeks while adults shed three to four times a year. Younger reptiles shed more because of their rapid growth rate. Once full size, the frequency of shedding drastically decreases. The process of ecdysis involves forming a new layer of skin under the old one. Proteolytic enzymes and lymphatic fluid is secreted between the old and new layers of skin. Consequently, this lifts the old skin from the new one allowing shedding to occur. Snakes will shed from the head to the tail while lizards shed in a "patchy pattern". Dysecdysis, a common skin disease in snakes and lizards, will occur when ecdysis, or shedding, fails. There are numerous reasons why shedding fails and can be related to inadequate humidity and temperature, nutritional deficiencies, dehydration and traumatic injuries. Nutritional deficiencies decrease proteolytic enzymes while dehydration reduces lymphatic fluids to separate the skin layers. Traumatic injuries on the other hand, form scars that will not allow new scales to form and disrupt the process of ecdysis. === Eskrezzjoni === Excretion is performed mainly by two small kidneys. In diapsids, uric acid is the main nitrogenous waste product; turtles, like mammals, excrete mainly urea. Unlike the kidneys of mammals and birds, reptile kidneys are unable to produce liquid urine more concentrated than their body fluid. This is because they lack a specialized structure called a loop of Henle, which is present in the nephrons of birds and mammals. Because of this, many reptiles use the colon to aid in the reabsorption of water. Some are also able to take up water stored in the bladder. Excess salts are also excreted by nasal and lingual salt glands in some reptiles. In all reptiles, the urinogenital ducts and the rectum both empty into an organ called a cloaca. In some reptiles, a midventral wall in the cloaca may open into a urinary bladder, but not all. It is present in all turtles and tortoises as well as most lizards, but is lacking in the monitor lizard, the legless lizards. It is absent in the snakes, alligators, and crocodiles. Many turtles and lizards have proportionally very large bladders. Charles Darwin noted that the Galapagos tortoise had a bladder which could store up to 20% of its body weight. Such adaptations are the result of environments such as remote islands and deserts where water is very scarce. Other desert-dwelling reptiles have large bladders that can store a long-term reservoir of water for up to several months and aid in osmoregulation. Turtles have two or more accessory urinary bladders, located lateral to the neck of the urinary bladder and dorsal to the pubis, occupying a significant portion of their body cavity. Their bladder is also usually bilobed with a left and right section. The right section is located under the liver, which prevents large stones from remaining in that side while the left section is more likely to have calculi. === Diġestjoni === Most reptiles are insectivorous or carnivorous and have simple and comparatively short digestive tracts due to meat being fairly simple to break down and digest. Digestion is slower than in mammals, reflecting their lower resting metabolism and their inability to divide and masticate their food. Their poikilotherm metabolism has very low energy requirements, allowing large reptiles like crocodiles and large constrictors to live from a single large meal for months, digesting it slowly. While modern reptiles are predominantly carnivorous, during the early history of reptiles several groups produced some herbivorous megafauna: in the Paleozoic, the pareiasaurs; and in the Mesozoic several lines of dinosaurs. Today, turtles are the only predominantly herbivorous reptile group, but several lines of agamas and iguanas have evolved to live wholly or partly on plants. Herbivorous reptiles face the same problems of mastication as herbivorous mammals but, lacking the complex teeth of mammals, many species swallow rocks and pebbles (so called gastroliths) to aid in digestion: The rocks are washed around in the stomach, helping to grind up plant matter. Fossil gastroliths have been found associated with both ornithopods and sauropods, though whether they actually functioned as a gastric mill in the latter is disputed. Salt water crocodiles also use gastroliths as ballast, stabilizing them in the water or helping them to dive. A dual function as both stabilizing ballast and digestion aid has been suggested for gastroliths found in plesiosaurs. === Nervituri === The reptilian nervous system contains the same basic part of the amphibian brain, but the reptile cerebrum and cerebellum are slightly larger. Most typical sense organs are well developed with certain exceptions, most notably the snake's lack of external ears (middle and inner ears are present). There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves. Due to their short cochlea, reptiles use electrical tuning to expand their range of audible frequencies. === Vista === Most reptiles are diurnal animals. The vision is typically adapted to daylight conditions, with color vision and more advanced visual depth perception than in amphibians and most mammals. Reptiles usually have excellent vision, allowing them to detect shapes and motions at long distances. They often have poor vision in low-light conditions. Birds, crocodiles and turtles have three types of photoreceptor: rods, single cones and double cones, which gives them sharp color vision and enables them to see ultraviolet wavelengths. The lepidosaurs appear to have lost the duplex retina and only have a single class of receptor that is cone-like or rod-like depending on whether the species is diurnal or nocturnal. In many burrowing species, such as blind snakes, vision is reduced. Many lepidosaurs have a photosensory organ on the top of their heads called the parietal eye, which are also called third eye, pineal eye or pineal gland. This "eye" does not work the same way as a normal eye does as it has only a rudimentary retina and lens and thus, cannot form images. It is, however, sensitive to changes in light and dark and can detect movement. Some snakes have extra sets of visual organs (in the loosest sense of the word) in the form of pits sensitive to infrared radiation (heat). Such heat-sensitive pits are particularly well developed in the pit vipers, but are also found in boas and pythons. These pits allow the snakes to sense the body heat of birds and mammals, enabling pit vipers to hunt rodents in the dark. Most reptiles, as well as birds, possess a nictitating membrane, a translucent third eyelid which is drawn over the eye from the inner corner. In crocodilians, it protects its eyeball surface while allowing a degree of vision underwater. However, many squamates, geckos and snakes in particular, lack eyelids, which are replaced by a transparent scale. This is called the brille, spectacle, or eyecap. The brille is usually not visible, except for when the snake molts, and it protects the eyes from dust and dirt. === Riproduzzjoni === Reptiles generally reproduce sexually, though some are capable of asexual reproduction. All reproductive activity occurs through the cloaca, the single exit/entrance at the base of the tail where waste is also eliminated. Most reptiles have copulatory organs, which are usually retracted or inverted and stored inside the body. In turtles and crocodilians, the male has a single median penis, while squamates, including snakes and lizards, possess a pair of hemipenes, only one of which is typically used in each session. Tuatara, however, lack copulatory organs, and so the male and female simply press their cloacas together as the male discharges sperm. Most reptiles lay amniotic eggs covered with leathery or calcareous shells. An amnion (5), chorion (6), and allantois (8) are present during embryonic life. The eggshell (1) protects the crocodile embryo (11) and keeps it from drying out, but it is flexible to allow gas exchange. The chorion (6) aids in gas exchange between the inside and outside of the egg. It allows carbon dioxide to exit the egg and oxygen gas to enter the egg. The albumin (9) further protects the embryo and serves as a reservoir for water and protein. The allantois (8) is a sac that collects the metabolic waste produced by the embryo. The amniotic sac (10) contains amniotic fluid (12) which protects and cushions the embryo. The amnion (5) aids in osmoregulation and serves as a saltwater reservoir. The yolk sac (2) surrounding the yolk (3) contains protein and fat rich nutrients that are absorbed by the embryo via vessels (4) that allow the embryo to grow and metabolize. The air space (7) provides the embryo with oxygen while it is hatching. This ensures that the embryo will not suffocate while it is hatching. There are no larval stages of development. Viviparity and ovoviviparity have evolved in squamates and many extinct clades of reptiles. Among squamates, many species, including all boas and most vipers, use this mode of reproduction. The degree of viviparity varies; some species simply retain the eggs until just before hatching, others provide maternal nourishment to supplement the yolk, and yet others lack any yolk and provide all nutrients via a structure similar to the mammalian placenta. The earliest documented case of viviparity in reptiles is the Early Permian mesosaurs, although some individuals or taxa in that clade may also have been oviparous because a putative isolated egg has also been found. Several groups of Mesozoic marine reptiles also exhibited viviparity, such as mosasaurs, ichthyosaurs, and Sauropterygia, a group that includes pachypleurosaurs and Plesiosauria. Asexual reproduction has been identified in squamates in six families of lizards and one snake. In some species of squamates, a population of females is able to produce a unisexual diploid clone of the mother. This form of asexual reproduction, called parthenogenesis, occurs in several species of gecko, and is particularly widespread in the teiids (especially ''Aspidocelis'') and lacertids (''Lacerta''). In captivity, Komodo dragons (Varanidae) have reproduced by parthenogenesis. Parthenogenetic species are suspected to occur among chameleons, agamids, xantusiids, and typhlopids. Some reptiles exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination (TDSD), in which the incubation temperature determines whether a particular egg hatches as male or female. TDSD is most common in turtles and crocodiles, but also occurs in lizards and tuatara. To date, there has been no confirmation of whether TDSD occurs in snakes. === Lonġevità === Giant tortoises are among the longest-lived vertebrate animals (over 100 years by some estimates) and have been used as a model for studying longevity. DNA analysis of the genomes of Lonesome George, the iconic last member of ''Chelonoidis abingdonii'', and the Aldabra giant tortoise ''Aldabrachelys gigantea'' led to the detection of lineage-specific variants affecting DNA repair genes that might contribute to our understanding of increased lifespan. == Konjizzjoni == Reptiles were traditionally considered less intelligent on average than mammals and birds, but this is increasingly suspected to be the result of poor methodologies in past research and overreliance on brain size as indicators of intelligence rather than a genuine trait of reptiles. The size of their brain relative to their body is much less than that of mammals, the encephalization quotient being about one tenth of that of mammals, though larger reptiles can show more complex brain development. Larger lizards, like the monitors, are known to exhibit complex behavior, including cooperation and cognitive abilities allowing them to optimize their foraging and territoriality over time. Crocodiles have relatively larger brains and show a fairly complex social structure. The Komodo dragon is even known to engage in play, as are turtles, which are also considered to be social creatures, and sometimes switch between monogamy and promiscuity in their sexual behavior.^{[''citation needed'']} One study found that wood turtles were better than white rats at learning to navigate mazes. Another study found that giant tortoises are capable of learning through operant conditioning, visual discrimination and retained learned behaviors with long-term memory. Sea turtles have been regarded as having simple brains, but their flippers are used for a variety of foraging tasks (holding, bracing, corralling) in common with marine mammals. There is evidence that reptiles are sentient and able to feel emotions including anxiety and pleasure. == Mekkaniżmi ta' difiża == Many small reptiles, such as snakes and lizards, that live on the ground or in the water are vulnerable to being preyed on by all kinds of carnivorous animals. Thus, avoidance is the most common form of defense in reptiles. At the first sign of danger, most snakes and lizards crawl away into the undergrowth, and turtles and crocodiles will plunge into water and sink out of sight. === Mimetizzazzjoni u twissija === Reptiles tend to avoid confrontation through camouflage. Two major groups of reptile predators are birds and other reptiles, both of which have well-developed color vision. Thus the skins of many reptiles have cryptic coloration of plain or mottled gray, green, and brown to allow them to blend into the background of their natural environment. Aided by the reptiles' capacity for remaining motionless for long periods, the camouflage of many snakes is so effective that people or domestic animals are most typically bitten because they accidentally step on them. When camouflage fails to protect them, blue-tongued skinks will try to ward off attackers by displaying their blue tongues, and the frill-necked lizard will display its brightly colored frill. These same displays are used in territorial disputes and during courtship. If danger arises so suddenly that flight is useless, crocodiles, turtles, some lizards, and some snakes hiss loudly when confronted by an enemy. Rattlesnakes rapidly vibrate the tip of the tail, which is composed of a series of nested, hollow beads to ward off approaching danger. In contrast to the normal drab coloration of most reptiles, the lizards of the genus ''Heloderma'' (the Gila monster and the beaded lizard) and many of the coral snakes have high-contrast warning coloration, warning potential predators they are venomous. A number of non-venomous North American snake species have colorful markings similar to those of the coral snake, an oft cited example of Batesian mimicry. === Difiża alternattiva fis-sriep === Camouflage does not always fool a predator. When caught out, snake species adopt different defensive tactics and use a complicated set of behaviors when attacked. Some species, like cobras or hognose snakes, first elevate their head and spread out the skin of their neck in an effort to look large and threatening. Failure of this strategy may lead to other measures practiced particularly by cobras, vipers, and closely related species, which use venom to attack. The venom is modified saliva, delivered through fangs from a venom gland. Some non-venomous snakes, such as American hognose snakes or European grass snake, play dead when in danger; some, including the grass snake, exude a foul-smelling liquid to deter attackers. === Difiża fil-kukkudrilli === When a crocodilian is concerned about its safety, it will gape to expose the teeth and tongue. If this does not work, the crocodilian gets a little more agitated and typically begins to make hissing sounds. After this, the crocodilian will start to change its posture dramatically to make itself look more intimidating. The body is inflated to increase apparent size. If absolutely necessary, it may decide to attack an enemy. Some species try to bite immediately. Some will use their heads as sledgehammers and literally smash an opponent, some will rush or swim toward the threat from a distance, even chasing the opponent onto land or galloping after it. The main weapon in all crocodiles is the bite, which can generate very high bite force. Many species also possess canine-like teeth. These are used primarily for seizing prey, but are also used in fighting and display. === Bdil tal-qxur u riġenerazzjoni tad-denb === Geckos, skinks, and some other lizards that are captured by the tail will shed part of the tail structure through a process called autotomy and thus be able to flee. The detached tail will continue to thrash, creating a deceptive sense of continued struggle and distracting the predator's attention from the fleeing prey animal. The detached tails of leopard geckos can wiggle for up to 20 minutes. The tail grows back in most species, but some, like crested geckos, lose their tails for the rest of their lives. In many species the tails are of a separate and dramatically more intense color than the rest of the body so as to encourage potential predators to strike for the tail first. In the shingleback skink and some species of geckos, the tail is short and broad and resembles the head, so that the predators may attack it rather than the more vulnerable front part. Reptiles that are capable of shedding their tails can partially regenerate them over a period of weeks. The new section will however contain cartilage rather than bone, and will never grow to the same length as the original tail. It is often also distinctly discolored compared to the rest of the body and may lack some of the external sculpting features seen in the original tail. == Rabtiet mal-bniedem == === Fil-kulturi u fir-reliġjonijiet === Dinosaurs have been widely depicted in culture since the English palaeontologist Richard Owen coined the name ''dinosaur'' in 1842. As soon as 1854, the Crystal Palace Dinosaurs were on display to the public in south London. One dinosaur appeared in literature even earlier, as Charles Dickens placed a ''Megalosaurus'' in the first chapter of his novel ''Bleak House'' in 1852. The dinosaurs featured in books, films, television programs, artwork, and other media have been used for both education and entertainment. The depictions range from the realistic, as in the television documentaries of the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, to the fantastic, as in the monster movies of the 1950s and 1960s. The snake or serpent has played a powerful symbolic role in different cultures. In Egyptian history, the Nile cobra adorned the crown of the pharaoh. It was worshipped as one of the gods and was also used for sinister purposes: murder of an adversary and ritual suicide (Cleopatra). In Greek mythology, snakes are associated with deadly antagonists, as a chthonic symbol, roughly translated as ''earthbound''. The nine-headed Lernaean Hydra that Hercules defeated and the three Gorgon sisters are children of Gaia, the earth. Medusa was one of the three Gorgon sisters who Perseus defeated. Medusa is described as a hideous mortal, with snakes instead of hair and the power to turn men to stone with her gaze. After killing her, Perseus gave her head to Athena who fixed it to her shield called the Aegis. The Titans are depicted in art with their legs replaced by bodies of snakes for the same reason: They are children of Gaia, so they are bound to the earth. In Hinduism, snakes are worshipped as gods, with many women pouring milk on snake pits. The cobra is seen on the neck of Shiva, while Vishnu is depicted often as sleeping on a seven-headed snake or within the coils of a serpent. There are temples in India solely for cobras sometimes called ''Nagraj'' (King of Snakes), and it is believed that snakes are symbols of fertility. In the annual Hindu festival of Nag Panchami, snakes are venerated and prayed to. In religious terms, the snake and jaguar are arguably the most important animals in ancient Mesoamerica. "In states of ecstasy, lords dance a serpent dance; great descending snakes adorn and support buildings from Chichen Itza to