Miley Cyrus

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  <page>
    <title>Miley Cyrus</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-05-11T14:06:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ToniSant</username>
        <id>4257</id>
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      <comment>Modifiki annullati ta' [[Speċjali:Kontribuzzjonijiet/Themeramisin|Themeramisin]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:Themeramisin|diskussjoni]]) għall-aħħar verżjoni ta' [[Utent:ToniSant|ToniSant]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="18404" sha1="2jqsmr2nkog4qhfp4gdvahjhkw7jhkf" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Artist Mużikali
|kulur = solo_singer
|isem = Miley Cyrus
|stampa = Miley Cyrus Primavera19 -226 (48986293772) (cropped).jpg
|stampa_daqs = 220px
|stampa_desk =
|landscape = 
|isem_sħiħ = Destiny Hope Cyrus
|magħruf =
|twelid = {{dte|1992|11|23|df=yes}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Nashville (Tennessee)|Nashville]], [[Tennessee]], [[Stati Uniti]]
|oriġini = [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[Stati Uniti]]
|ġeneru = [[Teen pop]], [[dance-pop]], [[bubblegum pop]], [[pop rock]]
|okkupazzjoni = [[Kantanta]], [[attur|attriċi]], [[liriċista]], [[kitarrist]]a
|strumenti = [[Vokali]], [[kitarra]]
|snin_attivita = 2003–preżent
|tikketti = [[Walt Disney Records|Walt Disney]] (2006-2008)&lt;br /&gt;[[Hollywood Records|Hollywood]] (2006- )
|atti_assoċjati = [[Billy Ray Cyrus]], [[Trace Cyrus]], [[Emily Osment]], [[Mitchel Musso]], [[Ashley Tisdale]], [[Jonas Brothers]]
|URL = [http://www.mileycyrus.com/ www.mileycyrus.com]
}}
'''Miley Ray Cyrus'''&lt;ref name=&quot;name change&quot;&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.eonline.com/uberblog/b134281_Miley_Turns_Her_Back_on_Destiny.html|titlu=Miley Turns Her Back On Destiny|pubblikatur=E! Online|data=2008-05-21|data-aċċess=2008-05-12|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; (twieldet bħala '''Destiny Hope Cyrus''' fit-13 ta' Novembru 1992)&lt;ref name=&quot;mileybio&quot;&gt;{{ċita web|titlu=Miley Cyrus biography|url=http://music.aol.com/artist/miley-cyrus/823418/biography|pubblikatur=AOL|data-aċċess=2008-08-04|lingwa=Ingliż|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080521162515/http://music.aol.com/artist/miley-cyrus/823418/biography|arkivju-data=2008-05-21|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;, magħrufa aktar bl-isem tal-arti '''Miley Cyrus''', hi [[attur|attriċi]], [[kantant]]a, u [[liriċist]]a [[Stati Uniti|Amerikana]]. Cyrus hi magħrufha aktar fl-irwol prinċipali bħala [[Miley Stewart|Miley Stewart/&quot;Hannah Montana&quot;]] fis-serje televiżiva ''[[Hannah Montana]]'' fuq [[Disney Channel]].

Cyrus kisbet il-popolarità speċjalment wara li s-serje ''Hannah Montana'' ddebutta f'Marzu tal-2006. Wara dan is-suċċess, f'Ottubru tal-istess sena, ħarġet CD bi tmien kanzunetti tagħha li kantat matul is-serje. F'Diċembru 2007, skont [[Forbes]], hi kienet is-sbatax il-persuna l-aktar sinjura ta' taħt il-25 sena, bi qligħ annwali ta' [[dollaru Amerikan|US$]]3.5 miljun.&lt;ref name=&quot;Forbes Magazine 07&quot;&gt;{{ċita web |url =http://www.forbes.com/2007/12/01/celebrity-hollywood-media-cz_lg_1204kidstars_slide_18.html |titlu =Forbes Magazine Top 20 Under 25 | data-aċċess = 2008-08-04|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; Minn Diċembru 2007, hi qed taħdem f'film bħala parti minn ''Hannah Montana'', bl-isem ta' ''[[Hannah Montana: The Movie]]'' li se joħroġ fl-1 ta' Mejju 2009.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita aħbar|isem=Pamela|kunjom=McClintock|titlu=Disney unveils 2009 schedule|pubblikatur=Variety|data=2008-02-20|url= http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117981211.html?categoryid=13&amp;cs=1|data-aċċess=2008-08-04|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Il-karriera bħala solista bdiet permezz tal-album debuttanti, ''[[Hannah Montana 2: Meet Miley Cyrus|Meet Miley Cyrus]]'' fit-23 ta' Ġunju 2007. It-tieni album tagħha, ''[[Breakout]]'' ħareġ fit-18 ta' Ġunju 2008, li kien l-ewwel album ta' Miley li ma kellux il-konċessjoni ta' Hannah Montana.

== Il-ħajja tal-bidu ==

Cyrus twieldet f'[[Nashville (Tennesse)|Nashville]], [[Tennessee]],&lt;ref name=&quot;ecourtdocs&quot;&gt;Dokumenti mill-Qorti Superjuri ta' Los Angeles fuq il-bidla tal-isem. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080820170057/http://images.eonline.com/static/news/pdf/miley_cyrus_name_change_2.pdf PDF (paġna 4)].&lt;/ref&gt; it-tifla ta' Leticia &quot;Tish&quot; (née Finley) u l-kantant tal-[[mużika country|country]] [[Ray Cyrus]].&lt;ref name=&quot;braced&quot;/&gt; Hi għandha żewġt aħwa subien, Trace, kitarrista u korista mal-grupp Amerikan [[Metro Station]], u Braison, kif ukoll żewġt aħwa bniet, Noah, li hi wkoll attriċi, u Brandi, kitarrista ta' Hannah Montana. L-isem veru ta' Miley hu Destiny Hope (tradott bil-Malti għal ''destin u speranza''), minħabba li l-ġenituri tagħha kienu jaħsbu li meta tikber għad tagħmel affarijiet kbar.&lt;ref name=&quot;braced&quot;/&gt; Cyrus kisbet il-laqam &quot;Miley&quot; minħabba li meta kienet żgħira kienet kontinwament titbissem, u mill-kelma bil-lingwa Ingliża ''Smiley'' (li tfisser titbissem) ħareġ dan il-laqam.&lt;ref name=&quot;braced&quot;/&gt;

== Karriera bħala attriċi ==
[[Stampa:Miley Wants To Play Too!.jpg|200px|thumb|Miley waqt kunċert]]
Cyrus bdiet tinteressa ruħha fir-reċtar fl-età ta' disa' snin meta l-familja kienet residenti għal ftit f'[[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], fil-[[Kanada]]. L-ewwel rwol bħala attriċi kien fis-serje televiż ''[[Doc (serje televiżiv)|Doc]]'' ta' missierha, fejn hi ħadmet il-parti ta' tifla żgħira bl-isem ta' Kylie.&lt;ref name=&quot;braced&quot;&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20060520/news_1c20hannah.html|titlu=Miley Cyrus braced for Disney stardom|data-aċċess=2008-08-05|isem=David|kunjom=Hiltbrand|data=2006-05-20|pubblikatur=signonsandiego.com|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=mileybio/&gt; Fl-2003, hi ħadmet fil-film ta' [[Tim Burton]] ''[[Big Fish]]'', u wara kienet ukoll parti mill-vidjo mużikali ta' [[Rhonda Vincent]] mis-silta &quot;If Heartaches Have Wings&quot;.

=== Karriera ma' Disney ===

Cyrus kellha tnax-il sena meta għamlet l-awdizzjoni għal Disney għall-irwol prinċipali ta' [[Miley Stewart|Miley Stewart/Hannah Montana]] u kif ukoll għall-irwol tal-aqwa ħbieb tal-istess serje,&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.ultimatedisney.com/hannahmontana-livin.html|titlu=&quot;'Hannah Montana' Livin' the Rock Star Life! DVD Review&quot;|data-aċċess=2008-08-05|data=2006-10-20|pubblikatur=Disney DVD Reviews|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; imma l-eżekuttiv ta' Disney Channel iġġudikawaha li hi wisq żgħira. Madanakollu, Cyrus kienet persistenti fix-xewqa tagħha li tkun parti ta' ''[[Hannah Montana]]'', u għalhekk Disney għajtulha lura għal aktar awdizzjonijiet. Skond l-Viċi-President Eżekuttiv ta' Disney [[Gary Marsh]], Cyrus kienet magħżulha minħabba l-enerġija u l-vivaċità li kienet toffri u kienet tidher bħala persuna li &quot;tħobb kull minuta tal-ħajja&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;hollywoodrecords&quot;&gt;{{ċita web |kunjom=Oldenburg |isem=Ann |pubblikatur=USA Today |data=2006-03-23 |url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2006-03-23-miley-cyrus_x.htm |titlu=Lifelong work pays off, says Miley Cyrus, 13. |data-aċċess=2008-08-05 |lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hi qattgħet diversi snin biex taqtal-aċċent tan-Nofsinhar, imma fl-aħħar Disney riedu li terġa' tqajmu. Cyrus, attwalment, għandha l-irwol prinċipali ta' [[Miley Stewart]] f'''Hannah Montana''. Hi wkoll tesebixxi fil-karattru ta' Hannah Montana għall-albums u l-kunċerti tagħha.

Cyrus, fl-2007, għamlet gamew żgħir fil-film għat-televiżjoni ''[[High School Musical 2]]'', fejn żifnet qabel it-tmiem. Cyrus kienet ukoll ospitu bħala Yatta fis-serje ''[[The Emperor's New School]]'' ta' Disney Channel.

Fl-1 ta' Mejju 2009 mistenni li joħroġ il-film ta' Hannah Montana, ''[[Hannah Montana: The Movie]] '', fejn se jkun prodott minn missier Cyrus (kemm fis-serje u anki fil-ħajja reali), [[Billy Ray Cyrus]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.buddytv.com/articles/hannah-montana/hannah-montana-film-in-develop-8116.aspx?show=hannah-montana.aspx 'Hannah Montana' Film In Development] (Ingliż)&lt;/ref&gt; 

Cyrus kienet mistiedna biex tippreżenta l-kanzunetta &quot;That's How You Know&quot; mill-film ''[[Enchanted]]'' fil-[[Premji Oscar 2008]]. Fid-[[9 ta' April]] [[2008]], Miley Cyrus dehret fis-serata ta' ġbir ta' fondi ta' ''[[American Idol]]'' f'''[[Idol Gives Back]]'', u hi stqarret lill-udjenza li kienet il-ħolma tagħha li xi darba tidher fuq ''American Idol''. F'[[Ġunju]] [[2008]], kien ġie mħabbar li Miley se tospita u tkanta fit-[[Teen Choice Awards]].&lt;ref name=test&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.teenchoiceawards.com/|titlu=Official Teen Choice Awards|pubblikatur=teenchoiceawards.com|data-aċċess=2008-08-05|lingwa=Ingliż|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711152356/http://www.teenchoiceawards.com/|arkivju-data=2011-07-11|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Karriera mużikali ==

=== Albums ===

[[Walt Disney Records]] ħarġu l-ewwel album ta' ''[[Hannah Montana (album)|Hannah Montana]]'', fl-24 ta' Ottubru 2006. Dan kien jinkludi tmienja mill-kanzunetti li Cyrus kantat bħala Hannah Montana. Cyrus iffirmat ftehim rekord ta' erba' albums ma' [[Hollywood Records]] għall-albums tagħha. L-album wara kien reġa' ħareġ darbtejn. Cyrus fetħet għal [[The Cheetah Girls (grupp)|The Cheetah Girls]] fl-2006, fejn esebixxiet f'20 data mid-39 serata li kellhom ippreparti.&lt;ref name=&quot;post&quot;&gt;{{ċita aħbar|awtur = Craig Rosen|titlu = Disney's Cheetah Girls keep girl power alive|pubblikatur = Washington Post| data = 2006-09-25 |url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/25/AR2006092500033.html|data-aċċess = 2008-08-06 |lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[Stampa:Miley Cyrus Concert.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Miley Cyrus waqt kunċert]]
Fis-26 ta' Ġunju 2007, eżattament tmien xhur wara l-publikazzjoni tal-ewwel album, Cyrus ħarġet album doppju, ''[[Hannah Montana 2: Meet Miley Cyrus]]''. L-ewwel disk serba bħala t-tieni album ta' ''Hanna Montana'', waqt li t-tieni disk kien l-album debuttanti ta' Cyrus bħala solista. Hi kitbet tmien kanzunetti minn għaxra, li kienu mniżżlin taħt l-isem tat-twelid Destiny Hope Cyrus.

Sena wara, Cyrus ħarġet it-tieni album taħt isimha. ''[[Breakout]]'' hu l-ewwel album ta' Miley Cyrus mingħajr ebda konnessjoni ma' Hannah Montana, fejn dan l-album kien jinvolvi s-silta &quot;[[7 Things]]&quot; li għenitha titla' fil-quċċatta tal-klassifiki.

=== Kunċerti ===

Cyrus kantat kemm bħala hi nnifisha u kemm ukoll bħala l-karattru ta' [[Hannah Montana]] fil-''[[Best of Both Worlds Tour]]'' fl-Amerika ta' Fuq li beda mit-18 ta' Ottubru 2007 f'[[Saint Louis (Missouri)|St. Louis, Missouri]]; dan kien estiż sal-31 ta' Jannar 2008 minħabba d-domanda kbira li kien hemm, fejn spiċċa biex saru 69 data, 14 aktar min-numru previst. Il-[[Jonas Brothers]] kienu l-att tal-ftuħ għal ħafna mill-kunċerti.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.pr-inside.com/the-hannah-montana-miley-cyrus-r345470.htm|titlu=The Hannah Montana / Miley Cyrus ``Best of Both Worlds Tour'' Confirms 14 New Dates to Sold-Out Nationwide Tour|data-aċċess=2008-08-06|sena=2007|awtur=Walt Disney Records u Hollywood Records|pubblikatur=Business Wire 2007|lingwa=Ingliż|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120612082118/http://www.pr-inside.com/the-hannah-montana-miley-cyrus-r345470.htm|arkivju-data=2012-06-12|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Il-biljetti ta' kull kunċert kienu jiġu mibjugħa f'rekord ta' ħin wara li jkunu ħarġu għall-bejgħ, fejn iddiżappunta numru kbir ta' ammiraturi.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|kunjom=Westbrook|isem=Bruce|titlu=How much would you pay for Hannah Montana tickets?|pubblikatur=Houston Chronicle|data=2007-08-17|url=http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/ent/5142413.html|kwotazzjoni=... every show in every city, no matter how small, has sold out in minutes.|data-aċċess=2008-08-06|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dawn il-kunċerti li saru ġew irrikordjati u ħarġu fiċ-ċinema, fejn il-film ġabar [[dollaru Amerikan|$]]8,651,758 fil-ġurnata tal-ftuħ u kompla sakemm wasal sa $31,117,834 sa tmiem il-ġimgħa, fejn b'hekk sar l-aktar film bi qligħ mal-ewwel tmiem il-ġimgħa li ħareġ f'inqas minn 1000 ċinema. Fis-26 ta' Lulju 2008, kien maħruġ minn [[Disney Channel]].&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/alltime/weekends/fewesttheatersatno1.htm | titlu=Movies With the Fewest Theaters to Debut at #1 at the Box Office |pubblikatur=boxofficemojo.com | data-aċċess=2008-08-06 |lingwa=Ingliż }}&lt;/ref&gt; Minkejja li l-film baqa' sejjer biss għal ġimgħa, Disney estendew il-wiri tal-film indefinitivament minħabba domanda mill-ammiraturi.&lt;ref name=&quot;extend&quot;&gt;{{ċita web|awtur=Scott Bowles |data=2008-02-03 |url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/news/2008-02-03-boxoffice_N.htm |titlu=''Hannah Montana'' concert film earns extended theater stay |pubblikatur=USA Today|data-aċċess=2008-08-06|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Kontroversji u skandli ==

Fl-24 ta' Settembru 2007, kien hemm għajdut jiċċirkonda li Cyrus kienet tqila.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.transworldnews.com/NewsStory.aspx?storyid=23558&amp;ret=news.aspx&amp;cat=Entertainment|titlu=Miley Cyrus Pregnancy Rumors Circulating|data-aċċess=2008-08-06|data=2007-09-24|pubblikatur=transworldnews.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; Il-kawża ta' dan l-għajdut kienet stampa fuq paġna ta' [[J-14 Magazine]] li kienet qed tiċċirkonda fuq l-internet, fejn kien hemm ukoll li Miley kienet stqarret l-għajdut fuq it-tqala waqt intervista ma' J-14.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://gaysocialites.com/2007/09/is_hanna_montana_star_miley_cy.html|titlu=Is Hanna Montana star Miley Cyrus really pregnant?|data-aċċess=2008-08-06|awtur=Charles Winters|data=2007-09-23|pubblikatur=gaysocialites.com|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; J-14 stqarrew li din l-istorja kienet &quot;kompletament fabbrikata&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/20957841/|titlu=Despite rumors, Miley Cyrus Is Not Pregnant|data-aċċess=2008-08-06|pubblikatur=MSNBC News|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; L-istorja vera kienet dwar id-drawwiet ta' Miley, li ntqalu min-nies tal-produzzjoni fis-set ta' ''Hannah Montana''.

F'Jannar 2008, deher fuq [[YouTube]], vidjo li juri lil Cyrus, fil-parti ta' Hannah Montana, li tkanta fil-''[[Best Of Both Worlds Tour]]''. Wara ftit minuti fil-vidjo, il-ballerin jgħin lil Cyrus toħroġ minn fuq il-palk fejn għattiha permezz ta' biċċa drapp sewda. Wara ftit sekondi, minn bieb, tidħol tfajla oħra liebsa bħalha li tieħu postha u tispiċċa l-kanzunetta li Miley kienet qed tkanta. Fil-11 ta' Jannar 2008, il-maniġer ta' Miley ikkonferma li l-vidjo ma kienx falz u li effettivament kienet tiġi wżata sostituta fl-aħħar żewġ minuti tal-kanzunetta &quot;[[We Got The Party]]&quot; biex b'hekk Miley tkun tista' tneħħi l-parrokka ta' Hanna Montana u terġa' tilbes b'mod li terġa' takkwista l-personalità ta' Miley.

Fi Frar 2008, Miley għamlet servizz fotografiku għal [[Vanity Fair (rivista)|Vanity Fair]] b'liżar tas-sodda biss jagħtti l-parti ta' fuq tal-ġisem, b'darha jkun viżibbli.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.news.com.au/dailytelegraph/story/0,22049,23608789-5001026,00.html|titlu=Miley Cyrus topless controversy|data=2008-08-28|data-aċċess=2008-08-06|pubblikatur=news.com.au|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; L-intenzjoni vera tar-ritratt kien dak li jipproponi serje ta' ritratti ta' nudità artistika, imma l-pubbliku ma tantx laqa' tajjeb il-messaġġ ''artistiku'' u b'hekk, f'Mejju 2008, qam skandlu li spiċċa bl-iskużi min-naħa tal-istilla.&lt;ref name=&quot;NYT VF&quot;&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/28/business/media/28hannah.html|titlu=A Topless Photo Threatens a Major Disney Franchise|awtur=Brook Barnes|data=2008-04-28|data-aċċess=2008-08-06|pubblikatur=nytimes.com|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Filmografija ==
[[Stampa:Mileydog.PNG|200px|thumb|Cyrus mal-kelba tagħha 'Roadie']]
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Sena || Titlu || Rwol
|-
| rowspan=1 | 1999 || ''[[Big Daddy]]'' || Julian McGrath
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2003 || ''[[Doc (serje televiżiva)|Doc]]'' ||  Kylie
|-
|  ''[[Big Fish]]'' || Ruthie (8 snin)
|-
| 2006–preżent || ''[[Hannah Montana]]'' || [[Miley Stewart|Miley Stewart/Hannah Montana]]
|-
| 2006 || ''[[The Suite Life of Zack and Cody]]'' ||Miley Stewart/Hannah Montana
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2007 || ''[[The Replacements (serje animata)|The Replacements]]'' ||  Ċelebrità (vuċi)
|-
|  ''[[High School Musical 2]]'' ||Tifla fil-pixxina
|-
|  ''[[The Emperor's New School]]'' || Yata (vuċi)
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2008 || ''[[Hannah Montana &amp; Miley Cyrus: Best of Both Worlds Concert|Best of Both Worlds Concert]]'' || Hannah Montana/Hi stess
|- 
|  ''[[Bolt (film)|Bolt]]'' || Penny (vuċi)
|-
|  ''[[Disney Channel Games]] || Hi stess
|- 
| rowspan=1 | 2009 || ''[[Hannah Montana: The Movie]]'' ||Miley Stewart/Hannah Montana
|}

== Diskografija ==

=== Albums ===

{| border=&quot;4&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot;|Informazzjoni fuq l-album
!align=&quot;left&quot;|Kanzunetti tal-album
|- 
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''''[[Hannah Montana (album)|Hannah Montana OST]]'''''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(bħala [[Hannah Montana]])&lt;/small&gt;
* Publikazzjoni: 24 ta' Ottubru 2006 &lt;small&gt;([[Stati Uniti|USA]])&lt;/small&gt;
* Produttur: [[Walt Disney Records]]
* Pożizzjoni tal-klassifika ''Billboard'': '''1''' &lt;small&gt;([[Stati Uniti|USA]] - ġimgħatejn)&lt;/small&gt;
* Kopji mibjugħa: 4,000,000+
* Ċertifikazzjoni RIAA: '''Doppju Plàtinu
|align=&quot;left&quot;|
* &quot;This Is the Life (Hannah Montana)&quot; (2006)
* &quot;The Other Side of Me&quot; (2006)
* &quot;I Got Nerve&quot; (2006)
* &quot;If We Were a Movie&quot; (2006)
* &quot;Pumpin' Up the Party&quot; (2006)
* &quot;Just Like You (Hannah Montana)&quot;(2006)
* &quot;Who Said&quot; (2006)
* &quot;Best of Both Worlds&quot; (2006)
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''''[[Hannah Montana 2:Meet Miley Cyrus]]'''''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(bħala Hannah Montana)&lt;/small&gt;
* Publikazzjoni: 26 ta' Ġunju 2007 &lt;small&gt;([[Stati Uniti|USA]])&lt;/small&gt;
* Tikketta: [[Hollywood|Hollywood Records]]
* Pożizzjoni tal-klassifika ''Billboard'': '''1'''
* Kopji mibjugħa: 3,500,000+
* Ċertifikazzjoni RIAA: Plàtinu
|align=&quot;left&quot;|
* &quot;Nobody's Perfect&quot;
* &quot;Make Some Noise&quot;
* &quot;Life's What You Make It&quot;
* &quot;We Got the Party&quot;
* &quot;One in a Million&quot;&quot;
* &quot;Bigger Than Us&quot;
* &quot;True Friend&quot;
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''''[[Breakout]]'''''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(bħala Miley Cyrus)&lt;/small&gt;
* Publikazzjoni: 22 ta' Lulju 2008 &lt;small&gt;([[Stati Uniti|USA]])&lt;/small&gt;
* Tikketta: [[Hollywood|Hollywood Records]]
* Pożizzjoni tal-klassifika ''Billboard'': '''1''' Billboard 200 Chart
* Kopji mibjugħa: 371,000,000
* Ċertifikazzjoni RIAA: 
|align=&quot;left&quot;|
* &quot; 7 Things&quot;
|-
|'''''Can't Be Tamed'''''
|
|-
|'''''Bangerz'''''
|
|-
|'''''Miley Cyrus &amp; Her Dead Petz'''''
|
|-
|'''''Younger Now'''''
|
|-
|'''''She Is Coming'''''
|
|-
|'''''Plastic Hearts'''''
|
|-
|'''''Endless Summer Vacation'''''
|
|-
|'''''Something Beautiful'''''
|
|}

== Referenzi ==
{{referenzi}}

== Ħoloq esterni ==
{{commonscat}}
* {{Sit uffiċjali}}
* {{imdb}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cyrus, Miley}}
[[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]]
[[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1992]]
[[Kategorija:Kantanti Amerikani]]
[[Kategorija:Atturi Amerikani]]
[[Kategorija:Kantanti-atturi Amerikani]]
[[Kategorija:Kantanti tal-pop Amerikani]]</text>
      <sha1>2jqsmr2nkog4qhfp4gdvahjhkw7jhkf</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arti</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>9978</id>
    <revision>
      <id>329914</id>
      <parentid>257912</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T21:21:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Themeramisin</username>
        <id>27761</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>329914</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1315" sha1="mbq3azszgxqv096ds7p2w9ovwp079ok" xml:space="preserve">'''Arti''', b'mod ġenerali, tinkludi kwalunkwe attività umana - magħmula b'mod singulari jew inkella kollettiv - li, permezz ta' teknika, kapaċitajiet innati u normi ta' mġiba miksuba mill-[[studju|istudju]] u mill-[[esperjenza|esperjenzi]], twassal għal forom [[kreattività|kreattivi]] ta' espressjoni [[estetika]]. Illum-il ġurnata, l-arti hija strettament marbuta mal-emozzjonijiet, u għaldaqstant l-espressjonijiet artistiċi, avolja mmirati biex jitrażmettu &quot;messaġġi&quot;, ma jiffurmawx lingwaġġ propju, għaliex m'għandhomx kodiċi inekwivokabbli li kulħadd juża u minflok, dawn jiġu interpretati b'mod soġġettiv għall-aħħar. Arti tista' tiġi kkunsidrata anki taħt l-aspett ta' [[professjoni]] bi [[tradizzjoni]] antika, żvolta taħt il-ħarsien ta' ċerti [[kanoni (arti)|kanoni]] kodifikati maż-żmien. F'dan is-sens, il-professjoni artiġjanali - jiġifieri, dawk li għandhom x'jaqsmu mal-[[artiġjanat]] - spiss huma frott il-Medjuevu, meta b'xi mod żviluppaw bħala attivitajiet speċjalizzati u dawk li eżerċitawhom ġew miġbura f'[[korporazzjoni]]jiet. Kull ''arti'' kellha t-tradizzjoni tagħhjja, liema kunċetti fundamentali kienu miġbura fir-''regola tal-arti'' u li magħhom kellu jkun konformi kull artist.

[[Kategorija:Arti| ]]
[[Kategorija:10 artikli essenzjali]]</text>
      <sha1>mbq3azszgxqv096ds7p2w9ovwp079ok</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lady Gaga</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>13309</id>
    <revision>
      <id>329901</id>
      <parentid>329872</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T14:05:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ToniSant</username>
        <id>4257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Modifiki annullati ta' [[Speċjali:Kontribuzzjonijiet/Themeramisin|Themeramisin]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:Themeramisin|diskussjoni]]) għall-aħħar verżjoni ta' [[Utent:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]]</comment>
      <origin>326780</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19949" sha1="budkheiu7qrqqqcmy2yi5ojf6ibdrgd" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox bijografija}}
'''Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta''' (twieldet fit-28 ta' Marzu 1986), magħrufa aħjar bħala '''Lady Gaga''', hija [[kantant]]a [[Stati Uniti tal-Amerika|Amerikana]]. Lady Gaga dehret fix-xena tal-mużika rock ta' [[Lower East Side]] f'New York City u daħlet f'Tisch School of the Arts, waħda fost l-iskejjel taħt l-[[Università ta' New York]]. Wara ffirmat kuntratt ma' Streamline Records, kumpanija li kienet tifforma parti mill-[[Interscope Records]]. Fl-ewwel żminijiet mal-Interscope, ħadmet bħala liriċista għal diversi kantanti stabbiliti u induna biha [[Akon]] li għaraf il-ħila vokali tagħha, u iffirmaha mad-ditta diskografika tiegħu, Kon Live Distribution.

L-ewwel album tagħha, ''[[The Fame]]'', li ħareġ fid-19 ta' Awwissu, 2008, laħaq l-ewwel post fir-Renju Unit, il-Kanada, l-Awstrija, il-Ġermanja u l-Irlanda, u fl-ewwel għaxra f'numru ta' pajjiżi madwar id-dinja; fl-Istati Uniti, laħaq it-tieni post tal-klassifika ''[[Billboard 200]]'' u l-ewwel post tal-klassifika Dance/Electronic Albums tal-istess ''[[Billboard]]''. L-ewwel żewġ kanzunetti tagħha, &quot;[[Just Dance]]&quot; u &quot;[[Poker Face]]&quot;, miktuba u prodotti t-tnejn li huma minn [[RedOne]], għamlu suċċess internazzjonali, fejn spiċċaw fil-quċċata tal-[[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] fl-Amerika u rebħu unuri għall-Aqwa Album Elettroniku/Dance u l-Aqwa Recording Dance. Fil-bidu tal-2009 bdiet l-ewwel tour tagħha, [[The Fame Ball Tour]]. Fir-raba' kwart tas-sena, kienet ħarġet it-tieni album tagħha bl-isem ta' ''[[The Fame Monster]]'', li kien jinkludu l-kanzunetta &quot;[[Bad Romance]]&quot;, waqt li bdiet it-tieni tour tagħha, [[The Monster Ball Tour]].

L-ispirazzjoni għal Lady Gaga huma l-kantanti glam rock [[David Bowie]] u [[Queen]], u kif ukoll il-mużiċisti pop [[Madonna (kantanta)|Madonna]] u [[Michael Jackson]]. Hi stqarret kif il-moda hi wkoll sors ta' ispirazzjoni għall-kitba u l-esebizzjonijiet tagħha. Sa Awwissu 2010, Gaga biegħet iktar minn 13-il miljun album u 51 miljun diska madwar id-dinja.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web |url=http://newsroom.mtv.com/2010/08/12/lady-gaga-los-angeles/ |titlu=Spotted: Lady Gaga Celebrates Success In Los Angeles |data=2010-08-12 |pubblikatur=MTV News |data-aċċess=2010-08-18 |lingwa=Ingliż |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810092421/http://newsroom.mtv.com/2010/08/12/lady-gaga-los-angeles/ |arkivju-data=2011-08-10 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Il-magażin ''[[Time (magażin)|Time]]'', f'Mejju tal-2010, poġġiet lil Gaga fil-lista tat-[[Time 100]] tal-aktar persuni influwenti fid-dinja. F'Ġunju tal-2010, Forbes niżżlet lil Gaga bħala r-raba' fil-lista tal-aktar ċelebrità b'saħħithom u influwenti fid-dinja; hi wkoll tinsab fit-tieni post tal-aktar mużiċista b'saħħitha fid-dinja.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web |isem1=Dorothy |kunjom1=Pomerantz |isem2=Lacey |kunjom2=Rose |url=http://www.forbes.com/2010/06/22/oprah-winfrey-lady-gaga-twilight-business-entertainment-celeb-100-10-intro.html |titlu=The World's Most Powerful Celebrities |pubblikatur=Forbes |data= |data-aċċess=2010-06-29 |lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web |isem1=Dorothy |kunjom1=Pomerantz |isem2=Lacey |kunjom2=Rose |url=http://www.forbes.com/lists/2010/53/celeb-100-10_Lady-Gaga_8UOG.html |titlu=The Celebrity 100: #4 Lady Gaga |pubblikatur=Forbes |data= |data-aċċess=2010-06-29 |lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Bijografija ==

=== 1986–2004: Tfulija u l-adoloxxenza ===
Stefani Germanotta twieldet New York nhar it-28 ta' Marzu, 1986, l-ikbar tifla ta' Joseph Germanotta, imprenditur tal-internet [[Italo-Amerikan|Taljan Amerikan]], u Cynthia Bissett.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBB&quot;&gt;{{ċita web |url=http://www.netglimse.com/celebs/pages/lady_gaga/index.shtml |titlu=Lady GaGa - Biography |data=2009-04-16 |data-aċċess=2009-04-16 |lingwa=Ingliż |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506063716/http://www.netglimse.com/celebs/pages/lady_gaga/index.shtml |arkivju-data=2015-05-06 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hi tgħallmet il-[[pjanu]] meta kellha erba' snin; ta' tlettax ikkomponiet l-ewwel ballata għall-pjanu u ta' erbatax bdiet tkanta f'serati fejn l-udjenza setgħet tesebixxi ruħha quddiema il-mikrofonu. Fl-età ta' ħdax-il sena, Germanotta bdiet tattendi l-Kunvent tal-Qalb ta' Ġesù, skola Kattolika privata f'[[Upper East Side]] ġo Manhattan,&lt;ref name=&quot;Times Online.co.uk&quot;&gt;{{ċita web |url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/music/article5325327.ece?token=null&amp;offset=0&amp;page=1 |titlu=Lady GaGa: the future of pop? |data=2008-12-14 |pubblikatur=The New York Times |data-aċċess=2009-02-06 |lingwa=Ingliż |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827021455/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/music/article5325327.ece?token=null&amp;offset=0&amp;page=1 |arkivju-data=2011-08-27 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; imma sostniet fuq kif hi mhix ġejja minn xi sfond soċjali sinjur, fejn stqarret li l-ġenituri &quot;[huma] t-tnejn ġejjin minn familji ta' klassi baxxa, u għalhekk ħdimna għal kollox — ommi kienet taħdem mit-tmienja sat-tmienja 'l bogħod mid-dar, fit-telekomunikazzjoni, u l-istess kien jagħmel missieri.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;TimesOnlineDec09&quot;&gt;{{ċita web |isem=Lynn |kunjom=Barber |titlu=Shady lady: The truth about pop's Lady Gaga |pubblikatur=The Sunday Times |url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/music/article6940885.ece |data=2009-12-06 |data-aċċess=2010-06-14 |lingwa=Ingliż |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306082719/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/music/article6940885.ece |arkivju-data=2020-03-06 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; L-imħabba li kellha għall-palk dehret fiż-żmien li kienet tattendi l-iskola sekondarja, fejn kienet ingħatat l-irwol prinċipali ta' Adelaide f&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''[[Guys and Dolls]]'' u ta' Philia f'''[[A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum]]''.&lt;ref name='growingupgaga'&gt;{{ċita web |isem=Vanessa |kunjom=Grigoriadis |titlu=Growing Up Gaga |data=2010-03-28 |pubblikatur=New York Media Holdings |url=http://nymag.com/arts/popmusic/features/65127 |paġna=7 |data-aċċess=2010-03-29 |lingwa=Ingliż |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401055337/http://nymag.com/arts/popmusic/features/65127/ |arkivju-data=2010-04-01 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hi stess tistqarr fuq kif il-ħajja akkademika tagħha matul dan iż-żmien kienet waħda &quot;ta' dedikazzjoni, ta' studju, u ta' dixxiplina&quot; imma wkoll &quot;b'xi ftit ta' nuqqas ta' sigurtà&quot;. Kif qalet f'intervista, &quot;Kienu jgħadduni biż-żmien minħabba li jew kont inkun wisq provokattiva jew wisq eċċentrika, u għalhekk bdejt nillimita ruħi xi ftit. Ma kontx inħossni nappartjeni għal tal-madwar, u ħassejtni qisni skerz.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita aħbar |isem=Jon |kunjom=Bream |titlu=Don't Gag on Gaga |data=2009-03-21 |pubblikatur=The Star Tribune Company |url=http://www.startribune.com/entertainment/music/41533957.html?elr=KArksLckD8EQDUoaEyqyP4O:DW3ckUiD3aPc:_Yyc:aUUsZ |data-aċċess=2010-01-23 |lingwa=Ingliż |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428124842/http://www.startribune.com/entertainment/music/41533957.html?elr=KArksLckD8EQDUoaEyqyP4O:DW3ckUiD3aPc:_Yyc:aUUsZ |arkivju-data=2015-04-28 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita aħbar |isem=Seth |kunjom=Poppell |titlu=Lady Gaga was surprisingly normal |data=2009-12-22 |pubblikatur=In Touch Weekly |url=http://www.intouchweekly.com/2009/12/in_touch_exclusivelady_gaga_wa.php |data-aċċess=2010-01-23 |lingwa=Ingliż }}&lt;/ref&gt; Studenta li kienet tattendi magħha l-iskola sekondarja fakkret kif &quot;Hi kellha grupp ta' ħbieb; kienet studenta bil-għaqal. Kienet tħobb ħafna s-subien, però l-kant kien in-numru wieħed.&quot;&lt;ref name='whos-that-lady'&gt;{{ċita aħbar |isem1=Maureen |kunjom1=Callahan |isem2=Stewart |kunjom2=Sara |titlu=Who's that lady? |data=2010-01-22 |pubblikatur=New York Post |url=http://www.nypost.com/p/entertainment/music/who_that_lady_CBlHI927dRlLmIwjVfGrwK |data-aċċess=2010-03-26 |lingwa=Ingliż }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ta' sbatax-il sena, eżattament, nhar it-23 ta' Awwissu, 2003, Germanotta daħlet fit-Tisch School of the Arts tal-[[Università ta' New York]]. Hemmhekk hi studjat il-mużika u tejbet l-abilitajiet tagħha bħala liriċista fejn il-kitbiet tagħha kienu jduru madwar l-arti, ir-reliġjon, il-problemi soċjali u l-politika. Germanotta ħasset kif hi kienet iktar kreattiva minn biċċa minn sħabha tal-klassi. &quot;Ġaladarba titgħallem fuq kif għandek taħseb dwar l-arti, tista' tgħallem lilek innifsek,&quot; stqarret. Mat-tieni semestru tat-tieni sena ta' studju hi ħalliet l-iskola sabiex tiffoka iktar fuq il-karriera mużikali tagħha.&lt;ref name=&quot;mtv 55&quot;&gt;{{ċita aħbar |url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1589013/20080609/lady_gaga.jhtml |titlu=Lady GaGa Brings Her Artistic Vision Of Pop Music To New Album |kunjom=Harris |isem=Chris |data=2008-06-09 |data-aċċess=2009-05-07 |pubblikatur=MTV Networks |lingwa=Ingliż |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224142657/http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1589013/20080609/lady_gaga.jhtml |arkivju-data=2010-12-24 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Missierha kien qabel li jħallsilha l-kera għal sena, bil-patt u l-kundizzjoni li terġa' tidħol fit-Tisch jekk ma kienx se jirnexxielha.

