Wikipedija mtwiki https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il-Pa%C4%A1na_prin%C4%8Bipali MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.2 first-letter Medja Speċjali Diskussjoni Utent Diskussjoni utent Wikipedija Diskussjoni Wikipedija Stampa Diskussjoni stampa MediaWiki Diskussjoni MediaWiki Mudell Diskussjoni mudell Għajnuna Diskussjoni għajnuna Kategorija Diskussjoni kategorija Portal Diskussjoni portal TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 2 25623 329967 329957 2026-05-14T16:15:33Z Trigcly 17859 aġġornament 329967 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Artikli ġodda (1989)''' == === <u>'''A'''</u> === * [[Aapravasi Ghat]] * [[Aasivissuit-Nipisat: Territorju tal-Kaċċa tal-Inuit bejn is-Silġ u l-Baħar]] * [[Abbazija ta' Corvey]] * [[Abbazija ta' Fontenay]] * [[Abbazija ta' Lorsch]] * [[Abbazija ta' Pannonhalma]] *[[Abbazija ta' Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe]] *[[Abbazija ta' Sankt Gallen]] *[[Abbazija ta’ Vézelay|Abbazija ta' Vezelay]] *[[Abu al-Fida]] *[[Abu Mena]] *[[Abu Simbel]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Acre|Acre]] *[[Afag Bashirgyzy]] *[[Aflaj tal-Oman]] *[[Afrodisja]] *[[Agadez]] *[[Agostino Carracci]] *[[Agostino Matrenza]] *[[Ahwar tan-Nofsinhar tal-Iraq]] *[[Aigai]] *[[Aït Benhaddou]] *[[Akkwedott ta' Padre Tembleque]] *[[Akkwedott ta' Pontcysyllte]] *[[Akshata Murthy]] *[[Aksum]] *[[Al Qal'a ta' Beni Hammad]] *[[Al Zubarah]] *[[Al-Maghtas]] *[[Alatyr]] *[[Albéric Magnard]] *[[Alberobello]] *[[Albi]] *[[Alcalá de Henares]] *[[Alcide d'Orbigny]] *[[Aleksandr Yakovlevich Khinchin]] *[[Alenush Terian]] *[[Aleppo]] *[[Alessandro Scarlatti]] *[[Alessandro Volta]] *[[Alexander Pushkin]] *[[Alexander Wolszczan]] *[[Aleksandra Smiljanić]] *[[Alfred Hermann Fried]] *[[Alfred Nobel]] *[[Alfredo Casella]] *[[Alois Dryák]] *[[Alto Douro]] *[[Amazigh Marokkin Standard]] *[[Ambohimanga]] *[[Ambra Sabatini]] *[[Amerigo Vespucci]] *[[Amerigo Vespucci (vapur għoli)|''Amerigo Vespucci'' (vapur għoli)]] * [[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka t’Isfel]] * [[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta’ Fuq]] *[[Amilcare Ponchielli]] *[[Anastasia Golovina]] *[[Anders Jonas Ångström]] *[[André Citroën]] *[[André Weil]] *[[Anfibju]] *[[Anfiteatru ta' El Jem]] *[[Angelina Mango]] * [[Angkor Wat]] * [[Angra do Heroísmo]] * [[Ani]] * [[Anjar]] * [[Anna Brigadere]] * [[Anna Kyriakou]] *[[Anna Seghers]] *[[Anna Sychravová]] *[[Anne-Sophie Mutter]] *[[Anse aux Meadows]] * [[Antartika]] * [[Anticosti]] * [[Antigua Guatemala]] *[[Antoine de Jussieu]] *[[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]] *[[Antoinette Miggiani]] *[[Anton Diabelli]] *[[Anuradhapura]] *[[Aplogruppi Y-DNA fit-tribujiet tal-Każakistan]] *[[Aporofobija]] *[[Aquileia]] *[[Arċipelagu ta' Bijagós]] *[[Arċipelagu ta' Revillagigedo]] *[[Arċipelagu ta' Vega]] *[[Arena Tettonika Żvizzera ta' Sardona]] *[[Arequipa]] *[[Arġentier]] *[[Arġentier (tad-deheb)]] *[[Ark Ġeodetiku ta’ Struve|Ark Ġeodetiku ta' Struve]] *[[Arkata Trijonfali ta' Orange]] *[[Arkeoloġija]] *[[Arkitett]] *[[Arkitettura Mudéjar ta' Aragona]] *[[Arkitettura tas-Seklu 20 ta' Frank Lloyd Wright]] *[[Arles]] *[[Armata tat-Terrakotta]] *[[Arslantepe]] *[[Art tal-Inċens]] *[[Arti Paleolitika fl-Għerien tat-Tramuntana ta' Spanja]] *[[Artiġjan]] *[[Artijiet Għoljin Ċentrali tas-Sri Lanka]] *[[As-Salt]] *[[Asmara]] * [[Assisi]] * [[Assi Ċentrali ta' Beijing]] * [[Assur]] *[[Asuman Baytop]] *[[Athos]] *[[Attrazzjonijiet Ewlenin tar-Renju Antik ta' Saba f'Marib]] *[[Auschwitz]] *[[Austin Camilleri]] *[[Ávila]] *[[Avukat]] === '''<u>B</u>''' === * [[Baalbek]] * [[Babilonja]] * [[Baċir tal-Lag ta' Uvs]] * [[Baċir tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Nord-Pas de Calais]] * [[Baeza]] * [[Bagan]] * [[Baħar l-Abjad]] * [[Baħar l-Iswed]] *[[Baħar ta' Wadden]] *[[Baħar tar-Ramel tan-Namibja]] *[[Bajja ta' Dungonab]] *[[Bajja ta' Ha Long]] *[[Bajja ta' Tallinn]] *[[Bajja tal-Klieb il-Baħar]] *[[Bajjad]] *[[Baleron]] *[[Bamberg]] *[[Ban Chiang]] *[[Banská Štiavnica]] *[[Barbier]] *[[Bardejov]] *[[Barokk]] *[[Bartolomé de Escobedo]] *[[Bath, Somerset]] *[[Batlejka]] *[[Battaljun Mediku tal-Ospedalieri]] *[[Battir]] *[[Bauhaus u s-Siti tal-Moviment f'Weimar, f'Dessau u f'Bernau]] *[[Baxkortostan]] *[[Bażi tad-Data tal-Osservazzjoni tal-Kometi]] *[[Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta’ Poreč|Bażilika Ewfrasjana ta' Poreč]] *[[Bażilika ta' San Eġidju]] *[[Beatriz Carrillo]] *[[Beemster]] *[[Béguinage]] *[[Belintersat-1]] *[[BelKA]] *[[Belt Bajda ta' Tel Aviv – il-Moviment Modern]] *[[Belt Kolonjali ta' Santo Domingo]] *[[Belt Projbita]] *[[Belt Storika ta' Ahmadabad]] *[[Belt Storika tal-Kajr]] *[[Belt Storika tal-Moskej ta' Bagerhat]] *[[Belt ta' Guanajuato]] *[[Belt ta' New York]] *[[Belt ta' Vicenza u l-Vilel ta' Palladio fil-Veneto|Belt ta' Viċenza u l-Vilel ta' Palladio fil-Veneto]] *[[Belt Universitarja ta' Caracas]] *[[Bennej]] *[[Berġa tal-Italja, il-Belt Valletta]] *[[Berġa tal-Italja, il-Birgu]] *[[Bergpark Wilhelmshöhe]] *[[Bernard Grech]] *[[Betlem]] *[[Betti Alver]] *[[Burkhan Khaldun]] *[[Bidwi]] *[[Bieb il-Belt]] *[[Binjiet Gotiċi Vittorjani u tal-Art Deco ta' Mumbai]] *[[Binjiet Tradizzjonali tal-Asante]] *[[Blat Imkenni ta' Bhimbetka]] *[[Bliet Antiki tal-Pyu]] *[[Bliet Kapitali u Oqbra tar-Renju Antik ta' Koguryo]] *[[Bliet Storiċi tal-Istrett ta' Malakka]] *[[Bobby Charlton]] *[[Bolgar]] *[[Bordeaux]] *[[Borobudur]] *[[Borża ta' Malta]] *[[Bosra]] *[[Bridgetown]] *[[Brook Taylor]] *[[Brú na Bóinne]] *[[Bruno Pizzul]] *[[Bryggen]] *[[Bucha]] *[[Buddha Ġgantesk ta' Leshan]] *[[Bugeddum Armen]] *[[Bukhara]] *[[Burt Bacharach]] *[[Buskett]] *[[Butrint]] *[[Byblos]] === '''<u>Ċ/C</u>''' === * [[Cáceres (Spanja)]] * [[Calakmul]] * [[Camagüey]] * [[Camino Real de Tierra Adentro]] * [[Campeche]] * [[Canal du Midi]] * [[Canaletto]] * [[Caral]] * [[Carcassonne]] *[[Carl Bosch]] *[[Carl David Anderson]] *[[Carl Linnaeus]] *[[Carla Fracci]] *[[Carlo Collodi]] *[[Caroline Mikkelsen]] *[[Casco Viejo, il-Panama]] *[[Castel del Monte, Puglia]] *[[Çatalhöyük]] *[[Causses u Cévennes]] *[[Ċellola]] *[[Ċensu Apap]] *[[Ċentru Kulturali ta' Heydar Aliyev]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Lijiang]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Macao]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Rauma]] *[[Ċentru Storiku ta' Salvador de Bahia]] *[[Český Krumlov]] *[[Ċetta Chevalier]] *[[Chaîne des Puys]] *[[Chan Chan]] *[[Changdeokgung]] *[[Chankillo]] *[[Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin]] *[[Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo]] *[[Charles Nicolle]] *[[Charles Richter]] *[[Charles Xuereb]] *[[Charlie Watts]] *[[Chavín]] *[[Choeung Ek]] *[[Chersonesus Tawrika]] *[[Chichén Itzá]] *[[Chilehaus]] *[[Choirokoitia]] *[[Christiansfeld]] *[[Christopher Polhem]] *[[Cidade Velha]] *[[Cienfuegos]] *[[Ċikli ta' affreski tas-seklu 14 ta' Padova]] *[[Cinque Terre]] *[[Ċirkewwa]] *[[Ċittadella Imperjali ta' Thăng Long]] *[[Ċittadella ta' Erbil]] *[[Ċittadella tad-Dinastija Hồ]] *[[Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle]] *[[Climats u Terroirs ta' Bourgogne]] *[[Colonia del Sacramento]] *[[Copan]] *[[Córdoba, Spanja]] *[[Coro]] *[[Crespi d'Adda]] *[[Ċrieki tal-Ġebel tas-Senegambja]] *[[Cristofano Allori]] *[[Cuenca, l-Ekwador]] *[[Cuenca (Spanja)]] *[[Cueva de las Manos]] *[[Cumalıkızık]] *[[Curzio Maltese]] *[[Cusco]] *[[Cynthia Turner]] *[[Cyrene]] === '''<u>D</u>''' === * [[Daiga Mieriņa]] * [[Damasku]] * [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]] * [[Danxia]] *[[Dar ta’ Rietveld Schröder|Dar ta' Rietveld Schröder]] *[[Dar tal-Kimeri]] *[[Dar tat-Twelid ta' Martin Luteru]] *[[Dar u Studjo ta' Luis Barragán]] *[[Delos]] *[[Delphi]] *[[Delta ta' Saloum]] *[[Delta ta' Okavango]] *[[Delta tad-Danubju]] *[[Delta tax-xmara Kızılırmak]] *[[Dengfeng]] *[[Dentist]] *[[Denys Shmyhal]] *[[Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu]] *[[Deżert ta' Badain Jaran]] *[[Deżert ta' Lut]] *[[Deżerta tal-isfarġel]] *[[Dholavira]] *[[Diamantina]] *[[Diana, Prinċipessa ta' Wales]] *[[Diaolou]] *[[Diga ta' Karakaya]] *[[Dikjarazzjoni tal-Indipendenza tal-Ukrajna]] *[[Dimitrana Ivanova]] *[[Distrett ta' At-Turaif]] *[[Diy-Gid-Biy]] *[[Dizzjunarju]] *[[Djalett]] *[[Djar Ewlenin ta' Victor Horta fi Brussell]] *[[Djémila]] *[[Djerba]] *[[DNA]] *[[Dolċier]] *[[Dolmen ta' Menga]] *[[Dolmen ta' Viera]] *[[Dolomiti]] *[[Domenico Allegri]] *[[Domenico Scarlatti]] *[[Domowina]] *[[Domus de Janas]] *[[Domus Rumana]] *[[Donatello]] *[[Dougga]] *[[Draginja Vuksanović-Stanković]] *[[Dubrovnik]] *[[Durmitor]] * [[Dwejra]] === '''<u>E</u>''' === * [[Edgar Preca]] * [[Edward Sexton]] * [[Edinburgu]] * [[Edward de Bono]] * [[Edwin Hubble]] * [[Efesu]] * [[Eise Eisinga]] *[[Ekonomista]] *[[Ekosistema u Relitt tal-Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Lopé-Okanda]] *[[El Escorial]] *[[El Jadida]] *[[El Tajin]] *[[El Torcal]] *[[Eladio Dieste]] *[[Eleonora Jenko Groyer]] *[[Elisha Graves Otis]] *[[Elvas]] *[[Emil Nolde]] *[[Emma Andrijewska]] *[[Emma Muscat]] *[[Ernst Schröder]] *[[Esperantoloġija]] *[[Essaouira]] *[[Estrazzjoni terminoloġika]] *[[Ethel Anderson]] *[[Eugenija Šimkūnaitė]] *[[Eugenio Montale]] *[[Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs]] *[[Evelyn Bonaci]] *[[Évora]] *[[Ewropa tal-Lvant]] === '''<u>F</u>''' === * [[Fabbrika ta' Fagus]] * [[Fabbrika ta' Van Nelle]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Azzar ta' Völklingen]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Ħadid ta' Engelsberg]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Ħarir ta' Tomioka]] * [[Fabbrika tal-Injam u tal-Kartun ta' Verla]] * [[Fabbriki tal-Wied ta' Derwent]] * [[Fanal ta' Cordouan]] * [[Fanjingshan]] * [[Fasil Ghebbi]] * [[Fatehpur