Tenochtitlan, and the Nahuatl word ''coatl'' meaning serpent or twin, forms part of primary deities such as Mixcoatl, Quetzalcoatl, and Coatlicue." In Christianity and Judaism, a serpent appears in Genesis to tempt Adam and Eve with the forbidden fruit from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. The turtle has a prominent position as a symbol of steadfastness and tranquility in religion, mythology, and folklore from around the world. A tortoise's longevity is suggested by its long lifespan and its shell, which was thought to protect it from any foe. In the cosmological myths of several cultures a ''World Turtle'' carries the world upon its back or supports the heavens. === Mediċina === Deaths from snakebites are uncommon in many parts of the world, but are still counted in tens of thousands per year in India. Snakebite can be treated with antivenom made from the venom of the snake. To produce antivenom, a mixture of the venoms of different species of snake is injected into the body of a horse in ever-increasing dosages until the horse is immunized. Blood is then extracted; the serum is separated, purified and freeze-dried. The cytotoxic effect of snake venom is being researched as a potential treatment for cancers. '''Gila monsters''' produce compounds that reduce plasma glucose; one of these substances is now used in the anti-diabetes drug exenatide (Byetta), a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist like semiglutide (Ozempic). Another toxin from Gila monster saliva has been studied for use as an anti-Alzheimer's drug. Geckos have also been used as '''folk medicine''', especially in China, without any evidence that they have any active compounds. Turtles have been used in Chinese traditional medicine for thousands of years, with every part of the turtle believed to have medical benefits (again, without scientific evidence). Growing demand for '''turtle meat''' has placed pressure on vulnerable wild populations of turtles. === Trobbija kummerċjali === Crocodiles are protected in many parts of the world, and are farmed commercially. Their hides are tanned and used to make leather goods such as shoes and handbags; crocodile meat is also considered a delicacy. The most commonly farmed species are the saltwater and Nile crocodiles. Farming has resulted in an increase in the saltwater crocodile population in Australia, as eggs are usually harvested from the wild, so landowners have an incentive to conserve their habitat. Crocodile leather is made into wallets, briefcases, purses, handbags, belts, hats, and shoes. Crocodile oil has been used for various purposes. Snakes are also farmed, primarily in East and Southeast Asia, and their production has become more intensive in the last decade. Snake farming has been troubling for conservation in the past as it can lead to overexploitation of wild snakes and their natural prey to supply the farms. However, farming snakes can limit the hunting of wild snakes, while reducing the slaughter of higher-order vertebrates like cows. The energy efficiency of snakes is higher than expected for carnivores, due to their ectothermy and low metabolism. Waste protein from the poultry and pig industries is used as feed in snake farms. Snake farms produce meat, snake skin, and antivenom. Turtle farming is another known but controversial practice. Turtles have been farmed for a variety of reasons, ranging from food to traditional medicine, the pet trade, and scientific conservation. Demand for turtle meat and medicinal products is one of the main threats to turtle conservation in Asia. Though commercial breeding would seem to insulate wild populations, it can stoke the demand for them and increase wild captures. Even the potentially appealing concept of raising turtles at a farm to release into the wild is questioned by some veterinarians who have had some experience with farm operations. They caution that this may introduce into the wild populations infectious diseases that occur on the farm, but have not (yet) been occurring in the wild. === Rettili fil-magħluq === A herpetarium is a zoological exhibition space for reptiles and amphibians. In the Western world, some snakes (especially relatively docile species such as the ball python and corn snake) are sometimes kept as pets. Numerous species of lizard are kept as pets, including bearded dragons, iguanas, anoles, and geckos (such as the popular leopard gecko and the crested gecko). Turtles and tortoises are increasingly popular pets, but keeping them can be challenging due to their particular requirements, such as temperature control, the need for UV light sources, and a varied diet. The long lifespans of turtles and especially tortoises mean they can potentially outlive their owners. Good hygiene and significant maintenance is necessary when keeping reptiles, due to the risks of ''Salmonella'' and other pathogens. Regular hand-washing after handling is an important measure to prevent infection. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Rettili]] [[Kategorija:Klassifikazzjoni xjentifika]] 45ov5539kzsp83rr3qvsbnnr7hd44s8 329540 329534 2026-04-24T11:22:26Z Trigcly 17859 /* Oriġini tar-rettili */ 329540 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:TWC Wildlife Centre• Stewart Nimmo • MRD 8910.jpg|daqsminuri|Tuatara.]] '''Rettilu''', xi kultant imsejjaħ '''rettili''' b'mod invarjabbli bejn is-singular u l-plural, spiss jiġi definit bħala [[annimal]] vertebrat tetrapodu b'metaboliżmu ektotermiku u bi żvilupp amnijotiku. Tradizzjonalment ir-rettili huma magħmula minn erba' [[Ordni (bijoloġija)|ordnijiet]]: ''Testudines'' (fkieren), ''Crocodilia'' (kukkudrilli, alligaturi u garjal), ''Squamata'' (gremxul u [[Serp|sriep]]) u ''Rhynchocephalia'' (tuatara), b'madwar 12,000 [[speċi]] eżistenti fil-Bażi tad-Data tar-Rettili.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.reptile-database.org/db-info/news.html|titlu=Reptile Database News|sit=www.reptile-database.org|data-aċċess=2026-04-23}}</ref> L-istudju tal-ordnijiet tar-rettili tradizzjonali, normalment flimkien mal-istudju tal-[[Anfibju|anfibji]] moderni, jissejjaħ erpetoloġija. Ir-rettili ġew soġġetti għal diversi definizzjonijiet tassonomiċi kunfliġġenti.<ref>Modesto, S.P.; Anderson, J.S. (2004). "The phylogenetic definition of Reptilia". ''Systematic Biology''. '''53''' (5): 815–821. doi:10.1080/10635150490503026. <nowiki>PMID 15545258</nowiki>.</ref> Fit-tassonomija evoluzzjonarja klassika, ir-rettili jinġabru taħt il-[[Klassi (bijoloġija)|klassi]] '''''Reptilia''''' (pronunzja: /rɛpˈtɪliə/ ''rep-TIL-ee-ə''), skont l-użu komuni. It-tassonomija kladistika moderna tqis lil dak il-grupp bħala parafiletiku, peress li l-evidenza ġenetika u paleontoloġika ddeterminat li l-[[Għasfur|għasafar]] (il-klassi ''Aves'') huma l-uniku grupp li għadu eżistenti ta' ''Dinosauria'', grupp monofiletiku ewlieni ta' diapsidi li huma relatati iktar mill-qrib mal-''Crocodilia'' milli ma rettili ħajjin oħra, u għaldaqstant l-għasafar jinsabu fost ir-rettili (taħt l-''Archosauria'') minn perspettiva filoġenetika. Għalhekk, bosta sistemi kladistiċi jiddefinixxi mill-ġdid ir-''Reptilia'' bħala grupp monofiletiku li jinkludi l-għasafar, għalkemm id-definizzjoni preċiża ta' dan il-grupp monofiletiku jvarja minn awtur għal ieħor. Kunċett simili huwa dak tal-grupp monofiletiku tas-''Sauropsida'', li jirreferi għall-amnijoti kollha bħala relatati iktar mill-qrib mar-rettili moderni milli mal-mammiferi.<ref>Gauthier, J.A. (1994). "The diversification of the amniotes". In Prothero, D.R.; Schoch, R.M. (eds.). ''Major Features of Vertebrate Evolution''. Vol. 7. Knoxville, TN: The Paleontological Society. pp. 129–159. doi:10.1017/S247526300000129X.</ref> L-iżjed membri bikrin magħrufa tan-nisel tar-rettili tfaċċaw matul il-perjodu Karboniferu aħħari, wara li evolvew minn tetrapodi rettilomorfi avvanzati li kulma jmur adattaw ruħhom iktar għall-ħajja fuq l-art niexfa.<ref>Reisz, R. R. (1981). ''A diapsid reptile from the Pennsylvanian of Kansas''. Natural History Museum, University of Kansas.</ref> Id-data ġenetika u tal-fossili ssostni li l-ikbar żewġ insla tar-rettili, l-arkosawromorfi (il-kukkudrilli, l-għasafar u l-annimali relatati) u l-lepidosawromorfi (il-gremxul u l-annimali relatati), varjaw minn xulxin matul il-perjodu Permjan.<ref>Ezcurra, M.D.; Scheyer, T.M.; Butler, R.J. (2014). "The origin and early evolution of Sauria: Reassessing the Permian saurian fossil record and the timing of the crocodile-lizard divergence". ''PLOS ONE''. '''9''' (2) e89165. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...989165E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089165. PMC 3937355. <nowiki>PMID 24586565</nowiki>.</ref> Minbarra r-rettili ħajjin, hemm diversità kbira ta' gruppi li issa huma estinti, f'xi każijiet minħabba avvenimenti ta' estinzjoni tal-massa. B'mod partikolari, l-avveniment tal-estinzjoni fil-perjodu Kretaċju–Paleoġen qered għalkollox il-pterosawri, il-plesjosawri u d-[[Dinosawru|dinosawri]] kollha li ma kinux tjur, flimkien ma' bosta speċijiet ta' kukkudrilloformi u ''Squamata'' (eż. możasawri). Ir-rettili moderni li mhumiex tjur huma mifruxa mal-[[Kontinent|kontinenti]] kollha għajr l-[[Antartika]]. Ir-rettili eżistenti jvarjaw bħala daqs mill-wiżgħa nana ċkejkna ta' Jaragua (''Sphaerodactylus ariasae''), li tikber biss sa 17-il millimetru (0.7 pulzieri); sal-kukkudrill tal-baħar (''Crocodylus porosus''), li jista' jaqbeż tul ta' 6 metri (19.7 pied) u jiżen iktar minn 1,000 kilogramma (2,200 libbra). Bħala tetrapodi, ir-rettili ġeneralment ikollhom erba' saqajn, jew fil-każ tas-sriep u l-gremxul bla saqajn, ikunu dixxendenti minn antenati b'erba' saqajn iżda jkunu tilfu saqajhom matul l-[[evoluzzjoni]]. Għad-differenza tal-anfibji anamnijotiċi, ir-rettili ma jiddependux fuq il-korpi tal-ilma għar-riproduzzjoni u ma jkollhom l-ebda stadju ta' larvi akkwatiċi. Il-biċċa l-kbira tar-rettili huma ovipari b'bajd bil-qoxra, għalkemm diversi speċijiet ta' ''Squamata'' huma vivipari, bħal uħud mir-rettili monofiletiċi estinti tal-baħar.<ref>Sander, P. Martin (2012). "Reproduction in early amniotes". ''Science''. '''337''' (6096): 806–808. Bibcode:2012Sci...337..806S. doi:10.1126/science.1224301. <nowiki>PMID 22904001</nowiki>. S2CID 7041966.</ref> Bħala amnijoti, il-bajd tar-rettili jkollu membrana ekstraembrijonika li żżomm l-ilma u li tiffaċilita l-iskambju bijokimiku mal-ambjent estern, u b'hekk ir-rettili jkunu jistgħu jirriproduċu fuq l-art niexfa, saħansitra f'ħabitats aridi u estremi. L-ispeċijiet vivipari jkollhom il-bajd li jiżviluppa u li jfaqqas fi ħdan il-ġisem tal-omm, normalment b'inkubazzjoni interna, għalkemm xi speċijiet jistgħu jitimgħu l-bajd bħala feti permezz ta' diversi forom ta' plaċenti analogi, u wħud jipprovdu l-indukrar parentali inizjali għall-frieħ tagħhom. == Klassifikazzjoni == === Tassonomija klassika u riċerka === [[Stampa:Reptile003d (group).jpg|daqsminuri|Ir-rettili minn ''Nouveau Larousse Illustré'', 1897–1904, ta' min jinnota l-inklużjoni tal-anfibji (taħt il-''Crocodilia'').]] Fis-seklu 13, il-kategorija tar-''rettili'' ġiet rikonoxxuta fl-[[Ewropa]] bħala waħda li tikkonsisti minn taħlita ta' ħlejqiet li jbidu l-bajd, fosthom "is-sriep, diversi mostri fantastiċi, gremxul, diversi anfibji, u dud", kif irreġistrat minn Beauvais fil-''Mera tan-Natura'' tiegħu. Fis-seklu 18, ir-rettili mill-bidu nett tal-klassifikazzjoni, ġew raggruppati mal-anfibji. [[Carl Linnaeus]], li kien jaħdem fl-[[Żvezja|Iżvezja]] li ma tantx kellha wisq speċijiet, u fejn il-lifgħa u s-serp tal-ħaxix spiss jinstabu jikkaċċjaw fl-ilma, inkluda r-rettili u l-anfibji kollha fil-klassi "III – ''Amphibia''" fis-''Systema Naturæ'' tiegħu. It-[[Terminoloġija|termini]] "rettilu" u "anfibju" fil-biċċa l-kbira kienu interkambjabbli, għalkemm "rettilu" (mil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]] ''repere'', "tkaxkar") kien ippreferut mill-[[Franza|Franċiżi]]. [[J.N. Laurenti]] kien l-ewwel wieħed li uża formalment it-terminu ''Reptilia'' għal għażla wiesgħa ta' rettili u ta' anfibji bażikament kif kien għamel Linnaeus. Illum il-ġurnata, iż-żewġ gruppi għadhom trattati bl-istess intestatura unika, jiġifieri l-erpetoloġija. Ma kienx qabel il-bidu tas-seklu 19 li kien ċar li r-rettili u l-anfibji fil-fatt huma annimali pjuttost differenti, u [[P.A. Latreille]] ħoloq il-klassi ''Batracia'' (1825) għal dawn tal-aħħar, u qasam it-tetrapodi fl-erba' klassijiet ta' familji ta' rettili, anfibji, għasafar u mammiferi. L-anatomista [[Renju Unit|Brittaniku]] [[T.H. Huxley]] wassal biex id-definizzjoni ta' Latreille ssir popolari, u flimkien ma' [[Richard Owen]], wessa' r-''Reptilia'' biex jinkludu d-diversi fossili ta' "mostri antedilluvjani", fosthom id-dinosawri u d-''Dicynodon'', li huwa sinapsidu qisu mammiferu li huwa għen biex jiġi deskritt. Din ma kinitx l-unika skema ta' klassifikazzjoni possibbli: fil-lekċers ta' Hunter mogħtija fil-Kulleġġ Irjali tal-[[Kirurgu|Kirurgi]] fl-1863, Huxley ġabar il-vertebrati mal-mammiferi, mas-sawrojdi u mal-iktjojdi (dawn tal-aħħar jinkludu l-ħut u l-anfibji). Sussegwentement huwa ppropona l-ismijiet tas-sawropsidi u tal-iktjopsidi għal dawn iż-żewġ gruppi tal-aħħar. Fl-1866, Haeckel wera li l-vertebrati setgħu jinqasmu abbażi tal-istrateġiji riproduttivi tagħhom, u li r-rettili, l-għasafar u l-mammiferi kienu magħqudin mill-bajd amnijotiku. It-termini ''sawropsidi'' ("uċuħ tal-gremxul") u ''teropsidi'' ("uċuħ tal-bestji") reġgħu ntużaw fl-1916 minn [[E.S. Goodrich]] biex jiddistingwi bejn il-gremxul, l-għasafar u l-qrabat tagħhom minn naħa waħda (sawropsidi) u l-mammiferi u l-qrabat estinti tagħhom (teropsidi) fuq in-naħa l-oħra. Goodrich appoġġa din id-diviżjoni skont in-natura tal-[[Qalb|qlub]] u tal-istrutturi taċ-ċirkolazzjoni tad-[[demm]] f'kull grupp, u karatteristiċi oħra, bħall-istruttura tal-parti ta' quddiem tal-[[moħħ]]. Skont Goodrich, iż-żewġ insla evolvew minn grupp uniku bikri, il-protosawri ("l-ewwel gremxul"), fejn huwa inkluda xi annimali li llum il-ġurnata jitqiesu bħala anfibji qishom rettili, kif ukoll rettili bikrin. [[Stampa:MosasaurDiscovery.jpg|daqsminuri|Inċiżjoni tas-seklu 18 ta' "mostru antedilluvjan", il-możasawru, skopert f'barriera tal-[[ġebla tal-ġir]] f'[[Maastricht]] fl-1770.]] Fl-1956, [[D.M.S. Watson]] osserva li l-ewwel żewġ gruppi nfirdu fi stadju bikri ħafna fl-istorja tar-rettili, għaldaqstant huwa qasam il-protosawri ta' Goodrich bejniethom. Huwa ta interpretazzjoni mill-ġdid tas-sawropsidi u tat-teropsidi sabiex jeskludi l-għasafar u l-mammiferi, rispettivament. B'hekk is-sawropsidi tiegħu kienu jinkludu l-''Procolophonia'', l-''Eosuchia'', il-''Millerosauria'', il-''Chelonia'' (fkieren), l-''iSquamata'' (gremxul u sriep), ir-''Rhynchocephalia'', il-''Crocodilia'', it-"tecodonti" (l-''Archosauria'' bażiċi parafiletiċi), id-dinosawri li ma kinux tjur, il-pterosawri, l-iktijosawri u s-sawropteriġjani. Fl-aħħar tas-seklu 19 ġew offruti għadd ta' definizzjonijiet tar-''Reptilia''. Il-karatteristiċi [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġiċi]] elenkati minn Lydekker fl-1896, pereżempju, jinkludu kondil oċċipitali uniku, ġog tax-xedaq iffurmat mill-għadam tal-kwadrat u artikolari, u ċerti karatteristiċi tal-vertebri. L-annimali li spikkaw permezz ta' dawn il-formulazzjonijiet, l-amnijoti għajr il-mammiferi u l-għasafar, għadhom jitqiesu bħala r-rettili llum il-ġurnata. Id-diviżjoni bejn is-sinapsidi u s-sawropsidi ssupplimentat approċċ ieħor, wieħed li jaqsam ir-rettili f'erba' subklassijiet abbażi tal-għadd u tal-pożizzjoni ta' fetħiet fil-ġnub tal-kranju wara l-għajnejn. Din il-klassifikazzjoni nbdiet minn [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] u ġiet elaborata u saret popolari permezz tal-''Paleontoloġija tal-Vertebrati'' ta' Romer. Dawn l-erba' subklassijiet kienu: * l-anapsidi – l-ebda fetħa fil-ġnub tal-kranju – kotilosawri u l-''chelonia'' (fkieren u qrabathom); * is-sinapsidi – fetħa baxxa waħda fil-ġnub tal-kranju – pelikosawri u terapsidi (ir-"rettili qishom mammiferi"); * l-ewriapsidi – fetħa għolja waħda fil-ġnub tal-kranju (fuq iż-żona postorbitali u skwamożali) – protorosawri (rettili żgħar u bikrin qishom gremxul) u s-sawropteriġjani u l-iktijosawri tal-baħar, dawn tal-aħħar imsejħa parapsidi fix-xogħol ta' Osborn; * id-diapsidi – żewġ fetħiet fil-ġnub tal-kranju – il-biċċa l-kbira tar-rettili, fosthom il-gremxul, is-sriep, il-kukkudrilli, id-dinosawri u l-pterosawri. Il-kompożizzjoni tal-ewriapsidi ma kinitx ċerta. Xi kultant, l-iktijosawri tqiesu donnhom żdiedu b'mod indipendenti mill-ewriapsidi l-oħra, u ngħataw l-isem iktar antik ta' parapsidi. Iktar 'il quddiem il-parapsidi ġew skartati fil-biċċa l-kbira bħala grupp (l-iktijosawri ġew ikklassifikati bħala ''incertae sedis'' jew mal-ewriapsidi). Madankollu, erba' subklassijiet (jew tlieta jekk l-ewriapsidi jitwaħħdu mad-diapsidi) baqgħu bejn wieħed u ieħor universali għax-xogħol mhux speċjalist matul is-seklu 20. Din fil-biċċa l-kbira ġiet abbandunata mir-riċerkaturi reċenti. B'mod partikolari, instab li l-kundizzjoni tal-anapsidi tant tokkorri b'mod varjabbli fost il-gruppi mhux relatati li issa ma titqiesx bħala distinzjoni utli. === Filoġenetika u definizzjoni moderna === [[Stampa:Varanodon1DB.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-klassifikazzjonijiet filoġenetiċi jiġbru flimkien lir-"rettili qishom mammiferi", bħal dan il-''varanodon'', flimkien ma' sinapsidi oħra, mhux ma' rettili eżistenti.]] Sal-bidu tas-seklu 21, il-paleontologi tal-vertebrati bdew jadottaw tassonomija filoġenetika, fejn il-gruppi kollha jiġu defini b'tali mod li jkunu monofiletiċi; jiġifieri, gruppi li jinkludu d-dixxendenti kollha ta' antenat partikolari. Storikament ir-rettili ġew definiti bħala parafiletiċi, peress li jeskludu l-għasafar u l-mammiferi. Dawn evolvew rispettivament mid-dinosawri u minn terapsidi bikrin, li t-tnejn li huma tradizzjonalment kienu jissejħu "rettili". L-għasafar huma relatati iktar mill-qrib mal-''Crocodilia'' milli dawn tal-aħħar huma mal-bqija tar-rettili eżistenti. [[Colin Tudge]] kiteb:<blockquote>Il-mammiferi huma grupp monofiletiku, u għaldaqstant dawk li jippreferu tali klassifikazzjoni lesti li jirrikonoxxu t-[[takson]] tradizzjonali ''Mammalia''; u l-għasafar ukoll huma grupp monofiletiku, li universalment jitqies li jappartjeni għat-takson formali ''Aves''. Il-''Mammalia'' u l-''Aves'' fil-fatt huma sottogruppi monofiletiċi fi ħdan grupp monofiletiku kbir tal-''Amniota''. Iżda l-klassi tradizzjonali tar-''Reptilia'' mhijiex grupp monofiletiku. Hija biss sezzjoni mill-grupp monofiletiku tal-''Amniota'': is-sezzjoni li jifdal wara li jitneħħew il-''Mammalia'' u l-''Aves''. Ma tistax tiġi definita kif suppost skont is-sinapomorfji. Minflok, tiġi definita skont taħlita tal-karatteristiċi li għandha u tal-karatteristiċi li ma għandhiex: ir-rettili huma l-amnijoti li ma jkollhomx pil jew rix. L-iktar l-iktar, dawk li jippreferu tali klassifikazzjoni jissuġġerixxu li wieħed jista' jgħid li r-''Reptilia'' tradizzjonali huma amnijoti "li ma jkunux tjur u li ma jkunux mammiferi".