=== Il-bidu tal-karriera ===

[[Stampa:Lady Gaga performing at The Bazaar, Atlanta, Oct. 2008.jpg|180px|thumb|Gaga tkanta f'ristorant fl-ewwel snin tal-karriera tagħha]]
Lady Gaga għall-bidu iffirmat kuntratt ma' [[Def Jam Recordings|Def Jam]], meta kellha dsatax-il sena, wara li d-diskografiku [[Antonio Reid|L. A. Reid]] kien semagħha tkanta fil-kuritur mill-uffiċċju tiegħu. Madanakollu, il-kantanta ċaħdet li hi u Reid kienu qatt iltaqgħu u l-kuntratt ġie xolt wara biss tliet xhur. Madwar sena wara ġiet skoperta mid-diskografiku [[Vincent Herbert]] li taha kuntratt mal-[[Interscope Records]] f'Jannar tal-2008. Hi rnexxielha tħalli 'l kulħadd impressjonat għall-widna lejn il-mleodija u għall-abilitajiet bħala [[kantawtur|kantawtriċi]], u bdiet taħdem bħala kantawtriċi, fejn kitbet għall-[[Konvict Muzik]], it-tikketta diskografika ta' [[Akon]], u għal artisti bħal [[Fergie]], [[Pussycat Dolls]], [[Britney Spears]] u [[New Kids on the Block]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Times Online.co.uk&quot;/&gt; Għal Britney Spears kitbet &quot;Quicksand&quot; u &quot;Amnesia&quot;, li suċċessivament ġew inklużi bħala ''[[bonus track]]'' fl-album ''[[Circus (album ta' Britney Spears)|Circus]]''. Fl-ewwel xhur tal-2007, Jimmy Lovine, il-president tal-Interscope Records, indunat bit-talent tagħha u fuq parir ta' Akon, li kien l-ewwel fost dawk li emmnu bit-talenti vokali tagħha, iddeċieda li jagħtiha kuntratt diskografiku.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web |url=http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/features/Lady-GaGa-Totally-GaGa.4891798.jp |titlu=Lady GaGa: Totally Ga-Ga|data-aċċess=2009-02-20|kunjom=Cowing |isem=Emma |data=2009-01-20 |xogħol=The Scotsman |lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Allmusic bio&quot;&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.allmusic.com/artist/lady-gaga-p1055684 |titlu=Lady Gaga Overview |isem=Jason |kunjom=Birchmeier |pubblikatur=Allmusic |data-aċċess=2009-01-13|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Għall-2007 kollu, Lady Gaga ħadmet b'mod kostanti mal-ħabiba tagħha, [[DJ]] u [[ballerina]] [[Lady Starlight]]. Iż-żewġt iħbieb bdew jesebixxu flimkien f'diversi kunċerti u manifestazzjonijiet lokali bħal fil-Mercury Lounge u r-Rockwood Music Hall. L-esebizzjonijiet tagħhom, taħt l-isem ta' &quot;The Ultimate Pop Burlesque Rock Show&quot;, kienu jagħtu ġieħ għall-varjetà tas-snin sebgħin. F'Awwissu 2007, it-tnejn li huma ġew mistiedna biex jipparteċipaw f'[[festival mużikali]] [[Lollapalooza]], fejn issorprendu lill-udjenza preżenti b'esebizzjoni deskritta bħala selvaġġa.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.wmagazine.com/celebrities/2007/10/lady_gaga|titlu=Going GaGa for Lady Gaga|pubblikatur=W Magazine|kunjom=D'Souza|isem=Nandini|data-aċċess=2009-04-21|lingwa=Ingliż|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513084651/http://www.wmagazine.com/celebrities/2007/10/lady_gaga|arkivju-data=2012-05-13|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Grazzi għall-kollaborazzjoni ma' Akon, Gaga bdiet tibni l-materjal proprju tagħha, fejn ħadmet bi sħiħ għall-ewwel album tagħhom, viċin tim ta' produtturi bħal RedOne u Rob Fusari. Wara li għall-bidu bdiet tiċċentra l-mużika tagħha fuq id-[[dance]] [[mużika elettronika|elettronika]] [[avant-garde]], sabet it-triq mużikali tagħha meta bdiet tavviċina aktar għall-[[mużika pop|pop melodiku]] u għall-[[glam rock]] ta' [[David Bowie]] u l-grupp [[Queen]];

{{quote|Minn dejjem kont inħobb il-mużika u d-dinja tal-ispettaklu. Inħobb ħafna l-mużika pop, rock u mmur għal kunċerti iżda wkoll it-teatru. Meta skoprejt il-mużika tal-Queen u ta' David Bowie fhimt li stajt inwaħħad flimkien il-pop u r-rock flimkien mad-dance, għar-repertorji tiegħi.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://www.tgcom.mediaset.it/spettacolo/articoli/articolo431501.shtml|titlu=Negli Usa tutti pazzi per Lady GaGa|pubblikatur=TGcom|awtur=|data-aċċess=2009-04-21|lingwa=Taljan|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425201437/http://www.tgcom.mediaset.it/spettacolo/articoli/articolo431501.shtml|arkivju-data=2009-04-25|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

=== Id-debutt: ''The Fame'' ===
[[Stampa:Lady Gaga perfoming as a supporting act on the New Kids on The Block tour, 2008.jpg|275px|thumb|Lady Gaga waqt esebizzjoni diretta]]

Nhar it-8 ta' April iddebuttat bil-kanzunetta &quot;[[Just Dance]]&quot;, li laħqet instantanjament it-tieni post fil-klassifika dance tal-Istati Uniti u fl-ewwel post f'seba' pajjiżi — l-[[Awstralja]], l-[[Irlanda]], il-[[Kanada]], l-[[Olanda]], ir-[[Renju Unit]] u l-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Just Dance klassifiki&quot;&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://acharts.us/song/35829|titlu=Lady Gaga and Colby O'Donis - Just Dance|pubblikatur=aCharts.us|data-aċċess=2009-01-07|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; F'Awwissu tal-2008 ippubblikat l-album debuttanti tagħha, ''[[The Fame]]'', fejn fih għamlet analiżi ta' kull aspett tal-fama u li wieħed isir famuż. L-album jiġbor fih diversi ġeneri mużikali, li jmorru mid-[[dance]] għall-[[elettropop]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Allmusic bio&quot;/&gt; Fil-frattemp, Lady Gaga bdiet taħdem fil-proġett kollettiv imsejjaħ &quot;Haus of Gaga&quot;, fejn ikkollaboraw ma' Gaga fuq il-ħwejjeġ tagħha, ix-xenografija u esperimentazzjoni ta' tipi ġodda ta' ħsejjes.&lt;ref name=&quot;Times Online.co.uk&quot;/&gt; Fil-proġett ipparteċipaw stilisti u produtturi, li taw ħajja għal tim kreattiv fuq mudell tal-&quot;Factory&quot; ta' [[Andy Warhol]].

It-tieni silta mużikali mill-album ''The Fame'', &quot;[[Poker Face]]&quot;, ħarġet fit-23 ta' Settembru, 2008, u sparat fil-quċċata ta' madwar għoxrin pajjiż, ħafna minnhom ikunu swieq mużikali kbar. &quot;Poker Face&quot; saret ukoll it-tieni kanzunetta konsekuttiva ta' gaga li waslet fl-ewwel post fil-[[Billboard Hot 100]] f'April 2009.&lt;ref name=&quot;Poker Face klassifiki&quot;&gt;{{ċita web|url=http://acharts.us/song/37371|titlu=Lady Gaga - Poker Face|pubblikatur=aCharts.us|data-aċċess=2009-01-03|lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt; Suċċessivament, il-Haus of Gaga bdiet iddawwar l-attenzjoni tagħha lejn is-suq Amerikan b'Gaga tipparteċipa fl-ewwel serje ta' kunċerti flimkien mal-kollegi tagħha fl-[[Interscope Records|Interscope]], New Kids on the Block, li kienu għadhom kif reġgħu ngħaqdu. Hi dehret bħala arista mistiedna fil-kanzunetta &quot;Big Girl Now&quot; mill-album ġdid tagħhom, ''[[The Block]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{ċita web | url=http://www.amazon.com/Big-Girl-featuring-Lady-Gaga/dp/B001ESU2DM | titlu=Big Girl Now (featuring Lady Gaga)|pubblikatur=Amazon.com|data-aċċess=2009-12-08|lingwa=Ingliż }}&lt;/ref&gt; L-album ''The Fame'' kompla jimpressjona fil-klassifiki mondjali, fejn laħaq l-ewwel post fil-[[Kanada]] u l-[[Irlanda]], u l-kanzunetti tiegħu ma naqsux li jidhru wkoll fil-quċċatta ta' diversi klassifiki.

Fl-2009 bdew l-ewwel rikonoxximenti tal-ħidmiet tagħhom, bil-kanzunetta &quot;Just Dance&quot; tiġi nominata bħala &quot;L-Aqwa Produzzjoni Dance&quot; fil-51 edizzjoni tal-[[Grammy Award]]s, li suċċessivament ġie mirbuħ minn &quot;[[Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger]]&quot; ta' [[Daft Punk]]. Fit-18 ta' April 2009, flimkien ma' [[Brandon Flowers]] tal-grupp [[The Killers]], esebixxiet flimkien mal-[[Pet Shop Boys]] fuq il-palk tal-[[BRIT Awards]] 2009.

Nhar it-3 ta' Frar 2009 ġiet ippublikata t-tielet kanzunetta tal-album, &quot;[[Eh, Eh (Nothing Else I Can Say)]]&quot;, li rċiviet ħafna rikonoxximenti fl-[[Awstralja]], fi [[New Zealand]] u [[Franza]], minkejja li ma rnexxilhiex tħalli l-istess marka bħad-diski preċedenti. Xahar wara ħarġet ir-raba' kanzunetta, &quot;[[LoveGame]]&quot; li kisbet suċċess fl-Amerika. Il-vidjo ta' din il-kanzunetta, madanakollu, qajjem ħafna polemiċi f'diversi pajjiżi fejn ġie ċċensurat u saħansitra, l-istazzjon televiżiv Awstraljan [[Network Ten]] irrifjuta li jdoqq dan il-vidjo minħabba kontenut sesswalment espliċitu.&lt;ref name=&quot;radiogaga&quot;&gt;{{ċita web |url=http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,25666920-2902,00.html |titlu=Radio Gaga |kunjom=Hutchinson |isem=Jane |data=2009-06-21 |xogħol=Melbourne Herald Sun |pubblikatur=News.com.au |data-aċċess=2009-06-22 |lingwa=Ingliż |arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090624021708/http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,25666920-2902,00.html |arkivju-data=2009-06-24 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nhar it-12 ta' Marzu 2009 ingħata l-bidu t-tour fl-Amerika ta' Fuq, ''[[The Fame Ball Tour]]'', prodott fuq il-mudell tal-kollettiv ''Haus of Gaga'', b'esebizzjonijiet multimedjali, fejn barra li dan it-tour kien jikkonċentra fuq il-mużika, ta importanza lill-[[moda]] u t-[[teknoloġija]]. Is-sett ta' kunċerti kienu jinvolvu tapep differenti, minn [[Los Angeles]], [[San Diego]], [[San Francisco]] u diversi postijiet oħra. Barraminnhekk, biex tippromwovi s-cd tagħha, esebixxiet f'diversi programmi televiżi kemm dawk Amerikani kif ukoll dawk barranin.

== Diskografija ==

=== Albums ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=text-align:center;
! rowspan=2|Sena
! rowspan=2|Album
! colspan=10|Pożizzjoni fil-klassifiki&lt;ref name=&quot;achartsthefame&quot;&gt;{{ċita web |url=http://acharts.us/album/37558 |titlu=Lady GaGa:The Fame on world charts |data-aċċess=2009-03-04 |pubblikatur=acharts.us |lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=canadaalbum&gt;{{ċita aħbar |url=http://jam.canoe.ca/Music/Artists/L/Lady_GaGa/2009/01/14/8022056-jam.html |titlu=Lady GaGa's 'Fame' rises to No. 1 |isem=John |kunjom=Williams |data=2009-01-25 |data-aċċess=2009-03-04 |xogħol=Canadian Albums Chart |pubblikatur=Canadian Online Explorer |lingwa=Ingliż}}&lt;/ref&gt;
! rowspan=2| Bejgħ
|- style=font-size:smaller;
! width=25| USA
! width=25| AUS
! width=25| CAN
! width=25| FRA
! width=25| GER
! width=25| IRE
! width=25| NET
! width=25| NOR
! width=25| NZ
! width=25| UK
|-
| 2008
| align=left| '''''[[The Fame]]'''''
* Pubblikat: 19 ta' Awwissu, 2009
* Tikketta: [[Interscope Records|Interscope]]
* Formati: [[Compact Disc|CD]], [[LP album|2LP]], [[download diġitali|diġitali]]
| 2
| 4
| 1
| 12
| 1
| 1
| 12
| 4
| 2
| 1
| align=left|
* Bejgħ mondajli: 8,000,000+
|-
|2009
| align=left|'''''[[The Fame Monster]]'''''
* Pubblikat: 23 ta' Novembru, 2009
* Formati: CD, LP, diġitali
| 5
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| align=left|
|-
|2011
| align=left|'''''Born This Way'''''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2013
| align=left|'''''Artpop'''''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2016
| align=left|'''''Joanne'''''
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2020
| align=left|'''''Chromatica'''''
|
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|-
|2024
| align=left|'''''Harlequin'''''
|
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|
|
|}

== Referenzi ==
{{Referenzi}}

== Ħoloq esterni ==
{{Commonscat}}
* {{sit uffiċjali}}
* {{imdb}}
* [http://www.interscope.com/ladygaga Profil] fuq [[Interscope Records]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gaga, Lady}}

[[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1986]]
[[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]]
[[Kategorija:Nies Italo-Amerikani]]
[[Kategorija:Kantanti Amerikani]]
[[Kategorija:Atturi Amerikani]]</text>
      <sha1>budkheiu7qrqqqcmy2yi5ojf6ibdrgd</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Michael Jackson</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <id>329902</id>
      <parentid>329870</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T14:05:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ToniSant</username>
        <id>4257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Modifiki annullati ta' [[Speċjali:Kontribuzzjonijiet/Themeramisin|Themeramisin]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:Themeramisin|diskussjoni]]) għall-aħħar verżjoni ta' [[Utent:ToniSant|ToniSant]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="9159" sha1="2vvgo72wlksa0sujrhc88bykhzz7ije" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox bijografija}}

'''Michael Joe Jackson''' (twieled fl-29 ta' Awissu 1958 - miet fil-25 ta' Ġunju 2009), magħruf aħjar bħala '''Michael Jackson''', kien mużiċista u [[kantant]] mill-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]].

== Tfulija ==
Michael Joe Jackson&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/michael-jackson-mn0000467203/biography|titlu=Michael Jackson {{!}} Biography {{!}} AllMusic|data=2015-05-07|sit=web.archive.org|data-aċċess=2022-03-31|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150507080746/https://www.allmusic.com/artist/michael-jackson-mn0000467203/biography|arkivju-data=2015-05-07|url-status=bot: unknown}}&lt;/ref&gt; twieled f’Gary, Indiana, li jagħmel parti minn [[Chicago]] fl-Istati Uniti tal-[[Amerika]], f’familja ta’ ħaddiema. Il-ġenituri tiegħu, Joe u Katherine, it-tnejn Afro-Amerikani, iżżewġu fl-1949.&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita aħbar|kunjom=Barnes|isem=Brooks|data=2009-06-26|titlu=A Star Idolized and Haunted, Michael Jackson Dies at 50|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/26/arts/music/26jackson.html|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2022-03-31}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kellhom familja kbira ta’ disa’ ulied – tlett ibniet u sitt subien: Rebbie, Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, La Toya, Marlon, Michael, Randy u Janet. L-ewwel tmienja twieldu bejn l-1950 u l-1961. Janet ġiet ħames snin wara. Michael trabba bħala Xhud ta’ Ġehovah, setta Kristjana, minn ommu Katherine, mara devota ħafna.

Il-kantant kien jibża’ ħafna minn missieru li kien strett wisq u juża ċ-ċinturin fuq uliedu meta jagħmlu xi ħaġa ħażina, xi ħaġa li kienet meqjusa normali f’dawk iż-żminijiet. “Missieri kien jaqbad miegħi, xi ħaġa li kont nobgħod u li minħabba fiha kont nibki kuljum. Kien hemm żminijiet li meta kien jiġi jarani kont inħossni ma niflaħx u nibda nirremetti,” kien stqarr lil [[Oprah Winfrey]] fl-1993.

Iżda kien ukoll grazzi għal missieru li Michael u ħutu kisbu l-fama. Fil-ħamsinijiet hu kien idoqq l-R&amp;B ma’ ħuh f’band, ''The Falcons'', li ma damitx wisq. Sakemm twieldet oħthom iż-żgħira, it-tliet subien il-kbar – Jackie, Tito u Jermaine – kienu diġà bdew il-grupp tagħhom. Michael u Marlon daħlu fih iktar tard. Missierhom ra opportunità ta’ karriera mużikali fihom li f’tiegħu ma rnexxietx, u ma’ uliedu kien għalliem aħrax u kien iġegħilhom jippruvaw il-kanzunetta b’intensità kbira.

== ''Jackson 5'' ==
Meta Jackson kellu għaxar snin il-''[[Jackson 5]]'' diġà kienu jdoqqu fuq livell professjonali u jduru l-klabbs. Hu beda jkanta magħhom minn mindu kellu sitt snin. Ta’ tmien snin sar il-kantant ewlieni flimkien ma’ ħuh Jermaine. F’wieħed minnhom rahom il-produttur Bobby Taylor li ħeġġeġ lil Motown biex jagħmel kuntratt magħhom. Berry Gordy, il-fundatur ta’ Motown, kien qal li huma kienu l-aħħar stilel li ħadem magħhom. Gordy iktar tard sar il-kunjatu ta’ Jermaine ukoll.

Il-grupp għamel suċċess minnufih b’erba’ kanzunetti li telgħu fl-ewwel post. Permezz tagħhom kisbu ħafna ammiraturi kif ukoll programm fuq it-televixin. Iżda kellhom prezz xi jħallsu għaliex is-suċċess wara sar piż.

F’nofs is-sebgħinijiet il-grupp, minbarra Jermaine, imxew għal mal-Epic Records li rrekordjaw magħhom żewġ albums u d-diska ‘Enjoy Yourself’.

F’dawk iż-żminijiet Michael diġà kien beda jispikka. Il-produtturi tal-Epic Records, Gamble u Huff, jiftakruh jieħu interess fl-irrekordjar tat-teknoloġija u kif jinstema’. Għalihom li fl-1979 ħareġ għal rasu Off the Wall ma’ Quincy Jones bħala produttur, kienet mossa tajba.

== Lejn il-quċċata tal-karriera mużikali ==
B’‘Off the Wall’ ma’ [[Quincy Jones]] biegħ 20 miljun kopja madwar id-dinja, u permezz tiegħu Jackson rebaħ tliet premji importanti. Minkejja s-suċċess il-kantant ħass li xorta seta’ jagħmel ħoss akbar.

Fl-1982 wara li ħareġ id-diska ‘Someone in the Dark’ għall-film ''E.T the Extra-Terrestrial'' li biha kiseb Grammy għall-Aħjar Album għat-Tfal. Fl-istess sena ħareġ ‘Thriller’ u kiseb suċċess ta’ barra minn hawn. Il-kanzunetta damet fl-ewwel post għal 37 ġimgħa u fil-quċċata tas-suċċess, biegħ miljun kopja fil-ġimgħa. Sal-lum id-diska biegħet mal-mitt miljun kopja madwar id-dinja u hija l-aktar waħda li nbiegħet fl-istorja tal-mużika pop. Il-vidjow tagħha, twil erbatax-il minuta, witta t-triq għal vidjows mużikali li ġew warajh inkluż ‘Scream’, li kien ħadem ma’ oħtu Janet fl-1995 li sewa $7 miljun u probabbli hu l-aktar vidjow li sewa flus. Is-suċċess tiegħu tista’ tgħid wassal għall-falliment tiegħu għax l-album ‘History’, li biegħ seba’ miljun kopja, tqies li kien falla.

Fl-1983 iddebutta ż-żifna magħrufa tiegħu ‘Moon Walk’ fil-programm televiżiv ‘Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever’. Sena wara rebaħ tmien Grammy’s u beda l-Victory Tour ma’ ħutu. F’dan iż-żmien għamel ħbieb ma’ Paul McCartney.
Fl-1987 ħareġ l-ewwel album ‘Bad’ li għamel suċċess kbir iżda b’inqas bejgħ minn ‘Thriller’. Fl-2008 l-album laħaq biegħ it-30 miljun kopja madwar id-dinja. It-tour tal-album dam sentejn u ta 123 kunċert quddiem 4.4 miljun ruħ. It-tfal żvantaġġjati kienu jitħallew jidħlu b’xejn u mill-qligħ kien jagħti ħafna donazzjonijiet lill-isptarijiet u orfanatrofji.

Fl-1988 ħareġ l-ewwel awtobijografija tiegħu: ‘Moon Walk’ li ħadet erba’ snin biex titlesta. Il-laqam King of Pop ingħatalu fl-1989 minn ħabibtu l-attriċi Liz Taylor meta kien qed jagħmel ħafna flus mill-bejgħ tal-albums biss.
 
== Kulur tal-ġilda u operazzjonijiet ==
Jingħad li l-ewwel operazzjoni li għamel kien f’imnieħru meta kellu xi għoxrin sena, wara li kissru waqt li kien qed jiżfen. L-operazzjoni ma kinitx ta’ suċċess, għax baqa’ jbati bi problemi tan-nifs. Għalhekk baqgħu jsirulu l-operazzjonijiet fuq imnieħru. 
Wara saret anki bidla f’geddumu, fil-forma tax-xagħar t’għajnejh, f’xufftejh u ħalqu u li hu jgħid li kienu riżultat tal-pubertà, telf ta’ piż, dieta stretta, bidla fl-istil tax-xagħar u dwal fuq il-palk.

Ħafna jsostnu li l-kantant għamel operazzjoni kożmetika biex jiċċara l-ġilda; għalkemm hu jsostni li l-kulur tal-ġilda nbidel minħabba l-marda vitilgo li qabditu fl-1986, li hi marda kronika li biha l-ġilda tiċċara (depigmentation) u li għamlitu sensittiv għax-[[xemx]].

== Mewtu ==
Lisa-Marie Presley li għamlet sentejn miżżewġa ma’ Jackson qalet li hu kien jaf li ħajtu se tintemm bħal ta’ missierha [[Elvis Presley]], li wkoll kien miet b’attakk f’qalbu tort ta’ pilloli preskritti, iżda fl-età ta’ 42 sena.
 
“Ridt ‘insalvah’ minn dak li kien inevitabbli li għadu kif ġara. Anki familtu u min kien iħobbu xtaq ‘isalvah’ imma ħadd ma kien jaf kif… “Kellu forza dinamika li ma kienx ta’ min ma jagħtix kasha. Meta kien jużaha fit-tajjeb kienet toħroġ l-aħjar tagħha, iżda meta kien jużaha ħażin ir-riżultat kien ikun ħażin ħafna… “Għejjejt emozzjonalment u spiritwalment nipprova nsalvah minn imġieba distruttiva… Kont mgħaddsa f’din il-kwistjoni imma jien kelli nieħu ħsieb lil uliedi wkoll. Għalhekk kelli nieħu l-aktar deċiżjoni diffiċli: li nitilqu għal xortih anke jekk kont inħobbu u ppruvajt inwaqqfu.” “Jien fortunata li kont ersaqt daqshekk viċin tiegħu u li qattajt dawk is-snin miegħu. Nispera li issa jitneħħa mit-tbatija, pressjoni u l-inkwiet. Ħaqqu jkun ħieles minn kollox u nispera li qiegħed f’post aħjar”.&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://variety.com/2018/music/news/joe-jackson-dead-dies-89-1202859242/|titlu=Joe Jackson, Jackson Family Patriarch, Dies at 89|kunjom=Morris|isem=Chris|kunjom2=Morris|isem2=Chris|data=2018-06-27|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2022-03-31}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Filwaqt li kien qed iħejji għall-kunċert ''This Is It'' fl-2009, Jackson miet nhar il-25 ta’ Ġunju fl-età ta’ ħamsin sena, b’attakk f’qalbu. Jidher li kienu ġew amministrati lilu mediċini qawwija bħall-propofol u l-lorazepam, u hemm min jgħid li nqatel mit-tobba. Iċ-ċerimonja tal-funeral tiegħu ixxandret dirett fuq it-televixin mad-dinja kollha, u b’kollox rawha madwar biljun ruħ.

== Diskografija ==

* ''Got to Be There'' (1972)
* ''Ben'' (1972)
* ''Music &amp; Me'' (1973)
* ''Forever, Michael'' (1975)
* ''Off the Wall'' (1979)
* ''Thriller'' (1982)
* ''Bad'' (1987)
* ''Dangerous'' (1991)
* ''HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I'' (1995)
* ''Invincible'' (2001)

== Filmografija ==

* ''The Wiz'' (1978)
* ''Captain EO'' (1986)
* ''Moonwalker'' (1988)
* ''Michael Jackson's Ghosts'' (1997)
* ''Men in Black II'' (2002)
* ''Miss Cast Away and the Island Girls'' (2004)
* ''Michael Jackson's This Is It'' (2009)
* ''Bad 25'' (2012)
* ''Michael Jackson's Journey from Motown to Off the Wall'' (2016)

== Tours ==

* Bad (1987–1989)
* Dangerous World Tour (1992–1993)
* HIStory World Tour (1996–1997)
* MJ &amp; Friends (1999)

== Referenzi ==
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jackson, Michael}}
[[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1958]]
[[Kategorija:Mietu fl-2009]]
[[Kategorija:Kantanti Amerikani]]
[[Kategorija:Xhieda ta' Ġeħova]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Madonna (kantanta)</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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    <revision>
      <id>329899</id>
      <parentid>329876</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T14:05:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ToniSant</username>
        <id>4257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Modifiki annullati ta' [[Speċjali:Kontribuzzjonijiet/Themeramisin|Themeramisin]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:Themeramisin|diskussjoni]]) għall-aħħar verżjoni ta' [[Utent:JovalQC|JovalQC]]</comment>
      <origin>309843</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9078" sha1="dkbtqqco1rlpv7sm923vuiq0g52gx95" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox bijografija}}{{Nebbieta|Mużika}}
'''Madonna Louise Ciccone''' (twieldet 16 ta' Awwissu 1958) magħrufa bħala '''Madonna''', imwielda fis-16 ta' Awwissu 1958 f'Bay City, [[Michigan]], hija kantanta, żeffiena, attriċi, produttur tal-films, direttur u negozjanta [[Stati Uniti|Amerikana]] ta' oriġini [[Italja|Taljana]] u Franċiża-Kanadiża. Hija spiss ikkwotata bħala influwenza kbira fuq artisti żgħażagħ tas-seklu 21 u meqjusa bħala waħda mill-akbar stilel fuq il-pjaneta.

== Bijografija ==
'''&lt;big&gt;Oriġini u tfulija (1958–1978)&lt;/big&gt;''' 

Madonna twieldet fis-16 ta’ Awwissu 1958 f’Bay City, [[Michigan]]. Hija bint Silvio Anthony &quot;Tony&quot; Ciccone, inġinier Taljan-Amerikan ta' Chrysler u General Motors, u Madonna Louise Fortin, ta' oriġini [[Franċiża-Kanadiża]]. Missieru twieled fit-2 ta’ Ġunju 1931 minn immigranti Taljani mir-raħal ta’ Pacentro (Abruzzo) li waslu l-Istati Uniti fl-1919&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.parismatch.com/People/Bonne-fortune-et-bon-coeur-Madonna-aide-un-village-des-abruzzes-apres-le-seisme-138582|titlu=Bonne fortune, bon cœur pour Madonna|data=2009-04-08|sit=parismatch.com|lingwa=fr|data-aċċess=2024-07-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Fir-rigward ta’ ommu, imwielda fil-11 ta’ Lulju 1933, hija dixxendent dirett ta’ Julien Fortin, li emigrat minn Perche lejn [[Franza]] Ġdida fl-1650. Il-familja Fortin hija relatata mal-pijunier Zacharie Cloutier, u b’hekk Madonna kienet kuġin imbiegħda ta’ diversi personalitajiet tal-[[Quebec]] fosthom [[Celine Dion|Céline Dion]], Diane Tell u Xavier Dolan&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.perche-quebec.com/madonna/individus/madonna.htm|titlu=Madonna, son ancêtre Julien Fortin est né à Saint-Cosme-en-Vairais (Sarthe, France) en 1621|sit=perche-quebec.com|lingwa=fr|data-aċċess=2024-07-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Miżżewweġ fl-1955, Silvio Ciccone u Madonna Fortin imbagħad kellhom sitt itfal: Anthony (3 ta’ Mejju 1956 – 25 ta’ Frar 2023), Martin (imwieled fil-15 ta’ Ġunju, 1957), Madonna (li konna laqqmu “Iċ-Ċkejkna Nonni” biex niddistingwuha minnha. omm[8]), Paula (imwielda fit-22 ta’ Awwissu, 1959), Christopher (imwielda fit-22 ta’ Novembru, 1960) u Melanie (imwielda fit-30 ta’ Ġunju, 1962). Imrobbija f’ambjent strettament Kattoliku, Madonna ħadet lil Veronika bħala l-ewwel isimha, b’referenza għal Santa Veronika.

Nannu missieru, li ma kellux diploma, kellu jaħdem ta’ barriera għal salarju żgħir, u trabba lil uliedu strettament sabiex jgħallimhom id-dixxiplina, ir-rispett u, fuq kollox, biex jgħixu permezz tal-perseveranza biss. Missier Madonna se japplika l-istess metodu lil uliedu biex jassigurahom futur preferibbli minn tiegħu. 

Fl-1 ta’ Diċembru 1963, ta’ 5 snin, Madonna tilfet lil ommha bil-kanċer tas-sider. Il-mewt tagħha se tkun suġġett rikurrenti fix-xogħlijiet mużikali tagħha, li Madonna se tindirizza fost l-oħrajn fl-albums ''Like a Prayer'' (1989), ''Ray of Light'' (1998) u ''American Life'' (2003), u se tagħmel id-digriet tagħha li qatt mhu ser. jiddependu fuq il-persuna u ma jkollhom ebda rekwiżit biex jiġġieldu u jiddefendu posthom fis-soċjetà.

'''&lt;big&gt;Karriera&lt;/big&gt;''' 

'''Bidu fil-mużika (1978–1984)''' 

F’Settembru tal-1978, waslet [[Belt ta' New York|New York]] b’$35 fil-but, u marret fid-distrett tat-teatri, [[Times Square]], bit-tama li ssib fama. Madonna se tfakkar diversi episodji trawmatiċi mal-wasla tagħha: “Ma ġejtx milqugħa hemm b’idejha miftuħa. L-ewwel sena, kont miżmuma b'pistola. Ġejt stuprat fuq il-bejt ta’ bini, fejn ġejt imbuttat b’sikkina fuq wara, u l-appartament tiegħi nqasam tliet darbiet.” Malajr saret studenta taż-żeffiena klassika rispettata ħafna Pearl Lang, u għexet minn xogħlijiet okkażjonali fi prekarjetà kbira, solitarja u bil-ftit flus li ġabu magħhom ix-xogħolijiet tagħha bħala waitress, żeffiena jew mudella nude. Madonna għalhekk se tinkorpora l-immaġni tal-ħolma Amerikana: tirnexxi mix-xejn permezz ta’ determinazzjoni kbira. Imbagħad telqet lejn Durham biex tieħu audition u tieħu lezzjonijiet taż-żfin mingħand Martha Graham u Alvin Ailey fl-''American Dance'' Center fi [[Belt ta' New York|New York]].

Fl-1979, iltaqgħet ma’ Dan Gilroy, li għallimha l-kitarra. Għajjien mir-relazzjoni tumultuous tagħha ma' Pearl Lang, ħalliet il-karriera tagħha taż-żfin fil-ġenb biex issegwi l-mużika u b'hekk saret id-drummer u mbagħad kantanta tal-grupp ''Breakfast Club''. Wara numru ta’ auditions (notevolment għal Footloose u Fame), il-produtturi nnutawha waqt awdizzjoni għal [[Patrick Hernandez]] u riedu li tittanta xortiha fi Franza; imbagħad għexet għal ħames xhur bejn [[Lille]], [[Pariġi]] u [[Marsilja]], ħadet kuntratti żgħar iżda kisbet esperjenza. Għajjien għal darb'oħra, hija marret lura l-Istati Uniti f'[[Awwissu]] u reġgħet bdiet l-awdizzjonijiet. F’Ottubru, spiċċat tieħu sehem f’film b’baġit baxx, A Certain Sacrifice ta’ Stephen Jon Lewicki. Matul is-sajf tal-1980, hija pproduċiet il-grupp tagħha stess &quot;''Emmy &amp; The Emmys''&quot; f'Manhattan's Music Building, ma' Stephen Bray u Gary Burke, li għalih kitbet 14-il kanzunetta. Il-grupp iwettaq fil-każini, u jwettaq il-kompożizzjonijiet tal-kantanta.

F'April tal-1982, hija ffirmat ma' Sire Records, sussidjarja ta' Warner, li ppermettiet ir-rilaxx tal-ewwel 45 rpm tagħha, Everybody, li ma għarrfithiex mal-pubbliku ġenerali iżda kellha xi suċċess fil-nightclubs Amerikani. Imbagħad ġew ''Burning Up'' u ''Physical Attraction'' li, għal darb'oħra, kienu magħrufa l-aktar fl-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]]. F'Lulju 1983, ħareġ l-ewwel album tagħha, Madonna, li kien jikkonsisti f'kanzunetti taż-żfin, ħafna minnhom prodotti minn Reggie Lucas u miktuba mill-kantanta stess. Quddiem is-suċċess progressiv tal-album, ġew rilaxxati tliet singles oħra, li wkoll iltaqgħu b'suċċess: ''Holiday'', ''Borderline'', u ''Lucky Star''. Minn dakinhar, l-album biegħ aktar minn 10 miljun kopja, nofshom fl-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]].

'''Minn Like a Virgin għal Like a Prayer: il-konsagrazzjoni (1984–1990)'''

Kien bit-tieni album tiegħu li l-artist verament sar magħruf internazzjonalment. Like a Virgin, li dehret fl-aħħar tal-1984, biegħet aktar minn 20 miljun kopja madwar id-dinja, fosthom 10 miljuni fl-Istati Uniti, grazzi għas-singles ''Material Girl'', daqsxejn kontroversjali, ''Angel'', ''Dress You Up'' u speċjalment ''Like a Virgin'', titolu kontroversjali ħafna (li jħallat innuendos erotiċi u referenzi reliġjużi) li sar l-ewwel hit internazzjonali kbir reali tal-kantanta. Din id-darba, Madonna pparteċipat biss fil-kitba għal nofs l-album. Il-fenomenu pop qed jinfirex: tfajliet żgħażagħ tal-Punent qed jadottaw l-istil tax-xagħar u l-istil tal-ħwejjeġ; ħwejjeġ ta 'taħt fuq nett u brazzuletti tal-gomma għamlu &quot;wanabees&quot; l-ewwel groupies popstar femminili. Fl-1985, Like a Virgin reġgħet ħarġet b’titlu addizzjonali, is-suċċess Into the Groove, soundtrack tal-film Desperately Seeking Susan, li fih Madonna kellha wieħed mir-rwoli ewlenin. Fl-istess sena, iżżewġet lill-attur Sean Penn f’bajja privata f’[[Malibu]]: iż-żwieġ tagħhom kien imħassar bil-vjolenza u spiċċaw jiddivorzjaw fl-1989. Filwaqt li l-ewwel tour tagħha, ''The Virgin Tour'', waqfet fl-akbar bliet mill-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]] u l-[[Kanada]]. 

Fl-1986, meta kienet mistennija li titlaq mix-xena, hija rritornat ma’ True Blue, album li fih saret aktar involuta (issa hija ko-kittieba u ko-produttriċi tal-album kollu). Iktar matur, dan id-diska kien suċċess ġdid, li kklassifika fl-ewwel post fi 28 pajjiż (rekord dak iż-żmien) u kien se jsir l-aktar album li jinbiegħ, b’aktar minn 30 miljun kopja. Il-ħames singles, ''Live to Tell'', ''Papa Don't Preach'', ''True Blue'', ''Open Your Heart'' u ''La isla bonita'', saru hits internazzjonali, u laħqu l-ewwel post fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi. Għal darb’oħra ħolqot kontroversja, notevolment bil-clip għal ''Open Your Heart'' fejn dehret bħala stripper, u t-test ta’ ''Papa Don't Preach'', interpretat minn xi wħud bħala kanzunetta kontra l-abort (iktar tard il-kantanta kienet tgħid li kienet favorevoli għal abort). Imbagħad kitbet b’mod konġunt ''Each Time You Break My Heart'' ma’ Stephen Bray, li hija ppjanat li tkanta waħedha, qabel offrietha lil Nick Kamen, għalkemm kienet preżenti fil-backing vocals.

Mistiedna minn [[Jacques Chirac]], dak iż-żmien sindku u Prim Ministru RPR tal-President soċjalista [[François Mitterrand]], fuq talba ta’ bintha, Claude Chirac, fan tal-istilla, Madonna se tagħti ċekk ta’ 500,000 frank għar-riċerka kontra l-AIDS, fis-Salons tal- Muniċipju.

Is-sena ta’ wara, hija ħadet sehem fuq [[Broadway]] fid-dramm Speed the Plough ta’ David Mamet, flimkien ma’ Joe Mantegna u Ron Silver. Id-dramm se jkun falliment kritiku.{{Commons|Category:Madonna (entertainer}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Madonna}}

[[Kategorija:Kantanti Amerikani]]
[[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1958]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bob Marley</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>32617</id>
    <revision>
      <id>329900</id>
      <parentid>329873</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-11T14:05:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ToniSant</username>
        <id>4257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Modifiki annullati ta' [[Speċjali:Kontribuzzjonijiet/Themeramisin|Themeramisin]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:Themeramisin|diskussjoni]]) għall-aħħar verżjoni ta' [[Utent:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="45278" sha1="0a8jhv2748lrksz9ye7g030rvev8ap0" xml:space="preserve">{{grammatika}}
{{Infobox bijografija}}

'''Robert Nesta Marley''' magħruf bħala '''Bob Marley''' (6 ta' Frar 1945  – 11 ta' Mejju 1981) kien kantant-awtur u kitarrist [[Ġamajka|Ġamajkani]].

Huwa kiseb suċċess dinji matul ħajtu, u għadu sal-lum l-aktar mużiċist tar-reggae magħruf, filwaqt li kien meqjus bħala dak li ppermetta li l-mużika Ġamajkana u l- moviment Rastafari jilħqu udjenza globali. Huwa biegħ aktar minn 200 miljun rekord madwar id-dinja &lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.cosmopolitan.fr/bob-marley,1998472.asp|titlu=Biographie de Bob Marley|sit=[[Cosmopolitan (magazine)|Cosmopolitan]]|data-aċċess=1 janvier 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

Bob Marley beda l-karriera mużikali tiegħu fl-1962. Fl-1963, ifforma ma ' Bunny Livingston u Peter Tosh trio vokali, The Wailing Wailers. B'''Simmer Down'', fl-1964, li sejjaħ għat-tmiem tal-ġlidiet bejn il-ghettos u għall-għaqda kontra l-faqar, The Wailers kisbu l-ewwel suċċess lokali reali tagħhom fil-Ġamajka. Ħafna oħrajn segwew sal-1968. Sadanittant, Bob Marley sar Rastafari mill-1966, taħt l-influwenza ta’ figuri importanti (bħal Mortimer Planno ) tal-moviment Rastafari, li dakinhar kien qed jisplodu fil-Ġamajka.

Bejn l-1968 u l-1971, il-Wailers bdew mal-produttur Lee &quot; Scratch » Perry kollaborazzjoni siewja ħafna li ġġenerat erba 'albums sintetizzati fl-1972 mit-tikketta Trojan fuq l-album ''African Herbsman'' . Kmieni ħafna fl-1973, rilaxxati taħt l-isem tal-grupp The Wailers ''Catch A Fire'', imbagħad ''Burnin''' f'April 1973, it-tnejn fuq Island Record, it-tikketta mwaqqfa minn Chris Blackwell . Kien fl-aħħar tal-Burnin' Tour tal-1973 fl-Ingilterra li Bunny Livingston, imbagħad Peter McIntosh, ħalla l-grupp fl-aħħar tal-1973.

Bob Marley, issa waħdu, jiddependi fuq is-sezzjoni tar-ritmu notevoli komposta minn Aston &quot; familja »Man Barrett (bass) u Carlton« Carly » Barrett (tnabar) biex jistabbilixxi ruħu taħt l-isem Bob Marley &amp; the Wailers. Ma’ dan il-qalba iebsa hemm it-tastiera Touter (mibdul minn ''Rastaman Vibration'' minn Tyrone Downie u Earl “ Wya » Lindo), il-kitarrist Amerikan Al Anderson u t-trio vokali The I-Threes kompost minn Rita Marley (martu), Judy Mowatt u Marcia Griffiths . Fl-1974, ħareġ l-album ''Natty Dread'' li mmarka l-bidu tas-suċċess dinji ta’ Bob Marley, notevolment immexxi mill-qoxra tat-titlu ''I Shot the Sheriff'' ta’ Eric Clapton . L-album kien suċċess madwar id-dinja.

Dan kien segwit mill-album ''Rastaman Vibration'' (1976), li definittivament għamel lil Bob Marley stilla dinjija u l-akbar kelliem għar -reggae . Ftit xhur wara l-ħruġ ta’ dan l-album, Bob Marley baqa’ ħaj minn attentat ta’ qtil f’Diċembru 1976 fid-dar tiegħu f’Kingston, il-Ġamajka waqt il-kampanja elettorali, li mbuttatu biex joqgħod [[Londra|f’Londra]] . Jirrakkonta dan l-episodju fil-kanzunetta ''Ambush in the Night'' fuq l-album ''Survival'' . Kien waqt dan l-eżilju li dam sa nofs l-1978 u l- One Love Peace Concert f’Kingston, li ħareġ l-album ''Exodus'' (1977), xogħol meqjus minn ''Time Magazine'' bħala l-aqwa album tas {{s-|XX}} .

Fl-1978 ħareġ l-album ''Kaya'', imbagħad ''Survival'' fl-1979, li huwa meqjus minn ħafna speċjalisti mużikali bħala l-aktar album milħuq tiegħu. Qabel u wara ''Survival'', Bob Marley għamel diversi vjaġġi lejn l-Afrika u ta ftit kunċerti hemmhekk, inkluż wieħed fiż [[Żimbabwe|-Żimbabwe]] fl-1980, waqt il-festi li jiċċelebraw l-adeżjoni ta’ dak il-pajjiż għall-indipendenza.

Jbati minn melanoma dijanjostikata fl-1977 li saret kanċer ġeneralizzat, Bob Marley ħareġ l-aħħar album tiegħu, ''Uprising'', fl-1980 u ta l-aħħar kunċert tiegħu f’Pittsburgh fuq{{Data|23 septembre 1980}} . Huwa miet fuq{{Data|11 mai 1981}} f’Miami, l-Istati Uniti, fl-età ta’ sitta u tletin sena. Huwa kien midfun fil-21 ta’ Mejju f’Saint Ann, il-Ġamajka. Il-funeral tal-istat tiegħu f'Kingston attendew eluf ta' nies &lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.biography.com/musician/bob-marley|titlu=Bob Marley|sit=Biography|lingwa=en-us|data-aċċess=2019-07-27}}.&lt;/ref&gt; .