Sikri]] * [[Fdalijiet Arkeoloġiċi ta' Moenjodaro]] * [[Fdalijiet ta' Gedi]] * [[Fdalijiet ta' León Viejo]] * [[Fdalijiet ta' Loropéni]] * [[Fdalijiet tal-Vihara Buddista f'Paharpur]] * [[Fehme Agani]] *[[Femminiżmu tar-Rom]] *[[Fenno-Skandinavja]] *[[Fernando Botero]] *[[Ferrara]] *[[Ferruccio Lamborghini]] *[[Festival ta' Sanremo]] *[[Fiera Internazzjonali ta' Rachid Karami f'Tripoli]] *[[Figolla]] *[[Firenze]] *[[Fjord tas-Silġ ta' Ilulissat]] *[[Fjords Norveġiżi tal-Punent]] *[[Flora Martirosian]] *[[Fondoq ta' Ironbridge]] *[[Foresti Antiki u Primordjali tal-Fagu tal-Karpazji u ta' Reġjuni Oħra tal-Ewropa]] *[[Foresti Irkanjani]] *[[Foresti Muntanjużi ta' Odzala-Kokoua]] *[[Foresti Sagri ta' Kaya tal-Mijikenda]] *[[Foresti tas-Siġar tar-Rand ta' Madeira]] *[[Foresti Tropikali ta' Gondwana]] *[[Foresti Tropikali tal-Atsinanana]] *[[Foresti Tropikali u Artijiet Mistagħdra Kolkiċi]] *[[Foresti Verġni ta' Komi]] *[[Formazzjonijiet u Għerien Karstiċi Evaporitiċi tar-Reġjun ta' Emilia Romagna]] *[[Forti l-Aħmar]] * [[Forti ta' Agra]] *[[Forti ta' Bahla]] *[[Forti ta' Galle]] *[[Forti ta' Ġesù]] *[[Forti ta' Rohtas]] *[[Fortifikazzjonijiet fuq in-Naħa tal-Karibew tal-Panama: Portobelo-San Lorenzo]] *[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta’ Kotor|Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Kotor]] *[[Fortifikazzjonijiet ta' Vauban]] *[[Fortijiet fl-Għoljiet ta' Rajasthan]] *[[Fortijiet u Kastelli tal-Ghana]] *[[Fortizza ta' Diyarbakır]] *[[Fortizza ta' Hwaseong]] *[[Fortizza ta' Pirot]] *[[Fortizza ta' San Nikola]] *[[Fortizza ta' Suomenlinna]] *[[Fortizzi ta' Dacia fil-Muntanji Orăștie]] *[[Fortizzi Tondi tal-Vikingi]] *[[Foss ta' Messel]] *[[Fotografu]] *[[Francesco Guardi]] *[[François-Alphonse Forel]] *[[François Couperin]] *[[François Girardon]] *[[Francois Mauriac]] *[[Franco Migliacci]] *[[Franġisk Zahra]] *[[Frank Drake]] *[[Franz Beckenbauer]] *[[Franz Kafka]] *[[Franz Ritter von Hauer]] *[[Franz von Suppé]] *[[Frawla]] *[[Fray Bentos]] *[[Frédéric Bartholdi]] *[[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]] *[[Fritz Albert Lipmann]] *[[Frosta tal-Għid]] * [[Frott]] * [[Fruntieri Rumani Ġermaniċi t'Isfel]] * [[Fruntieri Rumani ta' Dacia]] * [[Fruntieri Rumani tad-Danubju]] * [[Fruntieri tal-Imperu Ruman]] *[[Fuji]] *[[Furnar]] === '''<u>Ġ</u>''' === * [[Ġardinar]] *[[Ġebla ta' Rosetta]] * [[Ġebla tal-Ġeneral]] * [[Ġeoloġija]] * [[Ġeriko tal-Qedem]] * [[Ġerusalemm]] * [[Ġibjun ta' Bovilla]] * [[Ġibjun ta' Kiev]] * [[Ġnien Botaniku ta' Padova]] * [[Ġnien Persjan]] * [[Ġobon ta' Jāņi]] * [[Ġonna Botaniċi Rjali ta' Kew]] * [[Ġonna Botaniċi ta' Singapore]] * [[Ġonna Klassiċi ta' Suzhou]] * [[Ġonna ta' Hevsel]] * [[Ġonna ta' Shalimar]] *[[Ġurnalist]] === '''<u>G</u>''' === * [[Gammelstad]] * [[Gamzigrad]] * [[Gati tal-Punent]] * [[Gebel Barkal]] * [[Geirangerfjord]] * [[Genova: It-Toroq Ġodda u s-Sistema tal-Palazzi tal-Listi]] *[[Georg Ohm]] *[[Georg von Békésy]] *[[George Gallup]] *[[Georges Bernanos]] *[[Georges J.F. Kohler]] *[[Gerbrand van den Eeckhout]] *[[Getbol, il-Pjanuri tal-Marea tal-Korea t'Isfel]] *[[Ghadamès]] *[[Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola]] *[[Giacomo Zanella]] *[[Giampiero Galeazzi]] *[[Gianni Vella]] *[[Gigi Riva]] *[[Giorgia Meloni]] *[[Giorgio Vasari]] *[[Giosuè Carducci]] *[[Giotto]] *[[Giovanni Arduino]] *[[Giovanni Battista Belzoni]] *[[Giovanni Boccaccio]] *[[Giovanni Paisiello]] *[[Giovanni Papini]] *[[Giulio Natta]] *[[Gjirokastër]] *[[Glossarju]] *[[Göbekli Tepe]] *[[Goffredo Mameli]] *[[Goiás]] *[[Golf ta' California]] *[[Golf ta' Porto]] *[[Gonbad-e Qābus]] *[[Gordion]] *[[Gösta Mittag-Leffler]] *[[Gotiku]] *[[Gran Ordni tar-Re Tomislav]] *[[Grand Pré]] *[[Grand-Bassam]] *[[Grand Place, Brussell]] *[[Graz]] *[[Grazia Deledda]] *[[Greenland]] *[[Gregorio Allegri]] *[[Gremxula ta' Malta]] *[[Grotta ta' Chauvet]] *[[Grotti ta' Longmen]] *[[Grotti ta' Yungang]] *[[Grupp ta' Monumenti ta' Khajuraho]] *[[Grupp ta' Monumenti ta' Mahabalipuram]] *[[Guillaume Cornelis van Beverloo]] *[[Guimarães]] *[[Gustave Charpentier]] * [[Gżejjer Eolji]] * [[Gżejjer Falkland]] * [[Gżejjer Galapagos]] * [[Gżejjer Marquesas]] * [[Gżejjer Solovetsky]] * [[Gżejjer Sub-Antartiċi ta' New Zealand]] * [[Gżejjer ta' Amami-Ōshima, ta' Tokunoshima u ta' Iriomote, u t-Tramuntana ta' Okinawa]] * [[Gżejjer ta' Ogasawara]] * [[Gżejjer tal-Blat]] * [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Aldabra]] * [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Bikini]] * [[Gżejjer tal-Qroll ta' Rocas]] * [[Gżejjer tan-Nofsinhar u Ibħra Awstrali Franċiżi]] * [[Gżira Heard u l-Gżejjer McDonald]] * [[Gżira Inaċċessibbli]] * [[Gżira Sagra ta' Okinoshima u Siti Assoċjati fir-Reġjun ta' Munakata]] * [[Gżira ta' Cocos]] * [[Gżira ta' Fraser]] * [[Gżira ta' Gorée]] * [[Gżira ta' Henderson]] *[[Gżira ta' Jeju]] *[[Gżira ta' Kunta Kinteh]] *[[Gżira ta' Lord Howe]] *[[Gżira ta' Macquarie]] *[[Gżira ta' Mozambique]] *[[Gżira ta' Pico]] *[[Gżira ta' Robben]] *[[Gżira ta' Saint-Louis]] *[[Gżira ta' Tiwai]] *[[Gżira ta' Wrangel]] *[[Gżira tal-Mużewijiet]] === '''<u>GĦ</u>''' === * [[Għajn Tuffieħa]] * [[Għalliem]] *[[Għar Dalam]] *[[Għar ta' Altamira]] *[[Għar ta' Gorham]] *[[Għar ta' Karain]] *[[Għar ta' Optymistychna]] *[[Għar ta' Vjetrenica]] *[[Għar tal-Apokalissi]] *[[Għar tal-Irħam]] *[[Għar tas-Silġ ta' Dobšiná]] *[[Għarb]] *[[Għelieqi Mtarrġa tar-Ross tal-Cordilleras tal-Filippini]] *[[Għerien Karstiċi ta' Aggtelek u tas-Slovakkja]] *[[Għerien ta' Ajanta]] *[[Għerien ta' Elephanta]] *[[Għerien ta' Ellora]] *[[Għerien ta' Mogao]] *[[Għerien ta’ Škocjan|Għerien ta' Škocjan]] *[[Għerien u Arti tal-Era Glaċjali fil-Jura tas-Swabja]] *[[Għid]] *[[Għoljiet, Djar u Kantini ta' Champagne]] *[[Għoljiet Sagri ta' Piemonte u ta' Lombardia]] *[[Għoljiet ta' Donets]] *[[Għoljiet ta' Matobo]] *[[Għoljiet tal-Prosecco ta' Conegliano u Valdobbiadene]] === '''<u>H</u>''' === * [[Hagia Sophia]] * [[Hahoe]] * [[Haley Bugeja]] * [[Halloumi]] * [[Hallstatt]] * [[Hampi]] *[[Hans Geiger]] *[[Hans Memling]] *[[Hans Spemann]] *[[Harar]] *[[Harry Belafonte]] *[[Hatı Çırpan]] *[[Hatra]] *[[Hattusha]] *[[Hawa Mahal]] *[[Hebron]] *[[Hedeby]] *[[Hegmataneh]] *[[Hegra]] *[[Heinrich Hertz]] *[[Helena Kottler Vurnik]] *[[Henri Fantin-Latour]] *[[Henri Frederic Amiel]] *[[Hermannus Contractus]] *[[Hideki Shirakawa]] *[[Hideki Yukawa]] *[[Hildesheim]] *[[Höga Kusten]] *[[Hoh Xil]] *[[Hội An]] *[[Holašovice]] *[[Hollókő]] *[[Hongcun]] *[[Hospicio Cabañas]] *[[Hospital de Sant Pau]] *[[Hovgården]] *[[Howard Carter]] *[[Hryhorii Kvitka-Osnovianenko]] *[[Huangshan]] *[[Hubert de Givenchy]] === '''<u>Ħ</u>''' === * [[Ħaġar Megalitiku ta' Carnac]] * [[Ħaġar ta' Jelling]] * [[Ħajja]] *[[Ħajt il-Kbir taċ-Ċina]] *[[Ħitan Rumani ta' Lugo]] *[[Ħsad tal-Perli fil-Bahrain]] === '''<u>I</u>''' === * [[Ibn Battuta]] * [[ICOMOS]] * [[Idolu ta' Shigir]] * [[Idrija]] * [[Idrijski žlikrofi]] * [[Ilha Grande]] * [[Il'ja Prigožini]] * [[Impjant Nukleari ta' Zaporizhzhia]] *[[Impjant tal-Ippompjar bl-Istim ta' Wouda]] *[[Impjanti tan-Nitrat tal-Potassju ta' Humberstone u ta' Santa Laura]] *[[Inara Luigas]] *[[Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f’Valcamonica|Inċiżjonijiet fuq il-Blat f'Valcamonica]] *[[Independence Hall]] *[[Indiċi]] *[[Industrija tal-lavanja f'Wales]] *[[Ingredjent]] *[[Intaljatur]] *[[Internet]] *[[Ipoġew ta’ Ħal Saflieni|Ipoġew ta' Ħal Saflieni]] * [[Ipproċessar testwali]] * [[Irdumijiet ta' Bandiagara]] * [[Iremel]] * [[Irħula Antiki ta' Djenné]] * [[Irħula Kbar bi Spa fl-Ewropa]] * [[Irpin]] * [[Irziezet Imżejnin ta' Hälsingland]] *[[Isabella d'Este]] *[[ISBN]] *[[Istitut tar-Riċerka dwar il-Foresti tal-Malażja]] *[[Istmu Kuronjan]] *[[Ivan Turgenev]] *[[Ivrea]] === '''<u>J</u>''' === * [[Jacinto Benavente]] * [[Jaipur]] * [[Jakob Bogdani]] * [[Jan Novák]] *[[Jantar Mantar, Jaipur]] *[[Jarrod Sammut]] *[[Jean Antoine Houdon]] *[[Jean Dieudonné]] *[[Jean Picard]] *[[Jebel Faya]] *[[Jeddah]] *[[Jodensavanne]] *[[Joggins]] *[[Johann Christian Bach]] *[[Johan Jensen]] *[[John Edward Critien]] *[[John Kendrew]] *[[John Strutt Rayleigh]] *[[Jongmyo]] *[[Jørgen Pedersen Gram]] *[[Josef Hoffman]] *[[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]] *[[Joya de Cerén]] *[[Jože Plečnik]] *[[Jules Pascin]] *[[Julia Malinova]] *[[Julia Sanina]] *[[Júlia Sigmond]] *[[Julio Baghy]] *[[Julius Wagner-Jauregg]] *[[Jum il-Ġifa]] *[[Jum il-Lingwa Erżjana]] *[[Jum l-Ewropa]] *[[Jum Zamenhof]] === '''<u>K</u>''' === * [[Kaċċa bl-ajkli]] * [[Kairouan]] * [[Kaja Kallas]] *[[Kalwaria Zebrzydowska]] *[[Kampnari tal-Belġju u ta' Franza]] *[[Kanal il-Kbir (iċ-Ċina)]] *[[Kanal ta' Rideau]] *[[Kanali ta' Amsterdam]] *[[Kandy]] *[[Kappella]] *[[Karavanseraj Persjani]] *[[Karbalayi Safikhan Karabakhi]] *[[Karl Ferdinand Braun]] *[[Karl Weierstrass]] *[[Karlskrona]] *[[Karlu III]] *[[Kasbah tal-Alġier]] *[[Kaskati ta' Galdelsha]] *[[Kaskati ta' Vitorja]] *[[Kastell ta' Ankara]] *[[Kastell ta' Durham]] *[[Kastell ta' Himeji]] *[[Kastell ta’ Kroměříž|Kastell ta' Kroměříž]] *[[Kastell ta' Kronborg]] *[[Kastell ta' Kuressaare]] *[[Kastell ta’ Litomyšl|Kastell ta' Litomyšl]] *[[Kastell ta' Lubart]] *[[Kastell ta’ Malbork|Kastell ta' Malbork]] *[[Kastell ta' Nesvizh]] *[[Kastell ta' Neuschwanstein]] *[[Kastell ta' Paphos]] *[[Kastell ta' San Pedro de la Roca]] *[[Kastell ta' Spiš]] *[[Kastell ta' Wartburg]] *[[Kastell ta' Zerzevan]] *[[Kastelli ta' Augustusburg u Falkenlust fi Brühl]] *[[Kastelli ta' Bellinzona]] *[[Kastelli u Swar tal-Irħula tar-Re Dwardu fi Gwynedd]] *[[Katarina Vitale]] * [[Katidral]] *[[Katidral ta' Aachen]] *[[Katidral ta' Amiens]] *[[Katidral ta' Bourges]] *[[Katidral ta' Burgos]] *[[Katidral ta' Canterbury]] *[[Katidral ta' Chartres]] *[[Katidral ta' Köln]] *[[Katidral ta' León, Nikaragwa]] *[[Katidral ta' Naumburg]] *[[Katidral ta' Reims]] *[[Katidral ta' Roskilde]] *[[Katidral ta' Santa Sofija (Kiev)]] *[[Katidral ta’ Šibenik|Katidral ta' Šibenik]] *[[Katidral ta' Speyer]] *[[Katidral ta' Tournai]] *[[Katidral ta' Zvartnots]] *[[Katidral tat-Trasfigurazzjoni, Dnipro]] *[[Katina Muntanjuża ta' Ennedi]] *[[Katina Muntanjuża ta’ Meskheti]] *[[Katina Muntanjuża ta' Mulanje]] *[[Katsiaryna Barysevich]] *[[Kauksi Ülle]] *[[Kaunas]] *[[Kavallier ta' Madara]] * [[Kavallier ta’ San Ġakbu|Kavallier ta' San Ġakbu]] * [[Kawkasu tal-Punent]] * [[KazCosmos]] *[[Kelma]] *[[Kerkuane]] *[[Kernavė]] *[[Kewkbet is-Safar]] *[[Khami]] *[[Khinalug]] *[[Khiva]] *[[Khor Rori]] *[[Khorramabad]] *[[Khuttal]] *[[Kibbeh]] *[[Kiki Kogelnik]] *[[Kinderdijk]] *[[Kirurgu]] *[[Kizhi Pogost]] *[[Kladruby nad Labem]] * [[Klima ta' Malta]] * [[Klondike]] * [[Kluane / Wrangell–St. Elias / Bajja tal-Glaċieri / Tatshenshini-Alsek]] * [[Knarik Vardanyan]] * [[Knejjes Barokki tal-Filippini]] * [[Knejjes Imħaffrin fil-Blat ta' Ivanovo]] * [[Knejjes Imħaffrin fil-Blat ta' Lalibela]] *[[Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta’ Troodos|Knejjes Impittrin fir-Reġjun ta' Troodos]] *[[Knejjes Rumaneski Katalani tal-Vall de Boí]] *[[Knejjes ta' Chiloé]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam ta' Maramureș]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam tal-Karpazji Slovakki]] *[[Knejjes tal-Injam tan-Nofsinhar ta’ Małopolskie]] *[[Knejjes tal-Iskola tal-Arkitettura ta' Pskov]] *[[Knejjes tal-Moldavja]] *[[Knejjes tal-Paċi]] *[[Knejjes u Kunventi ta' Goa]] *[[Knisja Antika ta' Petäjävesi]] *[[Knisja ta' Atlántida]] *[[Knisja ta' Boyana]] *[[Knisja ta' San Ġwann f'Kaneo]] *[[Knisja ta' San Nikola tas-Saqaf]] *[[Knisja ta' Santa Margerita]] *[[Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji (Milan)|Knisja ta' Santa Marija tal-Grazzji, Milan]] *[[Knisja tal-Injam ta' Urnes]] *[[Knisja tal-Paċi fi Świdnica]] *[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta' San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk|Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġwann ta' Nepomuk]] *[[Knisja tal-Pellegrinaġġi ta' Wies]] *[[Knisja tal-Verġni Marija ta' Arakos]] *[[Knisja tal-Vitorja]] *[[Koh Ker]] *[[Kok]] *[[Kolomenskoye]] *[[Kolonja tal-Artisti ta' Darmstadt]] *[[Kolonji tal-Benevolenza]] *[[Kolonna ta' Ġuljanu]] *[[Kolonna tat-Trinità Mqaddsa, Olomouc]] * [[Kolossew]] * [[Konso]] *[[Konversazzjoni]] *[[Korfù]] *[[Kosta Ġurassika]] *[[Kosta ta' Amalfi]] *[[Kosta ta' Ningaloo]] *[[Kostituzzjoni ta’ Malta|Kostituzzjoni ta' Malta]] *[[Kotlovina]] *[[Koutammakou]] *[[Krak des Chevaliers]] *[[Krakovja]] *[[Krater ta' Logoisk]] *[[Krater ta' Vredefort]] *[[Kremlin ta' Kazan]] *[[Kremlin ta’ Moska|Kremlin ta' Moska]] *[[Kreta]] *[[Krisztina Tóth]] *[[Krzemionki]] *[[Ksour Antiki ta' Ouadane, Chinguetti, Tichitt u Oualata]] *[[Kujataa]] *[[Kulangsu]] *[[Kuldīga]] *[[Kulleġġ Navali Rjali Antik]] *[[Kultura ta' Chaco]] *[[Kultura ta' Chinchorro]] *[[Kultura ta' Liangzhu]] *[[Kumpanija Ferrovjarja Retika]] *[[Kumpless Modern ta' Pampulha]] *[[Kumpless Monumentali ta' Brâncuși f'Târgu Jiu]] *[[Kumpless ta' Konservazzjoni tal-Amażonja Ċentrali]] *[[Kumpless ta' W-Arly-Pendjari]] *[[Kumpless tal-Bażar Storiku ta' Tabriz]] *[[Kumpless tal-Foresti ta' Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai]] *[[Kumpless tal-Foresta ta' Kaeng Krachan]] *[[Kumpless tal-Kastell ta' Mir]] *[[Kumpless tal-Khānegāh u tas-Santwarju tax-Xejikk Safi al-din f'Ardabil]] *[[Kumpless tal-Monumenti ta' Huế]] *[[Kumpless tal-Muntanji u tat-Tempji ta' Chengde]] *[[Kumpless tal-Oqbra ta' Koguryo]] *[[Kumpless tal-Pajsaġġ ta' Tràng An]] *[[Kumpless u l-Estancias tal-Ġiżwiti ta' Córdoba]] *[[Kumplessi Monastiċi Armeni tal-Iran]] *[[Kumplessi Petroglifiċi tal-Altai tal-Mongolja]] *[[Kumplessi Sagri tal-Hoysala]] *[[Kumitat tal-Wirt Dinji]] *[[Kunvent Benedittin ta' San Ġwann f'Müstair]] *[[Kunvent ta' Kristu f'Tomar]] *[[Kunvent ta' Spiš]] *[[Kunvent ta’ Novodevichy|Kunvent ta' Novodevichy]] *[[Kunya-Urgench]] *[[Kuruna ta' Zvonimir]] *[[Kutná Hora]] === '''<u>L</u>''' === * [[L-Arti]] * [[L-Ewwel Mara jew Raġel ta' Malta]] * [[Lag ta' Baikal]] * [[Lag ta' Brebeneskul]] * [[Lag ta' Kezenoyam]] * [[Lag ta' Laach]] * [[Lag tal-Punent, Hangzhou]] * [[Lagi ta' Ounianga]] * [[Lag ta' Skadar]] * [[Lagi ta' Willandra]] * [[Lake District]] * [[Lamu]] *[[Landier]] *[[Lapponja Żvediża]] *[[Las Médulas]] *[[Lascaux]] *[[Lavaux]] *[[Lavra tat-Trinità ta' San Serġjo]] *[[Lazzaro Pisani]] *[[Le Corbusier]] *[[Le Havre]] *[[Le Locle]] *[[Leptis Magna]] *[[Lessikoloġija]] * [[Lessiku]] * [[Letoon]] * [[Lev Davidovich Landau]] * [[Lev Semenovič Pontrjagin]] * [[Levoča, il-Kastell ta' Spiš u l-monumenti kulturali assoċjati]] * [[Levuka]] * [[Leyla Mammadbeyova]] * [[Liftijiet Idrawliċi tal-Canal du Centre]] *[[Lika Kavzharadze]] *[[Lima]] *[[Lingwa Erżjana]] *[[Lingwa Ġermaniża]] *[[Linja ferrovjarja ta’ Semmering|Linja ferrovjarja ta' Semmering]] *[[Linja Ferrovjarja Trans-Iranjana]] *[[Linji Ferrovjarji tal-Muntanji tal-Indja]] *[[Linji ta' Nazca]] *[[Linji tal-Ilma Difensivi Olandiżi]] *[[Lista ta’ binjiet ta’ Gaudí]] *[[Lista ta' kumpaniji elenkati fil-Borża ta' Malta]] *[[Lista ta' Membri tal-Parlament ta' Malta, 2017–2022]] *[[Lista ta' peniżoli]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Andorra]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Ċipru]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Iżrael]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Kuba]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Madagascar]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'Malta]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji f'San Marino]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fi Franza]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fi Spanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji taċ-Ċekja|Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċekja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċilì]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fiċ-Ċina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fid-Danimarka]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bangladesh]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Belarussja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Belġju]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bożnija-Ħerzegovina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Brażil]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Bulgarija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Filippini]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Finlandja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġappun]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġermanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Ġordan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Georgia]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Greċja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Jemen]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kambodja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kanada]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Karibew]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Każakistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kenja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kirgistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kolombja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Korea t'Isfel]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Korea ta' Fuq]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Kroazja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Laos]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Latvja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Litwanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lussemburgu]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lvant tal-Asja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Lvant tal-Ewropa]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Maċedonja ta' Fuq]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Malażja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Marokk]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Mauritania]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Messiku]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Moldova]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Mongolja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Montenegro]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Myanmar]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Pakistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Palestina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Perù]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Polonja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Portugall]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Punent tal-Asja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Punent tal-Ewropa]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fil-Vjetnam]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nepal]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Netherlands]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nofsinhar tal-Asja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Nofsinhar tal-Ewropa]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fin-Norveġja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Renju Unit]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Rumanija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fir-Russja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Serbja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Sirja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovakkja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Slovenja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fis-Sri