</blockquote>Minkejja l-proposti bikrin biex ir-''Reptilia'' parafiletiċi jiġu sostitwiti bis-sawropsidi monofiletiċi, li jinkludu l-għasafar, dak it-terminu qatt ma ġie adottat b'mod mifrux, jew meta beda jiġi adottat, ma ġiex applikat b'mod konsistenti. Meta ntuża t-terminu sawropsidi, spiss kien jinkludi l-istess kontenut jew saħansitra kellu l-istess definizzjoni bħar-''Reptilia''. Fl-1988, [[Jacques Gauthier]] ippropona definizzjonali tar-''Reptilia'' bħala grupp monofiletiku ewlieni li jinkludi l-fkieren, il-gremxul u s-sriep, il-kukkudrilli u l-għasafar, flimkien mal-antenati komuni tagħhom u d-dixxendenti kollha tagħhom. Filwaqt li d-definizzjoni ta' Gauthier kienet qrib għall-konsensus modern, minkejja dan bdiet titqies bħala mhux adegwata minħabba r-relazzjoni effettiva tal-fkieren ma' rettili oħra dak iż-żmien ma kinitx mifhuma sew. Minn dak iż-żmien saru reviżjonijiet kbar li inkludew l-assenjar mill-ġdid tas-sinapsidi bħala mhux rettili, u l-klassifikazzjoni tal-fkieren bħala diapsidi. Id-definizzjoni ta' Gauthier fl-1994 u ta' Laurin u Reisz fl-1995 tas-sawropsidi wasslet għal definizzjoni tal-ambitu tal-grupp bħala wieħed distint u usa' minn dak tar-''Reptilia'', u jħaddan il-''Mesosauridae'' kif ukoll ir-''Reptilia'' ''sensu stricto''. Varjetà sħiħa ta' definizzjonijiet oħra ġew proposti minn xjenzati oħra fis-snin ta' wara d-dokument ta' Gauthier. L-ewwel waħda fost tali definizzjonijiet, li ppruvat taderixxi mal-istandards tal-Kodiċi Filoġenetiku ġiet ippubblikata minn Modesto u Anderson fl-2004. Modesto u Anderson irrieżaminaw il-bosta definizzjonijiet preċedenti u pproponew definizzjoni modifikata, u kellhom il-ħsieb li jżommu l-iżjed kontenut tradizzjonali tal-grupp filwaqt li jħalluh stabbli u monofiletiku. Huma ddefinew ir-''Reptilia'' bħala l-amnijoti kollha li huma eqreb għal-''Lacerta agilis'' u għall-''Crocodylus niloticus'' mill-''[[Homo sapiens]]''. Din id-definizzjoni hija ekwivalenti għall-iktar definizzjoni komuni tas-sawropsidi, li Modesto u Anderson sostnew li kienu sinonimu tar-''Reptilia'', peress li dan it-terminu tal-aħħar huwa magħruf iktar u jintuża iktar spiss. Madankollu, għad-differenza tal-biċċa l-kbira tad-definizzjonijiet preċedenti tar-''Reptilia'', id-definizzjoni ta' Modesto u Anderson tinkludi l-għasafar, peress li huma fi ħdan il-grupp monofiletiku li jinkludi kemm il-gremxul kif ukoll il-kukkudrilli. === Tassonomija === Klassifikazzjoni ġenerali tar-rettili estinti u ħajjin, li tiffoka fuq il-gruppi ewlenin: * '''''Reptilia'''/'''Sauropsida''''' ** ''Araeoscelidia?'' ** <abbr>†</abbr>'''''Parareptilia''''' (x'aktarx parafiletiċi) *** '''''Diapsida'''/'''Neodiapsida''''' **** <abbr>†</abbr>''Drepanosauromorpha'' (kollokazzjoni inċerta) **** <abbr>†</abbr>''Younginiformes'' (x'aktarx parafiletiċi) **** <abbr>†</abbr>Ichthyosauromorpha (kollokazzjoni inċerta) **** <abbr>†</abbr>''Thalattosauria'' (kollokazzjoni inċerta) **** <abbr>†</abbr>''Sauropterygia'' (kollokazzjoni inċerta) **** <abbr>†</abbr>''Choristodera'' (kollokazzjoni inċerta) **** '''''Sauria''''' ***** '''''Lepidosauromorpha''''' ****** ''Lepidosauria'' ******* ''Rhynchocephalia'' (tuatara) ******* ''Squamata'' (gremxul u sriep) ***** '''''Pantestudines''''' (fkieren u qrabat, kollokazzjoni inċerta) ***** '''''Archosauromorpha''''' ****** <abbr>†</abbr>''Protorosauria'' (parafiletiċi) ****** <abbr>†</abbr>''Rhynchosauria'' ****** <abbr>†</abbr>''Allokotosauria'' ****** ''Archosauriformes'' ******* <abbr>†</abbr>''Phytosauria'' ******* '''''Archosauria''''' ******** ''Pseudosuchia'' ********* ''Crocodilia'' (kukkudrilli u qrabat) ******** ''Avemetatarsalia/Ornithodira'' ********* <abbr>†</abbr>''Pterosauria'' ********* ''Dinosauria'' ********** <abbr>†</abbr>''Ornithischia'' ********** ''Saurischia'' (inkluż l-għasafar ('''''Aves''''')) === Filoġenija === L-"arblu tar-razza" tar-rettili jsegwi verżjoni ssimplifikata tar-relazzjonijiet li nstabu minn M.S. Lee fl-2013. L-istudji ġenetiċi kollha appoġġaw l-ipoteżi li l-fkieren huma diapsidi; uħud poġġew il-fkieren fi ħdan l-''Archosauromorpha'', għalkemm uħud minflok poġġew il-fkieren bħala ''Lepidosauromorpha''. === Il-pożizzjoni tal-fkieren === Il-kollokazzjoni tal-fkieren storikament kienet varjabbli ferm. Klassikament, il-fkieren ġew meqjusa bħala relatati mar-rettili anapsidi primittivi. Fl-analiżi komparattiva tagħhom tal-kronoloġija tal-organoġenesi, Werneburg u Sánchez-Villagra (2009) sabu appoġġ għall-ipoteżi li l-fkieren jagħmlu parti minn grupp monofiletiku separat fi ħdan is-sawropsidi, barra mill-grupp monofiletiku sawrjan. Normalment ix-xogħol molekolari wassal għall-kollokazzjoni tal-fkieren fi ħdan id-diapsidi. Sal-2013 ġew sekwenzjati tliet ġenomi tal-fkieren. Ir-riżultati jikkollokaw il-fkieren bħala grupp monofiletiku relatat mal-arċosawri, li huma l-grupp li jinkludi l-''Crocodilia'', id-dinosawri li mhumiex tjur u l-għasafar. == Storja evoluzzjonarja == === Oriġini tar-rettili === L-oriġini tar-rettili tmur lura madwar 310–320 miljun sena ilu, fl-artijiet bassasa bl-istim tal-perjodu Karboniferu aħħari, meta l-ewwel rettili evolvew minn rettilomorfi avvanzati. L-iktar annimal tal-qedem magħruf li jaf kien amnijota huwa l-''Casineria'' (għalkemm jaf kien temnospondil). Sensiela ta' impronti tas-saqajn mis-saff tal-fossili ta' Nova Scotia li jmorru lura għal 315-il miljun sena fihom impronti tipiċi tas-swaba' tar-rettili u impronti tal-qxur tal-ġilda. Dawn l-impronti tas-saqajn issa ġew attribwiti lill-''Hylonomus'', li storikament jitqies bħala l-iktar rettilu tal-qedem magħruf, iżda l-kollokazzjoni tiegħu fil-grupp dan l-aħħar ġiet dubitata. Dan kien annimal żgħir qisu gremxula, twil madwar 20 sa 30 ċentimetru (7.9 pulzieri sa 11.8 pulzier), b'bosta snien ippuntati li jindikaw dieta [[Insettivoru|insettivora]]. Eżempji oħra jinkludu l-''Westlothiana'' (li attwalment jitqies bħala rettilomorfu iktar milli amnijota reali) u l-''Paleothyris'', it-tnejn li huma ta' daqs simili u x'aktarx b'imġiba simili. Madankollu, il-mikrosawri xi kultant tqiesu bħala rettili reali, għaldaqstant jaf hija possibbli oriġini iktar bikrija. Fost ir-rettili reali mhux ambigwi mill-perjodu Karboniferu hemm l-''Erpetonyx'' u l-''Carbonodraco,'' it-tnejn li huma mill-[[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta' Fuq]]. === Żieda tar-rettili === L-iżjed amnijoti bikrin, fosthom l-anapsidi primittivi (jiġifieri l-amnijoti li huma eqreb għar-rettili moderni milli għall-mammiferi), fil-biċċa l-kbira ħadulhom posthom it-tetrapodi primittivi l-kbar bħall-''Cochleosaurus'', u baqgħu parti żgħira tal-fawna sal-Kollass Karboniferu tal-Foresti Pluvjali. Dan il-kollass ħesrem affettwa diversi gruppi kbar. It-tetrapodi primittivi ġew devastati partikolarment, filwaqt li r-rettili primittivi marru aħjar, peress li kienu adattati [[Ekoloġija|ekoloġikament]] għall-kundizzjonijiet iktar nexfin li ġew wara. It-tetrapodi primittivi, bħall-anfibji moderni, ikollhom jerġgħu lura fl-ilma biex ibidu l-bajd; f'kuntrast ma' dan, l-amnijoti, bħar-rettili moderni – li l-bajd tagħhom fih qoxra li permezz tagħha jista' jinbied fuq l-art – kienu adattati aħjar għall-kundizzjonijiet il-ġodda. L-amnijoti kisbu niċeċ ġodda b'rata iktar mgħaġġla minn qabel il-kollass u ferm iktar malajr mit-tetrapodi primittivi. Kisbu strateġiji ġodda tal-alimentazzjoni, inkluż strateġiji erbivori u karnivori, mentri qabel kienu insettivori u pixxivori biss. Minn dak iż-żmien 'il quddiem, ir-rettili ddominaw il-komunitajiet u kellhom diversità akbar mit-tetrapodi primittivi, għaldaqstant dan witta t-triq għall-perjodu Mesożojku (magħruf bħala l-Era tar-Rettili). Eżami tal-2021 tad-diversità tar-rettili fil-perjodu Karboniferu u fil-perjodu Permjan jissuġġerixxi livell ferm ogħla ta' diversità milli kien maħsub qabel, li huwa komparabbli jew saħansitra li jaqbeż dak tas-sinapsidi. Għalhekk ġiet proposta l-"Ewwel Era tar-Rettili". === Anapsidi, sinapsidi, diapsidi u sawropsidi === It was traditionally assumed that the first reptiles retained an anapsid skull inherited from their ancestors. This type of skull has a skull roof with only holes for the nostrils, eyes and a pineal eye. The discoveries of synapsid-like openings (see below) in the skull roof of the skulls of several members of Parareptilia (the group containing most of the amniotes traditionally referred to as "anapsids"), including lanthanosuchoids, millerettids, bolosaurids, some nycteroleterids, some procolophonoids and at least some mesosaurs made it more ambiguous and it is currently uncertain whether the ancestral amniote had an anapsid-like or synapsid-like skull. These animals are traditionally referred to as "anapsids", and form a paraphyletic basic stock from which other groups evolved. Very shortly after the first amniotes appeared, a lineage called Synapsida split off; this group was characterized by a temporal opening in the skull behind each eye giving room for the jaw muscle to move. These are the "mammal-like amniotes", or stem-mammals, that later gave rise to the true mammals. Soon after, another group evolved a similar trait, this time with a double opening behind each eye, earning them the name Diapsida ("two arches"). The function of the holes in these groups was to lighten the skull and give room for the jaw muscles to move, allowing for a more powerful bite. Historically, while the late Carboniferous-early Permian lizard-like reptile group Araeoscelidia, which are (generally) morphologically diapsid, were considered to be the earliest representatives of the clade Diapsida, phylogenetic studies from the 2020s has brought into serious doubt their relationship with other diapsids (Neodiapsida), and they have been found as very early diverging branch of Reptilia or even outside of Reptilia entirely. Turtles have been traditionally believed to be surviving parareptiles, on the basis of their anapsid skull structure, which was assumed to be primitive trait. The rationale for this classification has been disputed, with some arguing that turtles are diapsids that evolved anapsid skulls, improving their armor. Later morphological phylogenetic studies with this in mind placed turtles firmly within Diapsida. All molecular studies have strongly upheld the placement of turtles within diapsids, most commonly as a sister group to extant archosaurs. === Rettili Permjani === With the close of the Carboniferous, the amniotes became the dominant tetrapod fauna. While primitive, terrestrial reptiliomorphs still existed, the synapsid amniotes evolved the first truly terrestrial megafauna (giant animals) in the form of pelycosaurs, such as ''Edaphosaurus'' and the carnivorous ''Dimetrodon''. In the mid-Permian period, the climate became drier, resulting in a change of fauna: The pelycosaurs were replaced by the therapsids. Many stem reptile groups continued to flourish throughout the Permian. The herbivorous pareiasaurs were the first lineage of reptiles to reach a large body size, with the largest representatives of the group having a body mass estimated to exceed 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb). One of the best known early stem-reptiles is ''Mesosaurus'', a genus from the Early Permian of Southern Africa and South America that had returned to water and gained webbed feet, feeding on crustaceans in marine or lagoonal environments. The earliest true diapsids (Neodiapsida), such as ''Youngina'', appeared during the Middle-Late Permian. The Weigeltisauridae, a group of diapsids from the Late Permian, are the oldest known tetrapods to have engaged in flight, using novel rod-like bones extending from the trunk which formed wings to glide between trees. The ancestors of modern reptiles (which belong to the clade Sauria) had diverged from each other by the Late Permian, as evidenced by species such as the monitor lizard-like ''Protorosaurus'' known from the Late Permian of Europe, which is clearly an archosauromorph, more closely related to archosaurs (crocodilians and birds) than to lizards, snakes or turtles. === Rettili Mesożojċi === The close of the Permian saw the greatest mass extinction known (see the Permian–Triassic extinction event), an event prolonged by the combination of two or more distinct extinction pulses. Most of the earlier parareptile and synapsid megafauna disappeared, being replaced by the true reptiles, particularly archosauromorphs. These were characterized by elongated hind legs and an erect pose, the early forms looking somewhat like long-legged crocodiles. The archosaurs became the dominant group during the Triassic period, though it took 30 million years before their diversity was as great as the animals that lived in the Permian. Archosaurs developed into the well-known dinosaurs and pterosaurs, as well as the ancestors of crocodilians. Since reptiles, first rauisuchians and then dinosaurs, dominated the Mesozoic era, the interval is popularly known as the "Age of Reptiles". The dinosaurs also developed smaller forms, including the feather-bearing smaller theropods. In the Cretaceous period, these gave rise to the first true birds. The sister group to Archosauromorpha is Lepidosauromorpha, containing lizards and tuataras, as well as their fossil relatives. Lepidosauromorpha contained at least one major group of the Mesozoic sea reptiles: the mosasaurs, which lived during the Cretaceous period. The phylogenetic placement of other main groups of fossil sea reptiles – the ichthyopterygians (including ichthyosaurs) and the sauropterygians, which evolved in the early Triassic – is more controversial. Different authors linked these groups either to lepidosauromorphs or to archosauromorphs, and ichthyopterygians were also argued to be diapsids that did not belong to the least inclusive clade containing lepidosauromorphs and archosauromorphs. === Rettili Ċenożojċi === The close of the Cretaceous period saw the demise of the Mesozoic era reptilian megafauna (see the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, also known as K-T extinction event). Of the large marine reptiles, only sea turtles were left; and of the non-marine large reptiles, only the semi-aquatic crocodilians and broadly similar choristoderes survived the extinction, with last members of the latter, the lizard-like ''Lazarussuchus'', becoming extinct in the Miocene. Of the great host of dinosaurs dominating the Mesozoic, only the small beaked birds survived. This dramatic extinction pattern at the end of the Mesozoic led into the Cenozoic. Mammals and birds filled the empty niches left behind by the reptilian megafauna and, while reptile diversification slowed, bird and mammal diversification took an exponential turn. However, reptiles were still important components of the megafauna, particularly in the form of large and giant tortoises. After the extinction of most archosaur and marine reptile lines by the end of the Cretaceous, reptile diversification continued throughout the Cenozoic. Squamates took a massive hit during the K–Pg event, only recovering ten million years after it, but they underwent a great radiation event once they recovered, and today squamates make up the majority of living reptiles (> 95%). Approximately 10,000 extant species of traditional reptiles are known, with birds adding about 10,000 more, almost twice the number of mammals, represented by about 5,700 living species (excluding domesticated species). {| class="wikitable" |+Diversità ta' speċijiet ta' rettili ħajjin (2013) !Grupp ta' rettili !Speċijiet deskritti !Persentaġġ tal-ispeċijiet ta' rettili |- |Squamates |9193 |96.3 % |- |''- Lizards'' |''5634'' |''59'' ''%'' |- |''- Snakes'' |''3378'' |''35'' ''%'' |- |''- Amphisbaenians'' |''181'' |''2'' ''%'' |- |Turtles |327 |3.4 % |- |Crocodilians |25 |0.3 % |- |Rhynchocephalians |1 |0.01 % |- |Total |9546 |100 % |} == Morfoloġija u fiżjoloġija == === Ċirkolazzjoni === All lepidosaurs and turtles have a three-chambered heart consisting of two atria, one variably partitioned ventricle, and two aortas that lead to the systemic circulation. The degree of mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the three-chambered heart varies depending on the species and physiological state. Under different conditions, deoxygenated blood can be shunted back to the body or oxygenated blood can be shunted back to the lungs. This variation in blood flow has been hypothesized to allow more effective thermoregulation and longer diving times for aquatic species, but has not been shown to be a fitness advantage. For example, iguana hearts, like the majority of the squamate hearts, are composed of three chambers–two atria and one ventricle–and cardiac involuntary muscles. The main structures of the heart are the sinus venosus, the pacemaker, the left atrium, the right atrium, the atrioventricular valve, the cavum venosum, cavum arteriosum, the cavum pulmonale, the muscular ridge, the ventricular ridge, pulmonary veins, and paired aortic arches. Some squamate species (e.g., pythons and monitor lizards) have three-chambered hearts that become functionally four-chambered hearts during contraction. This is made possible by a muscular ridge that subdivides the ventricle during ventricular diastole and completely divides it during ventricular systole. Because of this ridge, some of these squamates are capable of producing ventricular pressure differentials that are equivalent to those seen in mammalian and avian hearts. Crocodilians have an anatomically four-chambered heart, similar to birds, but also have two systemic aortas and are therefore capable of bypassing their pulmonary circulation. In turtles, the ventricle is not perfectly divided, so a mix of aerated and nonaerated blood can occur. === Metaboliżmu === Modern non-avian reptiles exhibit some form of cold-bloodedness (i.e. some mix of poikilothermy, ectothermy, and bradymetabolism) so that they have limited physiological means of keeping the body temperature constant and often rely on external sources of heat. Due to a less stable core temperature than birds and mammals, reptilian biochemistry requires enzymes capable of maintaining efficiency over a greater range of temperatures than in the case for warm-blooded animals. The optimum body temperature range varies with species, but is typically below that of warm-blooded animals; for many lizards, it falls in the 24–35 °C (75–95 °F) range, while extreme heat-adapted species, like the American desert iguana ''Dipsosaurus dorsalis'', can have optimal physiological temperatures in the mammalian range, between 35 and 40 °C (95 and 104 °F). While the optimum temperature is often encountered when the animal is active, the low basal metabolism makes body temperature drop rapidly when the animal is inactive. As in all animals, reptilian muscle action produces heat. In large reptiles, like leatherback turtles, the low surface-to-volume ratio allows this metabolically produced heat to keep the animals warmer than their environment even though they do not have a warm-blooded metabolism. This form of homeothermy is called gigantothermy; it has been suggested as having been common in large dinosaurs and other extinct large-bodied reptiles. The benefit of a low resting metabolism is that it requires far less fuel to sustain bodily functions. By using temperature variations in their surroundings, or by remaining cold when they do not need to move, reptiles can save considerable amounts of energy compared to endothermic animals of the same size. A crocodile needs from a tenth to a fifth of the food necessary for a lion of the same weight and can live half a year without eating. Lower food requirements and adaptive metabolisms allow reptiles to dominate the animal life in regions where net calorie availability is too low to sustain large-bodied mammals and birds. It is generally assumed that reptiles are unable to produce the sustained high energy output necessary for long distance chases or flying. Higher energetic capacity might have been responsible for the evolution of warm-bloodedness in birds and mammals. However, investigation of correlations between active capacity and thermophysiology show a weak relationship. Most extant reptiles are carnivores with a sit-and-wait feeding strategy; whether reptiles are cold blooded due to their ecology is not clear. Energetic studies on some reptiles have shown active capacities equal to or greater than similar sized warm-blooded animals. === Sistema respiratorja === [[/wiki/File:X-ray_video_of_a_female_American_alligator_(Alligator_mississippiensis)_while_breathing_-_pone.0004497.s009.ogv|lemin|daqsminuri|Filmati ta' fluworoskopija bir-raġġi X ta' alligatur Amerikan femminili li juru l-kontrazzjoni tal-pulmuni waqt it-teħid tan-nifs.]] All reptiles breathe using lungs. Aquatic turtles have developed more permeable skin, and some species have modified their cloaca to increase the area for gas exchange. Even with these adaptations, breathing is never fully accomplished without lungs. Lung