Matul il-karriera tiegħu, Bob Marley sar l-akbar mużiċist reggae fid-dinja u ikona tal-moviment Rastafari. Huwa wkoll meqjus bħala simbolu globali tal-kultura u l-identità Ġamajkani, filwaqt li jippromwovi wkoll għall -Pan-Afrikaniżmu {{,}} &lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.biography.com/musician/bob-marley|titlu=Bob Marley|sit=Biography|lingwa=en-us|data-aċċess=2019-07-27}}.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Ċita ktieb|kunjom=Gooden|isem=Lou|sena=2003|titlu=Reggae Heritage : Jamaica's Music History, Culture &amp; Politic|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=GSbzpWSGkGUC&amp;pg=PA293|lingwa=en|edizzjoni=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4107-8062-1|data-aċċess=2019-07-27}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Dinja, u t-tnaqqis tal-inugwaljanza u l-faqar. Bob Marley huwa wkoll fost l- artisti mużikali bl-aħjar bejgħ ta 'kull żmien,  filwaqt li l-istil tiegħu influwenza artisti minn ġeneri differenti &lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita ktieb|data=2007-10-06|titlu=Billboard|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=lQ4EAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA42|lingwa=en|edizzjoni=Nielsen Business Media, Inc.|isbn=|data-aċċess=2019-07-26}}.&lt;/ref&gt; . Il-Ġamajka onoratu wara mewtu ftit wara mewtu, peress li ġie msemmi fl- Ordni tal-Mertu Ġamajkani . Jibqa' fil {{s-|XXI}} l-aktar Ġamajkani famużi fid-dinja flimkien ma' Usain Bolt &lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.sportune.fr/article/usain-bolt-dans-la-legende-des-jamaicains-les-plus-celebres-33505|titlu=Usain Bolt dans la légende des Jamaïcains les plus célèbres|data=11 août 2011|sit=sportune.fr|data-aċċess=2 mars 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

== Bijografija ==


'''&lt;big&gt;Twelid u oriġini&lt;/big&gt;'''
[[Stampa:Bob Marley house in Nine Mile.jpg|alt=Post fejn twieled Bob Marley|nofs|daqsminuri|Post fejn twieled Bob Marley]] 

Robert Nesta Marley twieled fis-6 ta’ Frar, 1945 fir-razzett tan-nanniet materni tiegħu, Omeriah Malcolm u Albertha Whilby, it-tnejn afro-Karibew, pjanti tal-kafè, banana, chili, eċċ, f’Rhoden Hall, ħdejn Nine Miles fil-parroċċa ta’ Santa Ann. Magħruf bħala l-post fejn twieled Bob Marley, qatta’ tfulitu hemmhekk. Huwa iben omm li dak iż-żmien kellu 18-il sena, Cedella Malcolm, is-sitt bint tal-Malcolms, iżżewweġ lil Marley imbagħad lil Booker (1926-2008), u missier abjad ta' oriġini Ingliża, Norval Sinclair Marley (1885-1955). Imwieled fil-[[Ġamajka]], dak iż-żmien [[kolonja Brittanika]], missieru kellu 59 sena meta twieled ibnu. Filwaqt li qal li kien kaptan fir-Royal Marines, huwa sejjaħ lilu nnifsu &quot;Kaptan&quot; u kien foreman tal-pjantaġġuni (&quot;Huwa ssorvelja s-suddiviżjoni tal-art rurali&quot;). Robert kien jaf ftit li xejn lil missieru, spiss jivvjaġġa, u li l-familja tiegħu ma kinitx approvata miż-żwieġ, iżda madankollu pprovdietlu l-appoġġ finanzjarju (irregolari) meħtieġ għal Cedella u ibnu8. In-nanniet paterni ta’ Bob huma Albert Thomas Marley, Ingliż minn Sussex, u Ellen Broomfield, nattiva tal-Levant imwielda fil-[[Ġamajka]]. Skont Michael George Marley (iben Noel Marley, hu nnifsu ħu Norval Marley), li tgħallimha mill-familja tiegħu, imbagħad ivverifikat, il-Marley kienu Lhud Sirjani li għaddew mill-Ingilterra qabel ma joqogħdu fil-Ġamajka (innota li Christopher Marley, min-Norval Marley tal-familja, iddikjarat: “Il-familja ta’ Norval Marley qatt ma kienet Sirjana”)&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.bobmarley.com/history/|titlu=History – Bob Marley|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2024-09-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

'''&lt;big&gt;Perjodu Ska&lt;/big&gt;'''
[[Stampa:Nine-Mile-Jamaica.JPG|alt=Fronton tal-“Café One Love” tal-post fejn twieled Bob Marley f’Disa’ Miles.|nofs|daqsminuri|Fronton tal-“''Café One Love''” tal-post fejn twieled Bob Marley f’[[Disa’ Miles]].]]


Meta kien żagħżugħ, Bob Marley segwa lil ommu li ħalliet il-faqar tal-kampanja għal dak tal-ghetto ta’ Trenchtown f’Kingston. Wara li telaq mill-iskola ta’ 14-il sena, sab lil Neville Livingston, iktar tard magħruf bħala Bunny Wailer, f’Kingston, li kien jaf minn tfulitu f’Disa’ Miles, u hemm iltaqa’ ma’ Winston Hubert McIntosh, magħruf bħala Peter Tosh, li miegħu kanta innijiet u hits soul Amerikan li jisimgħu fuq ir-radjijiet ta’ Miami. Il-kantant Joe Higgs, li jgħix ukoll Trenchtown, jagħtihom lezzjonijiet tal-kant u jgħinhom itejbu ħafna. Bob Marley irreġistra l-ewwel kanzunetta tiegħu Judge Not għall-produttur Leslie Kong, tat-tikketta ta’ Beverley, fl-1962, fl-età ta’ 17-il sena, kif ukoll cover ta’ hit country ta’ Claude Gray : ''One Cup of Coffee'' fl-1962 Dawn it-titli ftit kellhom suċċess. , iżda kompla jinvesti ruħu fil-mużika.

Bob Marley beda l-karriera mużikali tiegħu fl-1962. Fl-1963, huwa fforma ma' Neville O'Reilly Livingston (aktar tard Bunny Wailer) u Wynston Hubert McIntosh (aktar tard Peter Tosh) trio vokali mmudellat fuq gruppi vokali Amerikani bħall-Impressions. It-trio kienu l-ewwel imsejħa Wailing Wailers, qabel eventwalment jissejħu The Wailers. Il-grupp jinkludi wkoll lil Junior Braithwaite kif ukoll, bħal “Waillers Minute”, Beverley Kelso u Cherry Green. Huma kisbu kuntratt ma' Studio One fl-1964 u l-binarji bikrija tagħhom ta' ska, gospel, rhythm and blues u soul ġew prodotti mill-produttur lokali kbir Clement &quot;Sir Coxsone&quot; Dodd, li kellu l-assistent tal-istudjo Lee &quot;Scratch&quot; Perry (Scratch jiżgura wkoll promozzjoni) . Coxsone Dodd u l-Wailers jiffirmaw kuntratt ta’ ħames snin. Fi Frar 1964, it-titlu Simmer Down kien suċċess u sar Nru 1 fil-Ġamajka: 80,000 kopja tat-titlu nbiegħu. Huwa att politiku fis-sens nobbli tat-terminu, sejħa biex jitwaqqfu l-ġlidiet fratriċidi bejn il-ghettos u biex ningħaqdu fil-ġlieda kontra l-faqar. [[The Wailers]] irreġistraw ''Rude Boy'', I'm Still Waiting, Put It On u verżjoni bikrija ta' ''One Love''. Bob Marley jieqaf mix-xogħol tiegħu bħala welder. Wara l-album bl-isem The Wailin' Wailers fl-1965, it-trio sseparaw minn Coxsone, li ma tantx ħallashom bi tpattija għall-għexieren ta’ titli li rreġistraw għalih.

Tul il-karriera tagħhom bħala trio, imbagħad bħala att solo, il-Wailers se jħallsu l-prezz ta’ produtturi, maniġers u qraba oħra mhux intenzjonati li ma jkollhom l-ebda kwiet biex iqaxxruhom, il-prattika mużikali f’dak iż-żmien fil-Ġamajka ma tkunx sa id-data tal-preżentazzjoni legali u l-kuntratti bil-miktub, il-biċċa l-kbira tal-impenji jsiru fil-forma ta’ “ftehimiet”. Għalhekk, il-Wailers u aktar tard Bob Marley ġew ħelwin misruqa, notevolment minn Coxsone Dodd, Duke Reid, Lee &quot;Scratch&quot; Perry, Leslie Kong, Danny Sims u oħrajn Morttimo Planno, Allan &quot;Skill&quot; Cole, Don Taylor, eċċ. Volumi finanzjarji li, kieku kellna nqisu l-arretrati ta’ “royalties” u misapproprjazzjoni oħra tad-dħul, fl-aħħar mill-aħħar għandhom ikunu pjuttost sturduti&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.bobmarley.com/history/|titlu=History – Bob Marley|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2024-09-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

'''&lt;big&gt;Perjodu Rocksteady&lt;/big&gt;'''
[[Stampa:Bob Marley I Threes.jpg|alt=Rita Marley (martu) u l-I Threes.|nofs|daqsminuri|Rita Marley (martu) u l-I Threes.]]


Lejn nofs is-sittinijiet, rocksteady irnexxielu ska. Aktar bil-mod u jixxengel minn dan tal-aħħar, rocksteady jimmarka stadju fl-evoluzzjoni tal-[[mużika Ġamajkana]], li dejjem aktar teħles mir-ritmi mgħaġġla tal-ska. Filwaqt li jieħu r-ruħ u r-rhythm and blues tal-[[Amerika ta 'Fuq]], l-istil huwa mmarkat b'aktar vokali u tastieri, u inqas ram. Il-kanzunetti jieħdu temi ta 'l-imħabba u r-reliġjon u l-lirika gradwalment issir imbuttata bit-twemmin [[Rastafari]]. Il-kantanti jindirizzaw liż-żgħażagħ u lis-subien rough tal-[[ghettos]], u jippruvaw jagħtuhom tama.

L-għada taż-żwieġ tiegħu ma’ Rita Anderson fil-11 ta’ Frar, 196614, Bob Marley, fuq talba ta’ ommu, reġa’ żżewweġ lil Ġamajkana jisimha Booker li tgħix f’[[Wilmington]], Delaware, telaq jingħaqad magħha fl-Istati Uniti. Bob Marley ħadem hemm fil-Lukanda Dupont, iżda kompla jikteb kanzunetti. Huwa huwa sostitwit temporanjament minn Constantine &quot;Dream&quot; Walker. Xtaq li jerġa’ jikseb il-libertà tiegħu, reġa’ lura lejn il-gżira tiegħu wara s-sajf tal-1966. Huwa beda jinteressa ruħu dejjem aktar fil-moviment Rastafari, li tfaċċa fis-snin tletin fil-[[Ġamajka]], u waqqaf it-tikketta indipendenti Wail ma’ Peter Tosh u Bunny 'n Soul 'm. L-ewwel titlu tagħhom, prodott minnhom infushom, fl-istil rocksteady ġdid, jissejjaħ Bend Down Low. F'Kingston, Mortimer Planno, Rasta Ġamajkan ta' oriġini Kubana li vvjaġġa lejn l-Etjopja u ltaqa' ma' Haile Selassie I fil-bidu tas-snin sittin, għaddalu parti mill-kultura Rasta tiegħu. Razza mħallta ħafifa miċħuda mill-Ġamajkani suwed, Bob Marley ħassu aċċettat minn dan il-moviment. Mingħajr l-appoġġ ta 'distributur professjonali, ir-rekords tiegħu mibjugħa ħażin ħafna, u Bob Marley kien fqir wisq biex jgħix fil-belt ma' martu Rita u ż-żewġt itfal tiegħu Cedella u Ziggy. Irritorna lejn ir-raħal twelidu fl-1967 għat-tiġdid spiritwali, iżda kompla jirreġistra u jippubblika numru ta’ 45s oskurati għad-ditta żgħira tiegħu Wail'n Soul'm, bħall-klassiċi futuri ''Hypocrites u Nice Time'', li ġew rilaxxati taħt l-isem. tal-grupp Wailers.

Rita, Bob Marley u Peter Tosh iltaqgħu, f'Jannar 1968, mal-kantant Amerikan Johnny Nash, li kien determinat li jniedi l-istil rocksteady fl-Istati Uniti, u l-manager tiegħu Danny Sims, li magħhom iffirmaw kuntratt internazzjonali esklussiv għar-rekords u JAD. edizzjonijiet. Bob Marley ipprovdahom numru ta’ kompożizzjonijiet ġodda, fosthom Stir It Up, li ma damx ma sar suċċess għal Nash. Johnny Nash kellu ħafna suċċess ma 'rocksteady (hit Amerikana Hold Me Tight fl-1968), iżda l-album ta' The Wailers li hu ffinanzja ma ġiex rilaxxat (finalment ma ġiex ippubblikat sal-1997 minn JAD). Verżjoni ġdida biss ta 'Bd Down Low b'ram Amerikan miżjud fi New York ġiet rilaxxata fi Franza u l-Kanada (JAD-CBS) fl-1968, iżda mingħajr ebda suċċess. Fl-istess ħin, Bob Marley kiteb l-ewwel biċċa tiegħu Rasta, Selassie Is the Chapel, fl-1968. Dan ir-recording importanti, fl-istil nyabinghi (tnabar Rasta), kien iffinanzjat minn Mortimo Planno, li interpreta n-naħa B, A Little Prayer. Ftit produtturi lokali ġew u marru, iżda t-trio vokali ma kellux aktar suċċess minn meta ħalla Coxsone Dodd.

'''&lt;big&gt;Reggae u Island Records&lt;/big&gt;'''

Mingħajr riżorsi, Bob Marley mar lura l-Istati Uniti biex jingħaqad ma’ ommu fl-1969. Ħadem għal diversi xhur bħala ħaddiem ta’ billejl f’fabbrika tal-karozzi Chrysler, li ispirat il-lirika tal-kanzunetta It's Alright (1970). Martu u wliedu żgħar ingħaqdu miegħu. Mar-ritorn tiegħu, huwa waqqaf id-diski Tuff Gong, imsemmija wara l-ghetto (imnissla mil-laqam ta’ Leonard Howell, il-fundatur “Gong” tal-moviment Rastafarian), u rreġistra cover ta’ Say It Loud – I'm Black ta’ James Brown. u I'm Proud semmiet mill-ġdid Black Progress, fl-istil reggae ġdid, b'mużiċisti żgħażagħ, l-aħwa Carlton (fuq id-drums) u Aston “Family Man” Barrett (fuq il-bass), li qatt mhu se jħalluh. Iżda d-diski indipendenti Tuff Gong xorta ma kellhom l-ebda suċċess.

Marley imbagħad mar l-Ingilterra biex jara lil ħabib antik tiegħu Lee “Scratch” Perry, li wasal hemm fl-aħħar tal-1969, akkumpanjat mill-aħwa Barrett taħt l-isem ta’ Upsetters. Perry kiseb suċċess bl-Ingliż bl-istrumentali The Return of Django u qabel li jipproduċi t-trio vokali The Wailers. Lee Perry, qrib ħafna ta’ Bob Marley fuq livell spiritwali, ta kulur ġdid lill-grupp, li rreġistra diversi kanzunetti miegħu, fosthom Duppy Conqueror, Sun Is Shining, Soul Rebel, Kaya u (I've Gotta) Keep on Moving. minn Curtis Mayfield. Lee Perry ġabar uħud minn dawn il-45s u biegħhom – mingħajr l-għarfien tal-Wailers – lit-tikketta Trojan, biex jipproduċi l-album African Herbsman, maħruġ fl-Ingilterra fil-bidu tas-sena 1973. Dan kien apprezzat moderatament ħafna minn Bob Marley li Fl-istess ħin ħin, Catch A Fire ħareġ bit-tikketta Island Records.

Għadu mingħajr suċċess, Bob Marley (li l-grupp tiegħu ma' Bunny Wailer u Peter Tosh għadu jismu The Wailers) irrekordja madwar għaxar kanzunetti mat-tim ta' mużiċisti ta' Leslie Kong &quot;Beverley's All-Stars&quot; (Lloyd Parkes, Jackie Jackson, Paul Douglas, Gladstone &quot;Gladdie&quot;. &quot; Anderson, Winston Wright, Rad Bryan, Lynn Taitt, u Hux Brown), produttur Ġamajkan (Kong kien diġà pproduċa l-ewwel żewġ 45s solo ta' The Wailers fl-1962), li kellu suċċess fl-Ingilterra grazzi għal ħoss professjonali li kapaċi jidħol fis-suq. is-suq Brittaniku (Trojan records f’Londra). Huwa ppubblika dawn it-titli fl-1971 taħt l-isem The Best of the Wailers. Bunny Wailer joġġezzjona għal dan it-titlu (kien jippreferi Cheer Up) imbagħad jhedded lil Kong: &quot;mela jkun l-aħħar album tiegħek..., sempliċiment għax ma tkunx aktar hawn biex tisma' l-bqija&quot;. Leslie Kong mietet ftit wara minn attakk tal-qalb. Bob Marley javviċina l-organizzazzjoni Rasta tat-Tnax-il Tribù ta’ Iżrael imwaqqfa mill-Profeta Gad, alias Vernon Carrington. The Wailers ikomplu jalternaw bejn awto-produzzjonijiet għal Tuff Gong u sessjonijiet prodotti u ffinanzjati minn Perry. Minkejja l-kwalità tax-xogħol prolifiku tagħhom, ma kellhom l-ebda suċċess lokali sakemm Trench Town Rock (Tuff Gong 1971) ħarġet minnhom infushom.

F'dan il-punt ċentrali fil-karriera tiegħu, Bob Marley kien diġà kkontribwixxa għal mill-inqas 350 track irreġistrat fl-istudjo (inklużi madwar tletin bħala backing vocalist), li ħafna minnhom ma kinux se jiġu żvelati lill-udjenzi internazzjonali sa ħafna aktar tard, ħafna wara mewtu, notevolment. fis-sensiela ta’ għaxar CDs The Complete Bob Marley and the Wailers 1967 to 1972 (JAD) prodotti bejn l-1998 u l-2003 mill-Franċiż Bruno Blum u l-Amerikan Roger Steffens u l-pubblikazzjoni, fl-1991, tar-reġistrazzjonijiet ta’ Studio One li saru bejn l-1964 u 1966. Bob Marley sussegwentement kien jerġa’ jirreġistra xi wħud minn dawn il-kompożizzjonijiet, bħal ''Satisfy My Soul'', ''Sun Is Shining'' jew ''Lively Up Yourself''&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita rivista|data=2012-12-31|editur-kunjom1=Nau|editur-isem1=François|titlu=La version syriaque de l’Octateuque de Clément|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.31826/9781463226442}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Fuq talba ta’ Johnny Nash u Danny Sims (it-tnejn fundaturi tat-tikketta JAD ma’ Arthur Jenkins), li qed ifittxu kompożizzjonijiet għall-mużika tal-film Svediż ''Vil Sa Garna Tro'' (''Love is not a game''), taħt id-direzzjoni ta’ Gunnard Hoglund, li fih Nash għandu r-rwol ewlieni, Bob Marley jitlaq (waħdu) għal [[Stokkolma]] f’Novembru 1970 mal-ekwipaġġ kollu tal-films. Jgħix f'Nockeby qrib [[Stokkolma]] ma' mużiċisti li huma kulturalment 'il bogħod ħafna mill-kultura Rasta tiegħu u huwa pjuttost iżolat fix-xitwa kiesħa Svediża fejn is-silġ jimblokka l-iffilmjar tal-film. Kiteb diversi biċċiet hemmhekk, u kkollabora fuq il-mużika għall-film. 1972, Nash imbagħad iffirma ma’ CBS Records f’Londra fejn irreġistra l-akbar suċċess tal-karriera tiegħu, ''I Can See Clearly Now''. Bob Marley iffirma wkoll mas-CBS grazzi għal Johnny Nash u Danny Sims li ppruvaw inieduh internazzjonalment. Iżda l-45 rpm Reggae fuq Broadway ta’ Bob Marley, li ħareġ fl-istess ħin ta’ Nash, ma kellu l-ebda suċċess. Il-ħoss u l-mużiċisti Ingliżi miġjuba minn Nash ma kinux tajbin għal Bob. Ftit kunċerti f'Londra, mal-aħwa Barrett, ġew organizzati bħala l-att tal-ftuħ ta' Nash, iżda mingħajr suċċess. Il-mawra ta’ madwar mitt data organizzata u ffinanzjata minn Sony kienet diżastru għal Marley. Nash, li t-titlu tiegħu ''I Can See Clearly'' ''Now'' huwa suċċess fl-Istati Uniti, iħalli Londra ma’ Danny Sims u jħalli lil Marley hemm, akkumpanjat mill-Wailers kollha.

'''&lt;big&gt;Il-bidu tas-suċċess&lt;/big&gt;'''

Fuq suġġeriment ta’ Chris Blackwell, l-ewwel żewġ albums għal Island — 'u ''Burnin''&lt;nowiki/&gt;' — ġew imħallta mill-ġdid f'Londra, fejn ġew miżjuda solos tal-kitarra (minn Wayne Perkins għal Catch A Fire), kif ukoll partijiet tat-tastiera li pprovdew aktar rock tagħha. u aktar aċċessibbli għall-pubbliku ġenerali tal-Punent. Blackwell irid jagħmel ''Catch A Fire'' id-diska ta’ grupp “black rock”. ''Catch a Fire'' imbagħad Burnin' ġew rilaxxati mill-Gżira mill-ġdid taħt l-isem tal-grupp ''The Wailers'' f'April u Ottubru 1973. Kien suċċess mal-istampa, iżda mhux mal-pubbliku. Wara tour promozzjonali bl-Ingliż, Bunny Wailer ħalla l-grupp (bl-iskuża li t-tour ma kienx imħallas minn Island u li Chris Blackwell għamel lill-Wailers idoqqu f'postijiet ta' perdizzjoni), sostitwit minn Joe Higgs għat-tmiem tat-tour tal-Istati Uniti tal-1973 , notevolment għall-kunċert storiku li ngħata fil-31 ta’ Ottubru f’KSAN Radio f’San Francisco (ara KSAN Radio) fejn il-Wailers se jagħtu prestazzjoni diretta li tgħammix quddiem udjenza żgħira ta’ nies privileġġjati. Lura fil-[[Ġamajka]], Peter Tosh ħalla l-grupp, u ħalla lil Bob Marley għall-karriera solo tiegħu. Li pjuttost jifraħ lil Chris Blackwell li dejjem ra lil Bob bħala mexxej kariżmatiku, figurehead iddestinat li jmexxi lill-Wailers fix-xena internazzjonali. Lil hinn mill-attitudni tal-boxxla ta’ Island Records, kien hemm tensjonijiet qawwija għal diversi xhur bejn Bob, Peter u Bunny, għal raġunijiet differenti. Tliet personalitajiet b'saħħithom b'ambizzjonijiet dejjem inqas konverġenti. Bob, Peter u Bunny irreġistraw mijiet ta’ titoli flimkien bejn l-1963 u l-1973.

L-isem tal-grupp imbagħad inbidel biex jissejjaħ uffiċjalment “Bob Marley and the Wailers” (fuq is-suġġeriment ta’ Chris Blackwell). Il-Wailers li issa se jkunu l-akkumpanjati tiegħu, inkluż it-trio vokali femminili “I Threes” ma’ Rita Marley, Marcia Griffiths u Judy Mowatt, li tieħu ħsieb il-korijiet, iż-żewġ aħwa Barrett (Ashton “Family Man” fuq il-bass u Carlton fuq drums), il-pjanisti Earl “Wire” Lindo u Tyrone Downie (Touter jinsab fuq it-tastieri fuq l-album u waqt il-“Natty Dread Tour”), il-kitarrist Earl “Chinna” Smith, il-plejer tal-armonika Lee Jaffee (biss fuq Natty Dread) u l-perkussjonista Alvin &quot;Seeco&quot; Patterson. It-tielet album ippubblikat minn Island kien intitolat Natty Dread u ħareġ fl-1974 taħt l-isem &quot;Bob Marley and the Wailers&quot;, li fih il-grupp inkorpora influwenza rhythm'n blues mal-kitarrist Amerikan Al Anderson. Kitarist solista Ġamajkan ieħor, Junior Marvin kien ingaġġat wara t-tluq ta 'Al Anderson fl-1976 (u kkreditat mill-1977 fuq l-album Exodus).

L-album ''Natty Dread'' ġie rilaxxat fil-25 ta 'Ottubru 1974 u kien segwit minn mawra fl-Ingilterra u l-Istati Uniti matul l-1975. Dan l-album inizjalment kellu jissejjaħ ''Knotty Dread'', imnaqqas għal Natty Dread fuq talba ta' Island Records. Qabel ma marru fuq tour, il-Wailers daqqu mal-Jackson Five fit-8 ta’ Marzu fin-National Heroes Stadium f’Kingston u ma’ [[Stevie Wonder]] wara t-tour tal-4 ta’ Ottubru waqt il-''Wonder Dream Concert'', ukoll fin-National Heroes Stadium. Din se tkun ukoll l-aħħar kollaborazzjoni tal-istadju ta’ Bob ma’ Peter Tosh u Bunny Livingston. Natty Dread huwa l-ewwel suċċess internazzjonali kbir ta’ Bob Marley and the Wailers, parzjalment iffavorit mill-qoxra, wara l-ħruġ ta’ ''Burnin''’, ta’ ''I Shot The Sheriff'' minn Eric Clapton ta’ fama dinjija. L-album ''Live!'' irrekordjat fit-18 ta’ Lulju, 1975 fil-Lyceum f’[[Londra]], jagħti rendikont maġistral ta’ dan it-tour notevoli li matulu Bob Marley u l-grupp tiegħu xegħlu s-swali fejn daqqew, notevolment fit-18 ta’ Ġunju fis-Schaefer Music Festival fi [[Belt ta' New York|New York]], fil-Boarding. House f’[[San Francisco]] għal erba’ sets mill-4 sas-7 ta’ Lulju u fir-Roxy f’[[Los Angeles]] fejn il-Wailers se jdoqqu sitt ijiem mid-9 sat-13 ta’ Lulju, taħt il-ħarsa ta’ [[George Harrison]], ir-[[Rolling Stones]] u [[Herbie Hancock]], fost oħrajn. It-tour kien suċċess fenomenali u titlu bħal ''No Woman'', ''No Cry'' wassal lil Bob Marley għal-livell ta’ stilla internazzjonali.

Kien fl-1975 li Bob Marley xtara mingħand Chris Blackwell id-dar f’56 Hope Road, il-Island House, f’Kingston, li kien diġà jokkupa mill-1973 u li kien se jsir il-Mużew ta’ Bob Marley wara l-mewt ta’ Bob. Bejn l-1975 u l-1980, 56 Hope Road kienet post ta’ skambji politiċi u artistiċi intensi u ħolqien mużikali eċċezzjonali, iffrekwentat kontinwament minn għexieren ta’ Rastas u oħrajn. 56 Hope Road se jkun ukoll il-post għal ħafna logħbiet tal-futbol li minnhom Bob kien partitarju reali. Sport li pprattika kważi kull jum ta’ ħajtu, id-dar f’[[Kingston]] u waqt it-tour, qabel kull kunċert.

'''&lt;big&gt;Attentat ta' qtil&lt;/big&gt;'''

Fl-1976, ġie rilaxxat l-album ''Rastaman Vibration'', l-aqwa rekord ta’ bejgħ ta’ Bob Marley &amp; The Wailers matul ħajtu u l-ewwel suċċess Amerikan tiegħu. Din ir-rilaxx kienet segwita minn mawra Amerikana u mbagħad Ingliża, it-tnejn ta’ ħeġġa għall-mużiċisti minħabba t-tul tagħha u straordinarji fuq livell mużikali. Il-kunċert fenomenali li ngħata fir-Roxy f’[[Los Angeles]] fis-26 ta’ Mejju 1976 jixhed l-enerġija u l-qawwa tal-Wailers fuq il-palk f’dak iż-żmien. Bob Marley jinsab fil-quċċata tal-qawwa tal-palk tiegħu waqt dan ir-''Rastaman Vibration Tour''. L-1976 tikkorrispondi wkoll għal perjodu iebes ħafna għall-[[Ġamajka]], f’xifer il-falliment wara l-kriżi taż-żejt tal-1973. 

Il-gangsteriżmu żviluppa konsiderevolment fuq il-gżira, li m’għadx għandha ħafna x’taqsam mal-Ġamajka li tiċċelebra l-indipendenza tagħha fl-1962. Amplifikata mill-virulenti oppożizzjoni bejn il-JLP (Partit Laburista tal-Ġamajka) ta’ Edward Seaga u l-PNP (Partit Nazzjonali tal-Poplu) ta’ Michael Manley, elett mill-1972, il-vjolenza mbuttat lill-gvern biex jiddeċiedi stat ta’ emerġenza fid-19 ta’ Ġunju, 1976, ftit xhur qabel il- elezzjonijiet.

Fit-3 ta’ Diċembru 1976 f’[[Kingston]], ftit qabel il-kunċert kbir fil-miftuħ ''Smile Jamaica'' li sar fuq talba tal-Prim Ministru Ġamajkan Michael Manley, Bob Marley ħarab minn sparatura f’daru minn sitt irġiel armati, waqt li kien qed jagħmel provi ma’ il-banda tiegħu fid-Dar tal-Gżira f’56 Triq it-Tama. Huwa ma appoġġjax lil Michael Manley, iżda kien impenjat għal dan il-kunċert għall-[[Ġamajka]] u l-poplu Ġamajkan li jbati (is-“Sufferers”). Bullit ħaktetu sidru u qagħdu f’driegħ ix-xellug, filwaqt li ieħor ħabat f’rasu lil Rita, iżda mingħajr ma qatilha. Don Taylor, il-manager Amerikan ta’ Bob Marley, ħareġ imweġġa’ gravi ħafna b’ħames balal. Id-dubji jippersistu dwar l-oriġini ta’ dan l-attentat ta’ qtil. Lil hinn mid-dikjarazzjonijiet ‘l hawn u ‘l hemm li jimplikaw il-JLP, is-CIA, u anke t-tpattija kontra Allan “Skill” Cole li allegatament imtella’ l-imħatri, illum ma nistgħux ngħidu b’ċertezza min hu tassew fl-oriġini ta’ dan l-attakk. Waqt intervista tal-1977, Bob Marley kien pjuttost evażiv dwar is-suġġett u semma dan l-episodju drammatiku fil-kanzunetta tiegħu ''Ambush in the Night'' fl-album ''Survival'' ippubblikat fl-1979.
[[Stampa:Bob-Marley-in-Concert Zurich 05-30-80.jpg|alt=Bob Marley f'kunċert, 1980, Zurich, l-Isvizzera.|nofs|daqsminuri|Bob Marley f'kunċert, 1980, [[Zurich]], l-[[Żvizzera|Isvizzera]].]]


Jumejn wara l-attakk li kważi sewilu ħajtu, Bob Marley ipparteċipa kif ippjanat fil-kunċert ''Smile Jamaica'' f’[[Kingston]]. Meta l-ġurnalisti staqsewh għaliex kien tant ħerqan li jdoqq f’dan il-kunċert, hu wieġeb: “In-nies li jippruvaw jagħmlu din id-dinja ħażina qatt ma jieħdu ġranet ta’ mistrieħ. Kif stajt? » Ashton “Family Man” Barrett, moħbi fl-għoljiet, jiġi sostitwit dakinhar minn Cat Coore tat-Tielet Dinja. Meta jasal fuq il-palk, Bob Marley juri l-faxex tiegħu lill-udjenza, bħal martri.

'''&lt;big&gt;Eżilju u suċċess globali&lt;/big&gt;'''

Ma baqax iħossu sigur fil-Ġamajka qabel l-elezzjonijiet, Bob Marley mar fl-eżilju f'Jannar tal-1977 u stabbilixxa ruħu f'[[Londra]]. Huwa rreġistra l-album Exodus hemmhekk bejn Marzu u April 1977, li ħareġ fl-aħħar tar-rebbiegħa. Mir-reġistrazzjonijiet ta’ Exodus, ittieħdet ukoll l-album Kaya, li ħareġ fl-1978. Wara t-tluq tal-kitarristi Al Anderson u Donald Kinsey, kitarrista żagħżugħ Ġamajkan ħa f’idejh u ġie kkreditat fuq l-album, imlaqqam il-“Ġamajkan Hendrix”: Junior Marvin. Exodus huwa album li huwa kemm reliġjuż kif ukoll sentimentali, li jiftaħ bil-mistika ħafna Natural Mystic u jagħlaq b’din il-kanzunetta tal-imħabba universali One Love/People Get Ready. Fl-2000, l-album ''Exodus'' ġie elett mit-Times Magazine bħala l-aqwa album tas-seklu 20, qabel is-Surġent Pepper tal-Beatles jew Kind of Blue ta’ Miles Davis. Ir-relazzjoni romantika ta’ Bob Marley mal-Ġamajkana Cindy Breakspeare, Miss World 1976, għenet biex ipoġġih fuq il-faċċata tal-midja. Bob u Cindy għexu rumanz matul dan l-eżilju f’Londra, li dam għaddej sal-1980. Cindy Breakspeare, li kellha tifel ma’ Bob, Damian Marley, kienet preżenti wkoll fl-intourage ta’ Bob Marley sal-aħħar ta’ ħajtu, f’Mejju tal-1981.

Kien waqt l-Exodus Tour, li beda f’Pariġi fl-10 ta’ Mejju 1977 fil-Padiljun ta’ [[Pariġi]], li Bob Marley weġġa’ l-kbir ta’ sieq il-leminija waqt logħba tal-futbol ma’ ġurnalisti Franċiżi, il-ġurnata ta’ qabel il-kunċert. Ftit jiem wara, ħarġet kunċert fir-Rainbow Theatre f’[[Londra]], sieq Bob kienet tgħaddi d-demm. Huwa wettaq batterija ta’ eżamijiet, fosthom bijopsija, li żvelat melanoma akrolentiginous fuq is-sieq il-kbir (marda tal-ġilda li tirrappreżenta biss 4% tal-kanċer), bla dubju minħabba espożizzjoni twila wisq għax-xemx. Tabib Amerikan ordna amputazzjoni urġenti tas-sieq. Iżda taħlita ta’ superstizzjoni minn ta’ madwaru (skont dawk qrib tiegħu, din l-amputazzjoni kienet twaqqaflu milli jiżfen fuq il-palk jew jerġa’ jilgħab il-futbol u speċjalment il-kultura Rastafari tipprojbixxi kull amputazzjoni) u pressjoni f’nofs tour Ewropew fejn finalment jiltaqa' mal-udjenza tiegħu, jikkontribwixxi biex jittardja l-operazzjoni. Wara ħafna eżitazzjoni, tabib ta 'Miami neħħa biss is-sodda tad-dwiefer, b'mod żbaljat jemmen li kien se jwaqqaf il-progressjoni tal-kanċer. It-tour Exodus Amerikan huwa kkanċellat.

Fl-aħħar ta’ Marzu 1978, ħareġ l-album Kaya, irrekordjat flimkien ma’ Exodus f’Londra matul l-eżilju tal-1977. L-album laħaq suċċess kbir, iżda kien ikkunsidrat mill-istampa speċjalizzata bħala album minuri, pjuttost ħafif. F'April 1978, Bob Marley u l-Wailers għamlu ritorn trijonfanti fil-[[Ġamajka]]. Waqt il-Kunċert ''One Love Peace'' li jsir fit-22 ta’ April fl-Istadium Nazzjonali f’[[Kingston]]. Bob Marley, li jitla’ fuq il-palk fi tmiem kunċert li dam kważi tmien sigħat u li ġab flimkien The Meditations, Culture, Dennis Brown, Jacob Miller, Peter Tosh, eċċ., jirnexxielu jlaqqa’ fuq il-palk liż-żewġ għedewwa politiċi li huma jikkontestaw bil-qawwa g[all-poter, Edward Seaga (JLP) u l-Prim Ministru Michael Manley (PNP) fi spe/i ta’ barka Rastafari, immortalizzata fil-film dokumentarju Heartland Reggae ta’ James P. Lewis. Wara dan il-kunċert storiku, Bob Marley sar l-eroj nazzjonali kbir ta’ parti mill-Ġamajka (l-ifqar), dak li għamel ir-reggae u l-moviment [[Rastafari]] globali u għamel din il-gżira tal-Karibew magħrufa mad-dinja kollha.

Waqt Kaya Tour twil ħafna, li matulu l-album ''Babylon by Bus'' ġie rreġistrat fil-pubbliku, irrekordjat fost l-oħrajn fil-Padiljun ta’ [[Pariġi]] f’Porte de Pantin bejn il-25 u s-27 ta’ Ġunju 1978 (lokalità taż-Zenith attwali). Kien ukoll fl-1978 li Bob bena l-istudjo Tuff Gong, ħolma antika, fid-dar tiegħu f’56 Hope Road f’[[Kingston]], fejn irreġistra l-album ''Survival'' with the Wailers, fuq l-istudjo ġdid fjamant tiegħu b’24 track. Is-sopravivenza, li qabel kellha tissejjaħ ''Black'' ''Survival'', tkanta l-ħelsien tal-kontinent Afrikan u l-emanċipazzjoni tan-nies suwed mill-jasar għal ritorn lejn l-art ta’ oriġini, l-[[Afrika]]. Dan l-album huwa meqjus mill-istampa speċjalizzata bħala l-aktar album milħuq mill-albums kollha ta’ Bob Marley. Il-grupp Bob Marley and the Wailers issa jgawdi minn suċċess globali u jdoqq mad-dinja kollha sal-[[Ġappun]], l-[[Awstralja]] u [[New Zealand]] fejn Bob Marley huwa milqugħ bil-qalb mill-[[Maoris]].

'''&lt;big&gt;L-aħħar snin u l-mewt&lt;/big&gt;'''
[[Stampa:Hollywood Walk of Fame stars - Bob Marley.jpg|alt=Plakka kommemorattiva fuq il-Walk of Fame ta’ Hollywood.|nofs|daqsminuri|Plakka kommemorattiva fuq il-[[Walk of Fame ta’ Hollywood]].]]


Bob Marley and the Wailers bdew l-1980 b’żewġ kunċerti mogħtija fil-[[Gabon]] għal għeluq snin il-President Bongo. Imbagħad segwa fit-18 u d-19 ta’ April biż-“''Zimbabwe Independence Concert''”, fir-Rufaro Stadium f’Salisbury, għall-indipendenza taż-[[Żimbabwe]]. Bejn dawn iż-żewġ avvenimenti, il-grupp spiċċa jirreġistra l-album ''Uprising'' fl-istudjo Dynamics f'[[Kingston]]. L-album ħareġ fir-rebbiegħa tal-1980, eżatt qabel ma jitlaq għall-Urising Tour, li kien ikun it-tour tas-superlattivi kollha, u l-aħħar. 100,000 ruħ f’San Siro f’[[Milan]] fis-27 ta’ Ġunju, 50,000 ruħ f’[[Le Bourget]], qrib [[Pariġi]], fit-3 ta’ Lulju, eċċ. Bob Marley u l-Wailers issa jimlew grawnds ewlenin madwar id-dinja. Barra minn hekk, l-album Uprising kien suċċess madwar id-dinja kollha u s-hit ta’ stil disco Could You Be Loved gradwalment xegħel id-dancefloors tal-nightclubs tal-pjaneta. Imma nhar il-Ħadd 21 ta’ Settembru, 1980, eżatt wara ż-żewġ kunċerti storiċi li ngħataw f’Madison Square Garden fi New York, fid-19 u l-20, Bob Marley waqa’ waqt li kien qed jogging f’[[Central Park]]. 

Bob għandu eżami tar-raġġi X fejn jiġu skoperti ħames metastasi tal-melanoma tiegħu (kanċer tal-ġilda), tlieta fil-moħħ, waħda fil-pulmun u waħda fl-istonku : il-kanċer tiegħu nfirex. It-tobba f’Kettering Sloan, ċentru ta’ trattament tal-kanċer magħruf mad-dinja kollha fi [[Belt ta' New York|New York]], tawh xahar biex jgħix, u esprimew sorpriża li Bob kien għadu ħaj bi żvilupp tant mifrux tal-kanċer. Bob Marley madankollu insista li jagħti l-aħħar kunċert f'[[Pittsburgh]], fit-23 ta' Settembru, 1980 qabel ma l-Urising Tour ġie kkanċellat definittivament.

Bob Marley imbagħad għadda minn sessjonijiet ta’ radjuterapija u kimoterapija li wassluh biex jitlef id-dreadlocks tiegħu fiċ-Ċentru tal-Kanċer Memorial Sloan-Kettering fi [[Belt ta' New York|New York]]. Fid-dawl tal-kundizzjoni tiegħu u taħt pressjoni minn Rita Marley, martu, Bob Marley tgħammed fl-4 ta’ Novembru fil-Knisja Ortodossa Etjopja f’Miami, li l-ogħla awtorità tagħha kienet il-mibki Imperatur tal-Etjopja Haile Selassie I, meqjus minn Rastas bħala r-reinkarnazzjoni. ta’ Ġesù mħabbar fl-Apocalypse (“is-sultan tas-slaten, il-Mulej tas-slaten”). Huwa tgħammed minn Abouna Yesuhaq taħt l-isem tal-magħmudija: Bob Berhane Selassie (ብርሃነ ሥላሴ (Berhanä Sellasé): dawl tat-Trinità Qaddisa bl-Amhariku). Ftit jiem wara, Bob Marley telaq għar-Ringberg Klinik ta 'Dr Josef Issels f'Rottach-Egern fil-Bavarja, fejn għadda minn trattament kontroversjali kontra l-kanċer (trasfużjonijiet tad-demm, sessjonijiet ta' ipertermija u injezzjonijiet ta 'THX, aġent kontra l-karċinoġenu). It-tabib Josef Issels, speċjalista Ġermaniż fil-mediċina ħolistika, jittratta pazjenti tal-[[kanċer]] morda terminali meqjusa mitlufa mill-mediċina tradizzjonali. Dan it-trattament tawwal il-ħajja ta’ Bob Marley għal diversi xhur, bl-ispiża ta’ tbatija kbira li ġarrab b’kuraġġ kbir.