Lanka]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Taġikistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tajlandja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tanzanija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tramuntana tal-Asja u fl-Asja Ċentrali]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tramuntana tal-Ewropa]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Tuneżija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fit-Turkmenistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fix-Xlokk tal-Asja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afganistan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afrika]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Afrika t'Isfel]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Albanija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka Ċentrali]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka t'Isfel]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Amerka ta' Fuq]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Arabja Sawdija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Arġentina]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Armenja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstralja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Awstrija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ażerbajġan]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Eġittu]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Estonja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Etjopja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Indja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Indoneżja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iran]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Irlanda]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Istati Għarab]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Istati Uniti]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Italja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżlanda]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżvezja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Iżvizzera]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Oċeanja]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ukrajna]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Ungerija]] *[[Lista ta' Siti ta' Wirt Dinji fl-Użbekistan]] *[[Liz Truss]] *[[Loġġa tal-Ħarir]] *[[Longobardi fl-Italja: Postijiet tal-Poter (568-774 W.K.)]] *[[Lorenzo de' Medici]] *[[Lorenzo Gafà]] *[[Lorenzo Valla]] *[[Luang Prabang]] *[[Lübeck]] *[[Lucavsala]] *[[Lucia Piussi]] *[[Lučka Kajfež Bogataj]] *[[Ludmila tal-Boemja]] *[[Ludovico Ariosto]] *[[Ludovico Carracci]] *[[Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof]] *[[Luigi Boccherini]] *[[Luigi Galvani]] *[[Luigi Pirandello]] *[[Lumbini]] *[[Luna 26]] *[[Lunenburg]] *[[Lvant ta' Rennell]] *[[Lviv]] *[[Lyon]] *[[Lyubov Panchenko]] === '''<u>M</u>''' === * [[Maċedonit]] * [[Machu Picchu]] * [[Madinat Al-Zahra]] *[[Mafkar tal-Paċi ta' Hiroshima]] *[[Magda Šaturová-Seppová]] *[[Maison Carrée]] * [[Malta taħt il-Franċiżi]] *[[Maltin]] *[[Måneskin]] *[[Manhush]] *[[Manto Mavrogenous]] *[[Mantova]] *[[Margaret Abela]] *[[Maria De Filippi]] *[[Maria Dobroniega ta' Kiev]] *[[Maria Grollmuß]] *[[Marian Smoluchowski]] *[[Mario Draghi]] *[[Mário Zagallo]] *[[Marrakesh]] *[[Marta Kos]] *[[Martinu I ta' Sqallija]] *[[Mary Chronopoulou]] *[[Mary Fenech Adami]] *[[Mary Moser]] *[[Masada]] *[[Masġar tal-Palm ta' Elche]] *[[Maurizio Costanzo]] *[[Mawżolew ta’ Khoja Ahmed Yasawi]] *[[Maymand]] *[[Mbanza Kongo]] *[[Medalja ta' Marian Smoluchowski]] *[[Medina ta' Sousse]] *[[Mehmet Ali Ağca]] *[[Melka Kunture]] *[[Mérida (Spanja)]] *[[Merill]] *[[Meroe]] *[[Merv]] *[[Meteora]] *[[Michael Refalo]] *[[Michail Glinka]] *[[Mikhail Ostrogradsky]] *[[Milan]] *[[Mileva Filipović]] *[[Mimoza Kusari-Lila]] *[[Mina tal-Imħabba ta' Klevan]] *[[Minaret ta' Jam]] *[[Minjiera Storika tal-Fidda f'Tarnowskie Góry]] *[[Minjiera tal-Faħam ta' Ombilin]] *[[Minjiera tal-Fidda ta' Iwami Ginzan]] *[[Minjiera tal-Melħ ta’ Wieliczka]] *[[Minjiera tar-Ram ta' Falun]] *[[Minjieri tad-Deheb tal-Gżira ta' Sado]] *[[Minjieri taż-Żnied Neolitiċi ta' Spiennes]] *[[Mira Alečković]] *[[Mirella Freni]] *[[Miroslav Řepa]] *[[Missjonijiet Franġiskani fis-Sierra Gorda ta' Querétaro]] *[[Missjonijiet ta' San Antonio]] *[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti fost il-Guarani]] *[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti ta' Chiquitos]] *[[Missjonijiet tal-Ġiżwiti ta' La Santísima Trinidad de Paraná u Jesús de Tavarangue]] *[[Mnajdra]] *[[Modena]] *[[Mogħdija tal-Ġgant]] *[[Moidam]] *[[Monasteri fuq ix-xaqlibiet ta' Popocatépetl]] *[[Monasteri ta' Yuso u ta' Suso]] *[[Monasteru ta' Alcobaça]] *[[Monasteru ta' Batalha]] *[[Monasteru ta' Ferapontov]] *[[Monasteru ta' Gelati]] *[[Monasteru ta' Geghard]] *[[Monasteru ta’ Gračanica|Monasteru ta' Gračanica]] *[[Monasteru ta' Haghpat]] *[[Monasteru ta' Hoge]] *[[Monasteru ta' Horezu]] *[[Monasteru ta' Hosios Loukas]] *[[Monasteru ta' Maulbronn]] *[[Monasteru ta' Neghuts]] *[[Monasteru ta' Poblet]] *[[Monasteru ta' Rila]] *[[Monasteru ta' San Ġwann it-Teologu]] *[[Monasteru ta' San Ilarjun]] *[[Monasteru ta' Sanahin]] *[[Monasteru ta' Santa Katarina]] *[[Monasteru ta' Sopoćani]] *[[Monasteru ta' Studenica]] *[[Monasteru ta' Voroneț]] *[[Monasteru tal-Ġlormini]] *[[Monasteru Rjali ta' Santa Marija ta' Guadalupe]] *[[Monika Kryemadhi]] *[[Møns Klint]] *[[Mont-Saint-Michel]] *[[Monte Albán]] *[[Monte San Giorgio]] *[[Monte Titano]] *[[Monticello]] * [[Monument]] * [[Monument Nazzjonali ta' Żimbabwe l-Kbir]] * [[Monumenti Bojod ta' Vladimir u ta' Suzdal]] * [[Monumenti Buddisti fl-inħawi ta' Hōryū-ji]] * [[Monumenti Paleokristjani u Biżantini ta' Thessaloniki]] * [[Monumenti Rumani, il-Katidral ta' San Pietru u l-Knisja tal-Madonna fi Trier]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi f'Novgorod u fl-Inħawi]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Kjoto Antika (Bliet ta' Kjoto, Uji u Ōtsu)]] * [[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Makli]] *[[Monumenti Storiċi ta' Nara]] *[[Monumenti ta' Oviedo u tar-Renju tal-Asturjas]] *[[Monumenti tal-Ġebel taċ-Ċriev]] *[[Monumenti u Siti Storiċi f'Kaesong]] *[[Monumenti u Siti Storiċi ta' Hiraizumi]] *[[Morelia]] *[[Moritz Cantor]] *[[Moskea Antika ta' Edirne]] *[[Moskea l-Kbira u Sptar ta' Divriği]] *[[Moskea ta' Arif Agha]] *[[Moskea ta’ Selimiye, Edirne]] *[[Moskea tal-Ġimgħa ta' Esfahan]] *[[Moskea tat-Tatari]] *[[Moskej bi stil Sudaniż fit-Tramuntana tal-Kosta tal-Avorju]] *[[Moskej tal-Pilastri tal-Injam tal-Anatolja Medjevali]] *[[Motoori Norinaga]] *[[Mramorje]] *[[Mtskheta]] *[[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] *[[Muħammed]] *[[Muniċipju ta' Bremen]] *[[Muntanja Pelée]] *[[Muntanja Qingcheng]] *[[Muntanja ta' Kumgang]] *[[Muntanja Wutai]] *[[Muntanji Blu u John Crow]] *[[Muntanji Makhonjwa ta' Barberton]] *[[Muntanji ta' Homolje]] *[[Muntanji tad-Deheb ta' Altai]] *[[Muntanji tal-Krimea]] *[[Muntanji Wudang]] *[[Muntanji Wuyi]] *[[Mużew Nazzjonali tal-Montenegro]] *[[Mużew ta' Plantin-Moretus]] *[[Mużew ta' Trojja]] *[[Myśliwska]] *[[Mystras]] === '''<u>N</u>''' === * [[Nærøyfjord]] * [[Nadur]] * [[Naftalan]] * [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] * [[Naħla tal-għasel ta' Malta]] * [[Nalanda Mahavihara]] * [[Namhansanseong]] * [[Nancy]] * [[Nan Madol]] *[[Napli]] *[[Naryn-Kala]] *[[Nataliya Kobrynska]] *[[Nea Moni ta' Chios]] *[[Nekropoli]] *[[Nekropoli ta' Beit She'arim]] *[[Nekropoli ta' Monterozzi]] *[[Nemrut Dağı]] *[[Nessebar]] *[[New Lanark]] *[[New Secret (jott)]] *[[Nexhmije Pagarusha]] *[[Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc]] *[[Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot]] *[[Nicolas Flamel]] *[[Nicolau Coelho]] *[[Nida]] *[[Nika Križnar]] *[[Nikkō]] *[[Nino Ramishvili]] *[[Nisa (Turkmenistan)]] *[[Nisa f’Malta]] *[[Nisa fl-elezzjonijiet ġenerali ta’ Malta]] *[[Nizza]] *[[Norman Morrison]] *[[Nutar]] === '''<u>O</u>''' === * [[Oażi ta' Al-Ahsa]] * [[Olga Tass]] *[[Olimpja]] *[[Olinda]] *[[Ophrys caucasica|''Ophrys caucasica'']] *[[Oplontis]] *[[Opri Venezjani tad-Difiża bejn is-sekli 15 u 17: Stato da Terra – Stato da Mar tal-Punent]] *[[Oqbra imperjali tad-dinastija Xixia]] *[[Oqbra imperjali tad-dinastiji Ming u Qing]] *[[Oqbra Rjali tad-Dinastija Joseon]] *[[Oqbra ta' Mozu]] *[[Oqbra tar-Rejiet ta' Buganda f'Kasubi]] *[[Orthohantavirus]] *[[Ortografija Litwana]] *[[Osservatorji Astronomiċi tal-Università Federali ta' Kazan]] *[[Osservatorju ta' Črni Vrh]] *[[Osservatorju ta' Jodrell Bank]] *[[Osservatorju ta' Rozhen]] *[[Osun-Osogbo]] *[[Otto Toeplitz]] *[[Ouro Preto]] === '''<u>P</u>''' === * [[Pablo Neruda]] * [[Pagoda ta' Vinh Nghiem]] * [[Pajsaġġ Agrikolu tan-Nofsinhar ta' Öland]] * [[Pajsaġġ Arkeoloġiku tal-Ewwel Pjantaġġuni tal-Kafè fix-Xlokk ta' Kuba]] * [[Pajsaġġ Arkeoloġiku tas-Sassanidi fil-Provinċja ta' Fars]] * [[Pajsaġġ Industrijali ta' Blaenavon]] * [[Pajsaġġ Karstiku tan-Nofsinhar taċ-Ċina]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' ǂKhomani]] * [[Pajsaġġi Kulturali ta' Bassari, Fula u Bedik]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Budj Bim]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Gedeo]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Hawraman/Uramanat]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Le Morne]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta’ Lednice-Valtice]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali ta' Sukur]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Għelieqi Mtarrġa tar-Ross ta' Honghe Hani]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Kafè tal-Kolombja]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Lag ta' Kenozero]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tal-Wied