ventilation is accomplished differently in each main reptile group. In squamates, the lungs are ventilated almost exclusively by the axial musculature. This is also the same musculature that is used during locomotion. Because of this constraint, most squamates are forced to hold their breath during intense runs. Some, however, have found a way around it. Varanids, and a few other lizard species, employ buccal pumping as a complement to their normal "axial breathing". This allows the animals to completely fill their lungs during intense locomotion, and thus remain aerobically active for a long time. Tegu lizards are known to possess a proto-diaphragm, which separates the pulmonary cavity from the visceral cavity. While not actually capable of movement, it does allow for greater lung inflation, by taking the weight of the viscera off the lungs. Crocodilians actually have a muscular diaphragm that is analogous to the mammalian diaphragm. The difference is that the muscles for the crocodilian diaphragm pull the pubis (part of the pelvis, which is movable in crocodilians) back, which brings the liver down, thus freeing space for the lungs to expand. This type of diaphragmatic setup has been referred to as the "hepatic piston". The airways form a number of double tubular chambers within each lung. On inhalation and exhalation air moves through the airways in the same direction, thus creating a unidirectional airflow through the lungs. A similar system is found in birds, monitor lizards and iguanas. Most reptiles lack a secondary palate, meaning that they must hold their breath while swallowing. Crocodilians have evolved a bony secondary palate that allows them to continue breathing while remaining submerged (and protect their brains against damage by struggling prey). Skinks (family Scincidae) also have evolved a bony secondary palate, to varying degrees. Snakes took a different approach and extended their trachea instead. Their tracheal extension sticks out like a fleshy straw, and allows these animals to swallow large prey without suffering from asphyxiation. ==== Fkieren tal-ilma u fkieren tal-art ==== How turtles breathe has been the subject of much study. To date, only a few species have been studied thoroughly enough to get an idea of how those turtles breathe. The varied results indicate that turtles have found a variety of solutions to this problem. The difficulty is that most turtle shells are rigid and do not allow for the type of expansion and contraction that other amniotes use to ventilate their lungs. Some turtles, such as the Indian flapshell (''Lissemys punctata''), have a sheet of muscle that envelops the lungs. When it contracts, the turtle can exhale. When at rest, the turtle can retract the limbs into the body cavity and force air out of the lungs. When the turtle protracts its limbs, the pressure inside the lungs is reduced, and the turtle can suck air in. Turtle lungs are attached to the inside of the top of the shell (carapace), with the bottom of the lungs attached (via connective tissue) to the rest of the viscera. By using a series of special muscles (roughly equivalent to a diaphragm), turtles are capable of pushing their viscera up and down, resulting in effective respiration, since many of these muscles have attachment points in conjunction with their forelimbs (indeed, many of the muscles expand into the limb pockets during contraction). Breathing during locomotion has been studied in three species, and they show different patterns. Adult female green sea turtles do not breathe as they crutch along their nesting beaches. They hold their breath during terrestrial locomotion and breathe in bouts as they rest. North American box turtles breathe continuously during locomotion, and the ventilation cycle is not coordinated with the limb movements. This is because they use their abdominal muscles to breathe during locomotion. The last species to have been studied is the red-eared slider, which also breathes during locomotion, but takes smaller breaths during locomotion than during small pauses between locomotor bouts, indicating that there may be mechanical interference between the limb movements and the breathing apparatus. Box turtles have also been observed to breathe while completely sealed up inside their shells. === Produzzjoni tal-ħsejjes === Compared with frogs, birds, and mammals, reptiles are less vocal. Sound production is usually limited to hissing, which is produced merely by forcing air though a partly closed glottis and is not considered to be a true vocalization. The ability to vocalize exists in crocodilians, some lizards and turtles; and typically involves vibrating fold-like structures in the larynx or glottis. Some geckos and turtles possess true vocal cords, which have elastin-rich connective tissue. ==== Smigħ fis-sriep ==== Hearing in humans relies on 3 parts of the ear; the outer ear that directs sound waves into the ear canal, the middle ear that transmits incoming sound waves to the inner ear, and the inner ear that helps in hearing and keeping their balance. Unlike humans and other mammals, snakes do not possess an outer ear, a middle ear, and a tympanum but have an inner ear structure with cochleas directly connected to their jawbone. They are able to feel the vibrations generated from the sound waves in their jaw as they move on the ground. This is done by the use of mechanoreceptors, sensory nerves that run along the body of snakes directing the vibrations along the spinal nerves to the brain. Snakes have a sensitive auditory perception and can tell which direction sound being made is coming from so that they can sense the presence of prey or predator but it is still unclear how sensitive snakes are to sound waves traveling through the air. === Ġilda === Reptilian skin is covered in a horny epidermis, making it watertight and enabling reptiles to live on dry land, in contrast to amphibians. Compared to mammalian skin, that of reptiles is rather thin and lacks the thick dermal layer that produces leather in mammals. Exposed parts of reptiles are protected by scales or scutes, sometimes with a bony base (osteoderms), forming armor. In lepidosaurs, such as lizards and snakes, the whole skin is covered in overlapping epidermal scales. Such scales were once thought to be typical of the class Reptilia as a whole, but are now known to occur only in lepidosaurs. The scales found in turtles and crocodiles are of dermal, rather than epidermal, origin and are properly termed scutes. In turtles, the body is hidden inside a hard shell composed of fused scutes. Lacking a thick dermis, reptilian leather is not as strong as mammalian leather. It is used in leather-wares for decorative purposes for shoes, belts and handbags, particularly crocodile skin. ==== Bdil tal-qxur ==== Reptiles shed their skin through a process called ecdysis which occurs continuously throughout their lifetime. In particular, younger reptiles tend to shed once every five to six weeks while adults shed three to four times a year. Younger reptiles shed more because of their rapid growth rate. Once full size, the frequency of shedding drastically decreases. The process of ecdysis involves forming a new layer of skin under the old one. Proteolytic enzymes and lymphatic fluid is secreted between the old and new layers of skin. Consequently, this lifts the old skin from the new one allowing shedding to occur. Snakes will shed from the head to the tail while lizards shed in a "patchy pattern". Dysecdysis, a common skin disease in snakes and lizards, will occur when ecdysis, or shedding, fails. There are numerous reasons why shedding fails and can be related to inadequate humidity and temperature, nutritional deficiencies, dehydration and traumatic injuries. Nutritional deficiencies decrease proteolytic enzymes while dehydration reduces lymphatic fluids to separate the skin layers. Traumatic injuries on the other hand, form scars that will not allow new scales to form and disrupt the process of ecdysis. === Eskrezzjoni === Excretion is performed mainly by two small kidneys. In diapsids, uric acid is the main nitrogenous waste product; turtles, like mammals, excrete mainly urea. Unlike the kidneys of mammals and birds, reptile kidneys are unable to produce liquid urine more concentrated than their body fluid. This is because they lack a specialized structure called a loop of Henle, which is present in the nephrons of birds and mammals. Because of this, many reptiles use the colon to aid in the reabsorption of water. Some are also able to take up water stored in the bladder. Excess salts are also excreted by nasal and lingual salt glands in some reptiles. In all reptiles, the urinogenital ducts and the rectum both empty into an organ called a cloaca. In some reptiles, a midventral wall in the cloaca may open into a urinary bladder, but not all. It is present in all turtles and tortoises as well as most lizards, but is lacking in the monitor lizard, the legless lizards. It is absent in the snakes, alligators, and crocodiles. Many turtles and lizards have proportionally very large bladders. Charles Darwin noted that the Galapagos tortoise had a bladder which could store up to 20% of its body weight. Such adaptations are the result of environments such as remote islands and deserts where water is very scarce. Other desert-dwelling reptiles have large bladders that can store a long-term reservoir of water for up to several months and aid in osmoregulation. Turtles have two or more accessory urinary bladders, located lateral to the neck of the urinary bladder and dorsal to the pubis, occupying a significant portion of their body cavity. Their bladder is also usually bilobed with a left and right section. The right section is located under the liver, which prevents large stones from remaining in that side while the left section is more likely to have calculi. === Diġestjoni === Most reptiles are insectivorous or carnivorous and have simple and comparatively short digestive tracts due to meat being fairly simple to break down and digest. Digestion is slower than in mammals, reflecting their lower resting metabolism and their inability to divide and masticate their food. Their poikilotherm metabolism has very low energy requirements, allowing large reptiles like crocodiles and large constrictors to live from a single large meal for months, digesting it slowly. While modern reptiles are predominantly carnivorous, during the early history of reptiles several groups produced some herbivorous megafauna: in the Paleozoic, the pareiasaurs; and in the Mesozoic several lines of dinosaurs. Today, turtles are the only predominantly herbivorous reptile group, but several lines of agamas and iguanas have evolved to live wholly or partly on plants. Herbivorous reptiles face the same problems of mastication as herbivorous mammals but, lacking the complex teeth of mammals, many species swallow rocks and pebbles (so called gastroliths) to aid in digestion: The rocks are washed around in the stomach, helping to grind up plant matter. Fossil gastroliths have been found associated with both ornithopods and sauropods, though whether they actually functioned as a gastric mill in the latter is disputed. Salt water crocodiles also use gastroliths as ballast, stabilizing them in the water or helping them to dive. A dual function as both stabilizing ballast and digestion aid has been suggested for gastroliths found in plesiosaurs. === Nervituri === The reptilian nervous system contains the same basic part of the amphibian brain, but the reptile cerebrum and cerebellum are slightly larger. Most typical sense organs are well developed with certain exceptions, most notably the snake's lack of external ears (middle and inner ears are present). There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves. Due to their short cochlea, reptiles use electrical tuning to expand their range of audible frequencies. === Vista === Most reptiles are diurnal animals. The vision is typically adapted to daylight conditions, with color vision and more advanced visual depth perception than in amphibians and most mammals. Reptiles usually have excellent vision, allowing them to detect shapes and motions at long distances. They often have poor vision in low-light conditions. Birds, crocodiles and turtles have three types of photoreceptor: rods, single cones and double cones, which gives them sharp color vision and enables them to see ultraviolet wavelengths. The lepidosaurs appear to have lost the duplex retina and only have a single class of receptor that is cone-like or rod-like depending on whether the species is diurnal or nocturnal. In many burrowing species, such as blind snakes, vision is reduced. Many lepidosaurs have a photosensory organ on the top of their heads called the parietal eye, which are also called third eye, pineal eye or pineal gland. This "eye" does not work the same way as a normal eye does as it has only a rudimentary retina and lens and thus, cannot form images. It is, however, sensitive to changes in light and dark and can detect movement. Some snakes have extra sets of visual organs (in the loosest sense of the word) in the form of pits sensitive to infrared radiation (heat). Such heat-sensitive pits are particularly well developed in the pit vipers, but are also found in boas and pythons. These pits allow the snakes to sense the body heat of birds and mammals, enabling pit vipers to hunt rodents in the dark. Most reptiles, as well as birds, possess a nictitating membrane, a translucent third eyelid which is drawn over the eye from the inner corner. In crocodilians, it protects its eyeball surface while allowing a degree of vision underwater. However, many squamates, geckos and snakes in particular, lack eyelids, which are replaced by a transparent scale. This is called the brille, spectacle, or eyecap. The brille is usually not visible, except for when the snake molts, and it protects the eyes from dust and dirt. === Riproduzzjoni === Reptiles generally reproduce sexually, though some are capable of asexual reproduction. All reproductive activity occurs through the cloaca, the single exit/entrance at the base of the tail where waste is also eliminated. Most reptiles have copulatory organs, which are usually retracted or inverted and stored inside the body. In turtles and crocodilians, the male has a single median penis, while squamates, including snakes and lizards, possess a pair of hemipenes, only one of which is typically used in each session. Tuatara, however, lack copulatory organs, and so the male and female simply press their cloacas together as the male discharges sperm. Most reptiles lay amniotic eggs covered with leathery or calcareous shells. An amnion (5), chorion (6), and allantois (8) are present during embryonic life. The eggshell (1) protects the crocodile embryo (11) and keeps it from drying out, but it is flexible to allow gas exchange. The chorion (6) aids in gas exchange between the inside and outside of the egg. It allows carbon dioxide to exit the egg and oxygen gas to enter the egg. The albumin (9) further protects the embryo and serves as a reservoir for water and protein. The allantois (8) is a sac that collects the metabolic waste produced by the embryo. The amniotic sac (10) contains amniotic fluid (12) which protects and cushions the embryo. The amnion (5) aids in osmoregulation and serves as a saltwater reservoir. The yolk sac (2) surrounding the yolk (3) contains protein and fat rich nutrients that are absorbed by the embryo via vessels (4) that allow the embryo to grow and metabolize. The air space (7) provides the embryo with oxygen while it is hatching. This ensures that the embryo will not suffocate while it is hatching. There are no larval stages of development. Viviparity and ovoviviparity have evolved in squamates and many extinct clades of reptiles. Among squamates, many species, including all boas and most vipers, use this mode of reproduction. The degree of viviparity varies; some species simply retain the eggs until just before hatching, others provide maternal nourishment to supplement the yolk, and yet others lack any yolk and provide all nutrients via a structure similar to the mammalian placenta. The earliest documented case of viviparity in reptiles is the Early Permian mesosaurs, although some individuals or taxa in that clade may also have been oviparous because a putative isolated egg has also been found. Several groups of Mesozoic marine reptiles also exhibited viviparity, such as mosasaurs, ichthyosaurs, and Sauropterygia, a group that includes pachypleurosaurs and Plesiosauria. Asexual reproduction has been identified in squamates in six families of lizards and one snake. In some species of squamates, a population of females is able to produce a unisexual diploid clone of the mother. This form of asexual reproduction, called parthenogenesis, occurs in several species of gecko, and is particularly widespread in the teiids (especially ''Aspidocelis'') and lacertids (''Lacerta''). In captivity, Komodo dragons (Varanidae) have reproduced by parthenogenesis. Parthenogenetic species are suspected to occur among chameleons, agamids, xantusiids, and typhlopids. Some reptiles exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination (TDSD), in which the incubation temperature determines whether a particular egg hatches as male or female. TDSD is most common in turtles and crocodiles, but also occurs in lizards and tuatara. To date, there has been no confirmation of whether TDSD occurs in snakes. === Lonġevità === Giant tortoises are among the longest-lived vertebrate animals (over 100 years by some estimates) and have been used as a model for studying longevity. DNA analysis of the genomes of Lonesome George, the iconic last member of ''Chelonoidis abingdonii'', and the Aldabra giant tortoise ''Aldabrachelys gigantea'' led to the detection of lineage-specific variants affecting DNA repair genes that might contribute to our understanding of increased lifespan. == Konjizzjoni == Reptiles were traditionally considered less intelligent on average than mammals and birds, but this is increasingly suspected to be the result of poor methodologies in past research and overreliance on brain size as indicators of intelligence rather than a genuine trait of reptiles. The size of their brain relative to their body is much less than that of mammals, the encephalization quotient being about one tenth of that of mammals, though larger reptiles can show more complex brain development. Larger lizards, like the monitors, are known to exhibit complex behavior, including cooperation and cognitive abilities allowing them to optimize their foraging and territoriality over time. Crocodiles have relatively larger brains and show a fairly complex social structure. The Komodo dragon is even known to engage in play, as are turtles, which are also considered to be social creatures, and sometimes switch between monogamy and promiscuity in their sexual behavior.