Kien f’Rottach-Egern li Bob Marley dgħajjef estremament (li kien jiżen inqas minn 50 kilo) iċċelebra għeluq is-36 sena tiegħu fis-6 ta’ Frar 1981, imdawwar b’ommu, Cedella Booker, Rita Marley, martu, il-mużiċisti tiegħu (minbarra l-aħwa Barrett) u ftit Ġamajkani oħra bħal Neville Garrick. Fil-bidu ta’ Mejju 1981, Dr Issels iddikjara li ma seta’ jibqa’ jagħmel xejn biex isalva lil Bob Marley, u ġie ripatrijat bl-ajruplan lejn il-Ġamajka biex itemm jiemu u jindifen hemm. Waqt waqfa f’Miami fejn ried jara lil ommu, Bob fl-aħħar tpoġġa f’kura intensiva fid-9 ta’ Mejju, 1981 fl-Isptar Cedars of Lebanon f’Miami u, dgħajjef wisq biex jagħmel il-vjaġġ bl-ajruplan lejn Kingston u l-Ġamajka nattiva tiegħu, miet f’Miami. l-età ta’ 36 sena fil-11 ta’ Mejju, 1981 għall-ħabta tal-11:45 a.m. 

Wara funeral statali f’[[Kingston]], Bob Marley ġie midfun fil-21 ta’ Mejju f’mausoleum mibni bil-għaġla f’Rhoden Hall, qrib Nine Miles, fil-parroċċa ta’ Saint Ann, fejn twieled u fejn minn filgħodu ftit ftit ftit eluf ta’ nies. inġabru biex jgħidu addio lil dak li għamel ir-reggae mużika rikonoxxuta globalment u li kanta l-uġigħ ta’ Sufferers madwar id-dinja&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.ina.fr/art-et-culture/musique/video/CAB8100960601/funerailles-bob-marley.fr.html|titlu=}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Il-wirt tiegħu ==
'''&lt;big&gt;Wirt legali u finanzjarju&lt;/big&gt;'''

Meta miet fl-1981, il-wirt ta’ Bob Marley kien stmat għal 30 miljun dollaru Amerikan, mifrux fuq kontijiet bankarji differenti. Lil hinn mill-assi finanzjarji, il-wirt ta 'Bob Marley jikkonċerna proprjetajiet immobbli (56 Hope Road, Studio Tuff Gong, eċċ.) U speċjalment il-kwistjoni tad-drittijiet tal-awtur għall-produzzjoni immensa tal-Wailers sal-1973, imbagħad Bob Marley sal-mewt tiegħu. Biex ma nsemmux dak kollu li kien għadu ma ħareġx fl-1981 jew li kien se joħroġ wara, bħal Confrontation fl-1983 u Legend fl-1984 (li, b’10 miljun kopja, ikun wieħed mill-akbar bejgħ rekord ta’ kull żmien). Bob Marley għamel aktar flus wara mewtu milli matul ħajtu.

Iżda Bob Marley ma fassalx testment, minkejja l-insistenza ftit jew wisq interessata ta’ xi qrabatu. Volontarjament jew le, huwa rrifjuta li jikteb l-aħħar xewqat tiegħu fuq il-karta. Kien minħabba l-fatt li Rastas jirrifjutaw li jitkellmu dwar il-mewt, jew xewqa minn Bob Marley li kulħadd jiżvela ruħu kif inhu, kif issuġġerixxa Neville Garrick? Taħt il-liġi Ġamajkana, u mingħajr testment, 55% tal-proprjetà u 10% tal-wirt artistiku jmorru għand l-armla ta’ Bob, martu Rita Marley, u l-bqija tal-proprjetà lill-11-il tifel rikonoxxuti minn Bob matul ħajtu. Iżda Rita Marley tipproduċi dokument datat 1978 li jagħtiha kważi l-fortuna kollha ta’ Bob Marley. Aktar tard irriżulta, fl-1986, li dan id-dokument kien falz, falsifikat minn Rita u l-avukati tagħha. Rita Marley imbagħad ġiet imċaħħda mill-ġestjoni tal-proprjetà tagħha u l-wirt Marley, fdat f'idejn amministratur mill-Qorti Suprema tal-Ġamajka.

Wara ħafna proċeduri legali u imbroglios dwar id-drittijiet legali ta’ Bob Marley (li kkredita lil ċerti qrabatu biex jaħarbu mill-voraċità tal-produtturi, b’mod partikolari Danny Simms), Chris Blackwell akkwista fl-1991, għal 11-il miljun dollaru, it-tmexxija tal-art artistika. wirt ta’ Bob Marley, flimkien mal-familja Marley. Fl-istess ħin, Chris Blackwell xtara (għal ftit aktar minn $1 miljun) mingħand Danny Simms id-drittijiet tal-pubblikazzjoni tal-kanzunetti kollha ta’ Bob li jappartjenu lil Caïman Music. Għaxar snin ta’ proċeduri li jinvolvu Rita Marley, uliedha, Danny Simms, Coxsone Dodd, il-Wailers. 

Fis-6 ta’ Frar, 1991, l-anniversarju tat-twelid ta’ Bob (6 ta’ Frar, 1945), ġiet inawgurata stilla ta’ Bob Marley fuq il-famuża Hollywood Walk of Fame fuq Hollywood Boulevard, Los Angeles, fil-preżenza ta’ Rita Marley. Lil hinn li daħal fil-leġġenda, Bob Marley illum sar marka li ġġib ħafna flus lill-familja Marley u lill-benefiċjarji, l-istess flus li minnhom Bob qal fl-1980: &quot;Ix-Xitan jikkontrolla l-'flus. Jekk trid issir sinjuri, trid tagħmel ftehim max-Xitan għax hu hu li jħaddem l-istampar tal-flus.”

'''&lt;big&gt;Wirt mużikali reliġjuż&lt;/big&gt;'''

Il-wirt kulturali u mużikali ta' Bob Marley huwa konsiderevoli llum. Bob, il-kantant, ir-rastaman, ir-ribelli, il-profeta, li x-xbihat tiegħu jintwerew fuq ħitan mad-dinja kollha, sar ikona, bl-istess mod bħal Che Guevara, Martin Luther King jew Marilyn Monroe. Fl-erbat irkejjen tad-dinja, il-figura ta 'Bob Marley hija preżenti, fuq il-ħitan tal-viċinat, fil-ħwienet tas-souvenirs, fil-bins tal-ħwienet tad-diski. Bob Marley jibqa’ kullimkien is-simbolu tal-ġlieda kontra l-oppressjoni u s-sejħa għall-imħabba universali. Manu Chao qal f’intervista li t-shirt ta’ Bob Marley kien aħjar minn vesta kontra l-balal biex taqsam id-distretti tad-dawl aħmar tal-pjaneta! Dan juri l-importanza ta’ Bob Marley sal-lum u fid-dinja kollha.

Fi tmien snin ta’ karriera internazzjonali, Bob Marley ta dimensjoni eċċezzjonali lir-reggae u influwenza konsiderevolment il-mużika kollha kemm hi, kemm jekk rock pop tal-Punent, varjetà internazzjonali u dik li llum nsejħulu llum “World Music”. Anke jekk figuri ewlenin oħra tar-reggae bħal Burning Spear, Peter Tosh, Culture jew Toots &amp; the Maytals ikkontribwew għad-diffużjoni madwar id-dinja ta’ din il-mużika, Bob Marley kien, bejn l-1973 u l-1980, il-bastiment ewlieni tar-reggae madwar id-dinja. U anke wara mewtu fl-1981, ir-rekords Confrontation (1983) u Legend (1984) estendew aktar l-influwenza tiegħu. Mill-1981 'l hawn, il-kanzunetti tiegħu ġew idoqqu, koperti u mħallta mill-ġdid minn numru konsiderevoli ta' artisti u DJs. Minn Eric Clapton sa Ben Harper, inklużi Lauryn Hill u Tracy Chapman, il-kanzunetti ta’ Bob Marley qasmu r-repertorji mużikali kollha għal aktar minn 30 sena.

Iżda Bob Marley għadu messaġġ li huwa kemm soċjali kif ukoll reliġjuż. Għadha tirrappreżenta sal-lum ix-xbieha tad-denunzja tal-oppressjoni tas-suwed mill-abjad, iżda wkoll tal-foqra mis-sinjuri, tal-illitterati minn nies edukati, eċċ. Minn Slave Driver, Crazy Baldhead, Get Up Stand Up, sa Revolution, Burnin' and Lootin', Rat Race jew Gwerra, leħnu għadu jġorr ir-rifjut tad-dominazzjoni, l-oppressjoni, is-segregazzjoni (&quot;Aħna nirrifjutaw li nkunu, dak li ridtna nagħmlu. be”; Babylon System: Survival) u jappella għall-ġlieda għall-emanċipazzjoni u d-drittijiet tal-bniedem ugwali (“Stand Up for your rights... Don't give up the fight”; Qum, Stand Up: Burnin'). Iżda lil hinn mir-ribelljoni u l-ġlieda, Bob Marley qatt ma waqaf isejjaħ għall-imħabba universali u l-komunjoni tal-irġiel. “Imħabba Waħda, Qalb Waħda” tiegħu (“Ejja ningħaqdu u nħossuna sew”) m’hi xejn ħlief messaġġ ta’ paċi u mħabba. Eżatt bħal ''This Love, No woman No cry, So much Trouble in the World, ...''

Bob Marley huwa wkoll messaġġ reliġjuż, dak ta’ Jah Rastafari, inkorporat f’għajnejn Rastas mill-Imperatur tal-Etjopja Haile Selassie I, meqjus bħala l-messija fuq l-art. Bob kien reliġjuż ħafna, kien jagħmel parti mit-Tnax-il Tribù ta’ Iżrael, jaqra l-Bibbja diversi drabi kuljum, kien imur għall-quddies il-Ħadd, beda l-kunċerti kollha tiegħu mill-1978 bil-famuż “Tislijiet f’Isem il-Maestà Tiegħu l-Imperatur Haile Selassie I. ; ''Jah, Rastafari!'' &quot;. Ħafna nies, kemm matul ħajtu kif ukoll illum, jaraw lil Bob Marley bħala profeta fis-servizz ta’ Jah Rastarafi jew saħansitra bħala r-reinkarnazzjoni ta’ Kristu (Tyrone Downie). Il-messaġġ Rastafarian huwa omnipreżenti fil-kanzunetti ta’ Bob Marley: Forever Loving Jah, Rastaman Chant, Jah Live, Rastaman Vibration, eċċ. Il-kunċerti ta’ Bob Marley, minbarra li huma palk u avvenimenti mużikali b’saħħithom, għandhom jitqiesu bħala quddies kbar fejn l-indiġja, ir-ribelljoni u l-imħabba jitħalltu, iżda wkoll iċ-ċelebrazzjoni ta’ Jah u s-sejħa għall-kuntentizza tal-bnedmin permezz tal-prattika tal-preċetti [[Rastafari]].

== Tfal ==
Bob Marley irrikonoxxa ħdax-il tifel u tifla b’seba’ nisa, fosthom ħamsa minn martu Rita, għalkemm tnejn minnhom ma kinux tiegħu. Huwa ma għarafx l-ewwel bintu Imani Carole, imwielda fit-22 ta’ Mejju, 1963 minn relazzjoni ma’ Cheryl Murray, iżda adotta lil Sharon wara ż-żwieġ tiegħu ma’ Rita fl-1966. Ħafna wettqu karriera mużikali, u b’suċċess għal Ky -Mani Marley, Damian Marley , Ziggy Marley, Julian Marley u Stephen Marley b'mod partikolari. Rohan Marley kien plejer professjonali tal-futbol Amerikan u, għal xi żmien, ħbieb tal-mudell Brażiljan Isabeli Fontana&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.nostalgie.be/article/4363/bob-marley-decouvrez-ses-11-enfants|titlu=Bob Marley : découvrez ses 11 enfants|kunjom=Belgique|isem=Nostalgie|sit=www.nostalgie.be|lingwa=fr|data-aċċess=2024-09-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Referenzi ==
&lt;references /&gt;
{{Awtorità}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Marley, Bob}}
[[Kategorija:Kantanti]]
[[Kategorija:Mużiċisti]]
[[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1945]]
[[Kategorija:Mietu fl-1981]]
[[Kategorija:Ġamajka]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Claire Holt</title>
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        <id>4257</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Modifiki annullati ta' [[Speċjali:Kontribuzzjonijiet/Themeramisin|Themeramisin]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:Themeramisin|diskussjoni]]) għall-aħħar verżjoni ta' [[Utent:ToniSant|ToniSant]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="5140" sha1="ln8vpyyvopbaz0sn894en0iikxglvv0" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox bijografija}}{{Grammatika}}

'''Claire Rhiannon Holt''' ([[Brisbane]], 11 ta’ [[Ġunju]] 1988) hija attriċi u mudella [[Awstralja|Awstraljana]] li saret ċittadina [[Stati Uniti|Amerikana]]. Huwa kiseb fama internazzjonali grazzi għar-rwoli tiegħu fis-sensiela televiżiva ''H2O'', ''The Vampire Diaries'' u ''The Originals'' u l-film ''47 Meters Down'' . &lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm2322853/trivia/|titlu=Claire Holt - Trivia|sit=IMDb|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2026-03-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Bijografija ==
Claire Rhiannon Holt  twieldet u trabbiet fi [[Brisbane]],  Għandha żewġ aħwa nisa u ħu.  Għall-ewwel studjat biex issir tabiba, iżda bdiet tidher f'xi reklami biex taqla' xi flus u, wara li ħadmet għal żmien qasir bħala mudella, iddeċidiet li ssir attriċi. 

=== Karriera ===
Hi kisbet l-ewwel rwol tagħha bħala Emma Gilbert ''f’H2O'', mill -2006 sal- 2009. Fis-sajf tal-2010 iffilmjat il-film televiżiv ''Mean Girls 2'', is-segwiment ta’ ''Mean Girls'', filwaqt li fl -2011 interpretat ir-rwol rikorrenti ta’ Samara Cook f’Pretty ''Little Liars'' . Waqt l-għażla tal-atturi għas-sensiela televiżiva ''The Secret Circle'', ġiet iffirmata biex tidher fir-rwol tal-vampira Rebekah Mikaelson, f’The ''Vampire Diaries'',  rwol li interpretat ukoll fl-ewwel staġun tal -ispin-off tas- sensiela u f’dawk ta’ wara, intitolati ''The Originals'' . &lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv-news/vampire-diaries-spinoff-originals-claire-holt-421332/|titlu=‘Vampire Diaries’ Spinoff ‘The Originals’ Adds Claire Holt|kunjom=Goldberg|isem=Lesley|data=2013-02-13|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2026-03-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;  
[[Stampa:Claire_Holt_at_PaleyFest_2014.jpg|daqsminuri|Claire Holt fil-Paley Fest 2014]]

== Ħajja privata ==
F'Lulju 2015, ħabbret l-għerusija tagħha mal-għarus tagħha ta' żmien twil, il-produttur tat-televiżjoni Matt Kaplan, u żżewġu f'ċerimonja privata fit-28 ta' April 2016.  Fis-27 ta' April 2017, Kaplan ressqet divorzju, fejn semmiet &quot;differenzi irrikonċiljabbli.&quot;  &lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.eonline.com/news/848671/claire-holt-s-husband-files-for-divorce-just-before-the-couple-s-1-year-wedding-anniversary|titlu=Claire Holt's Husband Files for Divorce Just Before the Couple's 1-Year Wedding Anniversary|data=2017-05-05|sit=E! Online|data-aċċess=2026-03-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Fit-3 ta' Diċembru 2017, ħabbret l-għerusija tagħha mal- iżviluppatur tal-proprjetà immobbli Andrew Joblon.  Fl-4 ta' Marzu 2018, ħabbret li kellha korriment.  Il-koppja żżewġet fit-18 ta' Awwissu 2018.  Għandhom tlett itfal: James imwieled fit-28 ta' Marzu 2019,   Elle Madeline, imwielda fit-12 ta' Settembru 2020  u Ford Matthew, imwieled fid-9 ta' Novembru 2023. &lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.instylemag.com.au/claire-holt-wedding?category=Fashion|titlu='Vampire Diaries' Actress Claire Holt Just Got Married|kunjom=Tsoukatos|isem=Arielle|data=2018-08-20|lingwa=en-AU|data-aċċess=2026-03-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.eonline.com/news/1028199/claire-holt-gives-birth-to-a-baby-boy-1-year-after-suffering-miscarriage|titlu=Claire Holt Gives Birth to a Baby Boy 1 Year After Suffering Miscarriage|data=2019-03-29|sit=E! Online|data-aċċess=2026-03-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.eonline.com/news/1187443/claire-holt-gives-birth-welcomes-baby-no-2-with-husband-andrew-joblon|titlu=Claire Holt Gives Birth, Welcomes Baby No. 2 With Husband Andrew Joblon|data=2020-09-13|sit=E! Online|data-aċċess=2026-03-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.eonline.com/news/1389692/claire-holt-gives-birth-welcomes-baby-no-3-with-husband-andrew-joblon|titlu=Claire Holt Gives Birth, Welcomes Baby No. 3 With Husband Andrew Joblon|data=2023-11-10|sit=E! Online|data-aċċess=2026-03-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Fil-21 ta' Novembru 2019, ħabbret li kienet saret ċittadina [[Stati Uniti|tal-Istati Uniti]] . &lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-7721619/Vampire-Diaries-actress-Claire-Holt-celebrates-citizen.html|titlu=Vampire Diaries actress Claire Holt celebrates becoming a US citizen|kunjom=Place|isem=Tom|data=2019-11-25|sit=Mail Online|data-aċċess=2026-03-05}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Filmografija ==

=== Ċinema ===

* ''Messengers 2: The Scarecrow (2009)''
* ''47 Meters Down'' , dirett minn Johannes Roberts (2017)
* ''The Divorce Party'', dirett minn Hughes William Thompson (2019)
* ''Film tal-Orrur bla Titlu'', dirett minn Nick Simon (2021)

=== Televiżjoni ===

* ''H2O'' ( ''H2O: Just Add Water'' ) – Serje televiżiva, 52 episodju (2006-2008)
* ''Mean Girls 2'', dirett minn Melanie Mayron – Film għat-TV (2011)
* ''Pretty Little Liars'' – Serje televiżiva, 5 episodji (2011)
* ''The Vampire Diaries'' – Serje televiżiva, 38 episodju (2011–2015)
* ''L-Oriġinali'' – Serje televiżiva, 38 episodju (2013–2018)
* ''Aquarius'' – Serje televiżiva, 22 episodju (2015-2016)
* ''Legacies'' – Serje televiżiva, episodji 4x05 - 4x15 (2021-2022)
* ''Ibbażat fuq Storja Vera'' – Serje televiżiva, episodju 1x05 (2023)
[[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]]
[[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1988]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Ċellola</title>
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      <comment>tipa ħoxna</comment>
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      <text bytes="5360" sha1="4nuwqgxumcbvok7qmedh2habefl29e7" xml:space="preserve">[[Stampa:Typical human cell.tif|daqsminuri|Ċellola tal-[[bniedem]] bl-elementi kollha tagħha.]]
Iċ-'''ċelloli''' huma l-unità bażika tal-istruttura ta' kull organiżmu ħaj, u ċ-ċelloli kollha jfeġġu minn ċelloli eżistenti permezz tad-diviżjoni. It-teorija ċellolari ġiet ifformulata minn [[Henri Dutrochet]], [[Theodor Schwann]], [[Rudolf Virchow]] u oħrajn matul il-bidu tas-seklu 19, u sussegwentement ġiet aċċettata b'mod wiesa'. L-attività ta' organiżmu tiddependi fuq l-attività totali taċ-ċelloli tagħha, bi fluss tal-enerġija fi ħdanhom u bejniethom. Iċ-ċelloli jkun fihom l-informazzjoni ereditarja li tinġarr bħala kodiċi ġenetiku waqt id-diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli.

== Tipi ==
Hemm żewġ tipi primarji ta' ċelloli, li jirriflettu l-oriġini evoluzzjonarji tagħhom. Iċ-ċelloli prokarjoti ma fihomx nukleu u organelli oħra relatati mal-membrana, għalkemm għandhom DNA ċirkolari u ribożomi. Il-''Bacteria'' u l-''Archaea'' huma żewġ dominji tal-prokarjoti. It-tip primarju l-ieħor hija ċ-ċellola ewkarjota, li jkollha nukleu distint imdawwar minn membrana tan-nukleu u organelli relatati mal-membrana, inkluż mitokondriji, kloroplasti, lisożomi, retikulu endoplażmatiku aħrax u lixx, u vakwoli. Barra minn hekk, id-DNA tagħhom tkun organizzata f'kromożomi. L-ispeċijiet kollha ta' organiżmi kumplessi kbar huma ewkarjoti, fosthom l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-fungi, għalkemm b'diversità kbira ta' mikroorganiżmi protisti. Il-mudell konvenzjonali jsostni li l-ewkarjoti evolvew mill-prokarjoti, u l-organelli prinċipali tal-ewkarjoti ffurmaw permezz tal-endosimbjożi bejn il-batterji u ċ-ċellola ewkarjotika proġenitur.&lt;ref&gt;Knoll, Andrew H. (2011). &quot;The Multiple Origins of Complex Multicellularity&quot;. ''Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences''. '''39''': 217–239. Bibcode:2011AREPS..39..217K. doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.100209.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Ċita web|url=https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/General_Biology_(Boundless)/24%3A_Fungi/24.01%3A_Characteristics_of_Fungi/24.1B%3A_Fungi_Cell_Structure_and_Function|titlu=24.1B: Fungi Cell Structure and Function|data=2018-07-15|sit=Biology LibreTexts|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Mekkaniżmi molekolari ==
Il-mekkaniżmi molekolari tal-bijoloġija ċellolari huma bbażati fuq il-proteini. Il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom huma sintetizzati mir-ribożomi permezz ta' proċess katalizzat mill-enzimi msejjaħ bijosinteżi. Sekwenza ta' aminoaċidi tiġi assemblata u tingħaqad abbażi tal-espressjoni ġenetika tal-aċidu nuklejku taċ-ċelloli. Fiċ-ċelloli ewkarjotiċi, dawn il-proteini mbagħad jistgħu jiġu ttrasportati u pproċessati permezz tal-apparat ta' Golgi bi tħejjija għad-dispaċċ għad-destinazzjoni tagħhom.

== Riproduzzjoni ==
Iċ-ċelloli jirriproduċu permezz ta' proċess ta' diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli li fih iċ-ċellola ġenitur tinqasam f'żewġ ċelloli wlied jew iktar. Għall-prokarjoti, id-diviżjoni taċ-ċelloli sseħħ permezz ta' proċess ta' fissjoni fejn id-DNA tiġi replikata, u mbagħad iż-żewġ kopji jinhemżu ma' partijiet mill-membrana ċellolari. Fl-ewkarjoti jseħħ proċess iktar kumpless ta' mitożi. Madankollu, ir-riżultat huwa l-istess; il-kopji ċellolari li jirriżultaw ikunu identiċi għal xulxin u għaċ-ċellola oriġinali (għajr għal mutazzjonijiet), u t-tnejn ikunu kapaċi jinqasmu iktar tul perjodu bejn il-fażijiet. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-ispeċijiet ta' pjanti multiċellolari, tal-annimali u tal-fungi kif ukoll bosta protisti, huma kapaċi jagħmlu riproduzzjoni sesswali. Ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali, li tinvolvi proċess mejotiku, titqies li feġġet kmieni ħafna fl-evoluzzjoni tal-ewkarjoti.

== Struttura multiċellolari ==
L-organiżmi multiċellolari jaf evolvew għall-ewwel darba permezz tal-formazzjoni ta' kolonji ta' ċelloli identiċi. Dawn iċ-ċelloli jistgħu jiffurmaw organiżmi fi gruppi permezz tal-aderenza ċellolari. Il-membri individwali ta' kolonja kapaċi jgħixu waħedhom, filwaqt li l-membri ta' organiżmi multiċellolari reali żviluppaw speċjalizzazzjonijiet, u b'hekk jiddependu fuq il-bqija tal-organiżmu għall-għajxien. Tali organiżmi jiġu ffurmati bħala kloni jew minn ċellola ġerminali unika li kapaċi tifforma d-diversi ċelloli speċjalizzati li jiffurmaw l-organiżmu adult. Permezz ta' din l-ispeċjalizzazzjoni, l-organiżmi multiċellolari jirnexxilhom jisfruttaw ir-riżorsi b'mod iktar effiċjenti miċ-ċelloli uniċi. Madwar 800 miljun sena ilu, bidla ġenetika minuri f'molekola unika, l-enzim GK-PID, jaf wasslet biex l-organiżmi jgħaddu minn organiżmu uniċellolari għal organiżmu multiċellolari.

Iċ-ċelloli evolvew metodi ta' perċezzjoni tal-mikroambjent tagħhom u ta' tweġiba għalih, u b'hekk tejbu l-adattabbiltà tagħhom. Is-sinjalar taċ-ċelloli jikkoordina l-attivitajiet ċellolari, u b'hekk jirregola l-funzjonijiet bażiċi tal-organiżmi multiċellolari. Is-sinjalar bejn iċ-ċelloli jista' jseħħ permezz ta' kuntatt dirett bejn iċ-ċelloli bl-użu tas-sinjalar ġustakrin, jew b'mod indirett permezz tal-iskambju ta' aġenti bħal fis-sistema endokrinali. F'organiżmi iktar kumplessi, il-koordinazzjoni tal-attivitajiet tista' sseħħ permezz ta' sistema nervuża ddedikata.

== Referenzi ==

[[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]]</text>
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'''Carl Linnaeus''' (twieled fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707 – miet fl-10 ta' Jannar 1778), magħruf ukoll wara li ngħata n-nobbiltà fl-1761 bħala '''Carl von Linné''', kien bijologu u [[tabib]] [[Żvezja|Żvediż]] li fformalizza n-nomenklatura binomjali, is-sistema moderna tat-tismija tal-organiżmi. Huwa magħruf bħala l-&quot;missier tat-tassonomija moderna&quot;. Bosta mill-kitbiet tiegħu kienu bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]]; bil-Latin ismu huwa '''Carolus Linnæus''' u, wara li sar nobbli fl-1761, sar magħruf bħala '''Carolus a Linné'''.

Linnaeus kien iben membru tal-kleru u twieled f'Råshult, fil-kampanja ta' Småland, fin-Nofsinhar tal-Iżvezja. Huwa kiseb il-biċċa l-kbira tal-[[edukazzjoni]] għolja tiegħu fl-Università ta' [[Uppsala]] u beda jagħti lekċers dwar il-[[botanika]] hemmhekk fl-1730. Huwa għex barra mill-pajjiż bejn l-1735 u l-1738, fejn studja u ppubblika wkoll l-ewwel edizzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' tiegħu fin-[[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Netherlands]]. Imbagħad reġa' lura l-Iżvezja fejn sar professur tal-[[mediċina]] u tal-botanika f'Uppsala. Fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 18, huwa ntbagħat għal diversi vjaġġi fl-Iżvezja biex isib u jikklassifika l-[[Pjanta|pjanti]] u l-[[Annimal|annimali]]. Fis-snin 50 u 60 tas-seklu 18, huwa kompla jikkollezzjona u jikklassifikaw l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-minerali, filwaqt li ppubblika diversi volumi. Sa żmien [[Mewt|mewtu]] fl-1778, huwa kien wieħed mill-iżjed xjenzati rinomati fl-[[Ewropa]].

Linnaeus issejjaħ bħala l-''Princeps botanicorum'' (Prinċep tal-Botanisti) u &quot;l-Plinju tat-Tramuntana&quot;. Huwa jitqies ukoll bħala wieħed mill-fundaturi tal-[[ekoloġija]] moderna.

Fil-botanika, l-abbrevjazzjoni '''L.''' tintuża biex tindika lil Linnaeus bħala l-awtorità għal isem ta' [[speċi]]. Fiż-[[żooloġija]], ġeneralment tintuża l-abbrevjazzjoni '''Linnaeus'''; jintużaw ukoll l-abbrevjazzjonijiet '''L.''', '''Linnæus''' u '''Linné'''. Fil-pubblikazzjonijiet iktar antiki tinstab l-abbrevjazzjoni &quot;'''Linn'''&quot;. Linnaeus huwa ddeżinjat bħala l-eżemplar tipiku għall-iseċi [[Bniedem|umana]], ''[[Homo sapiens]].''

== Ħajja bikrija ==

=== Tfulija ===
Linnaeus twieled fil-villaġġ ta' Råshult fi Småland, l-Iżvezja, fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707. Huwa kien l-ewwel wild ta' [[Nicolaus (Nils) Linnaeus]] (imwieled bħala Nils Ingemarsson) u ta' [[Christina Brodersonia]]. Missieru għallmu l-Latin meta kien għadu tifel żgħir. Missieru kien wieħed min-nisel twil ta' raħħala u ta' patrijiet, u kien botaniku dilettant, ċelebrant [[Luteraniżmu|Luteran]] u membru tal-kleru tal-villaġġ żgħir ta' Stenbrohult fi Småland. Ommu kienet bint ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius. Sena wara t-twelid ta' Linnaeus, miet nannuh Samuel Brodersonius, u missieru sar ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult. Il-familja marret tgħix fir-rettorat minflok fid-dar tal-kurja. Diġà fis-snin bikrin tiegħu, Linnaeus milli jidher kellu għal qalbu l-pjanti, b'mod partikolari l-fjuri. Kull meta kien jirrabja, kien jingħata fjura, u b'hekk kien jikkalma minnufih. Missieru qatta' ħafna ħin fil-ġnien tiegħu u sikwit kien juri l-fjuri lil ibnu Linnaeus u jgħidlu x'jisimhom. F'qasir żmien Linnaeus ingħata r-roqgħa art tiegħu fejn seta' jkabbar il-pjanti.

Missier Linnaeus kien l-ewwel wieħed min-nisel tiegħu li adotta kunjom permanenti. Qablu, missirijietu użaw is-sistema tat-tismija patronika tal-pajjiżi Skandinavi; missieru żamm il-kunjom Ingemarsson wara missieru Ingemar Bengtsson. Meta Nils inkiteb fl-Università ta' Lund, heuwa kellu juża kunjom. Huwa adotta l-isem Latin Linnæus għal siġra ġganteska tax-xkomp, ''lind'' bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]], li kienet kibret fil-proprjetà tal-familja. Dan l-isem ġie spellut bid-dittong magħqud ''æ''. Meta Carl twieled, huwa ngħata l-isem ta' Carl Linnæus, bil-kunjom tal-missier. L-iben spella kunjomu wkoll bid-dittong magħqud ''æ'', kemm fid-dokumenti miktubin bl-idejn kif ukoll fil-pubblikazzjonijiet tiegħu. L-isem patronimiku ta' Carl kieku kien ikun Nilsson, bħal ta' Carl Nilsson Linnæus.

=== Edukazzjoni bikrija ===
Missier Linnaeus beda jgħallmu l-Latin bażiku, ir-[[reliġjon]] u l-[[ġeografija]] ta' età bikrija ħafna. Meta Linnaeus kellu 7 snin, Nils iddeċieda li jqabbad [[għalliem]] għalih. Il-ġenituri għażlu lil Johan Telander, iben raħħal lokali. Linnaeus ma kienx għal qalbu miegħu, u fl-awtobijografija tiegħu kiteb li Telander &quot;kien ferm aħjar biex jitfi t-talenti tat-tfal milli biex jiżviluppahom&quot;.

Sentejn wara li beda jgħallmu Telander, Linnaeus intbagħat fl-Iskola Grammatikali Inferjuri f'Växjö fl-1717. Linnaeus qajla studja, u spiss kien imur fil-kampanja biex ifittex il-pjanti. Darba fost l-oħrajn, missieru mar iżuru, u wara li sema' valutazzjonijiet kritiċi mingħand l-għalliema tiegħu, iddeċieda li jdaħħlu bħala apprendist ma' taż-żraben onest lokali. Is-surmast tiegħu, Daniel Lannerus, innota l-interess li kellu Linnaeus fil-botanika, u introduċieh lil [[Johan Rothman]], tabib statali ta' Småland u għalliem fil-Katedralskolan f'Växjö. Rothman wessa' l-interess ta' Linnaeus fil-botanika u għenu jiżviluppa interess fil-mediċina. Sal-età ta' 17-il sena, Linnaeus kien sar midħla sew tal-letteratura botanika eżistenti. Huwa jirrimarka fil-ġurnal tiegħu li kien &quot;jaqra lejl u nhar, u kien jaf sew il-kontenut tal-''Ktieb tal-Ħxejjex Aromatiċi ta' Rydaholm'' ta' [[Arvidh Månsson]], il-''Flora Åboensis'' ta' Tillandz, is-''Serta Florea Suecana'' ta' Palmberg, il-''Chloros Gothica'' ta' Bromelii u l-''Hortus Upsaliensis'' ta' Rudbeckii&quot;.

Linnaeus beda jattendi l-Katedralskola ta' Växjö fl-1724, fejn studja l-iktar il-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]], l-[[Ebrajk]], it-[[teoloġija]] u l-[[matematika]], kurrikulu maħsub għas-subien li kienu jitħejjew biex isiru patrijiet. Fl-aħħar sena tal-liċeo (gymnasium), missier Linnaeus żar l-iskola biex jistaqsi lill-professuri kif kienu sejrin l-istudji ta' ibnu; ħaġa tal-iskantament għal missieru, il-biċċa l-kbira qalu li ibnu qatt ma kien se jsir studjuż. Rothman kellu fehma oħra, u ssuġġerixxa li Linnaeus seta' jkollu futur fil-mediċina. It-tabib offra li jilqa' lil Linnaeus biex jgħix mal-familja tiegħu f'Växjö sabiex ikun jista' jgħallmu l-fiżjoloġija u l-botanika, u Nils aċċetta din l-offerta.

== Studji universitarji ==

=== Lund ===
Rothman wera lil Linnaeus li l-botanika kienet suġġett serju. Huwa għallmu jikklassifika l-pjanti skont is-sistema ta' Tournefort. Linnaeus ġie mgħallem ukoll dwar ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali tal-pjanti, skont [[Sébastien Vaillant]]. Fl-1727, Linnaeus, ta' 21 sena, inkiteb fl-Università ta' Lund fi Scania (Skåne). Huwa ġie rreġistrat bħala ''Carolus Linnæus'', il-forma Latina tal-isem sħiħ tiegħu, li huwa uża wkoll iktar 'il quddiem għall-pubblikazzjonijiet tiegħu bil-Latin.

Il-Professur [[Kilian Stobæus]], xjenzat naturali, tabib u storiku, offra t-tagħlim u l-akkomodazzjoni lil Linnaeus, kif ukoll l-użu tal-librerija tiegħu, li kienet tinkludi bosta kotba dwar il-botanika. Huwa ppermetta wkoll id-dħul bla ħlas għal-lekċers tiegħu. Fil-ħin liberu tiegħu, Linnaeus esplora l-flora ta' Skåne, flimkien ma' studenti oħra li kellhom l-istess interessi tiegħu.

=== Uppsala ===
F'Awwissu 1728, Linnaeus iddeċieda li jattendi l-Università ta' Uppsala fuq il-parir ta' Rothman, li kien jemmen li kienet l-aħjar għażla jekk Linnaeus ried jistudja kemm il-mediċina kif ukoll il-botanika. Rothman ibbaża din ir-rakkomandazzjoni fuq iż-żewġ professuri li kienu jgħallmu fil-fakultà tal-mediċina f'Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck iż-Żgħir u Lars Roberg. Għalkemm Rudbeck u Roberg bla dubju kienu professuri tajbin, sa dak iż-żmien kienu ferm iktar anzjani u ma tantx kellhom interess fit-tagħlim. Rudbeck ma baqax jagħti lekċers pubbliċi, u bdew jagħtuhom minfloku oħrajn. Il-lekċers tal-botanika, taż-żooloġija, tal-farmakoloġija u tal-[[anatomija]] ma kinux mill-aqwa. F'Uppsala, Linnaeus iltaqa' ma' benefattur ġdid, [[Olof Celsius]], li kien professur tat-teoloġija u botaniku dilettant. Huwa laqa' lil Linnaeus f'daru u ħallih juża l-librerija tiegħu, li kienet waħda mill-iżjed libreriji botaniċi rikki fl-Iżvezja.

Fl-1729, Linnaeus kiteb teżi, ''Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum'', dwar ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali tal-pjanti. Din ġibdet l-attenzjoni ta' Rudbeck; f'Mejju 1730, huwa għażel lil Linnaeus biex jagħti lekċers fl-università minkejja li kien għadu student tat-tieni sena. Il-lekċers tiegħu kienu popolari, u Linnaeus spiss indirizza udjenza ta' 300 ruħ. F'Ġunju, Linnaeus ma baqax jgħix fid-dar ta' Celsius u minflok mar jgħix fid-dar ta' Rudbeck biex isir l-għalliem tal-iżgħar tlett itfal fost l-24 ulied tiegħu. Il-ħbiberija tiegħu ma' Celsius ma ntilfitx u huma baqgħu jagħmlu l-ispedizzjonijiet botaniċi flimkien. Matul dik ix-xitwa, Linnaeus beda jiddubita s-sistema tal-klassifikazzjoni ta' Tournefort u ddeċieda li joħloq is-sistema tiegħu stess. Il-pjan tiegħu kien li jaqsam il-pjanti skont l-għadd ta' stamen jew stami u pistilli. Huwa beda jikteb diversi kotba, li iktar 'il quddiem irriżultaw pereżempju f'&lt;nowiki/&gt;''Genera Plantarum'' u f'''Critica Botanica''. Huwa pproduċa wkoll ktieb dwar il-pjanti mkabbra fil-Ġnien Botaniku ta' Uppsala, ''Adonis Uplandicus''.

L-eks assistent ta' Rudbeck, [[Nils Rosén]], reġa' lura l-università f'Marzu 1731 b'lawrja fil-mediċina. Rosén beda jagħti lekċers dwar l-anatomija u pprova jieħu post il-lekċers dwar il-botanika ta' Linnaeus, iżda Rudbeck ma ħallihx. Sa Diċembru, Rosén għallem lil Linnaeus b'mod privat dwar il-mediċina. F'Diċembru, Linnaeus kellu xi jgħid mal-[[mara]] ta' Rudbeck u kellu jitlaq mid-dar tal-mentor tiegħu; ir-relazzjoni tiegħu ma' Rudbeck però ma marritx għall-agħar. Dak il-[[Milied]], Linnaeus reġa' lura d-dar f'Stenbrohult biex iżur lill-ġenituri tiegħu għall-ewwel darba wara xi 3 snin. Ommu ma qablitx miegħu li ma sarx patri, iżda kienet kuntenta meta saret taf li kien qed jgħallem fl-università.

== Spedizzjoni lejn il-Lapland ==
Matul żjara mal-ġenituri tiegħu, Linnaeus qalilhom dwar il-pjan tiegħu li jivvjaġġa lejn il-Lapland; Rudbeck kien għamel vjaġġ simili fl-1695, iżda r-riżultati dettaljati tal-esplorazzjoni tiegħu ntilfu minħabba nar 7 sena wara. It-tama ta' Linnaeus kienet li jsib pjanti u annimali ġodda, u possibbilment minerali siewja. Huwa kien kurjuż ukoll dwar id-drawwiet tal-poplu [[Sami]] nattiv, nomadi li jirgħu r-renni u jimirħu fit-tundri vasti tal-Iskandinavja. F'April 1732, Linnaeus ingħata għotja finanzjarja mis-Soċjetà Rjali tax-Xjenzi f'Uppsala għall-vjaġġ tiegħu.

Linnaeus beda l-ispedizzjoni tiegħu minn Uppsala fit-12 ta' Mejju 1732, eżatt qabel ma għalaq 25 sena. Huwa vvjaġġa bil-mixi u biż-[[żiemel]], u miegħu ġab il-ġurnal tiegħu, manuskritti botaniċi u ornitoloġiċi u folji tal-karta għall-ippressar tal-pjanti. Qrib Gävle huwa sab kwantitajiet kbar ta' ''Campanula serpyllifolia'', li iktar 'il quddiem saret magħrufa bħala l-''Linnaea borealis'', il-fjura li mbagħad saret il-favorita tiegħu. Xi kultant fi triqtu huwa kien jinżel minn fuq iż-żiemel biex jeżamina xi fjuri jew xi blata u kien interessat b'mod partikolari fil-muski u fil-likeni, u dawn tal-aħħar kienu parti prinċipali tad-dieta tar-renni, annimal komuni u importanti ekonomikament fil-Lapland.