ta' Orkhon]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tat-Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Gobustan]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Zuojiang]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali u Botaniku ta' Richtersveld]] * [[Pajsaġġ Kulturali u l-Fdalijiet Arkeoloġiċi tal-Wied ta' Bamiyan]] * [[Pajsaġġi Militari tal-Imperu Maratha fl-Indja]] * [[Pajsaġġ tal-Kaċċa Medjevali fit-Tramuntana ta' Zealand]] * [[Pajsaġġ tal-Vinji ta' Piemonte: Langhe-Roero u Monferrato]] * [[Pajsaġġ tax-Xogħol fil-Minjieri ta' Cornwall u l-Punent ta' Devon]] * [[Pajsaġġi ta' Dauria]] * [[Pál Maléter]] * [[Palazz Irjali ta' Aranjuez]] *[[Palazz Irjali ta' Caserta]] *[[Palazz Mariinskyi]] *[[Palazz ta' Blenheim]] *[[Palazz ta’ Djoklezjanu|Palazz ta' Djoklezjanu]] *[[Palazz ta' Drottningholm]] *[[Palazz ta' Eggenberg]] *[[Palazz ta' Fontainebleau]] *[[Palazz ta' Golestan]] *[[Palazz ta' Ishak Paşa]] *[[Palazz ta' Mafra]] *[[Palazz ta' Orbeliani]] *[[Palazz ta' Potala]] *[[Palazz ta’ Schönbrunn|Palazz ta' Schönbrunn]] *[[Palazz ta’ Stoclet|Palazz ta' Stoclet]] *[[Palazz ta' Versailles]] *[[Palazz tal-Khan]] *[[Palazz tas-Sajf]] *[[Palazz tax-Shirvanshah]] *[[Palazzi Minojċi]] *[[Palazzi Rjali ta' Abomey]] *[[Palazzi u Parks ta' Potsdam u Berlin]] *[[Palenque]] *[[Palermo Għarbija-Normanna u l-Katidrali ta' Cefalù u Monreale]] *[[Palestina]] *[[Palianytsia]] *[[Palmaria]] *[[Palmyra]] *[[Pamukkale]] *[[Panamá Viejo]] *[[Papa Ljun XIV]] *[[Papahānaumokuākea]] *[[Paquimé]] *[[Paramaribo]] *[[Park Arkeoloġiku Nazzjonali ta' Tierradentro]] *[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' Champaner-Pavagadh]] *[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' Hili]] *[[Park Arkeoloġiku ta' San Agustín]] *[[Park Irjali ta' Studley]] *[[Park Naturali Nazzjonali tal-Karpazji]] *[[Park Naturali ta' Dinara]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Karula]] *[[Park Naturali ta' Korab-Koritnik]] *[[Park Naturali tal-Iskolli tal-Qroll ta' Tubbataha]] *[[Park Naturali tal-Pilastri ta' Lena]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Impenetrabbli ta' Bwindi]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Olimpiku]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Göreme]] *[[Park Nazzjonali Storiku ta' Trakai]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Alejandro de Humboldt]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Banc d'Arguin]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Beit Guvrin-Maresha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Belovezhskaya Pushcha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Canaima]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chapada dos Veadeiros]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chiribiquete]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Chitwan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Cilento, Vallo di Diano u Alburni]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Coiba]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Comoé]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Darien]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Defileul Jiului]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Desembarco del Granma]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Doñana]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Everglades]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta’ Fertő-Hanság]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garajonay]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Garamba]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Great Smoky Mountains]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Gros Morne]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Gunung Mulu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Hortobágy]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Huascarán]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ichkeul]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Iguaçu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Iguazú]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ivindo]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kahuzi-Biega]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kakadu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kaziranga]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Khangchendzonga]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kilimanjaro]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kinabalu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Kiskunság]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Komodo]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lahemaa]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lençóis Maranhenses]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lorentz]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Alerces]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Glaciares]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Los Katíos]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Lushan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Mammoth Cave]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manas]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manú]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Manovo-Gounda St Floris]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Mesa Verde]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Miguasha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Morne Trois Pitons]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Murujuga]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Nahanni]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Niah]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Niokolo-Koba]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Noel Kempff Mercado]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Nyungwe]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Phong Nha – Kẻ Bàng]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Þingvellir]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Pirin]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Purnululu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Rapa Nui]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Rio Abiseo]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sagarmatha]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Salonga]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sangay]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Sanqingshan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Serengeti]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Serra da Capivara]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Simien]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Taï]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Talampaya]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Teide]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Tongariro]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Ujung Kulon]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Una]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Vatnajökull]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Virunga]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Yellowstone]] *[[Park Nazzjonali ta' Yosemite]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Biżonti tal-Boskijiet]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Foresta Pluvjali ta' Gola]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Fortizza tal-Għolja ta' Brimstone]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għadajjar ta' Mana]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Carlsbad]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Naracoorte]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Għerien ta' Peruaçu]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Grand Canyon]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Himalayas il-Kbar]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Rodopi]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lag tal-Malawi]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Lagi ta’ Plitvice]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja Dajti]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja tal-Kenja]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanja Tomorr]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanji ta' Bale]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Muntanji ta' Rwenzori]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tal-Vulkani ta' Hawaii]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tas-Sundarbans]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tat-Taġikistan]] *[[Park Nazzjonali tax-Xmara ta' Taħt l-Art ta' Puerto Princesa]] *[[Park Provinċjali ta' Ischigualasto]] *[[Park Provinċjali ta' Writing-on-Stone]] *[[Park Provinċjali tad-Dinosawri]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Ayutthaya]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Phu Phrabat]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Si Thep]] *[[Park Storiku ta' Sukhothai]] *[[Park ta' Maloti-Drakensberg]] *[[Park ta’ Muskau|Park ta' Muskau]] *[[Park tal-Art Mistagħdra ta' iSimangaliso]] *[[Park tal-Mafkar tar-Rewwixta u tar-Rivoluzzjoni]] *[[Park Trinazzjonali ta' Sangha]] *[[Parks Internazzjonali tal-Paċi ta' Waterton-tal-Glaċieri]] *[[Parks Nazzjonali ta' Nanda Devi u tal-Wied tal-Fjuri]] *[[Parks Nazzjonali tal-Lag ta' Turkana]] *[[Parks Nazzjonali u Statali tas-Siġar tal-Injam tal-Aħmar]] *[[Parks tal-Muntanji tar-Rockies Kanadiżi]] *[[Parmigianino]] *[[Parrukkier]] *[[Pasargadae]] *[[Paseo del Prado]] *[[Patoloġija]] *[[Pattadakal]] *[[Paulo Coelho]] *[[Pavlo Lee]] *[[Pécs]] *[[Pellegrinaġġ ta’ San Ġakbu]] *[[Peña de los Enamorados]] *[[Peniżola]] *[[Peniżola Valdés]] *[[Pergamon]] *[[Peri-Khan Sofiyeva]] *[[Persepolis]] *[[Peter Carl