^{[''citation needed'']} One study found that wood turtles were better than white rats at learning to navigate mazes. Another study found that giant tortoises are capable of learning through operant conditioning, visual discrimination and retained learned behaviors with long-term memory. Sea turtles have been regarded as having simple brains, but their flippers are used for a variety of foraging tasks (holding, bracing, corralling) in common with marine mammals. There is evidence that reptiles are sentient and able to feel emotions including anxiety and pleasure. == Mekkaniżmi ta' difiża == Many small reptiles, such as snakes and lizards, that live on the ground or in the water are vulnerable to being preyed on by all kinds of carnivorous animals. Thus, avoidance is the most common form of defense in reptiles. At the first sign of danger, most snakes and lizards crawl away into the undergrowth, and turtles and crocodiles will plunge into water and sink out of sight. === Mimetizzazzjoni u twissija === Reptiles tend to avoid confrontation through camouflage. Two major groups of reptile predators are birds and other reptiles, both of which have well-developed color vision. Thus the skins of many reptiles have cryptic coloration of plain or mottled gray, green, and brown to allow them to blend into the background of their natural environment. Aided by the reptiles' capacity for remaining motionless for long periods, the camouflage of many snakes is so effective that people or domestic animals are most typically bitten because they accidentally step on them. When camouflage fails to protect them, blue-tongued skinks will try to ward off attackers by displaying their blue tongues, and the frill-necked lizard will display its brightly colored frill. These same displays are used in territorial disputes and during courtship. If danger arises so suddenly that flight is useless, crocodiles, turtles, some lizards, and some snakes hiss loudly when confronted by an enemy. Rattlesnakes rapidly vibrate the tip of the tail, which is composed of a series of nested, hollow beads to ward off approaching danger. In contrast to the normal drab coloration of most reptiles, the lizards of the genus ''Heloderma'' (the Gila monster and the beaded lizard) and many of the coral snakes have high-contrast warning coloration, warning potential predators they are venomous. A number of non-venomous North American snake species have colorful markings similar to those of the coral snake, an oft cited example of Batesian mimicry. === Difiża alternattiva fis-sriep === Camouflage does not always fool a predator. When caught out, snake species adopt different defensive tactics and use a complicated set of behaviors when attacked. Some species, like cobras or hognose snakes, first elevate their head and spread out the skin of their neck in an effort to look large and threatening. Failure of this strategy may lead to other measures practiced particularly by cobras, vipers, and closely related species, which use venom to attack. The venom is modified saliva, delivered through fangs from a venom gland. Some non-venomous snakes, such as American hognose snakes or European grass snake, play dead when in danger; some, including the grass snake, exude a foul-smelling liquid to deter attackers. === Difiża fil-kukkudrilli === When a crocodilian is concerned about its safety, it will gape to expose the teeth and tongue. If this does not work, the crocodilian gets a little more agitated and typically begins to make hissing sounds. After this, the crocodilian will start to change its posture dramatically to make itself look more intimidating. The body is inflated to increase apparent size. If absolutely necessary, it may decide to attack an enemy. Some species try to bite immediately. Some will use their heads as sledgehammers and literally smash an opponent, some will rush or swim toward the threat from a distance, even chasing the opponent onto land or galloping after it. The main weapon in all crocodiles is the bite, which can generate very high bite force. Many species also possess canine-like teeth. These are used primarily for seizing prey, but are also used in fighting and display. === Bdil tal-qxur u riġenerazzjoni tad-denb === Geckos, skinks, and some other lizards that are captured by the tail will shed part of the tail structure through a process called autotomy and thus be able to flee. The detached tail will continue to thrash, creating a deceptive sense of continued struggle and distracting the predator's attention from the fleeing prey animal. The detached tails of leopard geckos can wiggle for up to 20 minutes. The tail grows back in most species, but some, like crested geckos, lose their tails for the rest of their lives. In many species the tails are of a separate and dramatically more intense color than the rest of the body so as to encourage potential predators to strike for the tail first. In the shingleback skink and some species of geckos, the tail is short and broad and resembles the head, so that the predators may attack it rather than the more vulnerable front part. Reptiles that are capable of shedding their tails can partially regenerate them over a period of weeks. The new section will however contain cartilage rather than bone, and will never grow to the same length as the original tail. It is often also distinctly discolored compared to the rest of the body and may lack some of the external sculpting features seen in the original tail. == Rabtiet mal-bniedem == === Fil-kulturi u fir-reliġjonijiet === Dinosaurs have been widely depicted in culture since the English palaeontologist Richard Owen coined the name ''dinosaur'' in 1842. As soon as 1854, the Crystal Palace Dinosaurs were on display to the public in south London. One dinosaur appeared in literature even earlier, as Charles Dickens placed a ''Megalosaurus'' in the first chapter of his novel ''Bleak House'' in 1852. The dinosaurs featured in books, films, television programs, artwork, and other media have been used for both education and entertainment. The depictions range from the realistic, as in the television documentaries of the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, to the fantastic, as in the monster movies of the 1950s and 1960s. The snake or serpent has played a powerful symbolic role in different cultures. In Egyptian history, the Nile cobra adorned the crown of the pharaoh. It was worshipped as one of the gods and was also used for sinister purposes: murder of an adversary and ritual suicide (Cleopatra). In Greek mythology, snakes are associated with deadly antagonists, as a chthonic symbol, roughly translated as ''earthbound''. The nine-headed Lernaean Hydra that Hercules defeated and the three Gorgon sisters are children of Gaia, the earth. Medusa was one of the three Gorgon sisters who Perseus defeated. Medusa is described as a hideous mortal, with snakes instead of hair and the power to turn men to stone with her gaze. After killing her, Perseus gave her head to Athena who fixed it to her shield called the Aegis. The Titans are depicted in art with their legs replaced by bodies of snakes for the same reason: They are children of Gaia, so they are bound to the earth. In Hinduism, snakes are worshipped as gods, with many women pouring milk on snake pits. The cobra is seen on the neck of Shiva, while Vishnu is depicted often as sleeping on a seven-headed snake or within the coils of a serpent. There are temples in India solely for cobras sometimes called ''Nagraj'' (King of Snakes), and it is believed that snakes are symbols of fertility. In the annual Hindu festival of Nag Panchami, snakes are venerated and prayed to. In religious terms, the snake and jaguar are arguably the most important animals in ancient Mesoamerica. "In states of ecstasy, lords dance a serpent dance; great descending snakes adorn and support buildings from Chichen Itza to Tenochtitlan, and the Nahuatl word ''coatl'' meaning serpent or twin, forms part of primary deities such as Mixcoatl, Quetzalcoatl, and Coatlicue." In Christianity and Judaism, a serpent appears in Genesis to tempt Adam and Eve with the forbidden fruit from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. The turtle has a prominent position as a symbol of steadfastness and tranquility in religion, mythology, and folklore from around the world. A tortoise's longevity is suggested by its long lifespan and its shell, which was thought to protect it from any foe. In the cosmological myths of several cultures a ''World Turtle'' carries the world upon its back or supports the heavens. === Mediċina === Deaths from snakebites are uncommon in many parts of the world, but are still counted in tens of thousands per year in India. Snakebite can be treated with antivenom made from the venom of the snake. To produce antivenom, a mixture of the venoms of different species of snake is injected into the body of a horse in ever-increasing dosages until the horse is immunized. Blood is then extracted; the serum is separated, purified and freeze-dried. The cytotoxic effect of snake venom is being researched as a potential treatment for cancers. '''Gila monsters''' produce compounds that reduce plasma glucose; one of these substances is now used in the anti-diabetes drug exenatide (Byetta), a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist like semiglutide (Ozempic). Another toxin from Gila monster saliva has been studied for use as an anti-Alzheimer's drug. Geckos have also been used as '''folk medicine''', especially in China, without any evidence that they have any active compounds. Turtles have been used in Chinese traditional medicine for thousands of years, with every part of the turtle believed to have medical benefits (again, without scientific evidence). Growing demand for '''turtle meat''' has placed pressure on vulnerable wild populations of turtles. === Trobbija kummerċjali === Crocodiles are protected in many parts of the world, and are farmed commercially. Their hides are tanned and used to make leather goods such as shoes and handbags; crocodile meat is also considered a delicacy. The most commonly farmed species are the saltwater and Nile crocodiles. Farming has resulted in an increase in the saltwater crocodile population in Australia, as eggs are usually harvested from the wild, so landowners have an incentive to conserve their habitat. Crocodile leather is made into wallets, briefcases, purses, handbags, belts, hats, and shoes. Crocodile oil has been used for various purposes. Snakes are also farmed, primarily in East and Southeast Asia, and their production has become more intensive in the last decade. Snake farming has been troubling for conservation in the past as it can lead to overexploitation of wild snakes and their natural prey to supply the farms. However, farming snakes can limit the hunting of wild snakes, while reducing the slaughter of higher-order vertebrates like cows. The energy efficiency of snakes is higher than expected for carnivores, due to their ectothermy and low metabolism. Waste protein from the poultry and pig industries is used as feed in snake farms. Snake farms produce meat, snake skin, and antivenom. Turtle farming is another known but controversial practice. Turtles have been farmed for a variety of reasons, ranging from food to traditional medicine, the pet trade, and scientific conservation. Demand for turtle meat and medicinal products is one of the main threats to turtle conservation in Asia. Though commercial breeding would seem to insulate wild populations, it can stoke the demand for them and increase wild captures. Even the potentially appealing concept of raising turtles at a farm to release into the wild is questioned by some veterinarians who have had some experience with farm operations. They caution that this may introduce into the wild populations infectious diseases that occur on the farm, but have not (yet) been occurring in the wild. === Rettili fil-magħluq === A herpetarium is a zoological exhibition space for reptiles and amphibians. In the Western world, some snakes (especially relatively docile species such as the ball python and corn snake) are sometimes kept as pets. Numerous species of lizard are kept as pets, including bearded dragons, iguanas, anoles, and geckos (such as the popular leopard gecko and the crested gecko). Turtles and tortoises are increasingly popular pets, but keeping them can be challenging due to their particular requirements, such as temperature control, the need for UV light sources, and a varied diet. The long lifespans of turtles and especially tortoises mean they can potentially outlive their owners. Good hygiene and significant maintenance is necessary when keeping reptiles, due to the risks of ''Salmonella'' and other pathogens. Regular hand-washing after handling is an important measure to prevent infection. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Rettili]] [[Kategorija:Klassifikazzjoni xjentifika]] tpex40o4ldz04vqdj37rl1cjzpr2ml6 329542 329540 2026-04-24T11:45:40Z Trigcly 17859 /* Anapsidi, sinapsidi, diapsidi u sawropsidi */ 329542 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:TWC Wildlife Centre• Stewart Nimmo • MRD 8910.jpg|daqsminuri|Tuatara.]] '''Rettilu''', xi kultant imsejjaħ '''rettili''' b'mod invarjabbli bejn is-singular u l-plural, spiss jiġi definit bħala [[annimal]] vertebrat tetrapodu b'metaboliżmu ektotermiku u bi żvilupp amnijotiku. Tradizzjonalment ir-rettili huma magħmula minn erba' [[Ordni (bijoloġija)|ordnijiet]]: ''Testudines'' (fkieren), ''Crocodilia'' (kukkudrilli, alligaturi u garjal), ''Squamata'' (gremxul u [[Serp|sriep]]) u ''Rhynchocephalia'' (tuatara), b'madwar 12,000 [[speċi]] eżistenti fil-Bażi tad-Data tar-Rettili.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.reptile-database.org/db-info/news.html|titlu=Reptile Database News|sit=www.reptile-database.org|data-aċċess=2026-04-23}}</ref> L-istudju tal-ordnijiet tar-rettili tradizzjonali, normalment flimkien mal-istudju tal-[[Anfibju|anfibji]] moderni, jissejjaħ erpetoloġija. Ir-rettili ġew soġġetti għal diversi definizzjonijiet tassonomiċi kunfliġġenti.<ref>Modesto, S.P.; Anderson, J.S. (2004). "The phylogenetic definition of Reptilia". ''Systematic Biology''. '''53''' (5): 815–821. doi:10.1080/10635150490503026. <nowiki>PMID 15545258</nowiki>.</ref> Fit-tassonomija evoluzzjonarja klassika, ir-rettili jinġabru taħt il-[[Klassi (bijoloġija)|klassi]] '''''Reptilia''''' (pronunzja: /rɛpˈtɪliə/ ''rep-TIL-ee-ə''), skont l-użu komuni. It-tassonomija kladistika moderna tqis lil dak il-grupp bħala parafiletiku, peress li l-evidenza ġenetika u paleontoloġika ddeterminat li l-[[Għasfur|għasafar]] (il-klassi ''Aves'') huma l-uniku grupp li għadu eżistenti ta' ''Dinosauria'', grupp monofiletiku ewlieni ta' diapsidi li huma relatati iktar mill-qrib mal-''Crocodilia'' milli ma rettili ħajjin oħra, u għaldaqstant l-għasafar jinsabu fost ir-rettili (taħt l-''Archosauria'') minn perspettiva filoġenetika. Għalhekk, bosta sistemi kladistiċi jiddefinixxi mill-ġdid ir-''Reptilia'' bħala grupp monofiletiku li jinkludi l-għasafar, għalkemm id-definizzjoni preċiża ta' dan il-grupp monofiletiku jvarja minn awtur għal ieħor. Kunċett simili huwa dak tal-grupp monofiletiku tas-''Sauropsida'', li jirreferi għall-amnijoti kollha bħala relatati iktar mill-qrib mar-rettili moderni milli mal-mammiferi.<ref>Gauthier, J.A. (1994). "The diversification of the amniotes". In Prothero, D.R.; Schoch, R.M. (eds.). ''Major Features of Vertebrate Evolution''. Vol. 7. Knoxville, TN: The Paleontological Society. pp. 129–159. doi:10.1017/S247526300000129X.</ref> L-iżjed membri bikrin magħrufa tan-nisel tar-rettili tfaċċaw matul il-perjodu Karboniferu aħħari, wara li evolvew minn tetrapodi rettilomorfi avvanzati li kulma jmur adattaw ruħhom iktar għall-ħajja fuq l-art niexfa.<ref>Reisz, R. R. (1981). ''A diapsid reptile from the Pennsylvanian of Kansas''. Natural History Museum, University of Kansas.</ref> Id-data ġenetika u tal-fossili ssostni li l-ikbar żewġ insla tar-rettili, l-arkosawromorfi (il-kukkudrilli, l-għasafar u l-annimali relatati) u l-lepidosawromorfi (il-gremxul u l-annimali relatati), varjaw minn xulxin matul il-perjodu Permjan.<ref>Ezcurra, M.D.; Scheyer, T.M.; Butler, R.J. (2014). "The origin and early evolution of Sauria: Reassessing the Permian saurian fossil record and the timing of the crocodile-lizard divergence". ''PLOS ONE''. '''9''' (2) e89165. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...989165E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089165. PMC 3937355. <nowiki>PMID 24586565</nowiki>.</ref> Minbarra r-rettili ħajjin, hemm diversità kbira ta' gruppi li issa huma estinti, f'xi każijiet minħabba avvenimenti ta' estinzjoni tal-massa. B'mod partikolari, l-avveniment tal-estinzjoni fil-perjodu Kretaċju–Paleoġen qered għalkollox il-pterosawri, il-plesjosawri u d-[[Dinosawru|dinosawri]] kollha li ma kinux tjur, flimkien ma' bosta speċijiet ta' kukkudrilloformi u ''Squamata'' (eż. możasawri). Ir-rettili moderni li mhumiex tjur huma mifruxa mal-[[Kontinent|kontinenti]] kollha għajr l-[[Antartika]]. Ir-rettili eżistenti jvarjaw bħala daqs mill-wiżgħa nana ċkejkna ta' Jaragua (''Sphaerodactylus ariasae''), li tikber biss sa 17-il millimetru (0.7 pulzieri); sal-kukkudrill tal-baħar (''Crocodylus porosus''), li jista' jaqbeż tul ta' 6 metri (19.7 pied) u jiżen iktar minn 1,000 kilogramma (2,200 libbra). Bħala tetrapodi, ir-rettili ġeneralment ikollhom erba' saqajn, jew fil-każ tas-sriep u l-gremxul bla saqajn, ikunu dixxendenti minn antenati b'erba' saqajn iżda jkunu tilfu saqajhom matul l-[[evoluzzjoni]]. Għad-differenza tal-anfibji anamnijotiċi, ir-rettili ma jiddependux fuq il-korpi tal-ilma għar-riproduzzjoni u ma jkollhom l-ebda stadju ta' larvi akkwatiċi. Il-biċċa l-kbira tar-rettili huma ovipari b'bajd bil-qoxra, għalkemm diversi speċijiet ta' ''Squamata'' huma vivipari, bħal uħud mir-rettili monofiletiċi estinti tal-baħar.<ref>Sander, P. Martin (2012). "Reproduction in early amniotes". ''Science''. '''337''' (6096): 806–808. Bibcode:2012Sci...337..806S. doi:10.1126/science.1224301. <nowiki>PMID 22904001</nowiki>. S2CID 7041966.