Linnaeus ivvjaġġa madwar il-kosta tal-Golf ta' Bothnia, u għamel inkursjonijiet kbar 'il ġewwa minn Umeå, Luleå u Tornio. Huwa rritorna mill-ispedizzjoni tiegħu ta' 6 xhur u ta' iktar minn 2,000 kilometru (1,200 mil) f'Ottubru, wara li ġabar u osserva bosta pjanti, għasafar u blat. Għalkemm il-Lapland kien reġjun b'[[bijodiversità]] limitata, Linnaeus iddeskriva madwar 100 pjanta li qabel ma kinux identifikati. Dan sar il-bażi għall-ktieb tiegħu ''Flora Lapponica''. Madankollu, wara l-ispedizzjoni lejn il-Lapland, Linnaeus uża l-ismijiet bil-Latin biex jiddeskrivi l-organiżmi minħabba li kien għadu ma żviluppax is-sistema binomjali.

Fil-''Flora Lapponica'' l-ideat ta' Linnaeus dwar in-nomenklatura u l-klassifikazzjoni ntużaw għall-ewwel darba b'mod prattiku, u b'hekk din kienet l-ewwel ''Flora'' protomoderna. Ir-rendikont kopra 534 speċi, uża s-sistema tal-klassifikazzjoni ta' Linnaeus u inkluda għall-ispeċijiet deskritti, id-distribuzzjoni ġeografika u n-noti tassonomiċi. Kien [[Augustin Pyramus de Candolle]] li attribwixxa lil Linnaeus bil-''Flora Lapponica'' bħala l-ewwel eżempju fil-ġeneru botaniku tal-kitba dwar il-''Flora''. L-istoriku botaniku [[E. L. Greene]] ddeskriva l-''Flora Lapponica'' bħala &quot;l-iżjed klassiku u pjaċevoli&quot; tax-xogħlijiet ta' Linnaeus.

Matul din l-ispedizzjoni, Linnaeus kellu ħjiel ta' ispirazzjoni rigward il-klassifikazzjoni tal-mammiferi. Malli osserva l-għadma t'isfel tax-xedaq ta' żiemel f'ġenb it-triq li kien qed jivvjaġġa fiha, Linnaeus irrimarka: &quot;Li kieku biss kont naf kemm kellu snien u ta' liema tip kull annimal, kemm bżieżel u fejn kienu jinsabu, kieku forsi kont inkun kapaċi nasal għal sistema perfettament naturali għall-arranġament tal-kwadrupedi kollha&quot;.

Fl-1734, Linnaeus mexxa grupp żgħir ta' studenti lejn Dalarna. Iffinanzjata mill-Gvernatur ta' Dalarna, l-ispedizzjoni kellha tikkataloga r-riżorsi naturali magħrufa u tiskopri oħrajn ġodda, iżda anke tiġbor għarfien dwar l-attivitajiet tal-estrazzjoni [[Norveġja|Norveġiżi]] f'[[Røros]].

== Snin fir-Repubblika Olandiża (1735–1738) ==

=== Dottorat ===
Ir-relazzjonijiet tiegħu ma' Nils Rosén marru għall-agħar, u Linnaeus aċċetta stedina mingħand [[Claes Sohlberg]], iben spettur tal-estrazzjoni, biex iqatta' l-btajjel tal-Milied f'[[Minjiera tar-Ram ta' Falun|Falun]], fejn Linnaeus ingħata l-permess iżur il-minjieri.

F'April 1735, skont is-suġġeriment ta' missier Sohlberg, Linnaeus u Sohlberg marru lejn ir-Repubblika Olandiża, fejn Linnaeus kien beħsiebu jistudha l-mediċina fl-Università ta' Harderwijk filwaqt li jgħallem lil Sohlberg għal salarju annwali. Dak iż-żmien, kien komuni li l-Iżvediżi jagħmlu dottorati fin-Netherlands, li kien post ta' studju rinomat għall-istudju tal-istorja naturali.

Fi triqithom waqfu f'[[Amburgu]], fejn iltaqgħu mas-sindku, li kien kburi li jurihom suppost għaġeb tan-natura li kellu fil-pussess tiegħu: il-fdalijiet ibbalzmati ta' idra b'sebat irjus. Linnaeus malajr skopra li l-eżemplar kien falz, magħqud flimkien mill-ixdqa u mill-għadam tas-saqajn tal-ballottri u mill-ġlud tas-[[Serp|sriep]]. Il-provenenza tal-idra ssuġġeriet lil Linnaeus li kienet ġiet prodotta mill-patrijiet biex jirrappreżentaw il-Bestja tar-Rivelazzjoni. Anke bis-sogru li s-sindku jinkorla miegħu, Linnaeus għamel l-osservazzjonijiet tiegħu pubbliċi, u kisser il-ħolm tas-sindku li jbigħ l-idra għal somma enormi. Linnaeus u Sohlberg imbagħad kellhom jaħarbu minn Amburgu.

Linnaeus beda jaħdem fuq id-dottorat tiegħu malli wasal f'Harderwijk, università magħrufa għall-għoti tal-lawrji f'saħansitra ġimgħa kollox. Huwa ressaq teżi, li kien kiteb fl-Iżvezja, bit-titlu ''Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa'', fejn stabbilixxa l-ipoteżi tiegħu li l-[[malarja]] tfaċċat biss f'żoni b'ħamrija rikka bit-tafal. Għalkemm ma rnexxilux jidentifika s-sors reali tat-trażmissjoni tal-mard (jiġifieri n-nemus ''Anopheles''), huwa rnexxielu jipprevedi li s-susa ''Artemisia annua'' kienet se ssir sors tal-mediċini kontra l-malarja. Fi żmien ġimagħtejn huwa temm l-eżamijiet orali u prattiċi tiegħu u ngħata d-dottorat tiegħu.

Dak is-sajf Linnaeus reġa' ngħaqad ma' [[Peter Artedi]], ħabib tiegħu minn Uppsala li kellu patt miegħu li jekk wieħed minnhom imut qabel, l-ieħor kien ilesti x-xogħol tad-deċedut. Għaxar ġimgħat wara, Artedi għereq fil-kanali ta' [[Amsterdam]], u ħalla warajh manuskritt mhux komplut dwar il-klassifikazzjoni tal-[[ħut]].

=== Pubblikazzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' ===
One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius, to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson, the manuscript was published as ''Systema Naturae'' (1735).

Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, Herman Boerhaave, who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanist Johannes Burman. After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his ''Thesaurus Zeylanicus''. Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: ''Fundamenta Botanica'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica''.

=== George Clifford, Philip Miller u Johann Jacob Dillenius ===
In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met George Clifford III, a director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede. Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy of Sir Hans Sloane's ''Natural History of Jamaica'', a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted. On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000 florins a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738. It was here that he wrote a book ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', in the preface of which he described his experience as &quot;the happiest time of my life&quot;. (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named &quot;Linnaeushof&quot;. It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe.)

In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense. He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane, a collector of natural history, and to see his cabinet of curiosities, as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper, Philip Miller. He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in ''Systema Naturae''. At first, Miller was reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature, preferring instead the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray. Nevertheless, Linnaeus applauded Miller's ''Gardeners Dictionary''. The conservative Miller retained in his dictionary some pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of ''The Gardeners Dictionary'' of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system.

Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius. He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated his ''Critica Botanica'' to him, as &quot;''opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit''&quot;. Linnaeus later named a genus of tropical tree ''Dillenia'' in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants. The next year, 1737, he published ''Genera Plantarum'', in which he described 935 genera of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with ''Corollarium Generum Plantarum'', with another sixty genera.

His work at Hartekamp led to another book, ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738. It contains the first use of the name ''Nepenthes'', which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of pitcher plants.

Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu. After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden.

== Lura l-Iżvezja ==
When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to Falun, where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family. Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin, who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty. During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science; he became the first Praeses of the academy by drawing of lots.

Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl. Two years later, a daughter, Elisabeth Christina, was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia.

In May 1741, Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history, instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala.

=== Öland u Gotland ===
Ten days after he was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition were later published in ''Öländska och Gothländska Resa'', written in Swedish. Like ''Flora Lapponica'', it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland.

During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: ''Flora Suecica'' and ''Fauna Suecica''. ''Flora Suecica'' was a strictly botanical book, while ''Fauna Suecica'' was zoological. Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0 °C and freezing at 100 °C. Linnaeus inverted the scale to its present usage in 1745.

=== Västergötland ===
In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province of Västergötland. He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book ''Wästgöta-Resa'', published the next year. After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province Scania. This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy.

In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title archiater, or chief physician, by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick—a mark of great respect. The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.

=== Scania ===
In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania (Skåne), again commissioned by the government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On the way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees; these trees were used by the army to make rifles. While there, they visited the Ramlösa mineral spa, where he remarked on the quality of its ferruginous water. The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in ''Skånska Resa'' (&quot;Scanian Journey&quot;). The book comprises 561 pages and is a diary with detailed descriptions of everything he discovered in Scania. He praises the people of Scania for their hospitality, which &quot;in no land, though everywhere I have been received well, can be compared.&quot;

=== Rettur tal-Università ta' Uppsala ===
In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed. Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his &quot;apostles&quot;. His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala.

=== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Philosophia Botanica'' in 1751. The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden.

=== ''Nutrix Noverca'' ===
During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student, based on their experiences. In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer (''prases'') expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by J. E. Gilibert in 1770 as ''La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire''. Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk. It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term ''Mammalia'' for the class of organisms.

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Species Plantarum'', the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature, in 1753. The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year. The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species. The same year the king dubbed him knight of the Order of the Polar Star, the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order. He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia.

=== Nobbiltà ===
Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added. In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants. A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move.

Since the initial release of ''Systema Naturae'' in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the tenth edition was released in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point for zoological nomenclature, the equivalent of ''Species Plantarum''.

The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus nobility in 1757, but he was not ennobled until 1761. With his ennoblement, he took the name Carl von Linné (Latinised as Carolus a Linné), 'Linné' being a shortened and gallicised version of 'Linnæus', and the German nobiliary particle 'von' signifying his ennoblement. The noble family's coat of arms prominently features a twinflower, one of Linnaeus's favourite plants; it was given the scientific name ''Linnaea borealis'' in his honour by Gronovius. The shield in the coat of arms is divided into thirds: red, black and green for the three kingdoms of nature (animal, mineral and vegetable) in Linnaean classification; in the centre is an egg &quot;to denote Nature, which is continued and perpetuated ''in ovo''&quot;. At the bottom is a phrase in Latin, borrowed from the Aeneid, which reads &quot;''Famam extendere factis''&quot;: we extend our fame by our deeds. Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends.

After his ennoblement, Linnaeus continued teaching and writing. In total, he presided at 186 PhD ceremonies, with many of the dissertations written by himself. His reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many different people. For example, Catherine II of Russia sent him seeds from her country. He also corresponded with Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, &quot;the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire&quot;, who was a doctor and a botanist in Idrija, Duchy of Carniola (nowadays Slovenia). Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions (for example of the olm and the dormouse, two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus). Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work. He named a solanaceous genus, ''Scopolia'', the source of scopolamine, after him, but because of the great distance between them, they never met.

== Snin finali ==
Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after. In 1769 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society for his work. He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health.

Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness. He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén. He developed sciatica in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him. He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author.

In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby. Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby, he was buried in Uppsala Cathedral on 22 January.

His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children. Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala. In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later.

The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married. His other son, Johannes, had died aged 3. There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters.

== Dixxipli ==
During Linnaeus's time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University, he taught many devoted students, 17 of whom he called &quot;apostles&quot;. They were the most promising, most committed students, and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with his help. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition. To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys. Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system. Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished. Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland. The British botanist William T. Stearn notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens.

=== Spedizzjonijiet bikrin ===
Christopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746. He boarded a Swedish East India Company ship headed for China. Tärnström never reached his destination, dying of a tropical fever on Côn Sơn Island the same year. Tärnström's widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless, causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger, unmarried students after Tärnström. Six other apostles later died on their expeditions, including Pehr Forsskål and Pehr Löfling.

Two years after Tärnström's expedition, Finnish-born Pehr Kalm set out as the second apostle to North America. There he spent two-and-a-half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and Canada. Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned, bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds. At least 90 of the 700 North American species described in ''Species Plantarum'' had been brought back by Kalm.

=== Spedizzjonijiet ta' Cook u tal-Ġappun ===
Daniel Solander was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was very fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage. On Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760, where he met the English botanist Joseph Banks. With Banks, Solander joined James Cook on his expedition to Oceania on the ''Endeavour'' in 1768–71. Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook; Anders Sparrman followed on the ''Resolution'' in 1772–75 bound for, among other places, Oceania and South America. Sparrman made many other expeditions, one of them to South Africa.

Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was Carl Peter Thunberg, who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770. He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled to Japan. All foreigners were barred from entering Japan and were restricted to the tiny island of Dejima outside Nagasaki, so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora. He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima. He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death.

== Pubblikazzjonijiet ewlenin ==

=== ''Systema Naturae'' ===
The first edition of ''Systema Naturae'' was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was a twelve-page work. By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included. By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—the index card—to track classifications.

After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions of ''Systema Naturae'' went in two different directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray, issued the ''Regnum Vegetabile'' section separately in 1774 as the ''Systema Vegetabilium'', rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition. Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire ''Systema'' appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship of Johann Friedrich Gmelin. It was through the ''Systema Vegetabilium'' that Linnaeus's work became widely known in England, following its translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society as ''A System of Vegetables'' (1783–1785).

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
''Species Plantarum'' (or, more fully, ''Species Plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas'') was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today.

==== ''Genera Plantarum'' ====
''Genera plantarum: eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium'' was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition. In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes. One, Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).

==== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ====
''Philosophia Botanica'' (1751) was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in ''Fundamenta Botanica'' (1736) and ''Critica Botanica'' (1737). Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his ''Classes Plantarum'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica'': all were printed in Holland (as were ''Genera Plantarum'' (1737) and ''Systema Naturae'' (1735)), the ''Philosophia'' being simultaneously released in Stockholm.

== Kollezzjonijiet ==
At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in Uppsala was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden. Next to his own collection, he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala, which was supplied by material donated by Carl Gyllenborg (in 1744–1745), crown-prince Adolf Fredrik (in 1745), Erik Petreus (in 1746), Claes Grill (in 1746), Magnus Lagerström (in 1748 and 1750) and Jonas Alströmer (in 1749). The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils was incorporated into the private collection rather than to the museum. Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature, and he said in 1754 &quot;the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all-wise creator's masterpieces, divided into three chambers&quot;. He felt that he had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that 'world museum'.

In 1784 the young medical student James Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London. Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England. Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost.

In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away. Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material.

Much material that Linné studied belonged to the collection of Queen Lovisa Ulrika (1720–1782); the Linnean publications call this &quot;Museum Ludovicae Ulricae&quot; or &quot;M. L. U.&quot;). The collection was donated by her grandson King Gustav IV Adolf (1778–1837) to the museum in Uppsala in 1804. Her husband King Adolf Fredrik's (1710–1771) collection is known in the Linnean sources as &quot;Museum Adolphi Friderici&quot; or &quot;Mus. Ad. Fr.&quot;. The wet parts (the alcohol collection) were later donated to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and are housed in the Swedish Museum of Natural History at Stockholm. The dry material was transferred to Uppsala.

== Sistema tat-tassonomija ==

=== Sistema ta' Linnaeus ===
The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature. Another major contribution of his was the popularisation of using the Mars and Venus symbols (♂ and ♀) to denote sex within species. These became the standard gender symbols. During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as the ''Linnaean taxonomy''; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences. A previous zoologist Rumphius (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus.

The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera (''singular:'' genus), which were divided into species (''singular:'' species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank; these have since acquired standardised names such as ''variety'' in botany and ''subspecies'' in zoology. Modern taxonomy includes a rank of family between order and genus and a rank of phylum between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus's original system.

Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences. Of his higher groupings, only those for animals are still in use, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception, as have the principles behind them. Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.

=== Tassonomija umana ===
Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was the first to include humans (''Homo'') taxonomically grouped with apes (''Simia''), under the header of ''Anthropomorpha''. German biologist Ernst Haeckel speaking in 1907 called this the &quot;most important sign of Linnaeus's genius&quot;.

Linnaeus classified humans among the primates, beginning with the first edition of ''Systema Naturae''. During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine several monkeys and noted similarities between them and man. He pointed out that they basically had the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences. Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category, ''Anthropomorpha'', meaning &quot;manlike&quot;. This classification received criticism from other biologists such as Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Jacob Theodor Klein and Johann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like. In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied:&lt;blockquote&gt;It does not please [you] that I've placed Man among the Anthropomorpha, perhaps because of the term 'with human form', but man learns to know himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name we apply. But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that [follows] from the principles of Natural History. I absolutely know of none. If only someone might tell me a single one! If I would have called man a simian or vice versa, I would have brought together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline.&lt;/blockquote&gt;The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the great chain of being, and second, because the Bible says man was created in the image of God (theomorphism), if monkeys/apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed, that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well. This was something many could not accept.

After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly. The 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'' introduced new terms, including ''Mammalia'' and ''Primates'', the latter replacing ''Anthropomorpha'' and giving humans the full binomial ''Homo sapiens''. The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature. Linnaeus believed that man biologically belonged to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it. In his book ''Dieta Naturalis'', he said, &quot;One should not vent one's wrath on animals. Theology decrees that man has a soul and that the animals are mere 'automata mechanica', but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility.&quot;

Linnaeus added a second species to the genus ''Homo'' in ''Systema Naturae'' based on a figure and description by Jacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication: ''Homo troglodytes'' (&quot;caveman&quot;) and published a third in 1771: ''Homo lar''. Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus. For ''Homo troglodytes'' Linnaeus asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence. ''Homo lar'' has since been reclassified as ''Hylobates lar'', the lar gibbon.

In the first edition of ''Systema Naturae'', Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties: &quot;Europæus albesc[ens]&quot; (whitish European), &quot;Americanus rubesc[ens]&quot; (reddish American), &quot;Asiaticus fuscus&quot; (tawny Asian) and &quot;Africanus nigr[iculus]&quot; (blackish African). In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of the four temperaments from classical antiquity, and changed the description of Asians' skin tone to &quot;luridus&quot; (yellow). While Linnaeus believed that these varieties resulted from environmental differences between the four known continents, the Linnean Society acknowledges that his categorization's focus on skin color and later inclusion of cultural and behavioral traits cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism. Additionally, Linnaeus created a wastebasket taxon &quot;monstrosus&quot; for &quot;wild and monstrous humans, unknown groups, and more or less abnormal people&quot;.

Linnaeus treated himself as the type specimen (holotype) of ''H. sapiens.'' In 1959, W. T. Stearn designated Linnaeus as the lectotype of ''H. sapiens,'' following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself.

== Influwenzi u twemmin ekonomiku ==
Linnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of Cameralism. Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist. He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels.

== Kommemorazzjoni ==
Anniversaries of Linnaeus's birth, especially in centennial years, have been marked by major celebrations. Linnaeus has appeared on numerous Swedish postage stamps and banknotes. There are numerous statues of Linnaeus in countries around the world. The Linnean Society of London has awarded the Linnean Medal for excellence in botany or zoology since 1888. Following approval by the Riksdag of Sweden, Växjö University and Kalmar College merged on 1 January 2010 to become Linnaeus University. Among the things named after Linnaeus is the twinflower genus ''Linnaea'', ''Linnaeosicyos'' (a monotypic genus in the family Cucurbitaceae).

== Kummentarju ==
Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau once wrote of Linnaeus, &quot;I know no greater man on Earth.&quot; Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: &quot;With the exception of William Shakespeare and Baruch Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly.&quot; Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: &quot;Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist.&quot; In his autobiography, published by his student Adam Afzelius in 1823, Linnaeus described himself as unargumentative, sensitive, quick, and uninterested in his personal appearance.

In the 21st century, Linnæus's taxonomy of human &quot;races&quot; has been criticized. Some claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of scientific racism, while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human &quot;races&quot; were superior to others.

== Abbrevjazzjoni standard tal-awtur ==
The standard author abbreviation '''L.''' is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name.

== Referenzi ==
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'''Carl Linnaeus''' (twieled fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707 – miet fl-10 ta' Jannar 1778), magħruf ukoll wara li ngħata n-nobbiltà fl-1761 bħala '''Carl von Linné''', kien bijologu u [[tabib]] [[Żvezja|Żvediż]] li fformalizza n-nomenklatura binomjali, is-sistema moderna tat-tismija tal-organiżmi. Huwa magħruf bħala l-&quot;missier tat-tassonomija moderna&quot;. Bosta mill-kitbiet tiegħu kienu bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]]; bil-Latin ismu huwa '''Carolus Linnæus''' u, wara li sar nobbli fl-1761, sar magħruf bħala '''Carolus a Linné'''.

Linnaeus kien iben membru tal-kleru u twieled f'Råshult, fil-kampanja ta' Småland, fin-Nofsinhar tal-Iżvezja. Huwa kiseb il-biċċa l-kbira tal-[[edukazzjoni]] għolja tiegħu fl-Università ta' [[Uppsala]] u beda jagħti lekċers dwar il-[[botanika]] hemmhekk fl-1730. Huwa għex barra mill-pajjiż bejn l-1735 u l-1738, fejn studja u ppubblika wkoll l-ewwel edizzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' tiegħu fin-[[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Netherlands]]. Imbagħad reġa' lura l-Iżvezja fejn sar professur tal-[[mediċina]] u tal-botanika f'Uppsala. Fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 18, huwa ntbagħat għal diversi vjaġġi fl-Iżvezja biex isib u jikklassifika l-[[Pjanta|pjanti]] u l-[[Annimal|annimali]]. Fis-snin 50 u 60 tas-seklu 18, huwa kompla jikkollezzjona u jikklassifikaw l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-minerali, filwaqt li ppubblika diversi volumi. Sa żmien [[Mewt|mewtu]] fl-1778, huwa kien wieħed mill-iżjed xjenzati rinomati fl-[[Ewropa]].

Linnaeus issejjaħ bħala l-''Princeps botanicorum'' (Prinċep tal-Botanisti) u &quot;l-Plinju tat-Tramuntana&quot;. Huwa jitqies ukoll bħala wieħed mill-fundaturi tal-[[ekoloġija]] moderna.

Fil-botanika, l-abbrevjazzjoni '''L.''' tintuża biex tindika lil Linnaeus bħala l-awtorità għal isem ta' [[speċi]]. Fiż-[[żooloġija]], ġeneralment tintuża l-abbrevjazzjoni '''Linnaeus'''; jintużaw ukoll l-abbrevjazzjonijiet '''L.''', '''Linnæus''' u '''Linné'''. Fil-pubblikazzjonijiet iktar antiki tinstab l-abbrevjazzjoni &quot;'''Linn'''&quot;. Linnaeus huwa ddeżinjat bħala l-eżemplar tipiku għall-iseċi [[Bniedem|umana]], ''[[Homo sapiens]].''

== Ħajja bikrija ==

=== Tfulija ===
Linnaeus twieled fil-villaġġ ta' Råshult fi Småland, l-Iżvezja, fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707. Huwa kien l-ewwel wild ta' [[Nicolaus (Nils) Linnaeus]] (imwieled bħala Nils Ingemarsson) u ta' [[Christina Brodersonia]]. Missieru għallmu l-Latin meta kien għadu tifel żgħir. Missieru kien wieħed min-nisel twil ta' raħħala u ta' patrijiet, u kien botaniku dilettant, ċelebrant [[Luteraniżmu|Luteran]] u membru tal-kleru tal-villaġġ żgħir ta' Stenbrohult fi Småland. Ommu kienet bint ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius. Sena wara t-twelid ta' Linnaeus, miet nannuh Samuel Brodersonius, u missieru sar ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult. Il-familja marret tgħix fir-rettorat minflok fid-dar tal-kurja. Diġà fis-snin bikrin tiegħu, Linnaeus milli jidher kellu għal qalbu l-pjanti, b'mod partikolari l-fjuri. Kull meta kien jirrabja, kien jingħata fjura, u b'hekk kien jikkalma minnufih. Missieru qatta' ħafna ħin fil-ġnien tiegħu u sikwit kien juri l-fjuri lil ibnu Linnaeus u jgħidlu x'jisimhom. F'qasir żmien Linnaeus ingħata r-roqgħa art tiegħu fejn seta' jkabbar il-pjanti.

Missier Linnaeus kien l-ewwel wieħed min-nisel tiegħu li adotta kunjom permanenti. Qablu, missirijietu użaw is-sistema tat-tismija patronika tal-pajjiżi Skandinavi; missieru żamm il-kunjom Ingemarsson wara missieru Ingemar Bengtsson. Meta Nils inkiteb fl-Università ta' Lund, heuwa kellu juża kunjom. Huwa adotta l-isem Latin Linnæus għal siġra ġganteska tax-xkomp, ''lind'' bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]], li kienet kibret fil-proprjetà tal-familja. Dan l-isem ġie spellut bid-dittong magħqud ''æ''. Meta Carl twieled, huwa ngħata l-isem ta' Carl Linnæus, bil-kunjom tal-missier. L-iben spella kunjomu wkoll bid-dittong magħqud ''æ'', kemm fid-dokumenti miktubin bl-idejn kif ukoll fil-pubblikazzjonijiet tiegħu. L-isem patronimiku ta' Carl kieku kien ikun Nilsson, bħal ta' Carl Nilsson Linnæus.

=== Edukazzjoni bikrija ===
Missier Linnaeus beda jgħallmu l-Latin bażiku, ir-[[reliġjon]] u l-[[ġeografija]] ta' età bikrija ħafna. Meta Linnaeus kellu 7 snin, Nils iddeċieda li jqabbad [[għalliem]] għalih. Il-ġenituri għażlu lil Johan Telander, iben raħħal lokali. Linnaeus ma kienx għal qalbu miegħu, u fl-awtobijografija tiegħu kiteb li Telander &quot;kien ferm aħjar biex jitfi t-talenti tat-tfal milli biex jiżviluppahom&quot;.

Sentejn wara li beda jgħallmu Telander, Linnaeus intbagħat fl-Iskola Grammatikali Inferjuri f'Växjö fl-1717. Linnaeus qajla studja, u spiss kien imur fil-kampanja biex ifittex il-pjanti. Darba fost l-oħrajn, missieru mar iżuru, u wara li sema' valutazzjonijiet kritiċi mingħand l-għalliema tiegħu, iddeċieda li jdaħħlu bħala apprendist ma' taż-żraben onest lokali. Is-surmast tiegħu, Daniel Lannerus, innota l-interess li kellu Linnaeus fil-botanika, u introduċieh lil [[Johan Rothman]], tabib statali ta' Småland u għalliem fil-Katedralskolan f'Växjö. Rothman wessa' l-interess ta' Linnaeus fil-botanika u għenu jiżviluppa interess fil-mediċina. Sal-età ta' 17-il sena, Linnaeus kien sar midħla sew tal-letteratura botanika eżistenti. Huwa jirrimarka fil-ġurnal tiegħu li kien &quot;jaqra lejl u nhar, u kien jaf sew il-kontenut tal-''Ktieb tal-Ħxejjex Aromatiċi ta' Rydaholm'' ta' [[Arvidh Månsson]], il-''Flora Åboensis'' ta' Tillandz, is-''Serta Florea Suecana'' ta' Palmberg, il-''Chloros Gothica'' ta' Bromelii u l-''Hortus Upsaliensis'' ta' Rudbeckii&quot;.

Linnaeus beda jattendi l-Katedralskola ta' Växjö fl-1724, fejn studja l-iktar il-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]], l-[[Ebrajk]], it-[[teoloġija]] u l-[[matematika]], kurrikulu maħsub għas-subien li kienu jitħejjew biex isiru patrijiet. Fl-aħħar sena tal-liċeo (gymnasium), missier Linnaeus żar l-iskola biex jistaqsi lill-professuri kif kienu sejrin l-istudji ta' ibnu; ħaġa tal-iskantament għal missieru, il-biċċa l-kbira qalu li ibnu qatt ma kien se jsir studjuż. Rothman kellu fehma oħra, u ssuġġerixxa li Linnaeus seta' jkollu futur fil-mediċina. It-tabib offra li jilqa' lil Linnaeus biex jgħix mal-familja tiegħu f'Växjö sabiex ikun jista' jgħallmu l-fiżjoloġija u l-botanika, u Nils aċċetta din l-offerta.

== Studji universitarji ==

=== Lund ===
Rothman wera lil Linnaeus li l-botanika kienet suġġett serju. Huwa għallmu jikklassifika l-pjanti skont is-sistema ta' Tournefort. Linnaeus ġie mgħallem ukoll dwar ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali tal-pjanti, skont [[Sébastien Vaillant]]. Fl-1727, Linnaeus, ta' 21 sena, inkiteb fl-Università ta' Lund fi Scania (Skåne). Huwa ġie rreġistrat bħala ''Carolus Linnæus'', il-forma Latina tal-isem sħiħ tiegħu, li huwa uża wkoll iktar 'il quddiem għall-pubblikazzjonijiet tiegħu bil-Latin.

Il-Professur [[Kilian Stobæus]], xjenzat naturali, tabib u storiku, offra t-tagħlim u l-akkomodazzjoni lil Linnaeus, kif ukoll l-użu tal-librerija tiegħu, li kienet tinkludi bosta kotba dwar il-botanika. Huwa ppermetta wkoll id-dħul bla ħlas għal-lekċers tiegħu. Fil-ħin liberu tiegħu, Linnaeus esplora l-flora ta' Skåne, flimkien ma' studenti oħra li kellhom l-istess interessi tiegħu.

=== Uppsala ===
F'Awwissu 1728, Linnaeus iddeċieda li jattendi l-Università ta' Uppsala fuq il-parir ta' Rothman, li kien jemmen li kienet l-aħjar għażla jekk Linnaeus ried jistudja kemm il-mediċina kif ukoll il-botanika. Rothman ibbaża din ir-rakkomandazzjoni fuq iż-żewġ professuri li kienu jgħallmu fil-fakultà tal-mediċina f'Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck iż-Żgħir u Lars Roberg. Għalkemm Rudbeck u Roberg bla dubju kienu professuri tajbin, sa dak iż-żmien kienu ferm iktar anzjani u ma tantx kellhom interess fit-tagħlim. Rudbeck ma baqax jagħti lekċers pubbliċi, u bdew jagħtuhom minfloku oħrajn. Il-lekċers tal-botanika, taż-żooloġija, tal-farmakoloġija u tal-[[anatomija]] ma kinux mill-aqwa. F'Uppsala, Linnaeus iltaqa' ma' benefattur ġdid, [[Olof Celsius]], li kien professur tat-teoloġija u botaniku dilettant. Huwa laqa' lil Linnaeus f'daru u ħallih juża l-librerija tiegħu, li kienet waħda mill-iżjed libreriji botaniċi rikki fl-Iżvezja.

Fl-1729, Linnaeus kiteb teżi, ''Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum'', dwar ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali tal-pjanti. Din ġibdet l-attenzjoni ta' Rudbeck; f'Mejju 1730, huwa għażel lil Linnaeus biex jagħti lekċers fl-università minkejja li kien għadu student tat-tieni sena. Il-lekċers tiegħu kienu popolari, u Linnaeus spiss indirizza udjenza ta' 300 ruħ. F'Ġunju, Linnaeus ma baqax jgħix fid-dar ta' Celsius u minflok mar jgħix fid-dar ta' Rudbeck biex isir l-għalliem tal-iżgħar tlett itfal fost l-24 ulied tiegħu. Il-ħbiberija tiegħu ma' Celsius ma ntilfitx u huma baqgħu jagħmlu l-ispedizzjonijiet botaniċi flimkien. Matul dik ix-xitwa, Linnaeus beda jiddubita s-sistema tal-klassifikazzjoni ta' Tournefort u ddeċieda li joħloq is-sistema tiegħu stess. Il-pjan tiegħu kien li jaqsam il-pjanti skont l-għadd ta' stamen jew stami u pistilli. Huwa beda jikteb diversi kotba, li iktar 'il quddiem irriżultaw pereżempju f'&lt;nowiki/&gt;''Genera Plantarum'' u f'''Critica Botanica''. Huwa pproduċa wkoll ktieb dwar il-pjanti mkabbra fil-Ġnien Botaniku ta' Uppsala, ''Adonis Uplandicus''.

L-eks assistent ta' Rudbeck, [[Nils Rosén]], reġa' lura l-università f'Marzu 1731 b'lawrja fil-mediċina. Rosén beda jagħti lekċers dwar l-anatomija u pprova jieħu post il-lekċers dwar il-botanika ta' Linnaeus, iżda Rudbeck ma ħallihx. Sa Diċembru, Rosén għallem lil Linnaeus b'mod privat dwar il-mediċina. F'Diċembru, Linnaeus kellu xi jgħid mal-[[mara]] ta' Rudbeck u kellu jitlaq mid-dar tal-mentor tiegħu; ir-relazzjoni tiegħu ma' Rudbeck però ma marritx għall-agħar. Dak il-[[Milied]], Linnaeus reġa' lura d-dar f'Stenbrohult biex iżur lill-ġenituri tiegħu għall-ewwel darba wara xi 3 snin. Ommu ma qablitx miegħu li ma sarx patri, iżda kienet kuntenta meta saret taf li kien qed jgħallem fl-università.

== Spedizzjoni lejn il-Lapland ==
Matul żjara mal-ġenituri tiegħu, Linnaeus qalilhom dwar il-pjan tiegħu li jivvjaġġa lejn il-Lapland; Rudbeck kien għamel vjaġġ simili fl-1695, iżda r-riżultati dettaljati tal-esplorazzjoni tiegħu ntilfu minħabba nar 7 sena wara. It-tama ta' Linnaeus kienet li jsib pjanti u annimali ġodda, u possibbilment minerali siewja. Huwa kien kurjuż ukoll dwar id-drawwiet tal-poplu [[Sami]] nattiv, nomadi li jirgħu r-renni u jimirħu fit-tundri vasti tal-Iskandinavja. F'April 1732, Linnaeus ingħata għotja finanzjarja mis-Soċjetà Rjali tax-Xjenzi f'Uppsala għall-vjaġġ tiegħu.

Linnaeus beda l-ispedizzjoni tiegħu minn Uppsala fit-12 ta' Mejju 1732, eżatt qabel ma għalaq 25 sena. Huwa vvjaġġa bil-mixi u biż-[[żiemel]], u miegħu ġab il-ġurnal tiegħu, manuskritti botaniċi u ornitoloġiċi u folji tal-karta għall-ippressar tal-pjanti. Qrib Gävle huwa sab kwantitajiet kbar ta' ''Campanula serpyllifolia'', li iktar 'il quddiem saret magħrufa bħala l-''Linnaea borealis'', il-fjura li mbagħad saret il-favorita tiegħu. Xi kultant fi triqtu huwa kien jinżel minn fuq iż-żiemel biex jeżamina xi fjuri jew xi blata u kien interessat b'mod partikolari fil-muski u fil-likeni, u dawn tal-aħħar kienu parti prinċipali tad-dieta tar-renni, annimal komuni u importanti ekonomikament fil-Lapland.

Linnaeus ivvjaġġa madwar il-kosta tal-Golf ta' Bothnia, u għamel inkursjonijiet kbar 'il ġewwa minn Umeå, Luleå u Tornio. Huwa rritorna mill-ispedizzjoni tiegħu ta' 6 xhur u ta' iktar minn 2,000 kilometru (1,200 mil) f'Ottubru, wara li ġabar u osserva bosta pjanti, [[Għasfur|għasafar]] u blat. Għalkemm il-Lapland kien reġjun b'[[bijodiversità]] limitata, Linnaeus iddeskriva madwar 100 pjanta li qabel ma kinux identifikati. Dan sar il-bażi għall-ktieb tiegħu ''Flora Lapponica''. Madankollu, wara l-ispedizzjoni lejn il-Lapland, Linnaeus uża l-ismijiet bil-Latin biex jiddeskrivi l-organiżmi minħabba li kien għadu ma żviluppax is-sistema binomjali.

Fil-''Flora Lapponica'' l-ideat ta' Linnaeus dwar in-nomenklatura u l-klassifikazzjoni ntużaw għall-ewwel darba b'mod prattiku, u b'hekk din kienet l-ewwel ''Flora'' protomoderna. Ir-rendikont kopra 534 speċi, uża s-sistema tal-klassifikazzjoni ta' Linnaeus u inkluda għall-ispeċijiet deskritti, id-distribuzzjoni ġeografika u n-noti tassonomiċi. Kien [[Augustin Pyramus de Candolle]] li attribwixxa lil Linnaeus bil-''Flora Lapponica'' bħala l-ewwel eżempju fil-ġeneru botaniku tal-kitba dwar il-''Flora''. L-istoriku botaniku [[E. L. Greene]] ddeskriva l-''Flora Lapponica'' bħala &quot;l-iżjed klassiku u pjaċevoli&quot; tax-xogħlijiet ta' Linnaeus.

Matul din l-ispedizzjoni, Linnaeus kellu ħjiel ta' ispirazzjoni rigward il-klassifikazzjoni tal-mammiferi. Malli osserva l-għadma t'isfel tax-xedaq ta' żiemel f'ġenb it-triq li kien qed jivvjaġġa fiha, Linnaeus irrimarka: &quot;Li kieku biss kont naf kemm kellu snien u ta' liema tip kull annimal, kemm bżieżel u fejn kienu jinsabu, kieku forsi kont inkun kapaċi nasal għal sistema perfettament naturali għall-arranġament tal-kwadrupedi kollha&quot;.

Fl-1734, Linnaeus mexxa grupp żgħir ta' studenti lejn Dalarna. Iffinanzjata mill-Gvernatur ta' Dalarna, l-ispedizzjoni kellha tikkataloga r-riżorsi naturali magħrufa u tiskopri oħrajn ġodda, iżda anke tiġbor għarfien dwar l-attivitajiet tal-estrazzjoni [[Norveġja|Norveġiżi]] f'[[Røros]].

== Snin fir-Repubblika Olandiża (1735–1738) ==

=== Dottorat ===
Ir-relazzjonijiet tiegħu ma' Nils Rosén marru għall-agħar, u Linnaeus aċċetta stedina mingħand [[Claes Sohlberg]], iben spettur tal-estrazzjoni, biex iqatta' l-btajjel tal-Milied f'[[Minjiera tar-Ram ta' Falun|Falun]], fejn Linnaeus ingħata l-permess iżur il-minjieri.

F'April 1735, skont is-suġġeriment ta' missier Sohlberg, Linnaeus u Sohlberg marru lejn ir-Repubblika Olandiża, fejn Linnaeus kien beħsiebu jistudha l-mediċina fl-Università ta' Harderwijk filwaqt li jgħallem lil Sohlberg għal salarju annwali. Dak iż-żmien, kien komuni li l-Iżvediżi jagħmlu dottorati fin-Netherlands, li kien post ta' studju rinomat għall-istudju tal-istorja naturali.

Fi triqithom waqfu f'[[Amburgu]], fejn iltaqgħu mas-sindku, li kien kburi li jurihom suppost għaġeb tan-natura li kellu fil-pussess tiegħu: il-fdalijiet ibbalzmati ta' idra b'sebat irjus. Linnaeus malajr skopra li l-eżemplar kien falz, magħqud flimkien mill-ixdqa u mill-għadam tas-saqajn tal-ballottri u mill-ġlud tas-[[Serp|sriep]]. Il-provenenza tal-idra ssuġġeriet lil Linnaeus li kienet ġiet prodotta mill-patrijiet biex jirrappreżentaw il-Bestja tar-Rivelazzjoni. Anke bis-sogru li s-sindku jinkorla miegħu, Linnaeus għamel l-osservazzjonijiet tiegħu pubbliċi, u kisser il-ħolm tas-sindku li jbigħ l-idra għal somma enormi. Linnaeus u Sohlberg imbagħad kellhom jaħarbu minn Amburgu.

Linnaeus beda jaħdem fuq id-dottorat tiegħu malli wasal f'Harderwijk, università magħrufa għall-għoti tal-lawrji f'saħansitra ġimgħa kollox. Huwa ressaq teżi, li kien kiteb fl-Iżvezja, bit-titlu ''Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa'', fejn stabbilixxa l-ipoteżi tiegħu li l-[[malarja]] tfaċċat biss f'żoni b'ħamrija rikka bit-tafal. Għalkemm ma rnexxilux jidentifika s-sors reali tat-trażmissjoni tal-mard (jiġifieri n-nemus ''Anopheles''), huwa rnexxielu jipprevedi li s-susa ''Artemisia annua'' kienet se ssir sors tal-mediċini kontra l-malarja. Fi żmien ġimagħtejn huwa temm l-eżamijiet orali u prattiċi tiegħu u ngħata d-dottorat tiegħu.

Dak is-sajf Linnaeus reġa' ngħaqad ma' [[Peter Artedi]], ħabib tiegħu minn Uppsala li kellu patt miegħu li jekk wieħed minnhom imut qabel, l-ieħor kien ilesti x-xogħol tad-deċedut. Għaxar ġimgħat wara, Artedi għereq fil-kanali ta' [[Amsterdam]], u ħalla warajh manuskritt mhux komplut dwar il-klassifikazzjoni tal-[[ħut]].

=== Pubblikazzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' ===
Wieħed mill-ewwel xjenzati li ltaqa' miegħu Linnaeus fin-Netherlands kien [[Johan Frederik Gronovius]], u wrieh wieħed mid-diversi manuskritti li kien ġab miegħu mill-Iżvezja. Il-manuskritt kien jiddeskrivi sistema ġdida għall-klassifikazzjoni tal-pjanti. Meta rah Gronovius baqa' impressjonat ferm u offra li jħallas għall-istampar tiegħu. Permezz ta' kontribuzzjoni monetarja addizzjonali mingħand it-tabib [[Skozja|Skoċċiż]] [[Isaac Lawson]], il-manuskritt ġie ppubblikat bħala s-''Systema Naturae'' (1735).

Linnaeus sar magħruf bħala wieħed mill-iżjed tobba u botaniċi rrispettati fin-Netherlands. [[Herman Boerhaave]] pprova jikkonvinċi lil Linnaeus jagħmel karriera hemmhekk. Boerhaave offrielu jagħmel vjaġġ lejn l-[[Afrika t'Isfel]] u l-[[Stati Uniti|Amerka]], iżda Linnaeus ma aċċettax, għax sostna li ma kienx jissapporti s-sħana. Minflok, Boerhaave kkonvinċa lil Linnaeus li għandu jżur lill-botaniku [[Johannes Burman]]. Wara ż-żjara tiegħu, Burman, li baqa' impressjonat bl-għarfien tal-mistieden tiegħu, iddeċieda li Linnaeus għandu jibqa' miegħu matul ix-xitwa. Matul is-soġġorn tiegħu, Linnaeus għen lil Burman bit-[[teżawru]] ''Thesaurus Zeylanicus''. Burman għen ukoll lil Linnaeus bil-kotba li kien qed jaħdem fuqhom: ''Fundamenta Botanica'' u ''Bibliotheca Botanica''.

=== George Clifford, Philip Miller u Johann Jacob Dillenius ===
F'Awwissu 1735, matul is-soġġorn ta' Linnaeus ma' Burman, huwa ltaqa' ma' [[George Clifford III]], direttur tal-Kumpanija Olandiża tal-Indji tal-Lvant u s-sid ta' ġnien botaniku rikk fil-proprjetà ta' Hartekamp f'Heemstede. Clifford baqa' impressjonat ferm bil-kapaċità ta' Linnaeus fil-klassifikazzjoni tal-pjanti, u stiednu jsir it-tabib u s-sovraintendent tal-ġnien tiegħu. Linnaeus kien diġà qabel biex jibqa' ma' Burman tul ix-xitwa, u b'hekk ma setax jaċċetta minnufih. Madankollu, Clifford offra li jikkumpensa lil Burman billi joffrilu kopja tal-ktieb rari ''Storja Naturali tal-[[Ġamajka]]'' ta' [[Sir Hans Sloane]], jekk iħalli lil Linnaeus joqgħod għandu, u Burman aċċetta. Fl-24 ta' Settembru 1735, Linnaeus mar f'Hartekamp biex isir it-tabib personali ta' Clifford u l-[[kuratur]] tal-erbarju ta' Clifford. Huwa tħallas 1,000 fjorin fis-sena, bl-ikel u bl-akkomodazzjoni mħallsa. Għalkemm il-ftehim kien biss għal xitwa waħda ta' dik is-sena, Linnaeus prattikament baqa' hemmhekk sal-1738. Hemmhekk huwa kiteb il-ktieb ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', u fid-daħla tiegħu ddeskriva l-esperjenza tiegħu bħala &quot;l-isbaħ żmien ta' ħajtu&quot;. Parti minn Hartekamp ġiet iddikjarata bħala ġnien pubbliku f'April 1956 mill-awtorità lokali ta' Heemstede, u ngħatat l-isem ta' &quot;Linnaeushof&quot;. Eventwalment skontu dan sar l-ikbar post miftuħ għal-logħob fl-Ewropa.

F'Lulju 1736, Linnaeus ivvjaġġa lejn l-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]], għas-spejjeż ta' Clifford. Huwa mar [[Londra]] biex iżur lil Sir Hans Sloane, kollezzjonist tal-istorja naturali, u biex jara l-armadju tal-affarijiet kurjużi tiegħu, kif ukoll biex iżur il-Ġnien Fiżiku ta' Chelsea u lil min kien jieħu ħsiebu, [[Philip Miller]]. Huwa għallem lil Miller dwar is-sistema l-ġdida tiegħu tas-suddiviżjoni tal-pjanti, kif deskritt fis-''Systema Naturae''. Għall-ewwel, Miller ma kienx ħerqan li juża n-nomenklatura binomjali l-ġdida, u minflok ipprefera l-klassifikazzjonijiet ta' Joseph Pitton de Tournefort u ta' John Ray. Minkejja dan, Linnaeus faħħar id-''[[Dizzjunarju]] tal-[[Ġardinar|Ġardinara]]'' ta' Miller. Miller kien konservattiv u fid-dizzjunarju tiegħu żamm xi termini binomjali ta' qabel Linnaeus li Linnaeus kien skarta iżda li kienu nżammu mill-botaniċi moderni. Huwa qaleb għalkollox għas-sistema ta' Linnaeus fl-edizzjoni tad-''Dizzjunarju tal-Ġardinara'' tal-1768. Miller fl-aħħar mill-aħħar baqa' impressjonat, u minn dak iż-żmien 'il quddiem beda jirranġa l-ġnien skont is-sistema ta' Linnaeus.

Linnaeus ivvjaġġa wkoll lejn l-Università ta' [[Oxford]] biex iżur il-botaniku [[Johann Jacob Dillenius]]. Ma rnexxielux jikkonvinċi lil Dillenius jaċċetta s-sistema l-ġdida tal-klassifikazzjoni tiegħu pubblikament, għalkemm it-tnejn li huma baqgħu f'korrispondenza ma' xulxin għal bosta snin wara. Linnaeus iddedika l-''Critica Botanica'' tiegħu lilu, peress li &quot;''opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit''&quot;. Iktar 'il quddiem Linnaeus semma [[Ġeneru (tassonomija)|ġeneru]] ta' siġra tropikali ''Dillenia'' biex jagħtih ġieħ. Huwa mbagħad reġa' lura Hartekamp, u miegħu ġab bosta eżemplari ta' pjanti rari. Is-sena ta' wara, l-1737, huwa ppubblika l-''Genera Plantarum'', fejn iddeskriva 935 ġeneru ta' pjanti, u ftit wara ssupplimentah bil-''Corollarium Generum Plantarum'', b'60 ġeneru addizzjonali.

Ix-xogħol tiegħu f'Hartekamp wassal għal ktieb ieħor, il-''Hortus Cliffortianus'', katalogu tal-eżemplari botaniċi fl-erbarju u fil-ġnien botaniku ta' Hartekamp. Huwa kitbu f'9 xhur (tlesta f'Lulju 1737), iżda ma ppubblikahx qabel l-1738. Fih l-ewwel użu tal-isem ''Nepenthes'', li Linnaeus uża biex jiddeskrivi ġeneru ta' buqari (pjanti [[Karnivoru|karnivori]]).

Linnaeus baqa' ma' Clifford f'Hartekamp sat-18 ta' Ottubru 1737 (stil ġdid), meta mbagħad telaq biex imur lura l-Iżvezja. Il-[[mard]] u l-ġentilezza tal-ħbieb Olandiżi tiegħu obbligawh joqgħod għal iktar xhur fl-Olanda. F'Mejju 1738, huwa telaq lejn l-Iżvezja. Fi triqtu lejn id-dar, huwa ssoġġorna f'[[Pariġi]] għal xi xahar, u żar il-botaniċi bħal [[Antoine de Jussieu]]. Wara r-ritorn tiegħu, Linnaeus qatt ma reġa' telaq mill-Iżvezja.

== Lura l-Iżvezja ==
When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to Falun, where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family. Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin, who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty. During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science; he became the first Praeses of the academy by drawing of lots.

Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl. Two years later, a daughter, Elisabeth Christina, was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia.

In May 1741, Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history, instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala.

=== Öland u Gotland ===
Ten days after he was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition were later published in ''Öländska och Gothländska Resa'', written in Swedish. Like ''Flora Lapponica'', it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland.

During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: ''Flora Suecica'' and ''Fauna Suecica''. ''Flora Suecica'' was a strictly botanical book, while ''Fauna Suecica'' was zoological. Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0 °C and freezing at 100 °C. Linnaeus inverted the scale to its present usage in 1745.

=== Västergötland ===
In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province of Västergötland. He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book ''Wästgöta-Resa'', published the next year. After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province Scania. This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy.

In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title archiater, or chief physician, by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick—a mark of great respect. The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.

=== Scania ===
In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania (Skåne), again commissioned by the government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On the way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees; these trees were used by the army to make rifles. While there, they visited the Ramlösa mineral spa, where he remarked on the quality of its ferruginous water. The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in ''Skånska Resa'' (&quot;Scanian Journey&quot;). The book comprises 561 pages and is a diary with detailed descriptions of everything he discovered in Scania. He praises the people of Scania for their hospitality, which &quot;in no land, though everywhere I have been received well, can be compared.&quot;

=== Rettur tal-Università ta' Uppsala ===
In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed. Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his &quot;apostles&quot;. His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala.

=== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Philosophia Botanica'' in 1751. The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden.

=== ''Nutrix Noverca'' ===
During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student, based on their experiences. In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer (''prases'') expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by J. E. Gilibert in 1770 as ''La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire''. Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk. It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term ''Mammalia'' for the class of organisms.

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
Linnaeus published ''Species Plantarum'', the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature, in 1753. The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year. The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species. The same year the king dubbed him knight of the Order of the Polar Star, the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order. He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia.

=== Nobbiltà ===
Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added. In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants. A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move.

Since the initial release of ''Systema Naturae'' in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the tenth edition was released in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point for zoological nomenclature, the equivalent of ''Species Plantarum''.

The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus nobility in 1757, but he was not ennobled until 1761. With his ennoblement, he took the name Carl von Linné (Latinised as Carolus a Linné), 'Linné' being a shortened and gallicised version of 'Linnæus', and the German nobiliary particle 'von' signifying his ennoblement. The noble family's coat of arms prominently features a twinflower, one of Linnaeus's favourite plants; it was given the scientific name ''Linnaea borealis'' in his honour by Gronovius. The shield in the coat of arms is divided into thirds: red, black and green for the three kingdoms of nature (animal, mineral and vegetable) in Linnaean classification; in the centre is an egg &quot;to denote Nature, which is continued and perpetuated ''in ovo''&quot;. At the bottom is a phrase in Latin, borrowed from the Aeneid, which reads &quot;''Famam extendere factis''&quot;: we extend our fame by our deeds. Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends.

After his ennoblement, Linnaeus continued teaching and writing. In total, he presided at 186 PhD ceremonies, with many of the dissertations written by himself. His reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many different people. For example, Catherine II of Russia sent him seeds from her country. He also corresponded with Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, &quot;the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire&quot;, who was a doctor and a botanist in Idrija, Duchy of Carniola (nowadays Slovenia). Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions (for example of the olm and the dormouse, two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus). Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work. He named a solanaceous genus, ''Scopolia'', the source of scopolamine, after him, but because of the great distance between them, they never met.

== Snin finali ==
Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after. In 1769 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society for his work. He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health.

Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness. He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén. He developed sciatica in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him. He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author.

In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby. Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby, he was buried in Uppsala Cathedral on 22 January.

His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children. Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala. In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later.

The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married. His other son, Johannes, had died aged 3. There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters.

== Dixxipli ==
During Linnaeus's time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University, he taught many devoted students, 17 of whom he called &quot;apostles&quot;. They were the most promising, most committed students, and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with his help. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition. To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys. Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system. Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished. Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland. The British botanist William T. Stearn notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens.

=== Spedizzjonijiet bikrin ===
Christopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746. He boarded a Swedish East India Company ship headed for China. Tärnström never reached his destination, dying of a tropical fever on Côn Sơn Island the same year. Tärnström's widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless, causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger, unmarried students after Tärnström. Six other apostles later died on their expeditions, including Pehr Forsskål and Pehr Löfling.

Two years after Tärnström's expedition, Finnish-born Pehr Kalm set out as the second apostle to North America. There he spent two-and-a-half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and Canada. Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned, bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds. At least 90 of the 700 North American species described in ''Species Plantarum'' had been brought back by Kalm.

=== Spedizzjonijiet ta' Cook u tal-Ġappun ===
Daniel Solander was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was very fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage. On Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760, where he met the English botanist Joseph Banks. With Banks, Solander joined James Cook on his expedition to Oceania on the ''Endeavour'' in 1768–71. Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook; Anders Sparrman followed on the ''Resolution'' in 1772–75 bound for, among other places, Oceania and South America. Sparrman made many other expeditions, one of them to South Africa.

Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was Carl Peter Thunberg, who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770. He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled to Japan. All foreigners were barred from entering Japan and were restricted to the tiny island of Dejima outside Nagasaki, so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora. He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima. He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death.

== Pubblikazzjonijiet ewlenin ==

=== ''Systema Naturae'' ===
The first edition of ''Systema Naturae'' was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was a twelve-page work. By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included. By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—the index card—to track classifications.

After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions of ''Systema Naturae'' went in two different directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray, issued the ''Regnum Vegetabile'' section separately in 1774 as the ''Systema Vegetabilium'', rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition. Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire ''Systema'' appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship of Johann Friedrich Gmelin. It was through the ''Systema Vegetabilium'' that Linnaeus's work became widely known in England, following its translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society as ''A System of Vegetables'' (1783–1785).

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
''Species Plantarum'' (or, more fully, ''Species Plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas'') was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today.

==== ''Genera Plantarum'' ====
''Genera plantarum: eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium'' was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition. In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes. One, Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).

==== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ====
''Philosophia Botanica'' (1751) was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in ''Fundamenta Botanica'' (1736) and ''Critica Botanica'' (1737). Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his ''Classes Plantarum'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica'': all were printed in Holland (as were ''Genera Plantarum'' (1737) and ''Systema Naturae'' (1735)), the ''Philosophia'' being simultaneously released in Stockholm.

== Kollezzjonijiet ==
At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in Uppsala was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden. Next to his own collection, he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala, which was supplied by material donated by Carl Gyllenborg (in 1744–1745), crown-prince Adolf Fredrik (in 1745), Erik Petreus (in 1746), Claes Grill (in 1746), Magnus Lagerström (in 1748 and 1750) and Jonas Alströmer (in 1749). The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils was incorporated into the private collection rather than to the museum. Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature, and he said in 1754 &quot;the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all-wise creator's masterpieces, divided into three chambers&quot;. He felt that he had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that 'world museum'.

In 1784 the young medical student James Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London. Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England. Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost.

In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away. Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material.

Much material that Linné studied belonged to the collection of Queen Lovisa Ulrika (1720–1782); the Linnean publications call this &quot;Museum Ludovicae Ulricae&quot; or &quot;M. L. U.&quot;). The collection was donated by her grandson King Gustav IV Adolf (1778–1837) to the museum in Uppsala in 1804. Her husband King Adolf Fredrik's (1710–1771) collection is known in the Linnean sources as &quot;Museum Adolphi Friderici&quot; or &quot;Mus. Ad. Fr.&quot;. The wet parts (the alcohol collection) were later donated to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and are housed in the Swedish Museum of Natural History at Stockholm. The dry material was transferred to Uppsala.

== Sistema tat-tassonomija ==

=== Sistema ta' Linnaeus ===
The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature. Another major contribution of his was the popularisation of using the Mars and Venus symbols (♂ and ♀) to denote sex within species. These became the standard gender symbols. During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as the ''Linnaean taxonomy''; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences. A previous zoologist Rumphius (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus.

The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera (''singular:'' genus), which were divided into species (''singular:'' species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank; these have since acquired standardised names such as ''variety'' in botany and ''subspecies'' in zoology. Modern taxonomy includes a rank of family between order and genus and a rank of phylum between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus's original system.

Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences. Of his higher groupings, only those for animals are still in use, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception, as have the principles behind them. Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.

=== Tassonomija umana ===
Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was the first to include humans (''Homo'') taxonomically grouped with apes (''Simia''), under the header of ''Anthropomorpha''. German biologist Ernst Haeckel speaking in 1907 called this the &quot;most important sign of Linnaeus's genius&quot;.

Linnaeus classified humans among the primates, beginning with the first edition of ''Systema Naturae''. During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine several monkeys and noted similarities between them and man. He pointed out that they basically had the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences. Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category, ''Anthropomorpha'', meaning &quot;manlike&quot;. This classification received criticism from other biologists such as Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Jacob Theodor Klein and Johann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like. In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied:&lt;blockquote&gt;It does not please [you] that I've placed Man among the Anthropomorpha, perhaps because of the term 'with human form', but man learns to know himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name we apply. But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that [follows] from the principles of Natural History. I absolutely know of none. If only someone might tell me a single one! If I would have called man a simian or vice versa, I would have brought together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline.&lt;/blockquote&gt;The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the great chain of being, and second, because the Bible says man was created in the image of God (theomorphism), if monkeys/apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed, that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well. This was something many could not accept.

After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly. The 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'' introduced new terms, including ''Mammalia'' and ''Primates'', the latter replacing ''Anthropomorpha'' and giving humans the full binomial ''Homo sapiens''. The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature. Linnaeus believed that man biologically belonged to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it. In his book ''Dieta Naturalis'', he said, &quot;One should not vent one's wrath on animals. Theology decrees that man has a soul and that the animals are mere 'automata mechanica', but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility.&quot;

Linnaeus added a second species to the genus ''Homo'' in ''Systema Naturae'' based on a figure and description by Jacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication: ''Homo troglodytes'' (&quot;caveman&quot;) and published a third in 1771: ''Homo lar''. Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus. For ''Homo troglodytes'' Linnaeus asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence. ''Homo lar'' has since been reclassified as ''Hylobates lar'', the lar gibbon.

In the first edition of ''Systema Naturae'', Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties: &quot;Europæus albesc[ens]&quot; (whitish European), &quot;Americanus rubesc[ens]&quot; (reddish American), &quot;Asiaticus fuscus&quot; (tawny Asian) and &quot;Africanus nigr[iculus]&quot; (blackish African). In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of the four temperaments from classical antiquity, and changed the description of Asians' skin tone to &quot;luridus&quot; (yellow). While Linnaeus believed that these varieties resulted from environmental differences between the four known continents, the Linnean Society acknowledges that his categorization's focus on skin color and later inclusion of cultural and behavioral traits cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism. Additionally, Linnaeus created a wastebasket taxon &quot;monstrosus&quot; for &quot;wild and monstrous humans, unknown groups, and more or less abnormal people&quot;.

Linnaeus treated himself as the type specimen (holotype) of ''H. sapiens.'' In 1959, W. T. Stearn designated Linnaeus as the lectotype of ''H. sapiens,'' following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself.

== Influwenzi u twemmin ekonomiku ==
Linnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of Cameralism. Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist. He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels.

== Kommemorazzjoni ==
Anniversaries of Linnaeus's birth, especially in centennial years, have been marked by major celebrations. Linnaeus has appeared on numerous Swedish postage stamps and banknotes. There are numerous statues of Linnaeus in countries around the world. The Linnean Society of London has awarded the Linnean Medal for excellence in botany or zoology since 1888. Following approval by the Riksdag of Sweden, Växjö University and Kalmar College merged on 1 January 2010 to become Linnaeus University. Among the things named after Linnaeus is the twinflower genus ''Linnaea'', ''Linnaeosicyos'' (a monotypic genus in the family Cucurbitaceae).

== Kummentarju ==
Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau once wrote of Linnaeus, &quot;I know no greater man on Earth.&quot; Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: &quot;With the exception of William Shakespeare and Baruch Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly.&quot; Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: &quot;Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist.&quot; In his autobiography, published by his student Adam Afzelius in 1823, Linnaeus described himself as unargumentative, sensitive, quick, and uninterested in his personal appearance.

In the 21st century, Linnæus's taxonomy of human &quot;races&quot; has been criticized. Some claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of scientific racism, while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human &quot;races&quot; were superior to others.

== Abbrevjazzjoni standard tal-awtur ==
The standard author abbreviation '''L.''' is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name.

== Referenzi ==
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'''Carl Linnaeus''' (twieled fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707 – miet fl-10 ta' Jannar 1778), magħruf ukoll wara li ngħata n-nobbiltà fl-1761 bħala '''Carl von Linné''', kien bijologu u [[tabib]] [[Żvezja|Żvediż]] li fformalizza n-nomenklatura binomjali, is-sistema moderna tat-tismija tal-organiżmi. Huwa magħruf bħala l-&quot;missier tat-tassonomija moderna&quot;. Bosta mill-kitbiet tiegħu kienu bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]]; bil-Latin ismu huwa '''Carolus Linnæus''' u, wara li sar nobbli fl-1761, sar magħruf bħala '''Carolus a Linné'''.

Linnaeus kien iben membru tal-kleru u twieled f'Råshult, fil-kampanja ta' Småland, fin-Nofsinhar tal-Iżvezja. Huwa kiseb il-biċċa l-kbira tal-[[edukazzjoni]] għolja tiegħu fl-Università ta' [[Uppsala]] u beda jagħti lekċers dwar il-[[botanika]] hemmhekk fl-1730. Huwa għex barra mill-pajjiż bejn l-1735 u l-1738, fejn studja u ppubblika wkoll l-ewwel edizzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' tiegħu fin-[[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Netherlands]]. Imbagħad reġa' lura l-Iżvezja fejn sar professur tal-[[mediċina]] u tal-botanika f'Uppsala. Fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 18, huwa ntbagħat għal diversi vjaġġi fl-Iżvezja biex isib u jikklassifika l-[[Pjanta|pjanti]] u l-[[Annimal|annimali]]. Fis-snin 50 u 60 tas-seklu 18, huwa kompla jikkollezzjona u jikklassifikaw l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-minerali, filwaqt li ppubblika diversi volumi. Sa żmien [[Mewt|mewtu]] fl-1778, huwa kien wieħed mill-iżjed xjenzati rinomati fl-[[Ewropa]].

Linnaeus issejjaħ bħala l-''Princeps botanicorum'' (Prinċep tal-Botanisti) u &quot;l-Plinju tat-Tramuntana&quot;. Huwa jitqies ukoll bħala wieħed mill-fundaturi tal-[[ekoloġija]] moderna.

Fil-botanika, l-abbrevjazzjoni '''L.''' tintuża biex tindika lil Linnaeus bħala l-awtorità għal isem ta' [[speċi]]. Fiż-[[żooloġija]], ġeneralment tintuża l-abbrevjazzjoni '''Linnaeus'''; jintużaw ukoll l-abbrevjazzjonijiet '''L.''', '''Linnæus''' u '''Linné'''. Fil-pubblikazzjonijiet iktar antiki tinstab l-abbrevjazzjoni &quot;'''Linn'''&quot;. Linnaeus huwa ddeżinjat bħala l-eżemplar tipiku għall-iseċi [[Bniedem|umana]], ''[[Homo sapiens]].''

== Ħajja bikrija ==

=== Tfulija ===
Linnaeus twieled fil-villaġġ ta' Råshult fi Småland, l-Iżvezja, fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707. Huwa kien l-ewwel wild ta' [[Nicolaus (Nils) Linnaeus]] (imwieled bħala Nils Ingemarsson) u ta' [[Christina Brodersonia]]. Missieru għallmu l-Latin meta kien għadu tifel żgħir. Missieru kien wieħed min-nisel twil ta' raħħala u ta' patrijiet, u kien botaniku dilettant, ċelebrant [[Luteraniżmu|Luteran]] u membru tal-kleru tal-villaġġ żgħir ta' Stenbrohult fi Småland. Ommu kienet bint ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius. Sena wara t-twelid ta' Linnaeus, miet nannuh Samuel Brodersonius, u missieru sar ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult. Il-familja marret tgħix fir-rettorat minflok fid-dar tal-kurja. Diġà fis-snin bikrin tiegħu, Linnaeus milli jidher kellu għal qalbu l-pjanti, b'mod partikolari l-fjuri. Kull meta kien jirrabja, kien jingħata fjura, u b'hekk kien jikkalma minnufih. Missieru qatta' ħafna ħin fil-ġnien tiegħu u sikwit kien juri l-fjuri lil ibnu Linnaeus u jgħidlu x'jisimhom. F'qasir żmien Linnaeus ingħata r-roqgħa art tiegħu fejn seta' jkabbar il-pjanti.

Missier Linnaeus kien l-ewwel wieħed min-nisel tiegħu li adotta kunjom permanenti. Qablu, missirijietu użaw is-sistema tat-tismija patronika tal-pajjiżi Skandinavi; missieru żamm il-kunjom Ingemarsson wara missieru Ingemar Bengtsson. Meta Nils inkiteb fl-Università ta' Lund, heuwa kellu juża kunjom. Huwa adotta l-isem Latin Linnæus għal siġra ġganteska tax-xkomp, ''lind'' bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]], li kienet kibret fil-proprjetà tal-familja. Dan l-isem ġie spellut bid-dittong magħqud ''æ''. Meta Carl twieled, huwa ngħata l-isem ta' Carl Linnæus, bil-kunjom tal-missier. L-iben spella kunjomu wkoll bid-dittong magħqud ''æ'', kemm fid-dokumenti miktubin bl-idejn kif ukoll fil-pubblikazzjonijiet tiegħu. L-isem patronimiku ta' Carl kieku kien ikun Nilsson, bħal ta' Carl Nilsson Linnæus.

=== Edukazzjoni bikrija ===
Missier Linnaeus beda jgħallmu l-Latin bażiku, ir-[[reliġjon]] u l-[[ġeografija]] ta' età bikrija ħafna. Meta Linnaeus kellu 7 snin, Nils iddeċieda li jqabbad [[għalliem]] għalih. Il-ġenituri għażlu lil Johan Telander, iben raħħal lokali. Linnaeus ma kienx għal qalbu miegħu, u fl-awtobijografija tiegħu kiteb li Telander &quot;kien ferm aħjar biex jitfi t-talenti tat-tfal milli biex jiżviluppahom&quot;.

Sentejn wara li beda jgħallmu Telander, Linnaeus intbagħat fl-Iskola Grammatikali Inferjuri f'Växjö fl-1717. Linnaeus qajla studja, u spiss kien imur fil-kampanja biex ifittex il-pjanti. Darba fost l-oħrajn, missieru mar iżuru, u wara li sema' valutazzjonijiet kritiċi mingħand l-għalliema tiegħu, iddeċieda li jdaħħlu bħala apprendist ma' taż-żraben onest lokali. Is-surmast tiegħu, Daniel Lannerus, innota l-interess li kellu Linnaeus fil-botanika, u introduċieh lil [[Johan Rothman]], tabib statali ta' Småland u għalliem fil-Katedralskolan f'Växjö. Rothman wessa' l-interess ta' Linnaeus fil-botanika u għenu jiżviluppa interess fil-mediċina. Sal-età ta' 17-il sena, Linnaeus kien sar midħla sew tal-letteratura botanika eżistenti. Huwa jirrimarka fil-ġurnal tiegħu li kien &quot;jaqra lejl u nhar, u kien jaf sew il-kontenut tal-''Ktieb tal-Ħxejjex Aromatiċi ta' Rydaholm'' ta' [[Arvidh Månsson]], il-''Flora Åboensis'' ta' Tillandz, is-''Serta Florea Suecana'' ta' Palmberg, il-''Chloros Gothica'' ta' Bromelii u l-''Hortus Upsaliensis'' ta' Rudbeckii&quot;.

Linnaeus beda jattendi l-Katedralskola ta' Växjö fl-1724, fejn studja l-iktar il-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]], l-[[Ebrajk]], it-[[teoloġija]] u l-[[matematika]], kurrikulu maħsub għas-subien li kienu jitħejjew biex isiru patrijiet. Fl-aħħar sena tal-liċeo (gymnasium), missier Linnaeus żar l-iskola biex jistaqsi lill-professuri kif kienu sejrin l-istudji ta' ibnu; ħaġa tal-iskantament għal missieru, il-biċċa l-kbira qalu li ibnu qatt ma kien se jsir studjuż. Rothman kellu fehma oħra, u ssuġġerixxa li Linnaeus seta' jkollu futur fil-mediċina. It-tabib offra li jilqa' lil Linnaeus biex jgħix mal-familja tiegħu f'Växjö sabiex ikun jista' jgħallmu l-fiżjoloġija u l-botanika, u Nils aċċetta din l-offerta.

== Studji universitarji ==

=== Lund ===
Rothman wera lil Linnaeus li l-botanika kienet suġġett serju. Huwa għallmu jikklassifika l-pjanti skont is-sistema ta' Tournefort. Linnaeus ġie mgħallem ukoll dwar ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali tal-pjanti, skont [[Sébastien Vaillant]]. Fl-1727, Linnaeus, ta' 21 sena, inkiteb fl-Università ta' Lund fi Scania (Skåne). Huwa ġie rreġistrat bħala ''Carolus Linnæus'', il-forma Latina tal-isem sħiħ tiegħu, li huwa uża wkoll iktar 'il quddiem għall-pubblikazzjonijiet tiegħu bil-Latin.

Il-Professur [[Kilian Stobæus]], xjenzat naturali, tabib u storiku, offra t-tagħlim u l-akkomodazzjoni lil Linnaeus, kif ukoll l-użu tal-librerija tiegħu, li kienet tinkludi bosta kotba dwar il-botanika. Huwa ppermetta wkoll id-dħul bla ħlas għal-lekċers tiegħu. Fil-ħin liberu tiegħu, Linnaeus esplora l-flora ta' Skåne, flimkien ma' studenti oħra li kellhom l-istess interessi tiegħu.

=== Uppsala ===
F'Awwissu 1728, Linnaeus iddeċieda li jattendi l-Università ta' Uppsala fuq il-parir ta' Rothman, li kien jemmen li kienet l-aħjar għażla jekk Linnaeus ried jistudja kemm il-mediċina kif ukoll il-botanika. Rothman ibbaża din ir-rakkomandazzjoni fuq iż-żewġ professuri li kienu jgħallmu fil-fakultà tal-mediċina f'Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck iż-Żgħir u Lars Roberg. Għalkemm Rudbeck u Roberg bla dubju kienu professuri tajbin, sa dak iż-żmien kienu ferm iktar anzjani u ma tantx kellhom interess fit-tagħlim. Rudbeck ma baqax jagħti lekċers pubbliċi, u bdew jagħtuhom minfloku oħrajn. Il-lekċers tal-botanika, taż-żooloġija, tal-farmakoloġija u tal-[[anatomija]] ma kinux mill-aqwa. F'Uppsala, Linnaeus iltaqa' ma' benefattur ġdid, [[Olof Celsius]], li kien professur tat-teoloġija u botaniku dilettant. Huwa laqa' lil Linnaeus f'daru u ħallih juża l-librerija tiegħu, li kienet waħda mill-iżjed libreriji botaniċi rikki fl-Iżvezja.

Fl-1729, Linnaeus kiteb teżi, ''Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum'', dwar ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali tal-pjanti. Din ġibdet l-attenzjoni ta' Rudbeck; f'Mejju 1730, huwa għażel lil Linnaeus biex jagħti lekċers fl-università minkejja li kien għadu student tat-tieni sena. Il-lekċers tiegħu kienu popolari, u Linnaeus spiss indirizza udjenza ta' 300 ruħ. F'Ġunju, Linnaeus ma baqax jgħix fid-dar ta' Celsius u minflok mar jgħix fid-dar ta' Rudbeck biex isir l-għalliem tal-iżgħar tlett itfal fost l-24 ulied tiegħu. Il-ħbiberija tiegħu ma' Celsius ma ntilfitx u huma baqgħu jagħmlu l-ispedizzjonijiet botaniċi flimkien. Matul dik ix-xitwa, Linnaeus beda jiddubita s-sistema tal-klassifikazzjoni ta' Tournefort u ddeċieda li joħloq is-sistema tiegħu stess. Il-pjan tiegħu kien li jaqsam il-pjanti skont l-għadd ta' stamen jew stami u pistilli. Huwa beda jikteb diversi kotba, li iktar 'il quddiem irriżultaw pereżempju f'&lt;nowiki/&gt;''Genera Plantarum'' u f'''Critica Botanica''. Huwa pproduċa wkoll ktieb dwar il-pjanti mkabbra fil-Ġnien Botaniku ta' Uppsala, ''Adonis Uplandicus''.

L-eks assistent ta' Rudbeck, [[Nils Rosén]], reġa' lura l-università f'Marzu 1731 b'lawrja fil-mediċina. Rosén beda jagħti lekċers dwar l-anatomija u pprova jieħu post il-lekċers dwar il-botanika ta' Linnaeus, iżda Rudbeck ma ħallihx. Sa Diċembru, Rosén għallem lil Linnaeus b'mod privat dwar il-mediċina. F'Diċembru, Linnaeus kellu xi jgħid mal-[[mara]] ta' Rudbeck u kellu jitlaq mid-dar tal-mentor tiegħu; ir-relazzjoni tiegħu ma' Rudbeck però ma marritx għall-agħar. Dak il-[[Milied]], Linnaeus reġa' lura d-dar f'Stenbrohult biex iżur lill-ġenituri tiegħu għall-ewwel darba wara xi 3 snin. Ommu ma qablitx miegħu li ma sarx patri, iżda kienet kuntenta meta saret taf li kien qed jgħallem fl-università.

== Spedizzjoni lejn il-Lapland ==
Matul żjara mal-ġenituri tiegħu, Linnaeus qalilhom dwar il-pjan tiegħu li jivvjaġġa lejn il-Lapland; Rudbeck kien għamel vjaġġ simili fl-1695, iżda r-riżultati dettaljati tal-esplorazzjoni tiegħu ntilfu minħabba nar 7 sena wara. It-tama ta' Linnaeus kienet li jsib pjanti u annimali ġodda, u possibbilment minerali siewja. Huwa kien kurjuż ukoll dwar id-drawwiet tal-poplu [[Sami]] nattiv, nomadi li jirgħu r-renni u jimirħu fit-tundri vasti tal-Iskandinavja. F'April 1732, Linnaeus ingħata għotja finanzjarja mis-Soċjetà Rjali tax-Xjenzi f'Uppsala għall-vjaġġ tiegħu.

Linnaeus beda l-ispedizzjoni tiegħu minn Uppsala fit-12 ta' Mejju 1732, eżatt qabel ma għalaq 25 sena. Huwa vvjaġġa bil-mixi u biż-[[żiemel]], u miegħu ġab il-ġurnal tiegħu, manuskritti botaniċi u ornitoloġiċi u folji tal-karta għall-ippressar tal-pjanti. Qrib Gävle huwa sab kwantitajiet kbar ta' ''Campanula serpyllifolia'', li iktar 'il quddiem saret magħrufa bħala l-''Linnaea borealis'', il-fjura li mbagħad saret il-favorita tiegħu. Xi kultant fi triqtu huwa kien jinżel minn fuq iż-żiemel biex jeżamina xi fjuri jew xi blata u kien interessat b'mod partikolari fil-muski u fil-likeni, u dawn tal-aħħar kienu parti prinċipali tad-dieta tar-renni, annimal komuni u importanti ekonomikament fil-Lapland.

Linnaeus ivvjaġġa madwar il-kosta tal-Golf ta' Bothnia, u għamel inkursjonijiet kbar 'il ġewwa minn Umeå, Luleå u Tornio. Huwa rritorna mill-ispedizzjoni tiegħu ta' 6 xhur u ta' iktar minn 2,000 kilometru (1,200 mil) f'Ottubru, wara li ġabar u osserva bosta pjanti, [[Għasfur|għasafar]] u blat. Għalkemm il-Lapland kien reġjun b'[[bijodiversità]] limitata, Linnaeus iddeskriva madwar 100 pjanta li qabel ma kinux identifikati. Dan sar il-bażi għall-ktieb tiegħu ''Flora Lapponica''. Madankollu, wara l-ispedizzjoni lejn il-Lapland, Linnaeus uża l-ismijiet bil-Latin biex jiddeskrivi l-organiżmi minħabba li kien għadu ma żviluppax is-sistema binomjali.

Fil-''Flora Lapponica'' l-ideat ta' Linnaeus dwar in-nomenklatura u l-klassifikazzjoni ntużaw għall-ewwel darba b'mod prattiku, u b'hekk din kienet l-ewwel ''Flora'' protomoderna. Ir-rendikont kopra 534 speċi, uża s-sistema tal-klassifikazzjoni ta' Linnaeus u inkluda għall-ispeċijiet deskritti, id-distribuzzjoni ġeografika u n-noti tassonomiċi. Kien [[Augustin Pyramus de Candolle]] li attribwixxa lil Linnaeus bil-''Flora Lapponica'' bħala l-ewwel eżempju fil-ġeneru botaniku tal-kitba dwar il-''Flora''. L-istoriku botaniku [[E. L. Greene]] ddeskriva l-''Flora Lapponica'' bħala &quot;l-iżjed klassiku u pjaċevoli&quot; tax-xogħlijiet ta' Linnaeus.

Matul din l-ispedizzjoni, Linnaeus kellu ħjiel ta' ispirazzjoni rigward il-klassifikazzjoni tal-mammiferi. Malli osserva l-għadma t'isfel tax-xedaq ta' żiemel f'ġenb it-triq li kien qed jivvjaġġa fiha, Linnaeus irrimarka: &quot;Li kieku biss kont naf kemm kellu snien u ta' liema tip kull annimal, kemm bżieżel u fejn kienu jinsabu, kieku forsi kont inkun kapaċi nasal għal sistema perfettament naturali għall-arranġament tal-kwadrupedi kollha&quot;.

Fl-1734, Linnaeus mexxa grupp żgħir ta' studenti lejn Dalarna. Iffinanzjata mill-Gvernatur ta' Dalarna, l-ispedizzjoni kellha tikkataloga r-riżorsi naturali magħrufa u tiskopri oħrajn ġodda, iżda anke tiġbor għarfien dwar l-attivitajiet tal-estrazzjoni [[Norveġja|Norveġiżi]] f'[[Røros]].

== Snin fir-Repubblika Olandiża (1735–1738) ==

=== Dottorat ===
Ir-relazzjonijiet tiegħu ma' Nils Rosén marru għall-agħar, u Linnaeus aċċetta stedina mingħand [[Claes Sohlberg]], iben spettur tal-estrazzjoni, biex iqatta' l-btajjel tal-Milied f'[[Minjiera tar-Ram ta' Falun|Falun]], fejn Linnaeus ingħata l-permess iżur il-minjieri.

F'April 1735, skont is-suġġeriment ta' missier Sohlberg, Linnaeus u Sohlberg marru lejn ir-Repubblika Olandiża, fejn Linnaeus kien beħsiebu jistudha l-mediċina fl-Università ta' Harderwijk filwaqt li jgħallem lil Sohlberg għal salarju annwali. Dak iż-żmien, kien komuni li l-Iżvediżi jagħmlu dottorati fin-Netherlands, li kien post ta' studju rinomat għall-istudju tal-istorja naturali.

Fi triqithom waqfu f'[[Amburgu]], fejn iltaqgħu mas-sindku, li kien kburi li jurihom suppost għaġeb tan-natura li kellu fil-pussess tiegħu: il-fdalijiet ibbalzmati ta' idra b'sebat irjus. Linnaeus malajr skopra li l-eżemplar kien falz, magħqud flimkien mill-ixdqa u mill-għadam tas-saqajn tal-ballottri u mill-ġlud tas-[[Serp|sriep]]. Il-provenenza tal-idra ssuġġeriet lil Linnaeus li kienet ġiet prodotta mill-patrijiet biex jirrappreżentaw il-Bestja tar-Rivelazzjoni. Anke bis-sogru li s-sindku jinkorla miegħu, Linnaeus għamel l-osservazzjonijiet tiegħu pubbliċi, u kisser il-ħolm tas-sindku li jbigħ l-idra għal somma enormi. Linnaeus u Sohlberg imbagħad kellhom jaħarbu minn Amburgu.

Linnaeus beda jaħdem fuq id-dottorat tiegħu malli wasal f'Harderwijk, università magħrufa għall-għoti tal-lawrji f'saħansitra ġimgħa kollox. Huwa ressaq teżi, li kien kiteb fl-Iżvezja, bit-titlu ''Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa'', fejn stabbilixxa l-ipoteżi tiegħu li l-[[malarja]] tfaċċat biss f'żoni b'ħamrija rikka bit-tafal. Għalkemm ma rnexxilux jidentifika s-sors reali tat-trażmissjoni tal-mard (jiġifieri n-nemus ''Anopheles''), huwa rnexxielu jipprevedi li s-susa ''Artemisia annua'' kienet se ssir sors tal-mediċini kontra l-malarja. Fi żmien ġimagħtejn huwa temm l-eżamijiet orali u prattiċi tiegħu u ngħata d-dottorat tiegħu.

Dak is-sajf Linnaeus reġa' ngħaqad ma' [[Peter Artedi]], ħabib tiegħu minn Uppsala li kellu patt miegħu li jekk wieħed minnhom imut qabel, l-ieħor kien ilesti x-xogħol tad-deċedut. Għaxar ġimgħat wara, Artedi għereq fil-kanali ta' [[Amsterdam]], u ħalla warajh manuskritt mhux komplut dwar il-klassifikazzjoni tal-[[ħut]].

=== Pubblikazzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' ===
Wieħed mill-ewwel xjenzati li ltaqa' miegħu Linnaeus fin-Netherlands kien [[Johan Frederik Gronovius]], u wrieh wieħed mid-diversi manuskritti li kien ġab miegħu mill-Iżvezja. Il-manuskritt kien jiddeskrivi sistema ġdida għall-klassifikazzjoni tal-pjanti. Meta rah Gronovius baqa' impressjonat ferm u offra li jħallas għall-istampar tiegħu. Permezz ta' kontribuzzjoni monetarja addizzjonali mingħand it-tabib [[Skozja|Skoċċiż]] [[Isaac Lawson]], il-manuskritt ġie ppubblikat bħala s-''Systema Naturae'' (1735).

Linnaeus sar magħruf bħala wieħed mill-iżjed tobba u botaniċi rrispettati fin-Netherlands. [[Herman Boerhaave]] pprova jikkonvinċi lil Linnaeus jagħmel karriera hemmhekk. Boerhaave offrielu jagħmel vjaġġ lejn l-[[Afrika t'Isfel]] u l-[[Stati Uniti|Amerka]], iżda Linnaeus ma aċċettax, għax sostna li ma kienx jissapporti s-sħana. Minflok, Boerhaave kkonvinċa lil Linnaeus li għandu jżur lill-botaniku [[Johannes Burman]]. Wara ż-żjara tiegħu, Burman, li baqa' impressjonat bl-għarfien tal-mistieden tiegħu, iddeċieda li Linnaeus għandu jibqa' miegħu matul ix-xitwa. Matul is-soġġorn tiegħu, Linnaeus għen lil Burman bit-[[teżawru]] ''Thesaurus Zeylanicus''. Burman għen ukoll lil Linnaeus bil-kotba li kien qed jaħdem fuqhom: ''Fundamenta Botanica'' u ''Bibliotheca Botanica''.

=== George Clifford, Philip Miller u Johann Jacob Dillenius ===
F'Awwissu 1735, matul is-soġġorn ta' Linnaeus ma' Burman, huwa ltaqa' ma' [[George Clifford III]], direttur tal-Kumpanija Olandiża tal-Indji tal-Lvant u s-sid ta' ġnien botaniku rikk fil-proprjetà ta' Hartekamp f'Heemstede. Clifford baqa' impressjonat ferm bil-kapaċità ta' Linnaeus fil-klassifikazzjoni tal-pjanti, u stiednu jsir it-tabib u s-sovraintendent tal-ġnien tiegħu. Linnaeus kien diġà qabel biex jibqa' ma' Burman tul ix-xitwa, u b'hekk ma setax jaċċetta minnufih. Madankollu, Clifford offra li jikkumpensa lil Burman billi joffrilu kopja tal-ktieb rari ''Storja Naturali tal-[[Ġamajka]]'' ta' [[Sir Hans Sloane]], jekk iħalli lil Linnaeus joqgħod għandu, u Burman aċċetta. Fl-24 ta' Settembru 1735, Linnaeus mar f'Hartekamp biex isir it-tabib personali ta' Clifford u l-[[kuratur]] tal-erbarju ta' Clifford. Huwa tħallas 1,000 fjorin fis-sena, bl-ikel u bl-akkomodazzjoni mħallsa. Għalkemm il-ftehim kien biss għal xitwa waħda ta' dik is-sena, Linnaeus prattikament baqa' hemmhekk sal-1738. Hemmhekk huwa kiteb il-ktieb ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', u fid-daħla tiegħu ddeskriva l-esperjenza tiegħu bħala &quot;l-isbaħ żmien ta' ħajtu&quot;. Parti minn Hartekamp ġiet iddikjarata bħala ġnien pubbliku f'April 1956 mill-awtorità lokali ta' Heemstede, u ngħatat l-isem ta' &quot;Linnaeushof&quot;. Eventwalment skontu dan sar l-ikbar post miftuħ għal-logħob fl-Ewropa.

F'Lulju 1736, Linnaeus ivvjaġġa lejn l-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]], għas-spejjeż ta' Clifford. Huwa mar [[Londra]] biex iżur lil Sir Hans Sloane, kollezzjonist tal-istorja naturali, u biex jara l-armadju tal-affarijiet kurjużi tiegħu, kif ukoll biex iżur il-Ġnien Fiżiku ta' Chelsea u lil min kien jieħu ħsiebu, [[Philip Miller]]. Huwa għallem lil Miller dwar is-sistema l-ġdida tiegħu tas-suddiviżjoni tal-pjanti, kif deskritt fis-''Systema Naturae''. Għall-ewwel, Miller ma kienx ħerqan li juża n-nomenklatura binomjali l-ġdida, u minflok ipprefera l-klassifikazzjonijiet ta' Joseph Pitton de Tournefort u ta' John Ray. Minkejja dan, Linnaeus faħħar id-''[[Dizzjunarju]] tal-[[Ġardinar|Ġardinara]]'' ta' Miller. Miller kien konservattiv u fid-dizzjunarju tiegħu żamm xi termini binomjali ta' qabel Linnaeus li Linnaeus kien skarta iżda li kienu nżammu mill-botaniċi moderni. Huwa qaleb għalkollox għas-sistema ta' Linnaeus fl-edizzjoni tad-''Dizzjunarju tal-Ġardinara'' tal-1768. Miller fl-aħħar mill-aħħar baqa' impressjonat, u minn dak iż-żmien 'il quddiem beda jirranġa l-ġnien skont is-sistema ta' Linnaeus.

Linnaeus ivvjaġġa wkoll lejn l-Università ta' [[Oxford]] biex iżur il-botaniku [[Johann Jacob Dillenius]]. Ma rnexxielux jikkonvinċi lil Dillenius jaċċetta s-sistema l-ġdida tal-klassifikazzjoni tiegħu pubblikament, għalkemm it-tnejn li huma baqgħu f'korrispondenza ma' xulxin għal bosta snin wara. Linnaeus iddedika l-''Critica Botanica'' tiegħu lilu, peress li &quot;''opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit''&quot;. Iktar 'il quddiem Linnaeus semma [[Ġeneru (tassonomija)|ġeneru]] ta' siġra tropikali ''Dillenia'' biex jagħtih ġieħ. Huwa mbagħad reġa' lura Hartekamp, u miegħu ġab bosta eżemplari ta' pjanti rari. Is-sena ta' wara, l-1737, huwa ppubblika l-''Genera Plantarum'', fejn iddeskriva 935 ġeneru ta' pjanti, u ftit wara ssupplimentah bil-''Corollarium Generum Plantarum'', b'60 ġeneru addizzjonali.

Ix-xogħol tiegħu f'Hartekamp wassal għal ktieb ieħor, il-''Hortus Cliffortianus'', katalogu tal-eżemplari botaniċi fl-erbarju u fil-ġnien botaniku ta' Hartekamp. Huwa kitbu f'9 xhur (tlesta f'Lulju 1737), iżda ma ppubblikahx qabel l-1738. Fih l-ewwel użu tal-isem ''Nepenthes'', li Linnaeus uża biex jiddeskrivi ġeneru ta' buqari (pjanti [[Karnivoru|karnivori]]).

Linnaeus baqa' ma' Clifford f'Hartekamp sat-18 ta' Ottubru 1737 (stil ġdid), meta mbagħad telaq biex imur lura l-Iżvezja. Il-[[mard]] u l-ġentilezza tal-ħbieb Olandiżi tiegħu obbligawh joqgħod għal iktar xhur fl-Olanda. F'Mejju 1738, huwa telaq lejn l-Iżvezja. Fi triqtu lejn id-dar, huwa ssoġġorna f'[[Pariġi]] għal xi xahar, u żar il-botaniċi bħal [[Antoine de Jussieu]]. Wara r-ritorn tiegħu, Linnaeus qatt ma reġa' telaq mill-Iżvezja.

== Lura l-Iżvezja ==
Meta Linnaeus reġa' lura l-Iżvezja fit-28 ta' Ġunju 1738, huwa mar lejn Falun, fejn tgħarras ma' [[Sara Elisabeth Moræa]]. 3 xhur wara, huwa mar jgħix fi [[Stokkolma]] biex jaħdem bħala tabib, u b'hekk seta' jsostni familja. Għal darb'oħra, Linnaeus sab patrun; huwa sar midħla tal-Konti [[Carl Gustav Tessin]], li għenu jikseb xogħol bħala tabib fl-Ammiralat. F'dak iż-żmien li qatta' fi Stokkolma, Linnaeus għen biex tiġi stabbilita l-Akkademja Żvediża Rjali tax-Xjenza; huwa sar l-ewwel ''Praeses'' tal-akkademja bix-xorti.

Minħabba li l-finanzi tiegħu tjiebu u issa kienu biżżejjed biex isostnu familja, huwa ngħata l-permess li jiżżewweġ lill-għarusa tiegħu, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Iż-żwieġ tagħhom kien fis-26 ta' Ġunju 1739. 17-il xahar wara, Sara welldet lill-ewwel iben tagħhom, Carl. Sentejn wara, twieldet binthom, Elisabeth Christina, u s-sena ta' wara twieldet Sara Magdalena, li mietet 15-il jum wara. Sara u Linnaeus iktar 'il quddiem kellhom erbat it-tfal oħra: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes u Sophia.

F'Mejju 1741, Linnaeus inħatar Professur tal-Mediċina fl-Università ta' Uppsala, l-ewwel bir-responsabbiltà għall-affarijiet relatati mal-mediċina. F'qasir żmien, huwa biddel postu mal-professur l-ieħor tal-mediċina, Nils Rosén, u b'hekk sar responsabbli għall-Ġnien Botaniku (li għamel rikostruzzjoni u espansjoni rigorużi tiegħu), għall-botanika u għall-istorja naturali. F'Ottubru ta' dik l-istess sena, martu u ibnu ta' 9 xhur segwewh biex jgħixu f'Uppsala.

=== Öland u Gotland ===
Għaxarti ijiem wara li nħatar bħala professur, huwa wettaq spedizzjoni lejn il-provinċji gżejjer ta' Öland u Gotland flimkien ma' sitt studenti mill-università biex ifittxu pjanti utli fil-mediċina. Huma baqgħu f'Öland sal-21 ta' Ġunju, imbagħad baħħru lejn [[Visby]] f'Gotland. Linnaeus u l-istudenti baqgħu f'Gotland għal kważi xahar, u mbagħad reġgħu lura Uppsala. Matul din l-ispedizzjoni, huma sabu 100 pjanta li qatt ma kienu ġew irreġistrati qabel. L-osservazzjonijiet mill-ispedizzjoni iktar 'il quddiem ġew ippubblikati fl-''Öländska och Gothländska Resa'', miktub bl-Iżvediż. Bħall-''Flora Lapponica'', kien fih osservazzjonijiet żooloġiċi u botaniċi, kif ukoll osservazzjonijiet dwar il-[[kultura]] f'Öland u f'Gotland.

Matul is-sajf tal-1745, Linnaeus ippubblika żewġ kotba oħra: ''Flora Suecica'' u ''Fauna Suecica''. ''Flora Suecica'' kien ktieb botaniku rigoruż, filwaqt li ''Fauna Suecica'' kien ktieb żooloġiku. Anders Celsius kien ħoloq l-iskala tat-temperatura f'ismu fl-1742. L-iskala ta' Celsius oriġinarjament kienet invertita meta mqabbla mal-mod kif tintuża llum il-ġurnata, bit-tgħollija tal-ilma b'0 °C u l-iffriżar b'100 °C. Linnaeus biddel ta' taħt fuq l-iskala għall-użu attwali tagħha fl-1745.

=== Västergötland ===
Fis-sajf tal-1746, Linnaeus reġa' ġie kkummissjonat mill-gvern biex iwettaq spedizzjoni, din id-darba lejn il-provinċja Żvediża ta' Västergötland. Huwa telaq minn Uppsala fit-12 ta' Ġunju u rritorna fil-11 ta' Awwissu. Matul l-ispedizzjoni l-assistent primarju tiegħu kien [[Erik Gustaf Lidbeck]], student li kien akkumpanjah fil-vjaġġ preċedenti tiegħu. Linnaeus iddeskriva s-sejbiet tiegħu mill-ispedizzjoni fil-ktieb ''Wästgöta-Resa'', li ġie ppubblikat is-sena ta' wara. Wara li reġa' lura mill-vjaġġ, il-gvern iddeċieda li Linnaeus kellu jwettaq spedizzjoni oħra lejn l-iżjed provinċja fin-Nofsinhar tal-pajjiż, Scania. Dan il-vjaġġ ġie pospost, peress li Linnaeus kellu wisq xogħol x'jagħmel.

Fl-1747, Linnaeus ingħata t-titlu ta' ''archiater'' jew tabib ewlieni mir-re Żvediż [[Adolf Frederick]] — turija ta' rispett kbir. Fl-istess sena huwa ġie elett bħala membru tal-Akkademja tax-Xjenzi f'[[Berlin]].

=== Scania ===
Fir-rebbiegħa tal-1749, Linnaeus seta' jagħmel il-vjaġġ lejn Scania (Skåne), ikkummissjonat mill-ġdid mill-gvern. Huwa ġab miegħu lill-istudent tiegħu [[Olof Söderberg]]. Fi triqtu lejn Scania, huwa għamel l-aħħar żjara tiegħu lill-aħwa tiegħu f'Stenbrohult minn mindu miet missieru s-sena ta' qabel. L-ispedizzjoni kienet simili għall-vjaġġi preċedenti f'diversi aspetti, iżda din id-darba huwa ġie ordnat isib ukoll l-aqwa post għat-tkabbir tal-ġewż u tas-sorbu Żvediż; dawn is-siġar intużaw mill-armata għall-produzzjoni tas-snieter. Matul l-ispedizzjoni, Linnaeus u l-istudent tiegħu żaru l-ispa minerali ta' Ramlösa, fejn Linnaeus irrimarka dwar il-kwalità tal-ilma ferruġinuż. Il-vjaġġ kien suċċess, u l-osservazzjonijiet ta' Linnaeus ġew ippubblikati s-sena ta' wara fl-i''Skånska Resa'' (&quot;Vjaġġ lejn Scania&quot;). Il-ktieb fih 561 paġna u huwa djarju b'deskrizzjonijiet dettaljati ta' kulma skopra fi Scania. Huwa jfaħħar lin-nies ta' Scania għall-ospitalità tagħhom, li &quot;fl-ebda art, għalkemm kull fejn mort laqgħuni tajjeb, ma tista' titqabbel ma' Scania&quot;.

=== Rettur tal-Università ta' Uppsala ===
Fl-1750, Linnaeus sar rettur tal-Università ta' Uppsala, u beda perjodu fejn ix-xjenzi naturali kienu stmati ferm. X'aktarx li l-iżjed kontribut importanti li għamel f'dan iż-żmien f'Uppsala kien it-tagħlim; ħafna mill-istudenti tiegħu vvjaġġaw lejn diversi postijiet fid-dinja biex jiġbru kampjuni botaniċi. Linnaeus sejjaħ l-aqwa fost dawn l-istudenti bħala l-&quot;appostli&quot; tiegħu. Il-lekċers tiegħu normalment kienu popolari ħafna u sikwit kienu jsiru fil-Ġnien Botaniku. Huwa pprova jgħallem lill-istudenti tiegħu biex jaħsbu għalihom infushom u ma jafdaw lil ħadd, lanqas lilu. Iktar popolari mil-lekċers tiegħu kienu l-eskursjonijiet botaniċi li kien jagħmel kull nhar ta' Sibt matul is-sajf, fejn Linnaeus u l-istudenti tiegħu esploraw l-flora u l-fawna madwar Uppsala.

=== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ===
Linnaeus ippubblika l-''Philosophia Botanica'' fl-1751. Il-ktieb kien fih stħarriġ komplut tas-sistema tat-tassonomija li kien qed juża fix-xogħlijiet bikrin tiegħu. Kien fih ukoll informazzjoni dwar kif għandu jinżamm ġurnal tal-ivvjaġġar u kif għandu jinżamm ġnien botaniku.

=== ''Nutrix Noverca'' ===
Fi żmien Linnaeus kien normali għan-nisa tal-klassi superjuri li jkollhom nisa oħra li jreddgħu minflokhom u jieħdu ħsieb lit-trabi tagħhom. Linnaeus issieħeb f'kampanja biex din il-prattika tintemm fl-Iżvezja u biex jippromwovi t-treddigħ mill-ommijiet. Fl-1752 Linnaeus ippubblika teżi flimkien ma' [[Frederick Lindberg]], tabib student, abbażi tal-esperjenzi tagħhom. Skont it-tradizzjoni ta' dak iż-żmien, din it-teżi essenzjalment kienet idea tal-''prases'' irriċerkata mill-istudent. It-teżi ta' Linnaeus ġiet [[Traduzzjoni|tradotta]] bil-[[Lingwa Franċiża|Franċiż]] minn J. E. Gilibert fl-1770 bħala ''La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire''. Linnaeus issuġġerixxa li t-tfal jaf jassorbu l-personalità tal-persuna li kienet qed tredda' minflok l-omm mill-ħalib tagħha. Huwa ammira l-prattiki tal-indukrar tat-tfal tan-nies tal-Lapland u indika kemm kienu f'saħħithom it-trabi tagħhom meta mqabbla ma' dawk tal-Ewropej b'persuna li jreddgħu u jieħdu ħsieb it-trabi minflok l-ommijiet. Huwa qabbel l-imġiba tal-annimali selvaġġi u indika kif l-ebda wieħed minnhom ma kien iċaħħad lil wild ġdid mill-ħalib tat-treddigħ tagħhom. Huwa maħsub li dan l-attiviżmu tiegħu kellu rwol importanti fl-għażla tat-terminu ''[[Mammiferu|Mammalia]]'' għall-[[Klassi (bijoloġija)|klassi]] tal-organiżmi.

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
Linnaeus ippubblika l-i''Species Plantarum'', ix-xogħol li issa huwa aċċettat internazzjonalment bħala l-punt ta' tluq tan-nomenklatura botanika moderna, fl-1753. L-ewwel volum inħareġ fl-24 ta' Mejju, it-tieni volum inħareġ fis-16 ta' Awwissu tal-istess sena. Il-ktieb kien fih 1,200 paġna u ġie ppubblikat f'żewġ volumi; fih ġew deskritti iktar minn 7,300 speċi. Fl-istess sena r-re għamlu kavallier tal-Ordni tal-Istilla Polari, l-ewwel ċittadin fl-Iżvezja li sar kavallier ta' din l-ordni. Wara dan, Linnaeus qajla kien jidher mhux liebes l-arma tal-ordni.

=== Nobbiltà ===
Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added. In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants. A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move.

Since the initial release of ''Systema Naturae'' in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the tenth edition was released in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point for zoological nomenclature, the equivalent of ''Species Plantarum''.

The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus nobility in 1757, but he was not ennobled until 1761. With his ennoblement, he took the name Carl von Linné (Latinised as Carolus a Linné), 'Linné' being a shortened and gallicised version of 'Linnæus', and the German nobiliary particle 'von' signifying his ennoblement. The noble family's coat of arms prominently features a twinflower, one of Linnaeus's favourite plants; it was given the scientific name ''Linnaea borealis'' in his honour by Gronovius. The shield in the coat of arms is divided into thirds: red, black and green for the three kingdoms of nature (animal, mineral and vegetable) in Linnaean classification; in the centre is an egg &quot;to denote Nature, which is continued and perpetuated ''in ovo''&quot;. At the bottom is a phrase in Latin, borrowed from the Aeneid, which reads &quot;''Famam extendere factis''&quot;: we extend our fame by our deeds. Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends.

After his ennoblement, Linnaeus continued teaching and writing. In total, he presided at 186 PhD ceremonies, with many of the dissertations written by himself. His reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many different people. For example, Catherine II of Russia sent him seeds from her country. He also corresponded with Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, &quot;the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire&quot;, who was a doctor and a botanist in Idrija, Duchy of Carniola (nowadays Slovenia). Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions (for example of the olm and the dormouse, two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus). Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work. He named a solanaceous genus, ''Scopolia'', the source of scopolamine, after him, but because of the great distance between them, they never met.

== Snin finali ==
Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after. In 1769 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society for his work. He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health.

Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness. He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén. He developed sciatica in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him. He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author.

In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby. Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby, he was buried in Uppsala Cathedral on 22 January.

His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children. Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala. In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later.

The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married. His other son, Johannes, had died aged 3. There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters.

== Appostli ==
During Linnaeus's time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University, he taught many devoted students, 17 of whom he called &quot;apostles&quot;. They were the most promising, most committed students, and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with his help. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition. To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys. Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system. Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished. Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland. The British botanist William T. Stearn notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens.

=== Spedizzjonijiet bikrin ===
Christopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746. He boarded a Swedish East India Company ship headed for China. Tärnström never reached his destination, dying of a tropical fever on Côn Sơn Island the same year. Tärnström's widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless, causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger, unmarried students after Tärnström. Six other apostles later died on their expeditions, including Pehr Forsskål and Pehr Löfling.

Two years after Tärnström's expedition, Finnish-born Pehr Kalm set out as the second apostle to North America. There he spent two-and-a-half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and Canada. Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned, bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds. At least 90 of the 700 North American species described in ''Species Plantarum'' had been brought back by Kalm.

=== Spedizzjonijiet ta' Cook u tal-Ġappun ===
Daniel Solander was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was very fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage. On Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760, where he met the English botanist Joseph Banks. With Banks, Solander joined James Cook on his expedition to Oceania on the ''Endeavour'' in 1768–71. Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook; Anders Sparrman followed on the ''Resolution'' in 1772–75 bound for, among other places, Oceania and South America. Sparrman made many other expeditions, one of them to South Africa.

Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was Carl Peter Thunberg, who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770. He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled to Japan. All foreigners were barred from entering Japan and were restricted to the tiny island of Dejima outside Nagasaki, so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora. He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima. He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death.

== Pubblikazzjonijiet ewlenin ==

=== ''Systema Naturae'' ===
The first edition of ''Systema Naturae'' was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was a twelve-page work. By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included. By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—the index card—to track classifications.

After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions of ''Systema Naturae'' went in two different directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray, issued the ''Regnum Vegetabile'' section separately in 1774 as the ''Systema Vegetabilium'', rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition. Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire ''Systema'' appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship of Johann Friedrich Gmelin. It was through the ''Systema Vegetabilium'' that Linnaeus's work became widely known in England, following its translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society as ''A System of Vegetables'' (1783–1785).

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
''Species Plantarum'' (or, more fully, ''Species Plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas'') was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today.

==== ''Genera Plantarum'' ====
''Genera plantarum: eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium'' was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition. In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes. One, Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).

==== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ====
''Philosophia Botanica'' (1751) was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in ''Fundamenta Botanica'' (1736) and ''Critica Botanica'' (1737). Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his ''Classes Plantarum'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica'': all were printed in Holland (as were ''Genera Plantarum'' (1737) and ''Systema Naturae'' (1735)), the ''Philosophia'' being simultaneously released in Stockholm.

== Kollezzjonijiet ==
At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in Uppsala was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden. Next to his own collection, he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala, which was supplied by material donated by Carl Gyllenborg (in 1744–1745), crown-prince Adolf Fredrik (in 1745), Erik Petreus (in 1746), Claes Grill (in 1746), Magnus Lagerström (in 1748 and 1750) and Jonas Alströmer (in 1749). The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils was incorporated into the private collection rather than to the museum. Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature, and he said in 1754 &quot;the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all-wise creator's masterpieces, divided into three chambers&quot;. He felt that he had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that 'world museum'.

In 1784 the young medical student James Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London. Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England. Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost.

In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away. Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material.

Much material that Linné studied belonged to the collection of Queen Lovisa Ulrika (1720–1782); the Linnean publications call this &quot;Museum Ludovicae Ulricae&quot; or &quot;M. L. U.&quot;). The collection was donated by her grandson King Gustav IV Adolf (1778–1837) to the museum in Uppsala in 1804. Her husband King Adolf Fredrik's (1710–1771) collection is known in the Linnean sources as &quot;Museum Adolphi Friderici&quot; or &quot;Mus. Ad. Fr.&quot;. The wet parts (the alcohol collection) were later donated to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and are housed in the Swedish Museum of Natural History at Stockholm. The dry material was transferred to Uppsala.

== Sistema tat-tassonomija ==

=== Sistema ta' Linnaeus ===
The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature. Another major contribution of his was the popularisation of using the Mars and Venus symbols (♂ and ♀) to denote sex within species. These became the standard gender symbols. During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as the ''Linnaean taxonomy''; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences. A previous zoologist Rumphius (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus.

The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera (''singular:'' genus), which were divided into species (''singular:'' species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank; these have since acquired standardised names such as ''variety'' in botany and ''subspecies'' in zoology. Modern taxonomy includes a rank of family between order and genus and a rank of phylum between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus's original system.

Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences. Of his higher groupings, only those for animals are still in use, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception, as have the principles behind them. Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.

=== Tassonomija umana ===
Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was the first to include humans (''Homo'') taxonomically grouped with apes (''Simia''), under the header of ''Anthropomorpha''. German biologist Ernst Haeckel speaking in 1907 called this the &quot;most important sign of Linnaeus's genius&quot;.

Linnaeus classified humans among the primates, beginning with the first edition of ''Systema Naturae''. During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine several monkeys and noted similarities between them and man. He pointed out that they basically had the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences. Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category, ''Anthropomorpha'', meaning &quot;manlike&quot;. This classification received criticism from other biologists such as Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Jacob Theodor Klein and Johann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like. In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied:&lt;blockquote&gt;It does not please [you] that I've placed Man among the Anthropomorpha, perhaps because of the term 'with human form', but man learns to know himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name we apply. But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that [follows] from the principles of Natural History. I absolutely know of none. If only someone might tell me a single one! If I would have called man a simian or vice versa, I would have brought together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline.&lt;/blockquote&gt;The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the great chain of being, and second, because the Bible says man was created in the image of God (theomorphism), if monkeys/apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed, that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well. This was something many could not accept.

After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly. The 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'' introduced new terms, including ''Mammalia'' and ''Primates'', the latter replacing ''Anthropomorpha'' and giving humans the full binomial ''Homo sapiens''. The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature. Linnaeus believed that man biologically belonged to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it. In his book ''Dieta Naturalis'', he said, &quot;One should not vent one's wrath on animals. Theology decrees that man has a soul and that the animals are mere 'automata mechanica', but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility.&quot;

Linnaeus added a second species to the genus ''Homo'' in ''Systema Naturae'' based on a figure and description by Jacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication: ''Homo troglodytes'' (&quot;caveman&quot;) and published a third in 1771: ''Homo lar''. Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus. For ''Homo troglodytes'' Linnaeus asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence. ''Homo lar'' has since been reclassified as ''Hylobates lar'', the lar gibbon.

In the first edition of ''Systema Naturae'', Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties: &quot;Europæus albesc[ens]&quot; (whitish European), &quot;Americanus rubesc[ens]&quot; (reddish American), &quot;Asiaticus fuscus&quot; (tawny Asian) and &quot;Africanus nigr[iculus]&quot; (blackish African). In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of the four temperaments from classical antiquity, and changed the description of Asians' skin tone to &quot;luridus&quot; (yellow). While Linnaeus believed that these varieties resulted from environmental differences between the four known continents, the Linnean Society acknowledges that his categorization's focus on skin color and later inclusion of cultural and behavioral traits cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism. Additionally, Linnaeus created a wastebasket taxon &quot;monstrosus&quot; for &quot;wild and monstrous humans, unknown groups, and more or less abnormal people&quot;.

Linnaeus treated himself as the type specimen (holotype) of ''H. sapiens.'' In 1959, W. T. Stearn designated Linnaeus as the lectotype of ''H. sapiens,'' following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself.

== Influwenzi u twemmin ekonomiku ==
Linnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of Cameralism. Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist. He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels.

== Kommemorazzjoni ==
Anniversaries of Linnaeus's birth, especially in centennial years, have been marked by major celebrations. Linnaeus has appeared on numerous Swedish postage stamps and banknotes. There are numerous statues of Linnaeus in countries around the world. The Linnean Society of London has awarded the Linnean Medal for excellence in botany or zoology since 1888. Following approval by the Riksdag of Sweden, Växjö University and Kalmar College merged on 1 January 2010 to become Linnaeus University. Among the things named after Linnaeus is the twinflower genus ''Linnaea'', ''Linnaeosicyos'' (a monotypic genus in the family Cucurbitaceae).

== Kummentarju ==
Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau once wrote of Linnaeus, &quot;I know no greater man on Earth.&quot; Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: &quot;With the exception of William Shakespeare and Baruch Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly.&quot; Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: &quot;Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist.&quot; In his autobiography, published by his student Adam Afzelius in 1823, Linnaeus described himself as unargumentative, sensitive, quick, and uninterested in his personal appearance.

In the 21st century, Linnæus's taxonomy of human &quot;races&quot; has been criticized. Some claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of scientific racism, while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human &quot;races&quot; were superior to others.

== Abbrevjazzjoni standard tal-awtur ==
The standard author abbreviation '''L.''' is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name.

== Referenzi ==
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'''Carl Linnaeus''' (twieled fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707 – miet fl-10 ta' Jannar 1778), magħruf ukoll wara li ngħata n-nobbiltà fl-1761 bħala '''Carl von Linné''', kien bijologu u [[tabib]] [[Żvezja|Żvediż]] li fformalizza n-nomenklatura binomjali, is-sistema moderna tat-tismija tal-organiżmi. Huwa magħruf bħala l-&quot;missier tat-tassonomija moderna&quot;. Bosta mill-kitbiet tiegħu kienu bil-[[Lingwa Latina|Latin]]; bil-Latin ismu huwa '''Carolus Linnæus''' u, wara li sar nobbli fl-1761, sar magħruf bħala '''Carolus a Linné'''.

Linnaeus kien iben membru tal-kleru u twieled f'Råshult, fil-kampanja ta' Småland, fin-Nofsinhar tal-Iżvezja. Huwa kiseb il-biċċa l-kbira tal-[[edukazzjoni]] għolja tiegħu fl-Università ta' [[Uppsala]] u beda jagħti lekċers dwar il-[[botanika]] hemmhekk fl-1730. Huwa għex barra mill-pajjiż bejn l-1735 u l-1738, fejn studja u ppubblika wkoll l-ewwel edizzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' tiegħu fin-[[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Netherlands]]. Imbagħad reġa' lura l-Iżvezja fejn sar professur tal-[[mediċina]] u tal-botanika f'Uppsala. Fis-snin 40 tas-seklu 18, huwa ntbagħat għal diversi vjaġġi fl-Iżvezja biex isib u jikklassifika l-[[Pjanta|pjanti]] u l-[[Annimal|annimali]]. Fis-snin 50 u 60 tas-seklu 18, huwa kompla jikkollezzjona u jikklassifikaw l-annimali, il-pjanti u l-minerali, filwaqt li ppubblika diversi volumi. Sa żmien [[Mewt|mewtu]] fl-1778, huwa kien wieħed mill-iżjed xjenzati rinomati fl-[[Ewropa]].

Linnaeus issejjaħ bħala l-''Princeps botanicorum'' (Prinċep tal-Botanisti) u &quot;l-Plinju tat-Tramuntana&quot;. Huwa jitqies ukoll bħala wieħed mill-fundaturi tal-[[ekoloġija]] moderna.

Fil-botanika, l-abbrevjazzjoni '''L.''' tintuża biex tindika lil Linnaeus bħala l-awtorità għal isem ta' [[speċi]]. Fiż-[[żooloġija]], ġeneralment tintuża l-abbrevjazzjoni '''Linnaeus'''; jintużaw ukoll l-abbrevjazzjonijiet '''L.''', '''Linnæus''' u '''Linné'''. Fil-pubblikazzjonijiet iktar antiki tinstab l-abbrevjazzjoni &quot;'''Linn'''&quot;. Linnaeus huwa ddeżinjat bħala l-eżemplar tipiku għall-iseċi [[Bniedem|umana]], ''[[Homo sapiens]].''

== Ħajja bikrija ==

=== Tfulija ===
Linnaeus twieled fil-villaġġ ta' Råshult fi Småland, l-Iżvezja, fit-23 ta' Mejju 1707. Huwa kien l-ewwel wild ta' [[Nicolaus (Nils) Linnaeus]] (imwieled bħala Nils Ingemarsson) u ta' [[Christina Brodersonia]]. Missieru għallmu l-Latin meta kien għadu tifel żgħir. Missieru kien wieħed min-nisel twil ta' raħħala u ta' patrijiet, u kien botaniku dilettant, ċelebrant [[Luteraniżmu|Luteran]] u membru tal-kleru tal-villaġġ żgħir ta' Stenbrohult fi Småland. Ommu kienet bint ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius. Sena wara t-twelid ta' Linnaeus, miet nannuh Samuel Brodersonius, u missieru sar ir-rettur ta' Stenbrohult. Il-familja marret tgħix fir-rettorat minflok fid-dar tal-kurja. Diġà fis-snin bikrin tiegħu, Linnaeus milli jidher kellu għal qalbu l-pjanti, b'mod partikolari l-fjuri. Kull meta kien jirrabja, kien jingħata fjura, u b'hekk kien jikkalma minnufih. Missieru qatta' ħafna ħin fil-ġnien tiegħu u sikwit kien juri l-fjuri lil ibnu Linnaeus u jgħidlu x'jisimhom. F'qasir żmien Linnaeus ingħata r-roqgħa art tiegħu fejn seta' jkabbar il-pjanti.

Missier Linnaeus kien l-ewwel wieħed min-nisel tiegħu li adotta kunjom permanenti. Qablu, missirijietu użaw is-sistema tat-tismija patronika tal-pajjiżi Skandinavi; missieru żamm il-kunjom Ingemarsson wara missieru Ingemar Bengtsson. Meta Nils inkiteb fl-Università ta' Lund, heuwa kellu juża kunjom. Huwa adotta l-isem Latin Linnæus għal siġra ġganteska tax-xkomp, ''lind'' bl-[[Lingwa Żvediża|Iżvediż]], li kienet kibret fil-proprjetà tal-familja. Dan l-isem ġie spellut bid-dittong magħqud ''æ''. Meta Carl twieled, huwa ngħata l-isem ta' Carl Linnæus, bil-kunjom tal-missier. L-iben spella kunjomu wkoll bid-dittong magħqud ''æ'', kemm fid-dokumenti miktubin bl-idejn kif ukoll fil-pubblikazzjonijiet tiegħu. L-isem patronimiku ta' Carl kieku kien ikun Nilsson, bħal ta' Carl Nilsson Linnæus.

=== Edukazzjoni bikrija ===
Missier Linnaeus beda jgħallmu l-Latin bażiku, ir-[[reliġjon]] u l-[[ġeografija]] ta' età bikrija ħafna. Meta Linnaeus kellu 7 snin, Nils iddeċieda li jqabbad [[għalliem]] għalih. Il-ġenituri għażlu lil Johan Telander, iben raħħal lokali. Linnaeus ma kienx għal qalbu miegħu, u fl-awtobijografija tiegħu kiteb li Telander &quot;kien ferm aħjar biex jitfi t-talenti tat-tfal milli biex jiżviluppahom&quot;.

Sentejn wara li beda jgħallmu Telander, Linnaeus intbagħat fl-Iskola Grammatikali Inferjuri f'Växjö fl-1717. Linnaeus qajla studja, u spiss kien imur fil-kampanja biex ifittex il-pjanti. Darba fost l-oħrajn, missieru mar iżuru, u wara li sema' valutazzjonijiet kritiċi mingħand l-għalliema tiegħu, iddeċieda li jdaħħlu bħala apprendist ma' taż-żraben onest lokali. Is-surmast tiegħu, Daniel Lannerus, innota l-interess li kellu Linnaeus fil-botanika, u introduċieh lil [[Johan Rothman]], tabib statali ta' Småland u għalliem fil-Katedralskolan f'Växjö. Rothman wessa' l-interess ta' Linnaeus fil-botanika u għenu jiżviluppa interess fil-mediċina. Sal-età ta' 17-il sena, Linnaeus kien sar midħla sew tal-letteratura botanika eżistenti. Huwa jirrimarka fil-ġurnal tiegħu li kien &quot;jaqra lejl u nhar, u kien jaf sew il-kontenut tal-''Ktieb tal-Ħxejjex Aromatiċi ta' Rydaholm'' ta' [[Arvidh Månsson]], il-''Flora Åboensis'' ta' Tillandz, is-''Serta Florea Suecana'' ta' Palmberg, il-''Chloros Gothica'' ta' Bromelii u l-''Hortus Upsaliensis'' ta' Rudbeckii&quot;.

Linnaeus beda jattendi l-Katedralskola ta' Växjö fl-1724, fejn studja l-iktar il-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]], l-[[Ebrajk]], it-[[teoloġija]] u l-[[matematika]], kurrikulu maħsub għas-subien li kienu jitħejjew biex isiru patrijiet. Fl-aħħar sena tal-liċeo (gymnasium), missier Linnaeus żar l-iskola biex jistaqsi lill-professuri kif kienu sejrin l-istudji ta' ibnu; ħaġa tal-iskantament għal missieru, il-biċċa l-kbira qalu li ibnu qatt ma kien se jsir studjuż. Rothman kellu fehma oħra, u ssuġġerixxa li Linnaeus seta' jkollu futur fil-mediċina. It-tabib offra li jilqa' lil Linnaeus biex jgħix mal-familja tiegħu f'Växjö sabiex ikun jista' jgħallmu l-fiżjoloġija u l-botanika, u Nils aċċetta din l-offerta.

== Studji universitarji ==

=== Lund ===
Rothman wera lil Linnaeus li l-botanika kienet suġġett serju. Huwa għallmu jikklassifika l-pjanti skont is-sistema ta' Tournefort. Linnaeus ġie mgħallem ukoll dwar ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali tal-pjanti, skont [[Sébastien Vaillant]]. Fl-1727, Linnaeus, ta' 21 sena, inkiteb fl-Università ta' Lund fi Scania (Skåne). Huwa ġie rreġistrat bħala ''Carolus Linnæus'', il-forma Latina tal-isem sħiħ tiegħu, li huwa uża wkoll iktar 'il quddiem għall-pubblikazzjonijiet tiegħu bil-Latin.

Il-Professur [[Kilian Stobæus]], xjenzat naturali, tabib u storiku, offra t-tagħlim u l-akkomodazzjoni lil Linnaeus, kif ukoll l-użu tal-librerija tiegħu, li kienet tinkludi bosta kotba dwar il-botanika. Huwa ppermetta wkoll id-dħul bla ħlas għal-lekċers tiegħu. Fil-ħin liberu tiegħu, Linnaeus esplora l-flora ta' Skåne, flimkien ma' studenti oħra li kellhom l-istess interessi tiegħu.

=== Uppsala ===
F'Awwissu 1728, Linnaeus iddeċieda li jattendi l-Università ta' Uppsala fuq il-parir ta' Rothman, li kien jemmen li kienet l-aħjar għażla jekk Linnaeus ried jistudja kemm il-mediċina kif ukoll il-botanika. Rothman ibbaża din ir-rakkomandazzjoni fuq iż-żewġ professuri li kienu jgħallmu fil-fakultà tal-mediċina f'Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck iż-Żgħir u Lars Roberg. Għalkemm Rudbeck u Roberg bla dubju kienu professuri tajbin, sa dak iż-żmien kienu ferm iktar anzjani u ma tantx kellhom interess fit-tagħlim. Rudbeck ma baqax jagħti lekċers pubbliċi, u bdew jagħtuhom minfloku oħrajn. Il-lekċers tal-botanika, taż-żooloġija, tal-farmakoloġija u tal-[[anatomija]] ma kinux mill-aqwa. F'Uppsala, Linnaeus iltaqa' ma' benefattur ġdid, [[Olof Celsius]], li kien professur tat-teoloġija u botaniku dilettant. Huwa laqa' lil Linnaeus f'daru u ħallih juża l-librerija tiegħu, li kienet waħda mill-iżjed libreriji botaniċi rikki fl-Iżvezja.

Fl-1729, Linnaeus kiteb teżi, ''Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum'', dwar ir-riproduzzjoni sesswali tal-pjanti. Din ġibdet l-attenzjoni ta' Rudbeck; f'Mejju 1730, huwa għażel lil Linnaeus biex jagħti lekċers fl-università minkejja li kien għadu student tat-tieni sena. Il-lekċers tiegħu kienu popolari, u Linnaeus spiss indirizza udjenza ta' 300 ruħ. F'Ġunju, Linnaeus ma baqax jgħix fid-dar ta' Celsius u minflok mar jgħix fid-dar ta' Rudbeck biex isir l-għalliem tal-iżgħar tlett itfal fost l-24 ulied tiegħu. Il-ħbiberija tiegħu ma' Celsius ma ntilfitx u huma baqgħu jagħmlu l-ispedizzjonijiet botaniċi flimkien. Matul dik ix-xitwa, Linnaeus beda jiddubita s-sistema tal-klassifikazzjoni ta' Tournefort u ddeċieda li joħloq is-sistema tiegħu stess. Il-pjan tiegħu kien li jaqsam il-pjanti skont l-għadd ta' stamen jew stami u pistilli. Huwa beda jikteb diversi kotba, li iktar 'il quddiem irriżultaw pereżempju f'&lt;nowiki/&gt;''Genera Plantarum'' u f'''Critica Botanica''. Huwa pproduċa wkoll ktieb dwar il-pjanti mkabbra fil-Ġnien Botaniku ta' Uppsala, ''Adonis Uplandicus''.