Fabergé]] *[[Péter Magyar]] *[[Pëtr Kapica]] *[[Petra]] *[[Petra Brocková]] *[[Petroglifiċi ta' Bangudae]] *[[Petroglifiċi tal-Lag ta' Onega u l-Baħar Abjad]] *[[Philipp Otto Runge]] *[[Philippi]] *[[Pienza]] *[[Piero Angela]] *[[Pierre Fatou]] *[[Pietro Longhi]] *[[Pietru l-Kbir]] *[[Pimachiowin Aki]] *[[Ping Yao]] *[[Pippo Baudo]] *[[Pirinej-Monte Perdido]] *[[Pitons]] *[[Pitons, Cirques u Rdumijiet tal-Gżira ta' Réunion]] *[[Pjanta]] *[[Pjanura ta' Bărăgan]] *[[Pjanura ta’ Stari Grad]] *[[Pjanura tal-Ġarer]] *[[Pjazza]] *[[Pjazza ta' Naqsh-e Jahan]] * [[Pjazza tal-Mirakli]] *[[Plamer]] *[[Planetarju Rjali ta' Eise Eisinga]] *[[Pobiti Kamani]] *[[Politika]] *[[Polonnaruwa]] *[[Pont Antik ta’ Mostar]] *[[Pont ta' Forth]] *[[Pont ta' Malabadi]] *[[Pont ta' Mehmed Paša Sokolović]] *[[Pont ta' Vizcaya]] *[[Pont tal-Fjuri]] *[[Pont tal-Paċi, Tbilisi]] *[[Porfirio Barba-Jacob]] *[[Port Royal]] *[[Port ta' Mariupol]] *[[Port ta’ Marsamxett]] *[[Porta Nigra]] *[[Portiċi ta' Bologna]] *[[Porto]] *[[Postijiet Sagri tal-Bahá'i]] *[[Potosí]] *[[Pożati]] *[[Prambanan]] *[[Professjoni]] *[[Proklos]] *[[Promontorju ta' Putorana]] *[[Provins]] *[[Pu'er]] *[[Puebla (belt)]] *[[Pythagoreion]] === '''<u>Q</u>''' === * [[Qabar ta' Askia]] * [[Qabar ta' Humayun]] * [[Qabar Traċjan ta' Kazanlak]] * [[Qabar Traċjan ta' Sveshtari]] * [[Qabża tal-Biżonti Sfrakassati]] * [[Qal'at al-Bahrain]] * [[Qala (Għawdex)]] * [[Qalba Neolitika tal-Gżejjer Orkney]] * [[Qalhat]] * [[Qanat]] * [[Qaryat al-Faw]] * [[Qaytarma]] * [[Qorti Rjali ta' Tiébélé]] * [[Il-Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann|Qtugħ ir-Ras ta’ San Ġwann Battista (Caravaggio)]] * [[Quanzhou]] * [[Quebrada de Humahuaca]] * [[Quedlinburg]] * [[Quirigua]] * [[Quito]] * [[Quseir Amra]] * [[Qutb Minar]] === '''<u>R</u>''' === * [[Rachid Chouhal]] * [[Raħal Storiku ta' St. George u l-Fortifikazzjonijiet Relatati, Bermuda]] * [[Rammelsberg]] * [[Ramses II]] * [[Rani-ki-Vav]] * [[Ras'ken' Ozks]] * [[Ravenna]] * [[Ravesa Lleshi]] * [[Red Bay]] * [[Regensburg]] * [[Reġjun Naturali, Kulturali u Storiku ta’ Kotor]] * [[Reġjun tal-Estrazzjoni tal-Minerali ta' Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří]] * [[Reġjun tal-Inbid ta' Tokaj]] *[[Reichenau]] *[[Relattività (Maurits Cornelis Escher)]] *[[Rembrandt]] *[[Renata Scotto]] *[[Renju ta' Mapungubwe]] *[[Renju tal-Ġonna ta' Dessau-Wörlitz]] *[[Repubblika Sovjetika ta’ Don|Repubblika Sovjetika ta' Don]] *[[Residenza ta' Würzburg]] *[[Residenza tal-Metropolitani ta' Bukovina u tad-Dalmazja]] *[[Residenzi tal-Familja Savoia]] *[[Residenzi tal-Moderniżmu f'Berlin]] *[[Rettilu]] *[[Rewwixta tal-Qassisin]] *[[Riga]] *[[Risco Caído]] *[[Riversleigh]] *[[Riżerva Ekoloġika ta' Mistaken Point]] *[[Riżerva Forestali ta' Sinharaja]] *[[Riżerva Naturali Stretta tal-Muntanja ta' Nimba]] *[[Riżerva Naturali Stretta tat-Tsingy ta' Bemaraha]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Bashkiriya]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Kaniv]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Nahal Me'arot]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Okapi]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Selous]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Srebarna]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta' Tigrovaya Balka]] *[[Riżerva Naturali ta’ Yulen]] *[[Riżerva Naturali tal-Flora fil-Ġibs]] *[[Riżerva Naturali tas-Suriname Ċentrali]] *[[Riżerva ta' Bijosfera ta' El Pinacate u Gran Desierto de Altar]] *[[Riżerva ta' Bijosfera ta' Río Plátano]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera ta' Tehuacán-Cuicatlán]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera tal-Baħar l-Iswed]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera tal-Friefet Monarki]] *[[Riżerva tal-Bijosfera Transkonfinali Ohrid-Prespa]] *[[Riżerva tal-Fawna ta' Dja]] *[[Riżervi Naturali ta' Air u ta' Ténéré]] *[[Riżervi tal-Foresti Atlantiċi tal-Kosta tal-Iskoperti]] *[[Riżervi tal-Foresti Atlantiċi tax-Xlokk]] *[[Riżervi tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Talamanca-La Amistad]] *[[Robert Fico]] *[[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]] *[[Roberto Burle Marx]] *[[Rodi (belt)]] * [[Roi Mata]] * [[Roșia Montană]] * [[Ronald Searle]] * [[Røros]] * [[Rotta tal-Inċens – Bliet tad-Deżert f'Negev]] * [[Rotta Wixárika tas-Siti Sagri lejn Wirikuta]] * [[Rotot ta’ Santiago de Compostela fi Franza]] * [[Royal Exhibition Building]] * [[Róža Domašcyna]] *[[Rudolf Diesel]] *[[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]] === '''<u>S</u>''' === * [[Sabratha]] * [[Saeva Dupka]] * [[Safranbolu]] * [[Saint-Émilion]] * [[Sajjied]] *[[Sala taċ-Ċentenarju]] *[[Salamanca]] *[[Salib ta' Santa Ewfrosina]] *[[Salini Rjali ta' Arc-et-Senans]] *[[Salme Kann]] *[[Saltaire]] *[[Salvatore Accardo]] *[[Salzburg]] *[[Samantha Cristoforetti]] *[[Samarkanda]] *[[Samarra]] *[[Sambor Prei Kuk]] *[[Sammallahdenmäki]] *[[Samuel Deguara]] *[[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]] *[[San Gimignano]] *[[San Lawrenz (Għawdex)]] *[[San Miguel de Allende]] *[[San Pietruburgu]] *[[Sana'a]] *[[Sanchi]] *[[Sandra Milo]] *[[Sandra Mondaini]] *[[Sandro Botticelli]] *[[Sangiran]] *[[Sansa, il-Monasteri Buddisti tal-Muntanji tal-Korea t'Isfel]] *[[Santa Cruz de Mompox]] *[[Santiago de Compostela]] *[[Santiago de Querétaro]] *[[Santiniketan]] *[[Santwarji tal-Għasafar tal-Passa tul il-Kosta tal-Baħar Isfar u l-Golf ta' Bohai]] *[[Santwarji tal-Pandas Ġganteski ta' Sichuan]] *[[Santwarji tan-Natura Selvaġġa ta' Thungyai-Huai Kha Khaeng]] *[[Santwarju Nazzjonali tal-Għasafar ta' Djoudj]] *[[Santwarju ta' Bom Jesus de Matosinhos]] *[[Santwarju ta' Bom Jesus do Monte]] *[[Santwarju ta' Itsukushima]] *[[Santwarju tal-Balieni ta' El Vizcaino]] *[[Santwarju ta' Mỹ Sơn]] *[[Santwarju tal-Fawna u tal-Flora ta' Malpelo]] *[[Santwarju tan-Natura Selvaġġa tal-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Hamiguitan]] *[[São Cristóvão]] *[[São Luís]] *[[Sarazm]] *[[Sardis]] * [[Saryarka]] * [[Sassi ta' Matera]] *[[Schokland]] *[[Seba’ Għeġubijiet Ġodda tad-Dinja]] *[[Sebastian Brant]] *[[Segovia]] *[[Seka Sablić]] *[[Sengħa]] *[[Seokguram]] *[[Seowon]] *[[Severo Ochoa]] *[[Sevil Shhaideh]] *[[Sewell]] *[[Sferi tal-Ġebel tal-Costa Rica]] *[[SGang Gwaay]] *[[Shahr-e Sukhteh]] *[[Shahrisabz]] *[[Shaken Aimanov]] *[[Shales ta' Maotianshan]] *[[Sheki]] *[[Shennongjia]] *[[Shibam]] *[[Shirakami-Sanchi]] *[[Shiretoko]] *[[Sian Ka'an]] *[[Šibenik]] *[[Sibila Petlevski]] *[[Sidney Webb]] *[[Siega Verde]] *[[Siena]] *[[Sighișoara]] *[[Sigiriya]] *[[Siġra tal-Ballut ta' Stelmužė]] *[[Siġra tal-ballut ta' Tamme-Lauri]] *[[Sikhote-Alin]] *[[Simon Kldiashvili]] *[[Sinagoga Antika (Erfurt)]] *[[Sinéad O'Connor]] *[[Sintra]] *[[Siracusa]] *[[Sistema Idrawlika Storika ta' Shushtar]] *[[Sistema tal-Ġestjoni tal-Ilma ta' Augsburg]] *[[Sistema tat-Toroq tal-Inka]] *[[Sit Agrikolu Bikri ta' Kuk]] *[[Sit arkeoloġiku ta' Al-Balid|Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Al-Balid]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta' Atapuerca]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku ta’ Paphos]] *[[Sit Arkeoloġiku tal-Maħżen ta' Valongo]] *[[Sit Storiku Nazzjonali ta' San Juan]] *[[Sit Storiku Statali tat-Tumbati tal-Ħamrija ta' Cahokia]] * [[Sit ta' Wirt Dinji]] * [[Sit ta' Wirt Industrijali ta' Rjukan-Notodden]] *[[Sit tad-Dolmens ta' Antequera]] *[[Sit tar-Raġel ta' Peking f'Zhoukoudian]] *[[Siti tad-Dolmens ta' Gochang, Hwasun u Ganghwa]] *[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Bat, Al-Khutm u Al-Ayn]] *[[Siti Arkeoloġiċi ta' Tarraco]] *[[Siti Awstraljani tal-Fossili tal-Mammiferi]] *[[Siti Ewlenin tal-Estrazzjoni fil-Wallonja]] *[[Siti Funebri u Mfakar tal-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija (il-Front tal-Punent)]] *[[Siti Kristjani Moħbija fir-Reġjun ta' Nagasaki]] *[[Siti Metallurġiċi Antiki tal-Burkina Faso]] *[[Siti Penitenzjarji Awstraljani]] *[[Siti preistoriċi bil-puntali madwar l-Alpi|Siti Preistoriċi bil-Puntali Madwar l-Alpi]] *[[Siti Preistoriċi ta' Jōmon fit-Tramuntana tal-Ġappun]] *[[Siti Sagri u Rotot ta' Pellegrinaġġ fil-Katina Muntanjuża ta' Kii]] *[[Siti tal-Fossili tal-Ominidi tal-Afrika t'Isfel]] *[[Siti tar-Rivoluzzjoni Industrijali Meiji tal-Ġappun]] *[[Siti tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Kondoa]] *[[Siti tat-Tusi]] *[[Skarpan]] *[[Skellig Michael]] *[[Skogskyrkogården]] *[[Skojjattlu tal-art ta' Tian Shan]] *[[Skola Superjuri tal-Mekkanika tal-Armata]] *[[Skoll il-Kbir tal-Qroll]] *[[Skoll tal-Qroll ta' New Caledonia]] *[[Skoll tal-Qroll tal-Belize]] *[[Skorba]] *[[Skrivan]] *[[Slavko Brezoski]] *[[Socotra]] *[[Soltaniyeh]] *[[Songo Mnara]] *[[Sophia Loren]] *[[Sophie Germain]] *[[Sophie Liebknecht]] *[[Söyembikä]] *[[Speicherstadt]] *[[Spinalonga]] *[[Sputnik 5]] *[[Stari Ras]] *[[Statwa]] *[[Statwa ta' Roland ta' Bremen]] *[[Statwa tal-Libertà]] *[[Stazzjon ta' Chhatrapati Shivaji]] *[[Stazzjon tar-Radju ta' Grimeton]] *[[Stećak]] *[[Stepan Erzya]] *[[Stevns Klint]] *[[Stonehenge]] *[[Stone Town]] *[[Strett ta' Hormuz]] *[[Su Nuraxi]] *[[Subak]] *[[Sulaiman-Too]] *[[Sundarbans]] *[[Suq Ċentrali ta' Ljubljana]] *[[Surtsey]] *[[Susa]] *[[Svaneti]] *[[Svetlana Antonovska]] *[[Sviyazhsk]] === '''<u>T</u>''' === * [[Ta' Bakkja]] * [[Ta' Ħaġrat]] * [[Ta' Kandja]] *[[Tabib]] *[[Tadrart Acacus]] *[[Taħdit]] *[[Taishan]] *[[Taj Mahal]] *[[Takalik Abaj]] *[[Takht-e Soleyman]] *[[Takht-i-Bahi]] *[[Takkanot Shum]] *[[Taksim]] *[[Tallinn]] *[[Tamgaly]] *[[Tanġier]] *[[Taos Pueblo]] *[[Taputapuātea]] *[[Tarraco]] *[[Tarzna Navali ta' Antigua u s-Siti Arkeoloġiċi Relatati]] *[[Tassili n'Ajjer]] *[[Taxila]] *[[Tchogha Zanbil]] *[[Te Wahipounamu]] *[[Teatru Akkademiku Reġjonali ta' Donetsk]] *[[Teatru Antik ta’ Epidaurus|Teatru Antik ta' Epidaurus]] *[[Teatru Rjal]] *[[Teatru Ruman ta' Orange]] *[[Teatru