</ref> Bħala amnijoti, il-bajd tar-rettili jkollu membrana ekstraembrijonika li żżomm l-ilma u li tiffaċilita l-iskambju bijokimiku mal-ambjent estern, u b'hekk ir-rettili jkunu jistgħu jirriproduċu fuq l-art niexfa, saħansitra f'ħabitats aridi u estremi. L-ispeċijiet vivipari jkollhom il-bajd li jiżviluppa u li jfaqqas fi ħdan il-ġisem tal-omm, normalment b'inkubazzjoni interna, għalkemm xi speċijiet jistgħu jitimgħu l-bajd bħala feti permezz ta' diversi forom ta' plaċenti analogi, u wħud jipprovdu l-indukrar parentali inizjali għall-frieħ tagħhom. == Klassifikazzjoni == === Tassonomija klassika u riċerka === [[Stampa:Reptile003d (group).jpg|daqsminuri|Ir-rettili minn ''Nouveau Larousse Illustré'', 1897–1904, ta' min jinnota l-inklużjoni tal-anfibji (taħt il-''Crocodilia'').]] Fis-seklu 13, il-kategorija tar-''rettili'' ġiet rikonoxxuta fl-[[Ewropa]] bħala waħda li tikkonsisti minn taħlita ta' ħlejqiet li jbidu l-bajd, fosthom "is-sriep, diversi mostri fantastiċi, gremxul, diversi anfibji, u dud", kif irreġistrat minn Beauvais fil-''Mera tan-Natura'' tiegħu. Fis-seklu 18, ir-rettili mill-bidu nett tal-klassifikazzjoni, ġew raggruppati mal-anfibji. [[Carl Linnaeus]], li kien jaħdem fl-[[Żvezja|Iżvezja]] li ma tantx kellha wisq speċijiet, u fejn il-lifgħa u s-serp tal-ħaxix spiss jinstabu jikkaċċjaw fl-ilma, inkluda r-rettili u l-anfibji kollha fil-klassi "III – ''Amphibia''" fis-''Systema Naturæ'' tiegħu. It-[[Terminoloġija|termini]] "rettilu" u "anfibju" fil-biċċa l-kbira kienu interkambjabbli, għalkemm "rettilu" (mil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]] ''repere'', "tkaxkar") kien ippreferut mill-[[Franza|Franċiżi]]. [[J.N. Laurenti]] kien l-ewwel wieħed li uża formalment it-terminu ''Reptilia'' għal għażla wiesgħa ta' rettili u ta' anfibji bażikament kif kien għamel Linnaeus. Illum il-ġurnata, iż-żewġ gruppi għadhom trattati bl-istess intestatura unika, jiġifieri l-erpetoloġija. Ma kienx qabel il-bidu tas-seklu 19 li kien ċar li r-rettili u l-anfibji fil-fatt huma annimali pjuttost differenti, u [[P.A. Latreille]] ħoloq il-klassi ''Batracia'' (1825) għal dawn tal-aħħar, u qasam it-tetrapodi fl-erba' klassijiet ta' familji ta' rettili, anfibji, għasafar u mammiferi. L-anatomista [[Renju Unit|Brittaniku]] [[T.H. Huxley]] wassal biex id-definizzjoni ta' Latreille ssir popolari, u flimkien ma' [[Richard Owen]], wessa' r-''Reptilia'' biex jinkludu d-diversi fossili ta' "mostri antedilluvjani", fosthom id-dinosawri u d-''Dicynodon'', li huwa sinapsidu qisu mammiferu li huwa għen biex jiġi deskritt. Din ma kinitx l-unika skema ta' klassifikazzjoni possibbli: fil-lekċers ta' Hunter mogħtija fil-Kulleġġ Irjali tal-[[Kirurgu|Kirurgi]] fl-1863, Huxley ġabar il-vertebrati mal-mammiferi, mas-sawrojdi u mal-iktjojdi (dawn tal-aħħar jinkludu l-ħut u l-anfibji). Sussegwentement huwa ppropona l-ismijiet tas-sawropsidi u tal-iktjopsidi għal dawn iż-żewġ gruppi tal-aħħar. Fl-1866, Haeckel wera li l-vertebrati setgħu jinqasmu abbażi tal-istrateġiji riproduttivi tagħhom, u li r-rettili, l-għasafar u l-mammiferi kienu magħqudin mill-bajd amnijotiku. It-termini ''sawropsidi'' ("uċuħ tal-gremxul") u ''teropsidi'' ("uċuħ tal-bestji") reġgħu ntużaw fl-1916 minn [[E.S. Goodrich]] biex jiddistingwi bejn il-gremxul, l-għasafar u l-qrabat tagħhom minn naħa waħda (sawropsidi) u l-mammiferi u l-qrabat estinti tagħhom (teropsidi) fuq in-naħa l-oħra. Goodrich appoġġa din id-diviżjoni skont in-natura tal-[[Qalb|qlub]] u tal-istrutturi taċ-ċirkolazzjoni tad-[[demm]] f'kull grupp, u karatteristiċi oħra, bħall-istruttura tal-parti ta' quddiem tal-[[moħħ]]. Skont Goodrich, iż-żewġ insla evolvew minn grupp uniku bikri, il-protosawri ("l-ewwel gremxul"), fejn huwa inkluda xi annimali li llum il-ġurnata jitqiesu bħala anfibji qishom rettili, kif ukoll rettili bikrin. [[Stampa:MosasaurDiscovery.jpg|daqsminuri|Inċiżjoni tas-seklu 18 ta' "mostru antedilluvjan", il-możasawru, skopert f'barriera tal-[[ġebla tal-ġir]] f'[[Maastricht]] fl-1770.]] Fl-1956, [[D.M.S. Watson]] osserva li l-ewwel żewġ gruppi nfirdu fi stadju bikri ħafna fl-istorja tar-rettili, għaldaqstant huwa qasam il-protosawri ta' Goodrich bejniethom. Huwa ta interpretazzjoni mill-ġdid tas-sawropsidi u tat-teropsidi sabiex jeskludi l-għasafar u l-mammiferi, rispettivament. B'hekk is-sawropsidi tiegħu kienu jinkludu l-''Procolophonia'', l-''Eosuchia'', il-''Millerosauria'', il-''Chelonia'' (fkieren), l-''iSquamata'' (gremxul u sriep), ir-''Rhynchocephalia'', il-''Crocodilia'', it-"tecodonti" (l-''Archosauria'' bażiċi parafiletiċi), id-dinosawri li ma kinux tjur, il-pterosawri, l-iktijosawri u s-sawropteriġjani. Fl-aħħar tas-seklu 19 ġew offruti għadd ta' definizzjonijiet tar-''Reptilia''. Il-karatteristiċi [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġiċi]] elenkati minn Lydekker fl-1896, pereżempju, jinkludu kondil oċċipitali uniku, ġog tax-xedaq iffurmat mill-għadam tal-kwadrat u artikolari, u ċerti karatteristiċi tal-vertebri. L-annimali li spikkaw permezz ta' dawn il-formulazzjonijiet, l-amnijoti għajr il-mammiferi u l-għasafar, għadhom jitqiesu bħala r-rettili llum il-ġurnata. Id-diviżjoni bejn is-sinapsidi u s-sawropsidi ssupplimentat approċċ ieħor, wieħed li jaqsam ir-rettili f'erba' subklassijiet abbażi tal-għadd u tal-pożizzjoni ta' fetħiet fil-ġnub tal-kranju wara l-għajnejn. Din il-klassifikazzjoni nbdiet minn [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] u ġiet elaborata u saret popolari permezz tal-''Paleontoloġija tal-Vertebrati'' ta' Romer. Dawn l-erba' subklassijiet kienu: * l-anapsidi – l-ebda fetħa fil-ġnub tal-kranju – kotilosawri u l-''chelonia'' (fkieren u qrabathom); * is-sinapsidi – fetħa baxxa waħda fil-ġnub tal-kranju – pelikosawri u terapsidi (ir-"rettili qishom mammiferi"); * l-ewriapsidi – fetħa għolja waħda fil-ġnub tal-kranju (fuq iż-żona postorbitali u skwamożali) – protorosawri (rettili żgħar u bikrin qishom gremxul) u s-sawropteriġjani u l-iktijosawri tal-baħar, dawn tal-aħħar imsejħa parapsidi fix-xogħol ta' Osborn; * id-diapsidi – żewġ fetħiet fil-ġnub tal-kranju – il-biċċa l-kbira tar-rettili, fosthom il-gremxul, is-sriep, il-kukkudrilli, id-dinosawri u l-pterosawri. Il-kompożizzjoni tal-ewriapsidi ma kinitx ċerta. Xi kultant, l-iktijosawri tqiesu donnhom żdiedu b'mod indipendenti mill-ewriapsidi l-oħra, u ngħataw l-isem iktar antik ta' parapsidi. Iktar 'il quddiem il-parapsidi ġew skartati fil-biċċa l-kbira bħala grupp (l-iktijosawri ġew ikklassifikati bħala ''incertae sedis'' jew mal-ewriapsidi). Madankollu, erba' subklassijiet (jew tlieta jekk l-ewriapsidi jitwaħħdu mad-diapsidi) baqgħu bejn wieħed u ieħor universali għax-xogħol mhux speċjalist matul is-seklu 20. Din fil-biċċa l-kbira ġiet abbandunata mir-riċerkaturi reċenti. B'mod partikolari, instab li l-kundizzjoni tal-anapsidi tant tokkorri b'mod varjabbli fost il-gruppi mhux relatati li issa ma titqiesx bħala distinzjoni utli. === Filoġenetika u definizzjoni moderna === [[Stampa:Varanodon1DB.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-klassifikazzjonijiet filoġenetiċi jiġbru flimkien lir-"rettili qishom mammiferi", bħal dan il-''varanodon'', flimkien ma' sinapsidi oħra, mhux ma' rettili eżistenti.]] Sal-bidu tas-seklu 21, il-paleontologi tal-vertebrati bdew jadottaw tassonomija filoġenetika, fejn il-gruppi kollha jiġu defini b'tali mod li jkunu monofiletiċi; jiġifieri, gruppi li jinkludu d-dixxendenti kollha ta' antenat partikolari. Storikament ir-rettili ġew definiti bħala parafiletiċi, peress li jeskludu l-għasafar u l-mammiferi. Dawn evolvew rispettivament mid-dinosawri u minn terapsidi bikrin, li t-tnejn li huma tradizzjonalment kienu jissejħu "rettili". L-għasafar huma relatati iktar mill-qrib mal-''Crocodilia'' milli dawn tal-aħħar huma mal-bqija tar-rettili eżistenti. [[Colin Tudge]] kiteb:<blockquote>Il-mammiferi huma grupp monofiletiku, u għaldaqstant dawk li jippreferu tali klassifikazzjoni lesti li jirrikonoxxu t-[[takson]] tradizzjonali ''Mammalia''; u l-għasafar ukoll huma grupp monofiletiku, li universalment jitqies li jappartjeni għat-takson formali ''Aves''. Il-''Mammalia'' u l-''Aves'' fil-fatt huma sottogruppi monofiletiċi fi ħdan grupp monofiletiku kbir tal-''Amniota''. Iżda l-klassi tradizzjonali tar-''Reptilia'' mhijiex grupp monofiletiku. Hija biss sezzjoni mill-grupp monofiletiku tal-''Amniota'': is-sezzjoni li jifdal wara li jitneħħew il-''Mammalia'' u l-''Aves''. Ma tistax tiġi definita kif suppost skont is-sinapomorfji. Minflok, tiġi definita skont taħlita tal-karatteristiċi li għandha u tal-karatteristiċi li ma għandhiex: ir-rettili huma l-amnijoti li ma jkollhomx pil jew rix. L-iktar l-iktar, dawk li jippreferu tali klassifikazzjoni jissuġġerixxu li wieħed jista' jgħid li r-''Reptilia'' tradizzjonali huma amnijoti "li ma jkunux tjur u li ma jkunux mammiferi".</blockquote>Minkejja l-proposti bikrin biex ir-''Reptilia'' parafiletiċi jiġu sostitwiti bis-sawropsidi monofiletiċi, li jinkludu l-għasafar, dak it-terminu qatt ma ġie adottat b'mod mifrux, jew meta beda jiġi adottat, ma ġiex applikat b'mod konsistenti. Meta ntuża t-terminu sawropsidi, spiss kien jinkludi l-istess kontenut jew saħansitra kellu l-istess definizzjoni bħar-''Reptilia''. Fl-1988, [[Jacques Gauthier]] ippropona definizzjonali tar-''Reptilia'' bħala grupp monofiletiku ewlieni li jinkludi l-fkieren, il-gremxul u s-sriep, il-kukkudrilli u l-għasafar, flimkien mal-antenati komuni tagħhom u d-dixxendenti kollha tagħhom. Filwaqt li d-definizzjoni ta' Gauthier kienet qrib għall-konsensus modern, minkejja dan bdiet titqies bħala mhux adegwata minħabba r-relazzjoni effettiva tal-fkieren ma' rettili oħra dak iż-żmien ma kinitx mifhuma sew. Minn dak iż-żmien saru reviżjonijiet kbar li inkludew l-assenjar mill-ġdid tas-sinapsidi bħala mhux rettili, u l-klassifikazzjoni tal-fkieren bħala diapsidi. Id-definizzjoni ta' Gauthier fl-1994 u ta' Laurin u Reisz fl-1995 tas-sawropsidi wasslet għal definizzjoni tal-ambitu tal-grupp bħala wieħed distint u usa' minn dak tar-''Reptilia'', u jħaddan il-''Mesosauridae'' kif ukoll ir-''Reptilia'' ''sensu stricto''. Varjetà sħiħa ta' definizzjonijiet oħra ġew proposti minn xjenzati oħra fis-snin ta' wara d-dokument ta' Gauthier. L-ewwel waħda fost tali definizzjonijiet, li ppruvat taderixxi mal-istandards tal-Kodiċi Filoġenetiku ġiet ippubblikata minn Modesto u Anderson fl-2004. Modesto u Anderson irrieżaminaw il-bosta definizzjonijiet preċedenti u pproponew definizzjoni modifikata, u kellhom il-ħsieb li jżommu l-iżjed kontenut tradizzjonali tal-grupp filwaqt li jħalluh stabbli u monofiletiku. Huma ddefinew ir-''Reptilia'' bħala l-amnijoti kollha li huma eqreb għal-''Lacerta agilis'' u għall-''Crocodylus niloticus'' mill-''[[Homo sapiens]]''. Din id-definizzjoni hija ekwivalenti għall-iktar definizzjoni komuni tas-sawropsidi, li Modesto u Anderson sostnew li kienu sinonimu tar-''Reptilia'', peress li dan it-terminu tal-aħħar huwa magħruf iktar u jintuża iktar spiss. Madankollu, għad-differenza tal-biċċa l-kbira tad-definizzjonijiet preċedenti tar-''Reptilia'', id-definizzjoni ta' Modesto u Anderson tinkludi l-għasafar, peress li huma fi ħdan il-grupp monofiletiku li jinkludi kemm il-gremxul kif ukoll il-kukkudrilli. === Tassonomija === Klassifikazzjoni ġenerali tar-rettili estinti u ħajjin, li tiffoka fuq il-gruppi ewlenin: * '''''Reptilia'''/'''Sauropsida''''' ** ''Araeoscelidia?'' ** <abbr>†</abbr>'''''Parareptilia''''' (x'aktarx parafiletiċi) *** '''''Diapsida'''/'''Neodiapsida''''' **** <abbr>†</abbr>''Drepanosauromorpha'' (kollokazzjoni inċerta) **** <abbr>†</abbr>''Younginiformes'' (x'aktarx parafiletiċi) **** <abbr>†</abbr>Ichthyosauromorpha (kollokazzjoni inċerta) **** <abbr>†</abbr>''Thalattosauria'' (kollokazzjoni inċerta) **** <abbr>†</abbr>''Sauropterygia'' (kollokazzjoni inċerta) **** <abbr>†</abbr>''Choristodera'' (kollokazzjoni inċerta) **** '''''Sauria''''' ***** '''''Lepidosauromorpha''''' ****** ''Lepidosauria'' ******* ''Rhynchocephalia'' (tuatara) ******* ''Squamata'' (gremxul u sriep) ***** '''''Pantestudines''''' (fkieren u qrabat, kollokazzjoni inċerta) ***** '''''Archosauromorpha''''' ****** <abbr>†</abbr>''Protorosauria'' (parafiletiċi) ****** <abbr>†</abbr>''Rhynchosauria'' ****** <abbr>†</abbr>''Allokotosauria'' ****** ''Archosauriformes'' ******* <abbr>†</abbr>''Phytosauria'' ******* '''''Archosauria''''' ******** ''Pseudosuchia'' ********* ''Crocodilia'' (kukkudrilli u qrabat) ******** ''Avemetatarsalia/Ornithodira'' ********* <abbr>†</abbr>''Pterosauria'' ********* ''Dinosauria'' ********** <abbr>†</abbr>''Ornithischia'' ********** ''Saurischia'' (inkluż l-għasafar ('''''Aves''''')) === Filoġenija === L-"arblu tar-razza" tar-rettili jsegwi verżjoni ssimplifikata tar-relazzjonijiet li nstabu minn M.S. Lee fl-2013. L-istudji ġenetiċi kollha appoġġaw l-ipoteżi li l-fkieren huma diapsidi; uħud poġġew il-fkieren fi ħdan l-''Archosauromorpha'', għalkemm uħud minflok poġġew il-fkieren bħala ''Lepidosauromorpha''. === Il-pożizzjoni tal-fkieren === Il-kollokazzjoni tal-fkieren storikament kienet varjabbli ferm. Klassikament, il-fkieren ġew meqjusa bħala relatati mar-rettili anapsidi primittivi. Fl-analiżi komparattiva tagħhom tal-kronoloġija tal-organoġenesi, Werneburg u Sánchez-Villagra (2009) sabu appoġġ għall-ipoteżi li l-fkieren jagħmlu parti minn grupp monofiletiku separat fi ħdan is-sawropsidi, barra mill-grupp monofiletiku sawrjan. Normalment ix-xogħol molekolari wassal għall-kollokazzjoni tal-fkieren fi ħdan id-diapsidi. Sal-2013 ġew sekwenzjati tliet ġenomi tal-fkieren. Ir-riżultati jikkollokaw il-fkieren bħala grupp monofiletiku relatat mal-arċosawri, li huma l-grupp li jinkludi l-''Crocodilia'', id-dinosawri li mhumiex tjur u l-għasafar. == Storja evoluzzjonarja == === Oriġini tar-rettili === L-oriġini tar-rettili tmur lura madwar 310–320 miljun sena ilu, fl-artijiet bassasa bl-istim tal-perjodu Karboniferu aħħari, meta l-ewwel rettili evolvew minn rettilomorfi avvanzati. L-iktar annimal tal-qedem magħruf li jaf kien amnijota huwa l-''Casineria'' (għalkemm jaf kien temnospondil). Sensiela ta' impronti tas-saqajn mis-saff tal-fossili ta' Nova Scotia li jmorru lura għal 315-il miljun sena fihom impronti tipiċi tas-swaba' tar-rettili u impronti tal-qxur tal-ġilda. Dawn l-impronti tas-saqajn issa ġew attribwiti lill-''Hylonomus'', li storikament jitqies bħala l-iktar rettilu tal-qedem magħruf, iżda l-kollokazzjoni tiegħu fil-grupp dan l-aħħar ġiet dubitata. Dan kien annimal żgħir qisu gremxula, twil madwar 20 sa 30 ċentimetru (7.9 pulzieri sa 11.8 pulzier), b'bosta snien ippuntati li jindikaw dieta [[Insettivoru|insettivora]]. Eżempji oħra jinkludu l-''Westlothiana'' (li attwalment jitqies bħala rettilomorfu iktar milli amnijota reali) u l-''Paleothyris'', it-tnejn li huma ta' daqs simili u x'aktarx b'imġiba simili. Madankollu, il-mikrosawri xi kultant tqiesu bħala rettili reali, għaldaqstant jaf hija possibbli oriġini iktar bikrija. Fost ir-rettili reali mhux ambigwi mill-perjodu Karboniferu hemm l-''Erpetonyx'' u l-''Carbonodraco,'' it-tnejn li huma mill-[[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta' Fuq]]. === Żieda tar-rettili === L-iżjed amnijoti bikrin, fosthom l-anapsidi primittivi (jiġifieri l-amnijoti li huma eqreb għar-rettili moderni milli għall-mammiferi), fil-biċċa l-kbira ħadulhom posthom it-tetrapodi primittivi l-kbar bħall-''Cochleosaurus'', u baqgħu parti żgħira tal-fawna sal-Kollass Karboniferu tal-Foresti Pluvjali. Dan il-kollass ħesrem affettwa diversi gruppi kbar. It-tetrapodi primittivi ġew devastati partikolarment, filwaqt li r-rettili primittivi marru aħjar, peress li kienu adattati [[Ekoloġija|ekoloġikament]] għall-kundizzjonijiet iktar nexfin li ġew wara. It-tetrapodi primittivi, bħall-anfibji moderni, ikollhom jerġgħu lura fl-ilma biex ibidu l-bajd; f'kuntrast ma' dan, l-amnijoti, bħar-rettili moderni – li l-bajd tagħhom fih qoxra li permezz tagħha jista' jinbied fuq l-art – kienu adattati aħjar għall-kundizzjonijiet il-ġodda. L-amnijoti kisbu niċeċ ġodda b'rata iktar mgħaġġla minn qabel il-kollass u ferm iktar malajr mit-tetrapodi primittivi. Kisbu strateġiji ġodda tal-alimentazzjoni, inkluż strateġiji erbivori u karnivori, mentri qabel kienu insettivori u pixxivori biss. Minn dak iż-żmien 'il quddiem, ir-rettili ddominaw il-komunitajiet u kellhom diversità akbar mit-tetrapodi primittivi, għaldaqstant dan witta t-triq għall-perjodu Mesożojku (magħruf bħala l-Era tar-Rettili). Eżami tal-2021 tad-diversità tar-rettili fil-perjodu Karboniferu u fil-perjodu Permjan jissuġġerixxi livell ferm ogħla ta' diversità milli kien maħsub qabel, li huwa komparabbli jew saħansitra li jaqbeż dak tas-sinapsidi. Għalhekk ġiet proposta l-"Ewwel Era tar-Rettili". === Anapsidi, sinapsidi, diapsidi u sawropsidi === Tradizzjonalment kien maħsub li l-ewwel rettili kellhom kranju ta' anapsidi li wirtuh mill-antenati tagħhom. Dan it-tip ta' kranju kien fih għamla b'saħħitha b'toqob għall-minħarejn, għall-għajnejn u għall-glandola pineali. L-iskoperti ta' fetħiet qishom tas-sinapsidi fil-kranju ta' diversi membri tal-''Parareptilia'' (il-grupp li fih il-biċċa l-kbira tal-amnijoti tradizzjonalment magħrufa bħala "anapsidi"), inkluż il-lantanosukojdi, il-millerettidi, il-bolosawridi, xi nikteroleteridi, xi prokolofonojdi u mqar xi mesosawri, wasslu biex l-affarijiet ikunu iktar ambigwi u attwalment ma hemmx ċertezza dwar jekk l-amnijoti anċestrali kellhomx kranju qisu tal-anapsidi jew kranju qisu tas-sinapsidi. Tradizzjonalment dawn l-annimali jissejħu "anapsidi" u jiffurmaw grupp bażiku parafiletiku li minnu evolvew gruppi oħra. Ftit wara li tfaċċaw l-ewwel amnijoti, in-nisel tas-sinapsidi nqasam għalih waħdu; dan il-grupp kien karatterizzat minn fetħa fil-kranju wara kull għajn biex b'hekk il-muskolu tax-xedaq kellu biżżejed spazju biex jiċċaqlaq. Dawn huma l-"amnijoti qishom mammiferi" jew mammiferi primittivi, li iktar 'il quddiem wasslu għall-mammiferi reali. Ftit wara, grupp ieħor evolva karatteristika simili, din id-darba b'fetħa doppja wara kull għajn, u b'hekk issejjaħ ''Diapsida'' ("żewġ ħnejjiet"). Il-funzjoni tat-toqob f'dawn il-gruppi kienet li jitħaffef il-kranju u jkun hemm biżżejjed spazju biex il-muskoli tax-xedaq jiċċaqilqu, u b'hekk l-annimal seta' jkollu gidma qawwija. Storikament, filwaqt li l-grupp tar-rettili qishom gremxul tal-perjodu Karboniferu aħħari u tal-perjodu Permjan bikri tal-''Araeoscelidia'', li (ġeneralment) huma diapsidi morfoloġikament, ġew meqjusa bħala l-iżjed rappreżentanti bikrin tal-grupp monofiletiku tad-diapsidi, l-istudji filoġenetiċi mis-snin 20 tas-seklu 20 wasslu għal dubji serji rigward ir-relazzjoni tagħhom ma' diapsidi oħra (''Neodiapsida''), u ġew meqjusa bħala fergħa diverġenti bikrija ħafna tar-''Reptilia'' jew saħansitra barra mir-''Reptilia'' għalkollox. Tradizzjonalment kien maħsub li l-fkieren kienu pararettili ħajjin, abbażi tal-istruttura tal-kranju tagħhom bħala anapsidi, u dan ġie meqjus bħala karatteristika primittiva. Ir-raġunament li wassal għal din il-klassifikazzjoni ġie kkontestat, u wħud argumentaw li l-fkieren huma diapsidi li evolvew kranji tal-anapsidi, u b'hekk tejbu d-difiżi tagħhom. Studji filoġenetiċi morfoloġiċi li saru wara b'dan il-ħsieb ikkollokaw il-fkieren sew fi ħdan id-diapsidi. L-istudji molekolari kollha appoġġaw il-kollokazzjoni tal-fkieren fi ħdan id-diapsidi, l-iktar bħala grupp relatat mal-arċosawri eżistenti. === Rettili Permjani === With the close of the Carboniferous, the amniotes became the dominant tetrapod fauna. While primitive, terrestrial reptiliomorphs still existed, the synapsid amniotes evolved the first truly terrestrial megafauna (giant animals) in the form of pelycosaurs, such as ''Edaphosaurus'' and the carnivorous ''Dimetrodon''. In the mid-Permian period, the climate became drier, resulting in a change of fauna: The pelycosaurs were replaced by the therapsids. Many stem reptile groups continued to flourish throughout the Permian. The herbivorous pareiasaurs were the first lineage of reptiles to reach a large body size, with the largest representatives of the group having a body mass estimated to exceed 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb). One of the best known early stem-reptiles is ''Mesosaurus'', a genus from the Early Permian of Southern Africa and South America that had returned to water and gained webbed feet, feeding on crustaceans in marine or lagoonal environments. The earliest true diapsids (Neodiapsida), such as ''Youngina'', appeared during the Middle-Late Permian. The Weigeltisauridae, a group of diapsids from the Late Permian, are the oldest known tetrapods to have engaged in flight, using novel rod-like bones extending from the trunk which formed wings to glide between trees. The ancestors of modern reptiles (which belong to the clade Sauria) had diverged from each other by the Late Permian, as evidenced by species such as the monitor lizard-like ''Protorosaurus'' known from the Late Permian of Europe, which is clearly an archosauromorph, more closely related to archosaurs (crocodilians and birds) than to lizards, snakes or turtles. === Rettili Mesożojċi === The close of the Permian saw the greatest mass extinction known (see the Permian–Triassic extinction event), an event prolonged by the combination of two or more distinct extinction pulses. Most of the earlier parareptile and synapsid megafauna disappeared, being replaced by the true reptiles, particularly archosauromorphs. These were characterized by elongated hind legs and an erect pose, the early forms looking somewhat like long-legged crocodiles. The archosaurs became the dominant group during the Triassic period, though it took 30 million years before their diversity was as great as the animals that lived in the Permian. Archosaurs developed into the well-known dinosaurs and pterosaurs, as well as the ancestors of crocodilians. Since reptiles, first rauisuchians and then dinosaurs, dominated the Mesozoic era, the interval is popularly known as the "Age of Reptiles". The dinosaurs also developed smaller forms, including the feather-bearing smaller theropods. In the Cretaceous period, these gave rise to the first true birds. The sister group to Archosauromorpha is Lepidosauromorpha, containing lizards and tuataras, as well as their fossil relatives. Lepidosauromorpha contained at least one major group of the Mesozoic sea reptiles: the mosasaurs, which lived during the Cretaceous period. The phylogenetic placement of other main groups of fossil sea reptiles – the ichthyopterygians (including ichthyosaurs) and the sauropterygians, which evolved in the early Triassic – is more controversial. Different authors linked these groups either to lepidosauromorphs or to archosauromorphs, and ichthyopterygians were also argued to be diapsids that did