L-eks assistent ta' Rudbeck, [[Nils Rosén]], reġa' lura l-università f'Marzu 1731 b'lawrja fil-mediċina. Rosén beda jagħti lekċers dwar l-anatomija u pprova jieħu post il-lekċers dwar il-botanika ta' Linnaeus, iżda Rudbeck ma ħallihx. Sa Diċembru, Rosén għallem lil Linnaeus b'mod privat dwar il-mediċina. F'Diċembru, Linnaeus kellu xi jgħid mal-[[mara]] ta' Rudbeck u kellu jitlaq mid-dar tal-mentor tiegħu; ir-relazzjoni tiegħu ma' Rudbeck però ma marritx għall-agħar. Dak il-[[Milied]], Linnaeus reġa' lura d-dar f'Stenbrohult biex iżur lill-ġenituri tiegħu għall-ewwel darba wara xi 3 snin. Ommu ma qablitx miegħu li ma sarx patri, iżda kienet kuntenta meta saret taf li kien qed jgħallem fl-università.

== Spedizzjoni lejn il-Lapland ==
Matul żjara mal-ġenituri tiegħu, Linnaeus qalilhom dwar il-pjan tiegħu li jivvjaġġa lejn il-Lapland; Rudbeck kien għamel vjaġġ simili fl-1695, iżda r-riżultati dettaljati tal-esplorazzjoni tiegħu ntilfu minħabba nar 7 sena wara. It-tama ta' Linnaeus kienet li jsib pjanti u annimali ġodda, u possibbilment minerali siewja. Huwa kien kurjuż ukoll dwar id-drawwiet tal-poplu [[Sami]] nattiv, nomadi li jirgħu r-renni u jimirħu fit-tundri vasti tal-Iskandinavja. F'April 1732, Linnaeus ingħata għotja finanzjarja mis-Soċjetà Rjali tax-Xjenzi f'Uppsala għall-vjaġġ tiegħu.

Linnaeus beda l-ispedizzjoni tiegħu minn Uppsala fit-12 ta' Mejju 1732, eżatt qabel ma għalaq 25 sena. Huwa vvjaġġa bil-mixi u biż-[[żiemel]], u miegħu ġab il-ġurnal tiegħu, manuskritti botaniċi u ornitoloġiċi u folji tal-karta għall-ippressar tal-pjanti. Qrib Gävle huwa sab kwantitajiet kbar ta' ''Campanula serpyllifolia'', li iktar 'il quddiem saret magħrufa bħala l-''Linnaea borealis'', il-fjura li mbagħad saret il-favorita tiegħu. Xi kultant fi triqtu huwa kien jinżel minn fuq iż-żiemel biex jeżamina xi fjuri jew xi blata u kien interessat b'mod partikolari fil-muski u fil-likeni, u dawn tal-aħħar kienu parti prinċipali tad-dieta tar-renni, annimal komuni u importanti ekonomikament fil-Lapland.

Linnaeus ivvjaġġa madwar il-kosta tal-Golf ta' Bothnia, u għamel inkursjonijiet kbar 'il ġewwa minn Umeå, Luleå u Tornio. Huwa rritorna mill-ispedizzjoni tiegħu ta' 6 xhur u ta' iktar minn 2,000 kilometru (1,200 mil) f'Ottubru, wara li ġabar u osserva bosta pjanti, [[Għasfur|għasafar]] u blat. Għalkemm il-Lapland kien reġjun b'[[bijodiversità]] limitata, Linnaeus iddeskriva madwar 100 pjanta li qabel ma kinux identifikati. Dan sar il-bażi għall-ktieb tiegħu ''Flora Lapponica''. Madankollu, wara l-ispedizzjoni lejn il-Lapland, Linnaeus uża l-ismijiet bil-Latin biex jiddeskrivi l-organiżmi minħabba li kien għadu ma żviluppax is-sistema binomjali.

Fil-''Flora Lapponica'' l-ideat ta' Linnaeus dwar in-nomenklatura u l-klassifikazzjoni ntużaw għall-ewwel darba b'mod prattiku, u b'hekk din kienet l-ewwel ''Flora'' protomoderna. Ir-rendikont kopra 534 speċi, uża s-sistema tal-klassifikazzjoni ta' Linnaeus u inkluda għall-ispeċijiet deskritti, id-distribuzzjoni ġeografika u n-noti tassonomiċi. Kien [[Augustin Pyramus de Candolle]] li attribwixxa lil Linnaeus bil-''Flora Lapponica'' bħala l-ewwel eżempju fil-ġeneru botaniku tal-kitba dwar il-''Flora''. L-istoriku botaniku [[E. L. Greene]] ddeskriva l-''Flora Lapponica'' bħala &quot;l-iżjed klassiku u pjaċevoli&quot; tax-xogħlijiet ta' Linnaeus.

Matul din l-ispedizzjoni, Linnaeus kellu ħjiel ta' ispirazzjoni rigward il-klassifikazzjoni tal-mammiferi. Malli osserva l-għadma t'isfel tax-xedaq ta' żiemel f'ġenb it-triq li kien qed jivvjaġġa fiha, Linnaeus irrimarka: &quot;Li kieku biss kont naf kemm kellu snien u ta' liema tip kull annimal, kemm bżieżel u fejn kienu jinsabu, kieku forsi kont inkun kapaċi nasal għal sistema perfettament naturali għall-arranġament tal-kwadrupedi kollha&quot;.

Fl-1734, Linnaeus mexxa grupp żgħir ta' studenti lejn Dalarna. Iffinanzjata mill-Gvernatur ta' Dalarna, l-ispedizzjoni kellha tikkataloga r-riżorsi naturali magħrufa u tiskopri oħrajn ġodda, iżda anke tiġbor għarfien dwar l-attivitajiet tal-estrazzjoni [[Norveġja|Norveġiżi]] f'[[Røros]].

== Snin fir-Repubblika Olandiża (1735–1738) ==

=== Dottorat ===
Ir-relazzjonijiet tiegħu ma' Nils Rosén marru għall-agħar, u Linnaeus aċċetta stedina mingħand [[Claes Sohlberg]], iben spettur tal-estrazzjoni, biex iqatta' l-btajjel tal-Milied f'[[Minjiera tar-Ram ta' Falun|Falun]], fejn Linnaeus ingħata l-permess iżur il-minjieri.

F'April 1735, skont is-suġġeriment ta' missier Sohlberg, Linnaeus u Sohlberg marru lejn ir-Repubblika Olandiża, fejn Linnaeus kien beħsiebu jistudha l-mediċina fl-Università ta' Harderwijk filwaqt li jgħallem lil Sohlberg għal salarju annwali. Dak iż-żmien, kien komuni li l-Iżvediżi jagħmlu dottorati fin-Netherlands, li kien post ta' studju rinomat għall-istudju tal-istorja naturali.

Fi triqithom waqfu f'[[Amburgu]], fejn iltaqgħu mas-sindku, li kien kburi li jurihom suppost għaġeb tan-natura li kellu fil-pussess tiegħu: il-fdalijiet ibbalzmati ta' idra b'sebat irjus. Linnaeus malajr skopra li l-eżemplar kien falz, magħqud flimkien mill-ixdqa u mill-għadam tas-saqajn tal-ballottri u mill-ġlud tas-[[Serp|sriep]]. Il-provenenza tal-idra ssuġġeriet lil Linnaeus li kienet ġiet prodotta mill-patrijiet biex jirrappreżentaw il-Bestja tar-Rivelazzjoni. Anke bis-sogru li s-sindku jinkorla miegħu, Linnaeus għamel l-osservazzjonijiet tiegħu pubbliċi, u kisser il-ħolm tas-sindku li jbigħ l-idra għal somma enormi. Linnaeus u Sohlberg imbagħad kellhom jaħarbu minn Amburgu.

Linnaeus beda jaħdem fuq id-dottorat tiegħu malli wasal f'Harderwijk, università magħrufa għall-għoti tal-lawrji f'saħansitra ġimgħa kollox. Huwa ressaq teżi, li kien kiteb fl-Iżvezja, bit-titlu ''Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa'', fejn stabbilixxa l-ipoteżi tiegħu li l-[[malarja]] tfaċċat biss f'żoni b'ħamrija rikka bit-tafal. Għalkemm ma rnexxilux jidentifika s-sors reali tat-trażmissjoni tal-mard (jiġifieri n-nemus ''Anopheles''), huwa rnexxielu jipprevedi li s-susa ''Artemisia annua'' kienet se ssir sors tal-mediċini kontra l-malarja. Fi żmien ġimagħtejn huwa temm l-eżamijiet orali u prattiċi tiegħu u ngħata d-dottorat tiegħu.

Dak is-sajf Linnaeus reġa' ngħaqad ma' [[Peter Artedi]], ħabib tiegħu minn Uppsala li kellu patt miegħu li jekk wieħed minnhom imut qabel, l-ieħor kien ilesti x-xogħol tad-deċedut. Għaxar ġimgħat wara, Artedi għereq fil-kanali ta' [[Amsterdam]], u ħalla warajh manuskritt mhux komplut dwar il-klassifikazzjoni tal-[[ħut]].

=== Pubblikazzjoni tas-''Systema Naturae'' ===
Wieħed mill-ewwel xjenzati li ltaqa' miegħu Linnaeus fin-Netherlands kien [[Johan Frederik Gronovius]], u wrieh wieħed mid-diversi manuskritti li kien ġab miegħu mill-Iżvezja. Il-manuskritt kien jiddeskrivi sistema ġdida għall-klassifikazzjoni tal-pjanti. Meta rah Gronovius baqa' impressjonat ferm u offra li jħallas għall-istampar tiegħu. Permezz ta' kontribuzzjoni monetarja addizzjonali mingħand it-tabib [[Skozja|Skoċċiż]] [[Isaac Lawson]], il-manuskritt ġie ppubblikat bħala s-''Systema Naturae'' (1735).

Linnaeus sar magħruf bħala wieħed mill-iżjed tobba u botaniċi rrispettati fin-Netherlands. [[Herman Boerhaave]] pprova jikkonvinċi lil Linnaeus jagħmel karriera hemmhekk. Boerhaave offrielu jagħmel vjaġġ lejn l-[[Afrika t'Isfel]] u l-[[Stati Uniti|Amerka]], iżda Linnaeus ma aċċettax, għax sostna li ma kienx jissapporti s-sħana. Minflok, Boerhaave kkonvinċa lil Linnaeus li għandu jżur lill-botaniku [[Johannes Burman]]. Wara ż-żjara tiegħu, Burman, li baqa' impressjonat bl-għarfien tal-mistieden tiegħu, iddeċieda li Linnaeus għandu jibqa' miegħu matul ix-xitwa. Matul is-soġġorn tiegħu, Linnaeus għen lil Burman bit-[[teżawru]] ''Thesaurus Zeylanicus''. Burman għen ukoll lil Linnaeus bil-kotba li kien qed jaħdem fuqhom: ''Fundamenta Botanica'' u ''Bibliotheca Botanica''.

=== George Clifford, Philip Miller u Johann Jacob Dillenius ===
F'Awwissu 1735, matul is-soġġorn ta' Linnaeus ma' Burman, huwa ltaqa' ma' [[George Clifford III]], direttur tal-Kumpanija Olandiża tal-Indji tal-Lvant u s-sid ta' ġnien botaniku rikk fil-proprjetà ta' Hartekamp f'Heemstede. Clifford baqa' impressjonat ferm bil-kapaċità ta' Linnaeus fil-klassifikazzjoni tal-pjanti, u stiednu jsir it-tabib u s-sovraintendent tal-ġnien tiegħu. Linnaeus kien diġà qabel biex jibqa' ma' Burman tul ix-xitwa, u b'hekk ma setax jaċċetta minnufih. Madankollu, Clifford offra li jikkumpensa lil Burman billi joffrilu kopja tal-ktieb rari ''Storja Naturali tal-[[Ġamajka]]'' ta' [[Sir Hans Sloane]], jekk iħalli lil Linnaeus joqgħod għandu, u Burman aċċetta. Fl-24 ta' Settembru 1735, Linnaeus mar f'Hartekamp biex isir it-tabib personali ta' Clifford u l-[[kuratur]] tal-erbarju ta' Clifford. Huwa tħallas 1,000 fjorin fis-sena, bl-ikel u bl-akkomodazzjoni mħallsa. Għalkemm il-ftehim kien biss għal xitwa waħda ta' dik is-sena, Linnaeus prattikament baqa' hemmhekk sal-1738. Hemmhekk huwa kiteb il-ktieb ''Hortus Cliffortianus'', u fid-daħla tiegħu ddeskriva l-esperjenza tiegħu bħala &quot;l-isbaħ żmien ta' ħajtu&quot;. Parti minn Hartekamp ġiet iddikjarata bħala ġnien pubbliku f'April 1956 mill-awtorità lokali ta' Heemstede, u ngħatat l-isem ta' &quot;Linnaeushof&quot;. Eventwalment skontu dan sar l-ikbar post miftuħ għal-logħob fl-Ewropa.

F'Lulju 1736, Linnaeus ivvjaġġa lejn l-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]], għas-spejjeż ta' Clifford. Huwa mar [[Londra]] biex iżur lil Sir Hans Sloane, kollezzjonist tal-istorja naturali, u biex jara l-armadju tal-affarijiet kurjużi tiegħu, kif ukoll biex iżur il-Ġnien Fiżiku ta' Chelsea u lil min kien jieħu ħsiebu, [[Philip Miller]]. Huwa għallem lil Miller dwar is-sistema l-ġdida tiegħu tas-suddiviżjoni tal-pjanti, kif deskritt fis-''Systema Naturae''. Għall-ewwel, Miller ma kienx ħerqan li juża n-nomenklatura binomjali l-ġdida, u minflok ipprefera l-klassifikazzjonijiet ta' Joseph Pitton de Tournefort u ta' John Ray. Minkejja dan, Linnaeus faħħar id-''[[Dizzjunarju]] tal-[[Ġardinar|Ġardinara]]'' ta' Miller. Miller kien konservattiv u fid-dizzjunarju tiegħu żamm xi termini binomjali ta' qabel Linnaeus li Linnaeus kien skarta iżda li kienu nżammu mill-botaniċi moderni. Huwa qaleb għalkollox għas-sistema ta' Linnaeus fl-edizzjoni tad-''Dizzjunarju tal-Ġardinara'' tal-1768. Miller fl-aħħar mill-aħħar baqa' impressjonat, u minn dak iż-żmien 'il quddiem beda jirranġa l-ġnien skont is-sistema ta' Linnaeus.

Linnaeus ivvjaġġa wkoll lejn l-Università ta' [[Oxford]] biex iżur il-botaniku [[Johann Jacob Dillenius]]. Ma rnexxielux jikkonvinċi lil Dillenius jaċċetta s-sistema l-ġdida tal-klassifikazzjoni tiegħu pubblikament, għalkemm it-tnejn li huma baqgħu f'korrispondenza ma' xulxin għal bosta snin wara. Linnaeus iddedika l-''Critica Botanica'' tiegħu lilu, peress li &quot;''opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit''&quot;. Iktar 'il quddiem Linnaeus semma [[Ġeneru (tassonomija)|ġeneru]] ta' siġra tropikali ''Dillenia'' biex jagħtih ġieħ. Huwa mbagħad reġa' lura Hartekamp, u miegħu ġab bosta eżemplari ta' pjanti rari. Is-sena ta' wara, l-1737, huwa ppubblika l-''Genera Plantarum'', fejn iddeskriva 935 ġeneru ta' pjanti, u ftit wara ssupplimentah bil-''Corollarium Generum Plantarum'', b'60 ġeneru addizzjonali.

Ix-xogħol tiegħu f'Hartekamp wassal għal ktieb ieħor, il-''Hortus Cliffortianus'', katalogu tal-eżemplari botaniċi fl-erbarju u fil-ġnien botaniku ta' Hartekamp. Huwa kitbu f'9 xhur (tlesta f'Lulju 1737), iżda ma ppubblikahx qabel l-1738. Fih l-ewwel użu tal-isem ''Nepenthes'', li Linnaeus uża biex jiddeskrivi ġeneru ta' buqari (pjanti [[Karnivoru|karnivori]]).

Linnaeus baqa' ma' Clifford f'Hartekamp sat-18 ta' Ottubru 1737 (stil ġdid), meta mbagħad telaq biex imur lura l-Iżvezja. Il-[[mard]] u l-ġentilezza tal-ħbieb Olandiżi tiegħu obbligawh joqgħod għal iktar xhur fl-Olanda. F'Mejju 1738, huwa telaq lejn l-Iżvezja. Fi triqtu lejn id-dar, huwa ssoġġorna f'[[Pariġi]] għal xi xahar, u żar il-botaniċi bħal [[Antoine de Jussieu]]. Wara r-ritorn tiegħu, Linnaeus qatt ma reġa' telaq mill-Iżvezja.

== Lura l-Iżvezja ==
Meta Linnaeus reġa' lura l-Iżvezja fit-28 ta' Ġunju 1738, huwa mar lejn Falun, fejn tgħarras ma' [[Sara Elisabeth Moræa]]. 3 xhur wara, huwa mar jgħix fi [[Stokkolma]] biex jaħdem bħala tabib, u b'hekk seta' jsostni familja. Għal darb'oħra, Linnaeus sab patrun; huwa sar midħla tal-Konti [[Carl Gustav Tessin]], li għenu jikseb xogħol bħala tabib fl-Ammiralat. F'dak iż-żmien li qatta' fi Stokkolma, Linnaeus għen biex tiġi stabbilita l-Akkademja Żvediża Rjali tax-Xjenza; huwa sar l-ewwel ''Praeses'' tal-akkademja bix-xorti.

Minħabba li l-finanzi tiegħu tjiebu u issa kienu biżżejjed biex isostnu familja, huwa ngħata l-permess li jiżżewweġ lill-għarusa tiegħu, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Iż-żwieġ tagħhom kien fis-26 ta' Ġunju 1739. 17-il xahar wara, Sara welldet lill-ewwel iben tagħhom, Carl. Sentejn wara, twieldet binthom, Elisabeth Christina, u s-sena ta' wara twieldet Sara Magdalena, li mietet 15-il jum wara. Sara u Linnaeus iktar 'il quddiem kellhom erbat it-tfal oħra: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes u Sophia.

F'Mejju 1741, Linnaeus inħatar Professur tal-Mediċina fl-Università ta' Uppsala, l-ewwel bir-responsabbiltà għall-affarijiet relatati mal-mediċina. F'qasir żmien, huwa biddel postu mal-professur l-ieħor tal-mediċina, Nils Rosén, u b'hekk sar responsabbli għall-Ġnien Botaniku (li għamel rikostruzzjoni u espansjoni rigorużi tiegħu), għall-botanika u għall-istorja naturali. F'Ottubru ta' dik l-istess sena, martu u ibnu ta' 9 xhur segwewh biex jgħixu f'Uppsala.

=== Öland u Gotland ===
Għaxarti ijiem wara li nħatar bħala professur, huwa wettaq spedizzjoni lejn il-provinċji gżejjer ta' Öland u Gotland flimkien ma' sitt studenti mill-università biex ifittxu pjanti utli fil-mediċina. Huma baqgħu f'Öland sal-21 ta' Ġunju, imbagħad baħħru lejn [[Visby]] f'Gotland. Linnaeus u l-istudenti baqgħu f'Gotland għal kważi xahar, u mbagħad reġgħu lura Uppsala. Matul din l-ispedizzjoni, huma sabu 100 pjanta li qatt ma kienu ġew irreġistrati qabel. L-osservazzjonijiet mill-ispedizzjoni iktar 'il quddiem ġew ippubblikati fl-''Öländska och Gothländska Resa'', miktub bl-Iżvediż. Bħall-''Flora Lapponica'', kien fih osservazzjonijiet żooloġiċi u botaniċi, kif ukoll osservazzjonijiet dwar il-[[kultura]] f'Öland u f'Gotland.

Matul is-sajf tal-1745, Linnaeus ippubblika żewġ kotba oħra: ''Flora Suecica'' u ''Fauna Suecica''. ''Flora Suecica'' kien ktieb botaniku rigoruż, filwaqt li ''Fauna Suecica'' kien ktieb żooloġiku. Anders Celsius kien ħoloq l-iskala tat-temperatura f'ismu fl-1742. L-iskala ta' Celsius oriġinarjament kienet invertita meta mqabbla mal-mod kif tintuża llum il-ġurnata, bit-tgħollija tal-ilma b'0 °C u l-iffriżar b'100 °C. Linnaeus biddel ta' taħt fuq l-iskala għall-użu attwali tagħha fl-1745.

=== Västergötland ===
Fis-sajf tal-1746, Linnaeus reġa' ġie kkummissjonat mill-gvern biex iwettaq spedizzjoni, din id-darba lejn il-provinċja Żvediża ta' Västergötland. Huwa telaq minn Uppsala fit-12 ta' Ġunju u rritorna fil-11 ta' Awwissu. Matul l-ispedizzjoni l-assistent primarju tiegħu kien [[Erik Gustaf Lidbeck]], student li kien akkumpanjah fil-vjaġġ preċedenti tiegħu. Linnaeus iddeskriva s-sejbiet tiegħu mill-ispedizzjoni fil-ktieb ''Wästgöta-Resa'', li ġie ppubblikat is-sena ta' wara. Wara li reġa' lura mill-vjaġġ, il-gvern iddeċieda li Linnaeus kellu jwettaq spedizzjoni oħra lejn l-iżjed provinċja fin-Nofsinhar tal-pajjiż, Scania. Dan il-vjaġġ ġie pospost, peress li Linnaeus kellu wisq xogħol x'jagħmel.

Fl-1747, Linnaeus ingħata t-titlu ta' ''archiater'' jew tabib ewlieni mir-re Żvediż [[Adolf Frederick]] — turija ta' rispett kbir. Fl-istess sena huwa ġie elett bħala membru tal-Akkademja tax-Xjenzi f'[[Berlin]].

=== Scania ===
Fir-rebbiegħa tal-1749, Linnaeus seta' jagħmel il-vjaġġ lejn Scania (Skåne), ikkummissjonat mill-ġdid mill-gvern. Huwa ġab miegħu lill-istudent tiegħu [[Olof Söderberg]]. Fi triqtu lejn Scania, huwa għamel l-aħħar żjara tiegħu lill-aħwa tiegħu f'Stenbrohult minn mindu miet missieru s-sena ta' qabel. L-ispedizzjoni kienet simili għall-vjaġġi preċedenti f'diversi aspetti, iżda din id-darba huwa ġie ordnat isib ukoll l-aqwa post għat-tkabbir tal-ġewż u tas-sorbu Żvediż; dawn is-siġar intużaw mill-armata għall-produzzjoni tas-snieter. Matul l-ispedizzjoni, Linnaeus u l-istudent tiegħu żaru l-ispa minerali ta' Ramlösa, fejn Linnaeus irrimarka dwar il-kwalità tal-ilma ferruġinuż. Il-vjaġġ kien suċċess, u l-osservazzjonijiet ta' Linnaeus ġew ippubblikati s-sena ta' wara fl-i''Skånska Resa'' (&quot;Vjaġġ lejn Scania&quot;). Il-ktieb fih 561 paġna u huwa djarju b'deskrizzjonijiet dettaljati ta' kulma skopra fi Scania. Huwa jfaħħar lin-nies ta' Scania għall-ospitalità tagħhom, li &quot;fl-ebda art, għalkemm kull fejn mort laqgħuni tajjeb, ma tista' titqabbel ma' Scania&quot;.

=== Rettur tal-Università ta' Uppsala ===
Fl-1750, Linnaeus sar rettur tal-Università ta' Uppsala, u beda perjodu fejn ix-xjenzi naturali kienu stmati ferm. X'aktarx li l-iżjed kontribut importanti li għamel f'dan iż-żmien f'Uppsala kien it-tagħlim; ħafna mill-istudenti tiegħu vvjaġġaw lejn diversi postijiet fid-dinja biex jiġbru kampjuni botaniċi. Linnaeus sejjaħ l-aqwa fost dawn l-istudenti bħala l-&quot;appostli&quot; tiegħu. Il-lekċers tiegħu normalment kienu popolari ħafna u sikwit kienu jsiru fil-Ġnien Botaniku. Huwa pprova jgħallem lill-istudenti tiegħu biex jaħsbu għalihom infushom u ma jafdaw lil ħadd, lanqas lilu. Iktar popolari mil-lekċers tiegħu kienu l-eskursjonijiet botaniċi li kien jagħmel kull nhar ta' Sibt matul is-sajf, fejn Linnaeus u l-istudenti tiegħu esploraw l-flora u l-fawna madwar Uppsala.

=== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ===
Linnaeus ippubblika l-''Philosophia Botanica'' fl-1751. Il-ktieb kien fih stħarriġ komplut tas-sistema tat-tassonomija li kien qed juża fix-xogħlijiet bikrin tiegħu. Kien fih ukoll informazzjoni dwar kif għandu jinżamm ġurnal tal-ivvjaġġar u kif għandu jinżamm ġnien botaniku.

=== ''Nutrix Noverca'' ===
Fi żmien Linnaeus kien normali għan-nisa tal-klassi superjuri li jkollhom nisa oħra li jreddgħu minflokhom u jieħdu ħsieb lit-trabi tagħhom. Linnaeus issieħeb f'kampanja biex din il-prattika tintemm fl-Iżvezja u biex jippromwovi t-treddigħ mill-ommijiet. Fl-1752 Linnaeus ippubblika teżi flimkien ma' [[Frederick Lindberg]], tabib student, abbażi tal-esperjenzi tagħhom. Skont it-tradizzjoni ta' dak iż-żmien, din it-teżi essenzjalment kienet idea tal-''prases'' irriċerkata mill-istudent. It-teżi ta' Linnaeus ġiet [[Traduzzjoni|tradotta]] bil-[[Lingwa Franċiża|Franċiż]] minn J. E. Gilibert fl-1770 bħala ''La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire''. Linnaeus issuġġerixxa li t-tfal jaf jassorbu l-personalità tal-persuna li kienet qed tredda' minflok l-omm mill-ħalib tagħha. Huwa ammira l-prattiki tal-indukrar tat-tfal tan-nies tal-Lapland u indika kemm kienu f'saħħithom it-trabi tagħhom meta mqabbla ma' dawk tal-Ewropej b'persuna li jreddgħu u jieħdu ħsieb it-trabi minflok l-ommijiet. Huwa qabbel l-imġiba tal-annimali selvaġġi u indika kif l-ebda wieħed minnhom ma kien iċaħħad lil wild ġdid mill-ħalib tat-treddigħ tagħhom. Huwa maħsub li dan l-attiviżmu tiegħu kellu rwol importanti fl-għażla tat-terminu ''[[Mammiferu|Mammalia]]'' għall-[[Klassi (bijoloġija)|klassi]] tal-organiżmi.

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
Linnaeus ippubblika l-i''Species Plantarum'', ix-xogħol li issa huwa aċċettat internazzjonalment bħala l-punt ta' tluq tan-nomenklatura botanika moderna, fl-1753. L-ewwel volum inħareġ fl-24 ta' Mejju, it-tieni volum inħareġ fis-16 ta' Awwissu tal-istess sena. Il-ktieb kien fih 1,200 paġna u ġie ppubblikat f'żewġ volumi; fih ġew deskritti iktar minn 7,300 speċi. Fl-istess sena r-re għamlu kavallier tal-Ordni tal-Istilla Polari, l-ewwel ċittadin fl-Iżvezja li sar kavallier ta' din l-ordni. Wara dan, Linnaeus qajla kien jidher mhux liebes l-arma tal-ordni.

=== Nobbiltà ===
Linnaeus kien tal-fehma li Uppsala kienet storbjuża wisq u mhux post mill-aqwa għas-saħħa, għalhekk xtara żewġ irziezet fl-1758: Hammarby u Sävja. Is-sena ta' wara, huwa xtara razzett ieħor fil-qrib, Edeby. Huwa qatta' s-sjuf mal-familja tiegħu f'Hammarby; inizjalment kellha biss dar żgħira waħda ta' sular, iżda fl-1762 żdiedet binja prinċipali ġdida u akbar. F'Hammarby, Linnaeus għamel ġnien fejn seta' jkabbar il-pjanti li ma setgħux jitkabbru fil-Ġnien Botaniku f'Uppsala. Huwa beda jibni [[mużew]] fuq għolja wara Hammarby fl-1766, fejn ittrasferixxa l-librerija u l-kollezzjoni ta' pjanti tiegħu. Nar li kien qered kważi terz ta' Uppsala u li kien hedded ir-residenza tiegħu hemmhekk wassal għat-trasferiment tiegħu.

Mir-rilaxx inizjali tas-''Systema Naturae'' fl-1735, il-ktieb ġie aġġornat u stampat mill-ġdid diversi drabi; l-għaxar edizzjoni ġiet rilaxxata fl-1758. Din l-edizzjoni stabbiliet lilha nnifisha bħala l-punt ta' tluq għan-nomenklatura żooloġika, l-ekwivalenti tal-i''Species Plantarum''.

Ir-re Żvediż Adolf Frederick ta n-nobbiltà lil Linnaeus fl-1757, iżda sar tassew nobbli fl-1761. B'hekk Linnaeus ħa l-isem ta' Carl von Linné (Latinizzat bħala Carolus a Linné); &quot;Linné&quot; hija l-verżjoni mqassra u Galliċizzata ta' &quot;Linnæus&quot;, u l-partiċella [[Lingwa Ġermaniża|Ġermaniża]] &quot;von&quot; tindika n-nobbiltà. L-arma tal-familja nobbli fiha l-fjura favorita ta' Linnaeus; din ingħatat l-isem xjentifiku ''Linnaea borealis'' f'ġieħu minn Gronovius. L-arma hija maqsuma fi tliet partijiet: bl-[[aħmar]], bl-[[iswed]] u bl-[[aħdar]] għat-tliet renji tan-natura (l-annimali, il-minerali u l-ħxejjex) fil-klassifikazzjoni ta' Linnaeus; fin-nofs fiha bajda &quot;li tirrappreżenta n-natura, li hija kontinwata u pperpetwata ''in ovo''&quot;. Fin-naħa t'isfel hemm frażi bil-Latin, mislufa mill-[[Enejide|Enejde]]: &quot;''Famam extendere factis''&quot;, jiġifieri &quot;nestendu l-fama tagħna b'għemilna&quot;. Linnaeus niżżel dan il-motto personali fil-kotba li ngħatawlu minn ħbiebu.

Wara li sar nobbli, Linnaeus baqa' jgħallem u jikteb. B'kollox, huwa ppresjeda f'186 ċerimonja tad-dottorati, b'bosta mit-teżijiet miktuba minnu nnifsu. Ir-reputazzjoni tiegħu kienet infirxet mad-dinja kollha, u kellu korrispondenzi ma' bosta nies differenti. Pereżempju, [[Katerina II tar-Russja]] bagħtitlu żrieragħ minn pajjiżha. Huwa kellu korrispondenzi wkoll ma' [[Giovanni Antonio Scopoli]], &quot;il-Linnaeus tal-Imperu Awstrijakk&quot;, li kien tabib u botaniku f'[[Idrija]], id-Dukat ta' Carniola (illum il-ġurnata s-[[Slovenja]]). Scopoli ikkomunika dwar ir-riċerka, is-sejbiet u d-deskrizzjonijiet kollha tiegħu (pereżempju dwar il-proteu (salamandra) u l-ġurdien tal-imramma, żewġ annimali żgħar li Linnaeus ma kienx jaf bihom qabel). Linnaeus irrispetta ferm lil Scopoli u wera interess kbir fix-xogħol tiegħu. Huwa semma ġeneru solanaċew, ''Scopolia'', is-sors tal-iskopolamin, għalih, iżda minħabba d-distanza kbira bejniethom, qatt ma ltaqgħu.

== Snin finali ==
Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after. In 1769 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society for his work. He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health.

Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness. He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén. He developed sciatica in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him. He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author.

In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby. Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby, he was buried in Uppsala Cathedral on 22 January.

His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children. Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala. In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later.

The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married. His other son, Johannes, had died aged 3. There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters.

== Appostli ==
During Linnaeus's time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University, he taught many devoted students, 17 of whom he called &quot;apostles&quot;. They were the most promising, most committed students, and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with his help. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition. To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys. Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system. Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished. Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland. The British botanist William T. Stearn notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens.

=== Spedizzjonijiet bikrin ===
Christopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746. He boarded a Swedish East India Company ship headed for China. Tärnström never reached his destination, dying of a tropical fever on Côn Sơn Island the same year. Tärnström's widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless, causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger, unmarried students after Tärnström. Six other apostles later died on their expeditions, including Pehr Forsskål and Pehr Löfling.

Two years after Tärnström's expedition, Finnish-born Pehr Kalm set out as the second apostle to North America. There he spent two-and-a-half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and Canada. Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned, bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds. At least 90 of the 700 North American species described in ''Species Plantarum'' had been brought back by Kalm.

=== Spedizzjonijiet ta' Cook u tal-Ġappun ===
Daniel Solander was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was very fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage. On Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760, where he met the English botanist Joseph Banks. With Banks, Solander joined James Cook on his expedition to Oceania on the ''Endeavour'' in 1768–71. Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook; Anders Sparrman followed on the ''Resolution'' in 1772–75 bound for, among other places, Oceania and South America. Sparrman made many other expeditions, one of them to South Africa.

Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was Carl Peter Thunberg, who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770. He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled to Japan. All foreigners were barred from entering Japan and were restricted to the tiny island of Dejima outside Nagasaki, so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora. He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima. He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death.

== Pubblikazzjonijiet ewlenin ==

=== ''Systema Naturae'' ===
The first edition of ''Systema Naturae'' was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was a twelve-page work. By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included. By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—the index card—to track classifications.

After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions of ''Systema Naturae'' went in two different directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray, issued the ''Regnum Vegetabile'' section separately in 1774 as the ''Systema Vegetabilium'', rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition. Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire ''Systema'' appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship of Johann Friedrich Gmelin. It was through the ''Systema Vegetabilium'' that Linnaeus's work became widely known in England, following its translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society as ''A System of Vegetables'' (1783–1785).

=== ''Species Plantarum'' ===
''Species Plantarum'' (or, more fully, ''Species Plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas'') was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today.

==== ''Genera Plantarum'' ====
''Genera plantarum: eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium'' was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition. In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes. One, Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).

==== ''Philosophia Botanica'' ====
''Philosophia Botanica'' (1751) was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in ''Fundamenta Botanica'' (1736) and ''Critica Botanica'' (1737). Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his ''Classes Plantarum'' and ''Bibliotheca Botanica'': all were printed in Holland (as were ''Genera Plantarum'' (1737) and ''Systema Naturae'' (1735)), the ''Philosophia'' being simultaneously released in Stockholm.

== Kollezzjonijiet ==
At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in Uppsala was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden. Next to his own collection, he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala, which was supplied by material donated by Carl Gyllenborg (in 1744–1745), crown-prince Adolf Fredrik (in 1745), Erik Petreus (in 1746), Claes Grill (in 1746), Magnus Lagerström (in 1748 and 1750) and Jonas Alströmer (in 1749). The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils was incorporated into the private collection rather than to the museum. Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature, and he said in 1754 &quot;the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all-wise creator's masterpieces, divided into three chambers&quot;. He felt that he had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that 'world museum'.

In 1784 the young medical student James Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London. Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England. Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost.

In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away. Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material.

Much material that Linné studied belonged to the collection of Queen Lovisa Ulrika (1720–1782); the Linnean publications call this &quot;Museum Ludovicae Ulricae&quot; or &quot;M. L. U.&quot;). The collection was donated by her grandson King Gustav IV Adolf (1778–1837) to the museum in Uppsala in 1804. Her husband King Adolf Fredrik's (1710–1771) collection is known in the Linnean sources as &quot;Museum Adolphi Friderici&quot; or &quot;Mus. Ad. Fr.&quot;. The wet parts (the alcohol collection) were later donated to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and are housed in the Swedish Museum of Natural History at Stockholm. The dry material was transferred to Uppsala.

== Sistema tat-tassonomija ==

=== Sistema ta' Linnaeus ===
The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature. Another major contribution of his was the popularisation of using the Mars and Venus symbols (♂ and ♀) to denote sex within species. These became the standard gender symbols. During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as the ''Linnaean taxonomy''; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences. A previous zoologist Rumphius (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus.

The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera (''singular:'' genus), which were divided into species (''singular:'' species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank; these have since acquired standardised names such as ''variety'' in botany and ''subspecies'' in zoology. Modern taxonomy includes a rank of family between order and genus and a rank of phylum between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus's original system.

Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences. Of his higher groupings, only those for animals are still in use, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception, as have the principles behind them. Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.

=== Tassonomija umana ===
Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was the first to include humans (''Homo'') taxonomically grouped with apes (''Simia''), under the header of ''Anthropomorpha''. German biologist Ernst Haeckel speaking in 1907 called this the &quot;most important sign of Linnaeus's genius&quot;.

Linnaeus classified humans among the primates, beginning with the first edition of ''Systema Naturae''. During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine several monkeys and noted similarities between them and man. He pointed out that they basically had the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences. Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category, ''Anthropomorpha'', meaning &quot;manlike&quot;. This classification received criticism from other biologists such as Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Jacob Theodor Klein and Johann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like. In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied:&lt;blockquote&gt;It does not please [you] that I've placed Man among the Anthropomorpha, perhaps because of the term 'with human form', but man learns to know himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name we apply. But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that [follows] from the principles of Natural History. I absolutely know of none. If only someone might tell me a single one! If I would have called man a simian or vice versa, I would have brought together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline.&lt;/blockquote&gt;The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the great chain of being, and second, because the Bible says man was created in the image of God (theomorphism), if monkeys/apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed, that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well. This was something many could not accept.

After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly. The 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'' introduced new terms, including ''Mammalia'' and ''Primates'', the latter replacing ''Anthropomorpha'' and giving humans the full binomial ''Homo sapiens''. The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature. Linnaeus believed that man biologically belonged to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it. In his book ''Dieta Naturalis'', he said, &quot;One should not vent one's wrath on animals. Theology decrees that man has a soul and that the animals are mere 'automata mechanica', but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility.&quot;

Linnaeus added a second species to the genus ''Homo'' in ''Systema Naturae'' based on a figure and description by Jacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication: ''Homo troglodytes'' (&quot;caveman&quot;) and published a third in 1771: ''Homo lar''. Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus. For ''Homo troglodytes'' Linnaeus asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence. ''Homo lar'' has since been reclassified as ''Hylobates lar'', the lar gibbon.

In the first edition of ''Systema Naturae'', Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties: &quot;Europæus albesc[ens]&quot; (whitish European), &quot;Americanus rubesc[ens]&quot; (reddish American), &quot;Asiaticus fuscus&quot; (tawny Asian) and &quot;Africanus nigr[iculus]&quot; (blackish African). In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of the four temperaments from classical antiquity, and changed the description of Asians' skin tone to &quot;luridus&quot; (yellow). While Linnaeus believed that these varieties resulted from environmental differences between the four known continents, the Linnean Society acknowledges that his categorization's focus on skin color and later inclusion of cultural and behavioral traits cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism. Additionally, Linnaeus created a wastebasket taxon &quot;monstrosus&quot; for &quot;wild and monstrous humans, unknown groups, and more or less abnormal people&quot;.

Linnaeus treated himself as the type specimen (holotype) of ''H. sapiens.'' In 1959, W. T. Stearn designated Linnaeus as the lectotype of ''H. sapiens,'' following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself.

== Influwenzi u twemmin ekonomiku ==
Linnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of Cameralism. Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist. He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels.

== Kommemorazzjoni ==
Anniversaries of Linnaeus's birth, especially in centennial years, have been marked by major celebrations. Linnaeus has appeared on numerous Swedish postage stamps and banknotes. There are numerous statues of Linnaeus in countries around the world. The Linnean Society of London has awarded the Linnean Medal for excellence in botany or zoology since 1888. Following approval by the Riksdag of Sweden, Växjö University and Kalmar College merged on 1 January 2010 to become Linnaeus University. Among the things named after Linnaeus is the twinflower genus ''Linnaea'', ''Linnaeosicyos'' (a monotypic genus in the family Cucurbitaceae).

== Kummentarju ==
Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau once wrote of Linnaeus, &quot;I know no greater man on Earth.&quot; Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: &quot;With the exception of William Shakespeare and Baruch Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly.&quot; Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: &quot;Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist.&quot; In his autobiography, published by his student Adam Afzelius in 1823, Linnaeus described himself as unargumentative, sensitive, quick, and uninterested in his personal appearance.

In the 21st century, Linnæus's taxonomy of human &quot;races&quot; has been criticized. Some claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of scientific racism, while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human &quot;races&quot; were superior to others.

== Abbrevjazzjoni standard tal-awtur ==
The standard author abbreviation '''L.''' is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name.

== Referenzi ==
{{DEFAULTSORT:Linnaeus, Carl}}
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