tal-Opri Margravjali]] *[[Teatru tal-Opri ta' Sydney]] *[[Tebe (Eġittu)]] *[[Tekniku]] *[[Telč]] *[[Tempji Ħajjin Kbar taċ-Ċola]] * [[Tempji Megalitiċi ta’ Malta u Għawdex|Tempji Megalitiċi ta' Malta u Għawdex]] * [[Tempji ta' Ħal Tarxien]] *[[Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f’Bassae|Tempju ta' Apollo Epikurju f'Bassae]] *[[Tempju ta' Asklepju ta' Epidaurus]] *[[Tempju ta' Haeinsa]] *[[Tempju ta' Kakatiya Rudreshwara]] *[[Tempju ta' Mahabodhi]] *[[Tempju ta' Preah Vihear]] *[[Tempju tal-Ġenna]] *[[Tempju tal-Għar ta' Dambulla]] *[[Tempju tax-Xemx ta' Konarak]] *[[Tempju u Ċimiterju ta' Konfuċju u l-Villa tal-Familja Kong f'Qufu]] *[[Teotihuacan]] *[[Tequila (Belt)]] * [[Terminoloġija]] * [[Tetiana Ostashchenko]] * [[Tétouan]] *[[Teżawru]] *[[Theobald Boehm]] *[[Theodore Géricault]] *[[Thimlich Ohinga]] *[[Tholos ta' El Romeral]] *[[Thomas à Kempis]] *[[Thoros ta' Edessa]] *[[Tian Shan]] * [[Tieqa tad-Dwejra]] * [[Tieqa ta' Wied il-Mielaħ]] * [[Tikal]] * [[Timbuktu]] * [[Timgad]] * [[Tina Turner]] * [[Tinetto]] * [[Tino]] * [[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Alta]] *[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat f'Tanum]] *[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat fir-Reġjun ta' Ha'il]] *[[Tinqix fuq il-Blat ta' Dazu]] *[[Tinqix ta' Bisotun]] *[[Tipasa]] *[[Tiryns]] *[[Tiwanaku]] *[[Tiya]] *[[Tlacotalpan]] *[[TNMK]] *[[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]] *[[Toledo]] *[[Tomaso Antonio Vitali]] *[[Tomiri]] *[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: il-Kuritur ta' Zarafshan-Karakum]] *[[Toroq tal-Ħarir: in-Network ta' Rotot tal-Kuritur ta' Chang'an-Tianshan]] * [[Torri Mmejjel ta' Pisa]] * [[Torri ta' Belém]] *[[Torri ta' Erkole]] *[[Torri ta' Londra]] *[[Torri tax-Xebba (Baku)]] *[[Torrijiet residenzjali tas-Svan|Torrijiet Residenzjali tas-Svan]] *[[Toruń]] *[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Sierra de San Francisco]] *[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat tal-Baċir Mediterran Iberiku]] *[[Tpittir fuq il-Blat tal-Għar ta' Shulgan-Tash]] *[[Trattat ta' Kaunas]] *[[Třebíč]] *[[Trinidad, Kuba]] *[[Trogir]] *[[Trojja]] *[[Tropiċi Mistagħdra ta' Queensland]] *[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija, Owczary]] *[[Tserkva ta' Santa Marija Omm Alla, Chotyniec]] *[[Tserkva tal-Injam tal-Karpazji fil-Polonja u fl-Ukrajna]] *[[Tsodilo]] *[[Tubeteika]] *[[Tulou ta' Fujian|''Tulou'' ta' Fujian]] *[[Tumbati Ċerimonjali tal-Ħamrija ta' Hopewell]] *[[Tumbati Funebri ta' Dilmun]] *[[Tumbati Funebri ta' Gaya]] *[[Tumbati Monumentali tal-Ħamrija ta' Poverty Point]] *[[Turan]] *[[Tutankhamun]] *[[Twyfelfontein]] *[[Tyre]] === '''<u>U</u>''' === * [[Úbeda]] * [[Ugo Foscolo]] *[[Uluru]] *[[Um er-Rasas]] *[[Umm Al-Jimāl]] *[[UNESCO]] *[[Università Iżlamika Russa]] *[[Università Nazzjonali Awtonoma tal-Messiku]] *[[Università ta' Al-Qarawiġin|Università ta' Al-Qarawijin]] *[[Università ta' Coimbra]] *[[Unjoni Sovjetika]] *[[Urbino]] *[['Uruq Bani Mu'arid]] *[[Uxmal]] === '''<u>V</u>''' === * [[Val d'Orcia]] *[[Val di Noto]] *[[Valentyna Radzymovska]] *[[Valeria Bruni Tedeschi]] *[[Vallée de Mai]] *[[Vasco da Gama]] *[[Vat Phou]] *[[Velimir Khlebnikov]] *[[Venera 7]] *[[Verona]] *[[Via Appia]] *[[Victoria Amelina]] *[[Vigan]] *[[Vincent van Gogh]] *[[Vilel u Ġonna tal-Familja Medici]] *[[Villa d'Este]] *[[Villa Romana del Casale]] *[[Villa ta' Adrijanu]] *[[Villa Tugendhat]] *[[Villaġġi Antiki tat-Tramuntana tas-Sirja]] *[[Villaġġi bil-Knejjes Iffortifikati f'Transilvanja]] *[[Villaġġi Storiċi ta' Shirakawa-gō u Gokayama]] *[[Vilnius]] *[[Visby]] *[[Vitaliy Kim]] *[[Vito Volterra]] *[[Vittorio De Sica]] *[[Vjenna]] *[[Vladimir Ashkenazy]] *[[Vlkolínec]] *[[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] *[[Volubilis]] *[[Võros]] *[[Vulkan tat-Tajn ta’ Lökbatan]] *[[Vulkani ta' Kamchatka]] === '''<u>W</u>''' === * [[Wachau]] * [[Wadi Al-Hitan]] *[[Wadi Rum]] *[[Wales]] *[[Weimar Klassika]] *[[Werrej]] *[[Wied Superjuri tar-Renu Nofsani]] *[[Wied t'Isfel tal-Awash]] *[[Wied ta' Kathmandu]] *[[Wied ta' Loire]] *[[Wied ta' Madriu-Perafita-Claror]] *[[Wied ta' M'zab]] *[[Wied ta' Qadisha]] *[[Wied ta' Viñales]] *[[Wied tal-Fondoq il-Kbir]] *[[Wied tat-Tempji]] *[[Wilhelm Grimm]] *[[Wilhelm Röntgen]] *[[Willem de Sitter]] *[[Willemstad]] *[[William Boeing]] *[[Wirt Arkeoloġiku tal-Wied ta' Lenggong]] *[[Wirt tal-Foresti Tropikali ta' Sumatra]] *[[Wismar]] *[[Władysław Horodecki]] *[[Wolfgang Paul]] === '''<u>X</u>''' === * [[Xanadu]] * [[Xanthos]] * [[Xatt it-Tiben]] *[[Xeff]] *[[Xidi]] *[[Xmara Omo]] *[[Xochicalco]] *[[Xogħlijiet ta' Jože Plečnik f'Ljubljana – Disinn Urban Iċċentrat fuq il-Bniedem]] *[[Xogħol Arkitettoniku ta' Le Corbusier]] *[[Xjenza spazjali]] *[[Xtatol]] === '''<u>Y</u>''' === * [[Yagul]] * [[Yakushima]] * [[Yana Zinkevych]] * [[Yangdong]] * [[Yarmak]] * [[Yaroslavl]] * [[Yazd]] * [[Yeni-Kale]] * [[Yin Xu]] * [[Yllka Mujo]] * [[Yogyakarta]] *[[Yuliya Gushchina]] *[[Yuri Lysianskyi]] === '''<u>Ż</u>''' === * [[Żapoteki]] * [[Żiemel Abjad ta' Osmington]] * [[Żona Kulturali ta' Ḥimā]] *[[Żona l-Kbira tal-Muntanji Blu]] *[[Żona Naturali Selvaġġa tat-Tażmanja]] *[[Żona Protetta ta' Jungfrau-Aletsch]] *[[Żona Protetta ta' Pliva, Janj u r-Riżerva ta' Janjske Otoke]] *[[Żona Protetta tal-Gżejjer Phoenix]] *[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku ta' Huanglong]] *[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku tal-Wied ta' Jiuzhaigou]] *[[Żona ta' Interess Xeniku u Storiku ta' Wulingyuan]] *[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Guanacaste]] *[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Ngorongoro]] *[[Żona ta' Konservazzjoni ta' Pantanal]] *[[Żona tat-Tpittir fuq il-Blat ta' Chongoni]] *[[Żoni Protetti tar-Reġjun tal-Fjuri tal-Kap]] *[[Żoni Protetti tat-Tliet Xmajjar Paralleli ta' Yunnan]] *[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Baekje]] *[[Żoni Storiċi ta' Gyeongju]] *[[Żooloġija]] === '''<u>Z</u>''' === * [[Zabid]] * [[Zacatecas (belt)]] * [[Zagori]] * [[Zamość]] * [[Žatec]] * [[Žehra]] * [[Ziba Ganiyeva]] * [[Zivana]] * [[Zlata Kolarić-Kišur]] *[[Zofia Zamenhof]] *[[Zollverein]] *[[Zond 5]] *[[Zsuzsanna Lorántffy]] dgobypbkljv5fgl3b79yn084069cub6 0 32372 329975 329541 2026-05-15T06:38:01Z BabbaQ 4943 329975 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Aidan Cassar''' (imwieled fis-17 ta' Diċembru 1999),<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.zejtunlocalcouncil.com/single-post/2018/03/22/aidan-cassar-u-francesca-mifsud-jingħataw-l-premju-fjamma-żagħżugħa|titlu=Aidan Cassar u Francesca Mifsud jingħataw l-premju 'Fjamma Żagħżugħa'|isem=Sean|awtur=Chircop|data=2018-03-22|sit=Żejtun Local Council|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> magħruf professjonalment bħala '''Aidan''', huwa kittieb tal-kanzunetti u kantant Malti. == Karriera == Fl-2018 huwa kkompeta fil-[[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2018|Malta Eurovision Song Contest]] bil-kanzunetta ''Dai Laga''. Wara rapporti li l-kanzunetta, oriġinarjament ippreżentata bħala kompożizzjoni oriġinali, kienet użat ritmu ta’ produzzjoni disponibbli pubblikament u setgħet potenzjalment tikser ir-regoli tal-Eurovision, ġiet imġedda u maħruġa mill-ġdid.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://wiwibloggs.com/2018/01/19/aidan-publishes-dai-laga-revamp-following-rule-breach-controversy-in-malta/210448/|titlu=Aidan publishes "Dai Laga" revamp following rule breach controversy in Malta|isem=William Lee|awtur=Adams|data=19 January 2018|sit=wiwibloggs|data-aċċess=16 January 2024|url-status=live|arkivju-url=https://archive.today/20240116222355/https://wiwibloggs.com/2018/01/19/aidan-publishes-dai-laga-revamp-following-rule-breach-controversy-in-malta/210448/|arkivju-data=16 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2018-01-10/local-news/PBS-looking-into-possible-breach-of-Eurovision-rules-by-MESC-song-entry-6736183440|titlu=PBS looking into possible breach of Eurovision rules by MESC song entry - The Malta Independent|sit=Malta Independent|data-aċċess=2024-02-18}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta ġiet fir-raba’ post fil-konkors.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://eurovisionworld.com/national/malta/mesc-2018|titlu=Malta: MESC 2018|sit=Eurovisionworld|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2024-02-18}}</ref> Wara dan huwa ħa sehem fl-''[[X Factor Malta]]''.<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/lifestyle/eurovision/exclusive-aidan-submits-upbeat-song-entirely-in-maltese-for-eurovision/|titlu=Exclusive: Aidan Submits Upbeat Song Entirely In Maltese For Eurovision|isem=Tim|awtur=Diacono|data=2021-12-15|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Fl-2019 irrappreżenta lil Malta fl-OGAE Song Contest 2019 bil-kanzunetta ''The Feeling''.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://ogae.uk/ogae-song-contest-2019-malta/|titlu=OGAE Song Contest 2019 - Malta|sit=OGAE UK|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2022-04-01|url-status=dead|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626082417/https://ogae.uk/ogae-song-contest-2019-malta/|arkivju-data=26 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/news/watch-maltas-summer-anthem-aidan-explains-unlikely-success-of-his-latest-hit-single-sung-entirely-in-maltese/|titlu=WATCH: Malta's Summer Anthem? Aidan Explains Unlikely Success Of His Latest Hit Single Sung Entirely In Maltese|isem=Jean Paul|awtur=Azzopardi|data=2021-05-20|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Is-single tiegħu ''[[Naħseb Fik]]'' ġiet imqabbla ma' ''Tick Tock'' ta' Clean Bandit u Mabel u ntqal li kellha progressjoni ta' akkordji simili. Huwa ċaħad li l-beat u l-melodija kienu kkupjati.