not belong to the least inclusive clade containing lepidosauromorphs and archosauromorphs. === Rettili Ċenożojċi === The close of the Cretaceous period saw the demise of the Mesozoic era reptilian megafauna (see the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, also known as K-T extinction event). Of the large marine reptiles, only sea turtles were left; and of the non-marine large reptiles, only the semi-aquatic crocodilians and broadly similar choristoderes survived the extinction, with last members of the latter, the lizard-like ''Lazarussuchus'', becoming extinct in the Miocene. Of the great host of dinosaurs dominating the Mesozoic, only the small beaked birds survived. This dramatic extinction pattern at the end of the Mesozoic led into the Cenozoic. Mammals and birds filled the empty niches left behind by the reptilian megafauna and, while reptile diversification slowed, bird and mammal diversification took an exponential turn. However, reptiles were still important components of the megafauna, particularly in the form of large and giant tortoises. After the extinction of most archosaur and marine reptile lines by the end of the Cretaceous, reptile diversification continued throughout the Cenozoic. Squamates took a massive hit during the K–Pg event, only recovering ten million years after it, but they underwent a great radiation event once they recovered, and today squamates make up the majority of living reptiles (> 95%). Approximately 10,000 extant species of traditional reptiles are known, with birds adding about 10,000 more, almost twice the number of mammals, represented by about 5,700 living species (excluding domesticated species). {| class="wikitable" |+Diversità ta' speċijiet ta' rettili ħajjin (2013) !Grupp ta' rettili !Speċijiet deskritti !Persentaġġ tal-ispeċijiet ta' rettili |- |Squamates |9193 |96.3 % |- |''- Lizards'' |''5634'' |''59'' ''%'' |- |''- Snakes'' |''3378'' |''35'' ''%'' |- |''- Amphisbaenians'' |''181'' |''2'' ''%'' |- |Turtles |327 |3.4 % |- |Crocodilians |25 |0.3 % |- |Rhynchocephalians |1 |0.01 % |- |Total |9546 |100 % |} == Morfoloġija u fiżjoloġija == === Ċirkolazzjoni === All lepidosaurs and turtles have a three-chambered heart consisting of two atria, one variably partitioned ventricle, and two aortas that lead to the systemic circulation. The degree of mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the three-chambered heart varies depending on the species and physiological state. Under different conditions, deoxygenated blood can be shunted back to the body or oxygenated blood can be shunted back to the lungs. This variation in blood flow has been hypothesized to allow more effective thermoregulation and longer diving times for aquatic species, but has not been shown to be a fitness advantage. For example, iguana hearts, like the majority of the squamate hearts, are composed of three chambers–two atria and one ventricle–and cardiac involuntary muscles. The main structures of the heart are the sinus venosus, the pacemaker, the left atrium, the right atrium, the atrioventricular valve, the cavum venosum, cavum arteriosum, the cavum pulmonale, the muscular ridge, the ventricular ridge, pulmonary veins, and paired aortic arches. Some squamate species (e.g., pythons and monitor lizards) have three-chambered hearts that become functionally four-chambered hearts during contraction. This is made possible by a muscular ridge that subdivides the ventricle during ventricular diastole and completely divides it during ventricular systole. Because of this ridge, some of these squamates are capable of producing ventricular pressure differentials that are equivalent to those seen in mammalian and avian hearts. Crocodilians have an anatomically four-chambered heart, similar to birds, but also have two systemic aortas and are therefore capable of bypassing their pulmonary circulation. In turtles, the ventricle is not perfectly divided, so a mix of aerated and nonaerated blood can occur. === Metaboliżmu === Modern non-avian reptiles exhibit some form of cold-bloodedness (i.e. some mix of poikilothermy, ectothermy, and bradymetabolism) so that they have limited physiological means of keeping the body temperature constant and often rely on external sources of heat. Due to a less stable core temperature than birds and mammals, reptilian biochemistry requires enzymes capable of maintaining efficiency over a greater range of temperatures than in the case for warm-blooded animals. The optimum body temperature range varies with species, but is typically below that of warm-blooded animals; for many lizards, it falls in the 24–35 °C (75–95 °F) range, while extreme heat-adapted species, like the American desert iguana ''Dipsosaurus dorsalis'', can have optimal physiological temperatures in the mammalian range, between 35 and 40 °C (95 and 104 °F). While the optimum temperature is often encountered when the animal is active, the low basal metabolism makes body temperature drop rapidly when the animal is inactive. As in all animals, reptilian muscle action produces heat. In large reptiles, like leatherback turtles, the low surface-to-volume ratio allows this metabolically produced heat to keep the animals warmer than their environment even though they do not have a warm-blooded metabolism. This form of homeothermy is called gigantothermy; it has been suggested as having been common in large dinosaurs and other extinct large-bodied reptiles. The benefit of a low resting metabolism is that it requires far less fuel to sustain bodily functions. By using temperature variations in their surroundings, or by remaining cold when they do not need to move, reptiles can save considerable amounts of energy compared to endothermic animals of the same size. A crocodile needs from a tenth to a fifth of the food necessary for a lion of the same weight and can live half a year without eating. Lower food requirements and adaptive metabolisms allow reptiles to dominate the animal life in regions where net calorie availability is too low to sustain large-bodied mammals and birds. It is generally assumed that reptiles are unable to produce the sustained high energy output necessary for long distance chases or flying. Higher energetic capacity might have been responsible for the evolution of warm-bloodedness in birds and mammals. However, investigation of correlations between active capacity and thermophysiology show a weak relationship. Most extant reptiles are carnivores with a sit-and-wait feeding strategy; whether reptiles are cold blooded due to their ecology is not clear. Energetic studies on some reptiles have shown active capacities equal to or greater than similar sized warm-blooded animals. === Sistema respiratorja === [[/wiki/File:X-ray_video_of_a_female_American_alligator_(Alligator_mississippiensis)_while_breathing_-_pone.0004497.s009.ogv|lemin|daqsminuri|Filmati ta' fluworoskopija bir-raġġi X ta' alligatur Amerikan femminili li juru l-kontrazzjoni tal-pulmuni waqt it-teħid tan-nifs.]] All reptiles breathe using lungs. Aquatic turtles have developed more permeable skin, and some species have modified their cloaca to increase the area for gas exchange. Even with these adaptations, breathing is never fully accomplished without lungs. Lung ventilation is accomplished differently in each main reptile group. In squamates, the lungs are ventilated almost exclusively by the axial musculature. This is also the same musculature that is used during locomotion. Because of this constraint, most squamates are forced to hold their breath during intense runs. Some, however, have found a way around it. Varanids, and a few other lizard species, employ buccal pumping as a complement to their normal "axial breathing". This allows the animals to completely fill their lungs during intense locomotion, and thus remain aerobically active for a long time. Tegu lizards are known to possess a proto-diaphragm, which separates the pulmonary cavity from the visceral cavity. While not actually capable of movement, it does allow for greater lung inflation, by taking the weight of the viscera off the lungs. Crocodilians actually have a muscular diaphragm that is analogous to the mammalian diaphragm. The difference is that the muscles for the crocodilian diaphragm pull the pubis (part of the pelvis, which is movable in crocodilians) back, which brings the liver down, thus freeing space for the lungs to expand. This type of diaphragmatic setup has been referred to as the "hepatic piston". The airways form a number of double tubular chambers within each lung. On inhalation and exhalation air moves through the airways in the same direction, thus creating a unidirectional airflow through the lungs. A similar system is found in birds, monitor lizards and iguanas. Most reptiles lack a secondary palate, meaning that they must hold their breath while swallowing. Crocodilians have evolved a bony secondary palate that allows them to continue breathing while remaining submerged (and protect their brains against damage by struggling prey). Skinks (family Scincidae) also have evolved a bony secondary palate, to varying degrees. Snakes took a different approach and extended their trachea instead. Their tracheal extension sticks out like a fleshy straw, and allows these animals to swallow large prey without suffering from asphyxiation. ==== Fkieren tal-ilma u fkieren tal-art ==== How turtles breathe has been the subject of much study. To date, only a few species have been studied thoroughly enough to get an idea of how those turtles breathe. The varied results indicate that turtles have found a variety of solutions to this problem. The difficulty is that most turtle shells are rigid and do not allow for the type of expansion and contraction that other amniotes use to ventilate their lungs. Some turtles, such as the Indian flapshell (''Lissemys punctata''), have a sheet of muscle that envelops the lungs. When it contracts, the turtle can exhale. When at rest, the turtle can retract the limbs into the body cavity and force air out of the lungs. When the turtle protracts its limbs, the pressure inside the lungs is reduced, and the turtle can suck air in. Turtle lungs are attached to the inside of the top of the shell (carapace), with the bottom of the lungs attached (via connective tissue) to the rest of the viscera. By using a series of special muscles (roughly equivalent to a diaphragm), turtles are capable of pushing their viscera up and down, resulting in effective respiration, since many of these muscles have attachment points in conjunction with their forelimbs (indeed, many of the muscles expand into the limb pockets during contraction). Breathing during locomotion has been studied in three species, and they show different patterns. Adult female green sea turtles do not breathe as they crutch along their nesting beaches. They hold their breath during terrestrial locomotion and breathe in bouts as they rest. North American box turtles breathe continuously during locomotion, and the ventilation cycle is not coordinated with the limb movements. This is because they use their abdominal muscles to breathe during locomotion. The last species to have been studied is the red-eared slider, which also breathes during locomotion, but takes smaller breaths during locomotion than during small pauses between locomotor bouts, indicating that there may be mechanical interference between the limb movements and the breathing apparatus. Box turtles have also been observed to breathe while completely sealed up inside their shells. === Produzzjoni tal-ħsejjes === Compared with frogs, birds, and mammals, reptiles are less vocal. Sound production is usually limited to hissing, which is produced merely by forcing air though a partly closed glottis and is not considered to be a true vocalization. The ability to vocalize exists in crocodilians, some lizards and turtles; and typically involves vibrating fold-like structures in the larynx or glottis. Some geckos and turtles possess true vocal cords, which have elastin-rich connective tissue. ==== Smigħ fis-sriep ==== Hearing in humans relies on 3 parts of the ear; the outer ear that directs sound waves into the ear canal, the middle ear that transmits incoming sound waves to the inner ear, and the inner ear that helps in hearing and keeping their balance. Unlike humans and other mammals, snakes do not possess an outer ear, a middle ear, and a tympanum but have an inner ear structure with cochleas directly connected to their jawbone. They are able to feel the vibrations generated from the sound waves in their jaw as they move on the ground. This is done by the use of mechanoreceptors, sensory nerves that run along the body of snakes directing the vibrations along the spinal nerves to the brain. Snakes have a sensitive auditory perception and can tell which direction sound being made is coming from so that they can sense the presence of prey or predator but it is still unclear how sensitive snakes are to sound waves traveling through the air. === Ġilda === Reptilian skin is covered in a horny epidermis, making it watertight and enabling reptiles to live on dry land, in contrast to amphibians. Compared to mammalian skin, that of reptiles is rather thin and lacks the thick dermal layer that produces leather in mammals. Exposed parts of reptiles are protected by scales or scutes, sometimes with a bony base (osteoderms), forming armor. In lepidosaurs, such as lizards and snakes, the whole skin is covered in overlapping epidermal scales. Such scales were once thought to be typical of the class Reptilia as a whole, but are now known to occur only in lepidosaurs. The scales found in turtles and crocodiles are of dermal, rather than epidermal, origin and are properly termed scutes. In turtles, the body is hidden inside a hard shell composed of fused scutes. Lacking a thick dermis, reptilian leather is not as strong as mammalian leather. It is used in leather-wares for decorative purposes for shoes, belts and handbags, particularly crocodile skin. ==== Bdil tal-qxur ==== Reptiles shed their skin through a process called ecdysis which occurs continuously throughout their lifetime. In particular, younger reptiles tend to shed once every five to six weeks while adults shed three to four times a year. Younger reptiles shed more because of their rapid growth rate. Once full size, the frequency of shedding drastically decreases. The process of ecdysis involves forming a new layer of skin under the old one. Proteolytic enzymes and lymphatic fluid is secreted between the old and new layers of skin. Consequently, this lifts the old skin from the new one allowing shedding to occur. Snakes will shed from the head to the tail while lizards shed in a "patchy pattern". Dysecdysis, a common skin disease in snakes and lizards, will occur when ecdysis, or shedding, fails. There are numerous reasons why shedding fails and can be related to inadequate humidity and temperature, nutritional deficiencies, dehydration and traumatic injuries. Nutritional deficiencies decrease proteolytic enzymes while dehydration reduces lymphatic fluids to separate the skin layers. Traumatic injuries on the other hand, form scars that will not allow new scales to form and disrupt the process of ecdysis. === Eskrezzjoni === Excretion is performed mainly by two small kidneys. In diapsids, uric acid is the main nitrogenous waste product; turtles, like mammals, excrete mainly urea. Unlike the kidneys of mammals and birds, reptile kidneys are unable to produce liquid urine more concentrated than their body fluid. This is because they lack a specialized structure called a loop of Henle, which is present in the nephrons of birds and mammals. Because of this, many reptiles use the colon to aid in the reabsorption of water. Some are also able to take up water stored in the bladder. Excess salts are also excreted by nasal and lingual salt glands in some reptiles. In all reptiles, the urinogenital ducts and the rectum both empty into an organ called a cloaca. In some reptiles, a midventral wall in the cloaca may open into a urinary bladder, but not all. It is present in all turtles and tortoises as well as most lizards, but is lacking in the monitor lizard, the legless lizards. It is absent in the snakes, alligators, and crocodiles. Many turtles and lizards have proportionally very large bladders. Charles Darwin noted that the Galapagos tortoise had a bladder which could store up to 20% of its body weight. Such adaptations are the result of environments such as remote islands and deserts where water is very scarce. Other desert-dwelling reptiles have large bladders that can store a long-term reservoir of water for up to several months and aid in osmoregulation. Turtles have two or more accessory urinary bladders, located lateral to the neck of the urinary bladder and dorsal to the pubis, occupying a significant portion of their body cavity. Their bladder is also usually bilobed with a left and right section. The right section is located under the liver, which prevents large stones from remaining in that side while the left section is more likely to have calculi. === Diġestjoni === Most reptiles are insectivorous or carnivorous and have simple and comparatively short digestive tracts due to meat being fairly simple to break down and digest. Digestion is slower than in mammals, reflecting their lower resting metabolism and their inability to divide and masticate their food. Their poikilotherm metabolism has very low energy requirements, allowing large reptiles like crocodiles and large constrictors to live from a single large meal for months, digesting it slowly. While modern reptiles are predominantly carnivorous, during the early history of reptiles several groups produced some herbivorous megafauna: in the Paleozoic, the pareiasaurs; and in the Mesozoic several lines of dinosaurs. Today, turtles are the only predominantly herbivorous reptile group, but several lines of agamas and iguanas have evolved to live wholly or partly on plants. Herbivorous reptiles face the same problems of mastication as herbivorous mammals but, lacking the complex teeth of mammals, many species swallow rocks and pebbles (so called gastroliths) to aid in digestion: The rocks are washed around in the stomach, helping to grind up plant matter. Fossil gastroliths have been found associated with both ornithopods and sauropods, though whether they actually functioned as a gastric mill in the latter is disputed. Salt water crocodiles also use gastroliths as ballast, stabilizing them in the water or helping them to dive. A dual function as both stabilizing ballast and digestion aid has been suggested for gastroliths found in plesiosaurs. === Nervituri === The reptilian nervous system contains the same basic part of the amphibian brain, but the reptile cerebrum and cerebellum are slightly larger. Most typical sense organs are well developed with certain exceptions, most notably the snake's lack of external ears (middle and inner ears are present). There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves. Due to their short cochlea, reptiles use electrical tuning to expand their range of audible frequencies. === Vista === Most reptiles are diurnal animals. The vision is typically adapted to daylight conditions, with color vision and more advanced visual depth perception than in amphibians and most mammals. Reptiles usually have excellent vision, allowing them to detect shapes and motions at long distances. They often have poor vision in low-light conditions. Birds, crocodiles and turtles have three types of photoreceptor: rods, single cones and double cones, which gives them sharp color vision and enables them to see ultraviolet wavelengths. The lepidosaurs appear to have lost the duplex retina and only have a single class of receptor that is cone-like or rod-like depending on whether the species is diurnal or nocturnal. In many burrowing species, such as blind snakes, vision is reduced. Many lepidosaurs have a photosensory organ on the top of their heads called the parietal eye, which are also called third eye, pineal eye or pineal gland. This "eye" does not work the same way as a normal eye does as it has only a rudimentary retina and lens and thus, cannot form images. It is, however, sensitive to changes in light and dark and can detect movement. Some snakes have extra sets of visual organs (in the loosest sense of the word) in the form of pits sensitive to infrared radiation (heat). Such heat-sensitive pits are particularly well developed in the pit vipers, but are also found in boas and pythons. These pits allow the snakes to sense the body heat of birds and mammals, enabling pit vipers to hunt rodents in the dark. Most reptiles, as well as birds, possess a nictitating membrane, a translucent third eyelid which is drawn over the eye from the inner corner. In crocodilians, it protects its eyeball surface while allowing a degree of vision underwater. However, many squamates, geckos and snakes in particular, lack eyelids, which are replaced by a transparent scale. This is called the brille, spectacle, or eyecap. The brille is usually not visible, except for when the snake molts, and it protects the eyes from dust and dirt. === Riproduzzjoni === Reptiles generally reproduce sexually, though some are capable of asexual reproduction. All reproductive activity occurs through the cloaca, the single exit/entrance at the base of the tail where waste is also eliminated. Most reptiles have copulatory organs, which are usually retracted or inverted and stored inside the body. In turtles and crocodilians, the male has a single median penis, while squamates, including snakes and lizards, possess a pair of hemipenes, only one of which is typically used in each session. Tuatara, however, lack copulatory organs, and so the male and female simply press their cloacas together as the male discharges sperm. Most reptiles lay amniotic eggs covered with leathery or calcareous shells. An amnion (5), chorion (6), and allantois (8) are present during embryonic life. The eggshell (1) protects the crocodile embryo (11) and keeps it from drying out, but it is flexible to allow gas exchange. The chorion (6) aids in gas exchange between the inside and outside of the egg. It allows carbon dioxide to exit the egg and oxygen gas to enter the egg. The albumin (9) further protects the embryo and serves as a reservoir for water and protein. The allantois (8) is a sac that collects the metabolic waste produced by the embryo. The amniotic sac (10) contains amniotic fluid (12) which protects and cushions the embryo. The amnion (5) aids in osmoregulation and serves as a saltwater reservoir. The yolk sac (2) surrounding the yolk (3) contains protein and fat rich nutrients that are absorbed by the embryo via vessels (4) that allow the embryo to grow and metabolize. The air space (7) provides the embryo with oxygen while it is hatching. This ensures that the embryo will not suffocate while it is hatching. There are no larval stages of development. Viviparity and ovoviviparity have evolved in squamates and many extinct clades of reptiles. Among squamates, many species, including all boas and most vipers, use this mode of reproduction. The degree of viviparity varies; some species simply retain the eggs until just before hatching, others provide maternal nourishment to supplement the yolk, and yet others lack any yolk and provide all nutrients via a structure similar to the mammalian placenta. The earliest documented case of viviparity in reptiles is the Early Permian mesosaurs, although some individuals or taxa in that clade may also have been oviparous because a putative isolated egg has also been found. Several groups of Mesozoic marine reptiles also exhibited viviparity, such as mosasaurs, ichthyosaurs, and Sauropterygia, a group that includes pachypleurosaurs and Plesiosauria. Asexual reproduction has been identified in squamates in six families of lizards and one snake. In some species of squamates, a population of females is able to produce a unisexual diploid clone of the mother. This form of asexual reproduction, called parthenogenesis, occurs in several species of gecko, and is particularly widespread in the teiids (especially ''Aspidocelis'') and lacertids (''Lacerta''). In captivity, Komodo dragons (Varanidae) have reproduced by parthenogenesis. Parthenogenetic species are suspected to occur among chameleons, agamids, xantusiids, and typhlopids. Some reptiles exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination (TDSD), in which the incubation temperature determines whether a particular egg hatches as male or female. TDSD is most common in turtles and crocodiles, but also occurs in lizards and tuatara. To date, there has been no confirmation of whether TDSD occurs in snakes. === Lonġevità === Giant tortoises are among the longest-lived vertebrate animals (over 100 years by some estimates) and have been used as a model for studying longevity. DNA analysis of the genomes of Lonesome George, the iconic last member of ''Chelonoidis abingdonii'', and the Aldabra giant tortoise ''Aldabrachelys gigantea'' led to the detection of lineage-specific variants affecting DNA repair genes that might contribute to our understanding of increased lifespan. == Konjizzjoni == Reptiles were traditionally considered less intelligent on average than mammals and birds, but this is increasingly suspected to be the result of poor methodologies in past research and overreliance on brain size as indicators of intelligence rather than a genuine trait of reptiles. The size of their brain relative to their body is much less than that of mammals, the encephalization quotient being about one tenth of that of mammals, though larger reptiles can show more complex brain development. Larger lizards, like the monitors, are known to exhibit complex behavior, including cooperation and cognitive abilities allowing them to optimize their foraging and territoriality over time. Crocodiles have relatively larger brains and show a fairly complex social structure. The Komodo dragon is even known to engage in play, as are turtles, which are also considered to be social creatures, and sometimes switch between monogamy and promiscuity in their sexual behavior.^{[''citation needed'']} One study found that wood turtles were better than white rats at learning to navigate mazes. Another study found that giant tortoises are capable of learning through operant conditioning, visual discrimination and retained learned behaviors with long-term memory. Sea turtles have been regarded as having simple brains, but their flippers are used for a variety of foraging tasks (holding, bracing, corralling) in common with marine mammals. There is evidence that reptiles are sentient and able to feel emotions including anxiety and pleasure. == Mekkaniżmi ta' difiża == Many small reptiles, such as snakes and lizards, that live on the ground or in the water are vulnerable to being preyed on by all kinds of carnivorous animals. Thus, avoidance is the most common form of defense in reptiles. At the first sign of danger, most snakes and lizards crawl away into the undergrowth, and turtles and crocodiles will plunge into water and sink out of sight. === Mimetizzazzjoni u twissija === Reptiles tend to avoid confrontation through camouflage. Two major groups of reptile predators are birds and other reptiles, both of which have well-developed color vision. Thus the skins of many reptiles have cryptic coloration of plain or mottled gray, green, and brown to allow them to blend into the background of their natural environment. Aided by the reptiles' capacity for remaining motionless for long periods, the camouflage of many snakes is so effective that people or domestic animals are most typically bitten because they accidentally step on them. When camouflage fails to protect them, blue-tongued skinks will try to ward off attackers by displaying their blue tongues, and the frill-necked lizard will display its brightly colored frill. These same displays are used in territorial disputes and during courtship. If danger arises so suddenly that flight is useless, crocodiles, turtles, some lizards, and some snakes hiss loudly when confronted by an enemy. Rattlesnakes rapidly vibrate the tip of the tail, which is composed of a series of nested, hollow beads to ward off approaching danger. In contrast to the normal drab coloration of most reptiles, the lizards of the genus ''Heloderma'' (the Gila monster and the beaded lizard) and many of the coral snakes have high-contrast warning coloration, warning potential predators they are venomous. A number of non-venomous North American snake species have colorful markings similar to those of the coral snake, an oft cited example of Batesian mimicry. === Difiża alternattiva fis-sriep === Camouflage does not always fool a predator. When caught out, snake species adopt different defensive tactics and use a complicated set of behaviors when attacked. Some species, like cobras or hognose snakes, first elevate their head and spread out the skin of their neck in an effort to look large and threatening. Failure of this strategy may lead to other measures practiced particularly by cobras, vipers, and closely related species, which use venom to attack. The venom is modified saliva, delivered through fangs from a venom gland. Some non-venomous snakes, such as American hognose snakes or European grass snake, play dead when in danger; some, including the grass snake, exude a foul-smelling liquid to deter attackers. === Difiża fil-kukkudrilli === When a crocodilian is concerned about its safety, it will gape to expose the teeth and tongue. If this does not work, the crocodilian gets a little more agitated and typically begins to make hissing sounds. After this, the crocodilian will start to change its posture dramatically to make itself look more intimidating. The body is inflated to increase apparent size. If absolutely necessary, it may decide to attack an enemy. Some species try to bite immediately. Some will use their heads as sledgehammers and literally smash an opponent, some will rush or swim toward the threat from a distance, even chasing the opponent onto land or galloping after it. The main weapon in all crocodiles is the bite, which can generate very high bite force. Many species also possess canine-like teeth. These are used primarily for seizing prey, but are also used in fighting and display. === Bdil tal-qxur u riġenerazzjoni tad-denb === Geckos, skinks, and some other lizards that are captured by the tail will shed part of the tail structure through a process called autotomy and thus be able to flee. The detached tail will continue to thrash, creating a deceptive sense of continued struggle and distracting the predator's attention from the fleeing prey animal. The detached tails of leopard geckos can wiggle for up to 20 minutes. The tail grows back in most species, but some, like crested geckos, lose their tails for the rest of their lives. In many species the tails are of a separate and dramatically more intense color than the rest of the body so as to encourage potential predators to strike for the tail first. In the shingleback skink and some species of geckos, the tail is short and broad and resembles the head, so that the predators may attack it rather than the more vulnerable front part. Reptiles that are capable of shedding their tails can partially regenerate them over a period of weeks. The new section will however contain cartilage rather than bone, and will never grow to the same length as the original tail. It is often also distinctly discolored compared to the rest of the body and may lack some of the external sculpting features seen in the original tail. == Rabtiet mal-bniedem == === Fil-kulturi u fir-reliġjonijiet === Dinosaurs have been widely depicted in culture since the English palaeontologist Richard Owen coined the name ''dinosaur'' in 1842. As soon as 1854, the Crystal Palace Dinosaurs were on display to the public in south London. One dinosaur appeared in literature even earlier, as Charles Dickens placed a ''Megalosaurus'' in the first chapter of his novel ''Bleak House'' in 1852. The dinosaurs featured in books, films, television programs, artwork, and other media have been used for both education and entertainment. The depictions range from the realistic, as in the television documentaries of the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, to the fantastic, as in the monster movies of the 1950s and 1960s. The snake or serpent has played a powerful symbolic role in different cultures. In Egyptian history, the Nile cobra adorned the crown of the pharaoh. It was worshipped as one of the gods and was also used for sinister purposes: murder of an adversary and ritual suicide (Cleopatra). In Greek mythology, snakes are associated with deadly antagonists, as a chthonic symbol, roughly translated as ''earthbound''. The nine-headed Lernaean Hydra that Hercules defeated and the three Gorgon sisters are children of Gaia, the earth. Medusa was one of the three Gorgon sisters who Perseus defeated. Medusa is described as a hideous mortal, with snakes instead of hair and the power to turn men to stone with her gaze. After killing her, Perseus gave her head to Athena who fixed it to her shield called the Aegis. The Titans are depicted in art with their legs replaced by bodies of snakes for the same reason: They are children of Gaia, so they are bound to the earth. In Hinduism, snakes are worshipped as gods, with many women pouring milk on snake pits. The cobra is seen on the neck of Shiva, while Vishnu is depicted often as sleeping on a seven-headed snake or within the coils of a serpent. There are temples in India solely for cobras sometimes called ''Nagraj'' (King of Snakes), and it is believed that snakes are symbols of fertility. In the annual Hindu festival of Nag Panchami, snakes are venerated and prayed to. In religious terms, the snake and jaguar are arguably the most important animals in ancient Mesoamerica. "In states of ecstasy, lords dance a serpent dance; great descending snakes adorn and support buildings from Chichen Itza to Tenochtitlan, and the Nahuatl word ''coatl'' meaning serpent or twin, forms part of primary deities such as Mixcoatl, Quetzalcoatl, and Coatlicue." In Christianity and Judaism, a serpent appears in Genesis to tempt Adam and Eve with the forbidden fruit from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. The turtle has a prominent position as a symbol of steadfastness and tranquility in religion, mythology, and folklore from around the world. A tortoise's longevity is suggested by its long lifespan and its shell, which was thought to protect it from any foe. In the cosmological myths of several cultures a ''World Turtle'' carries the world upon its back or supports the heavens. === Mediċina === Deaths from snakebites are uncommon in many parts of the world, but are still counted in tens of thousands per year in India. Snakebite can be treated with antivenom made from the venom of the snake. To produce antivenom, a mixture of the venoms of different species of snake is injected into the body of a horse in ever-increasing dosages until the horse is immunized. Blood is then extracted; the serum is separated, purified and freeze-dried. The cytotoxic effect of snake venom is being researched as a potential treatment for cancers. '''Gila monsters''' produce compounds that reduce plasma glucose; one of these substances is now used in the anti-diabetes drug exenatide (Byetta), a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist like semiglutide (Ozempic). Another toxin from Gila monster saliva has been studied for use as an anti-Alzheimer's drug. Geckos have also been used as '''folk medicine''', especially in China, without any evidence that they have any active compounds. Turtles have been used in Chinese traditional medicine for thousands of years, with every part of the turtle believed to have medical benefits (again, without scientific evidence). Growing demand for '''turtle meat''' has placed pressure on vulnerable wild populations of turtles. === Trobbija kummerċjali === Crocodiles are protected in many parts of the world, and are farmed commercially. Their hides are tanned and used to make leather goods such as shoes and handbags; crocodile meat is also considered a delicacy. The most commonly farmed species are the saltwater and Nile crocodiles. Farming has resulted in an increase in the saltwater crocodile population in Australia, as eggs are usually harvested from the wild, so landowners have an incentive to conserve their habitat. Crocodile leather is made into wallets, briefcases, purses, handbags, belts, hats, and shoes. Crocodile oil has been used for various purposes. Snakes are also farmed, primarily in East and Southeast Asia, and their production has become more intensive in the last decade. Snake farming has been troubling for conservation in the past as it can lead to overexploitation of wild snakes and their natural prey to supply the farms. However, farming snakes can limit the hunting of wild snakes, while reducing the slaughter of higher-order vertebrates like cows. The energy efficiency of snakes is higher than expected for carnivores, due to their ectothermy and low metabolism. Waste protein from the poultry and pig industries is used as feed in snake farms. Snake farms produce meat, snake skin, and antivenom. Turtle farming is another known but controversial practice. Turtles have been farmed for a variety of reasons, ranging from food to traditional medicine, the pet trade, and scientific conservation. Demand for turtle meat and medicinal products is one of the main threats to turtle conservation in Asia. Though commercial breeding would seem to insulate wild populations, it can stoke the demand for them and increase wild captures. Even the potentially appealing concept of raising turtles at a farm to release into the wild is questioned by some veterinarians who have had some experience with farm operations. They caution that this may introduce into the wild populations infectious diseases that occur on the farm, but have not (yet) been occurring in the wild. === Rettili fil-magħluq === A herpetarium is a zoological exhibition space for reptiles and amphibians. In the Western world, some snakes (especially relatively docile species such as the ball python and corn snake) are sometimes kept as pets. Numerous species of lizard are kept as pets, including bearded dragons, iguanas, anoles, and geckos (such as the popular leopard gecko and the crested gecko). Turtles and tortoises are increasingly popular pets, but keeping them can be challenging due to their particular requirements, such as temperature control, the need for UV light sources, and a varied diet. The long lifespans of turtles and especially tortoises mean they can potentially outlive their owners. Good hygiene and significant maintenance is necessary when keeping reptiles, due to the risks of ''Salmonella'' and other pathogens. Regular hand-washing after handling is an important measure to prevent infection. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Rettili]] [[Kategorija:Klassifikazzjoni xjentifika]] c1glc7as53eh0hkne2lto531dzqbg81 2 34384 329535 2026-04-24T08:27:43Z Maris Dreshmanis 27831 Creating user page 329535 wikitext text/x-wiki {{#babel:lv|ru-4}} == Maris Dreshmanis == Open data researcher. Contributor to [[d:Wikidata:WikiProject Occupations|WikiProject Occupations]] on Wikidata. * '''[[d:User:Maris Dreshmanis|Wikidata contributions]]''' — 37,000+ edits * '''GSCO''' — Global Standard Classification of Occupations (140 national registries, 245,000+ entries) * '''[[d:Wikidata:WikiProject Occupations|WikiProject Occupations]]''' — coordinating occupation label enrichment in 21 languages [[Category:Wikipedians]] bhwbuqpk2yn05lbwnfuckwjwbrdzu54