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/news/aidan-responds-to-allegations-that-hit-single-nahseb-fik-was-lifted-from-a-clean-bandit-track/|titlu=Aidan Responds To Allegations That Hit Single 'Naħseb Fik' Was Lifted From A Clean Bandit Track|isem=Johnathan|awtur=Cilia|data=2021-05-27|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/musicians-raise-plagiarism-concerns-over-aidan-cassars-hit-song.874984|titlu=Musicians raise plagiarism concerns over Aidan Cassar's hit song|isem=Jessica|awtur=Arena|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta ddaħħlet fil-konkors [[Mużika Mużika]] fl-2021. Din kienet l-ewwel darba li kiteb kanzunetta bil-Malti, kif ukoll l-ewwel darba li kanta bil-Malti.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.festivals.mt/post/muzika-muzika-a-prestigious-launch-pad|titlu=Mużika Mużika, a prestigious launch pad for up and coming artists|data=2021-08-25|sit=Festivals Malta 2022|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-video mużikali rebaħ il-video mużikali tas-sena fil-Lovin Malta Social Media Awards tal-2021.<ref name=":0" /> Ħa sehem fil- [[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2022|Malta Eurovision Song Contest fl-2022]] bil-kanzunetta ''Ritmu'', u ġie fit-tieni post. <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imhabbra-t-22-semifinalista-tal-malta-eurovision-song-contest-2022/|titlu=Imħabbra t-22 semifinalista tal-Malta Eurovision Song Contest 2022|isem=Owen|awtur=Galea|data=29 December 2021|sit=TVMnews.mt|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/en/news/nofs-miljun-raw-it-tliet-serati-tal-eurovision-song-contest/|titlu=Record TV audience – over half a million viewers watch Eurovision Song Contest|data=20 February 2022|sit=TVMnews.mt|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta għaddiet biex tilħaq il-quċċata tal-klassifiċi tal-airplay fuq ir-radju f'Malti għal tliet ġimgħat konsekuttivi, u ndaqqet ukoll waqt pre-party tal-Eurovision [[Londra|f'Londra]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://maltadaily.mt/aidan-invited-to-perform-fan-favourite-ritmu-in-london/|titlu=Aidan invited to perform fan-favourite 'RITMU' in London|awtur=MaltaDaily|data=2022-04-06|sit=Malta Daily|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-04-07}}</ref> Aidan ħabbar ir-riżultati tal-ġurija għal Malta fil- [[Eurovision Song Contest 2022]] . Fl-24 ta’ Lulju, 2022, kanta live il-kanzunetti Naħseb Fik u “Ritmu”<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v5rFFcGa0Nc|titlu=Isle of MTV 2022|sit=YouTube}}</ref> waqt [[Isle of MTV|Isle Of MTV]] 2022 fil-[[Furjana]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/arts/music/117597/full_lineup_for_this_years_isle_of_mtv_announced|titlu=Full line-up for this year's Isle of MTV announced|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-01-14}}</ref> Fl-2023 reġa’ daħal għall-[[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2023|Malta Eurovision Song Contest]] bil-kanzunetta ''Reġina''. Huwa kien skwalifikat mill-konkors allegatament minħabba posts fuq il-media soċjali dwar il-kanzunetta tiegħu li ma kinux permessi mill-PBS bħala l-organizzaturi. Huwa hedded lill-PBS b'azzjoni legali<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/arts/entertainment/121048/aidan_cassar_withdraws_from_eurovision_legal_challenge|titlu=Aidan Cassar backs out of Eurovision legal challenge|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref> iżda din twarrbet meta kien mistieden ikanta medley tal-kanzunetti tiegħu waqt l-intervall tas-serata finali.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/singer-aidan-cassar-disqualified-malta-eurovision-song-contest.1009047|titlu=Singer Aidan Cassar disqualified from Malta Eurovision Song Contest|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/aidan-return-guest-singer-eurovision-final-show.1012983|titlu=Aidan to return as guest singer in Eurovision final show|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref> == Diskografija == === Albums === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! scope="col" | Titlu ! scope="col" | Dettalji |- ! scope="row" | ''This Is Aidan'' | * Ħruġ: 31 ta' Marzu 2023 * Tikketta: maħruġ mill-kantant stess * Format: download diġitali |- ! scope="row"| ''Cowboys Don't Cry'' | * Ħruġ: 20 ta' Marzu 2026<ref name=":cowboys">{{Ċita web|url=https://youtube.com/playlist?list=OLAK5uy_mb9jS17nkY20psSmKHG_5g8oDKTh_oQSM|titlu=AIDAN - Cowboys Don't Cry (Album Playlist)|data=2026-03-20|data-aċċess=2026-04-24}}</ref> * Tikketta: maħruġ mill-kantant stess * Format: download diġitali |} === Singles === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:15em;" |Title ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:1em;" |Year !Peak chart positions ! rowspan="2" scope="col" |Album |- ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;" |MLT<br /><br /> |- ! scope="row" |"Rule the World"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=919IvcOQSqA|titlu=AIDAN - Rule The World (Audio)|data=2015-12-21|sit=[[YouTube]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2015 |— | rowspan="8" {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Bon Bon"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.reverbnation.com/aidancassar/song/28435191-aidan-bon-bon-official-audio|titlu=Aidan - Bon Bon (Official Audio) by Aidan Cassar {{!}} ReverbNation|data=2017-07-24|sit=[[ReverbNation ]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2017 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Drums"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/6oCD8c0y6LZpJezDCCloKF|titlu=Aidan - Drums {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2017-09-25|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |— |- ! scope="row" |"Dai Laga"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://eurovoix.com/2018/01/19/malta-aidan-revamped-dai-laga/|titlu=Malta: Aidan Releases Revamped Version Of "Dai Laga" After Rule Break|data=2018-01-19|sit=Eurovoix|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2018 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Mine"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-GLQ1Y1pCto|titlu=AIDAN - Mine (Official Audio)|data=2018-10-07|sit=[[YouTube]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |5 |- ! scope="row" |"The Feeling"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/1MNqCc2cIK29mwllUbrp9b|titlu=AIDAN - The Feeling {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2019-07-16|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2019 |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Somebody Like You"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/somebody-like-you-single/1534677084|titlu=Somebody Like You - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2020-10-08|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2020 |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Heart Emoji"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/heart-emoji-single/1552740068|titlu=Heart Emoji - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2021-02-12|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106232616/https://music.apple.com/mt/album/heart-emoji-single/1552740068|arkivju-data=2023-01-06|url-status=dead}}</ref> | rowspan="3" |2021 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Naħseb Fik"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/na%C4%A7seb-fik-single/1557633891|titlu=Naħseb Fik - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2021-03-19|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106232615/https://music.apple.com/mt/album/na%C4%A7seb-fik-single/1557633891|arkivju-data=2023-01-06|url-status=dead}}</ref> |1 |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"24/7"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/5RsPvZWJHt7PJXbeGlMOIH|titlu=24/7 - Single by Carlo Gerada, AIDAN {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2021-09-16|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with Carlo Gerarda)}} |1 | {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Ritmu"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/ritmu-single/1632935126|titlu=Ritmu - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2022-03-02|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2022 |1 |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"Madam"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/madam-single/1652732384|titlu=Madam - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2022-11-21|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2 | {{N/a|Non-album single}} |- ! scope="row" |"Rip (Rest in Peace)"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/rip-rest-in-peace-single/1660660457|titlu=Rip (Rest in Peace) - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2023-01-01|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with [[Ira Losco]])}} | rowspan="5" |2023 |1 | rowspan="3" |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"Reġina"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://mobile.twitter.com/AIDANOfficial__/status/1607815069794029568|titlu=AIDAN 👑 🇲🇹 on Twitter: "Reġina is my entry for Malta #Eurovision 2023, based on a true story and dedicated to my mother 👑 The song is in Maltese, Spanish and English 🇲🇹🇪🇸🇬🇧"|data=2022-12-27|sit=[[Twitter]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-09}}</ref> |2 |- ! scope="row" |"Hey Anna" |— |- ! scope="row" |"Strawberry"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/en/aidan-releases-music-video-for-new-single-strawberry/|titlu=AIDAN releases music video for new single ’Strawberry’|isem=|awtur=|data=2023-09-02|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-09-24}}</ref> |1 | rowspan="2" {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Head & Mind"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/head-mind-single/1704367426|titlu=Head & Mind - Single - Album by naBBoo & AIDAN|data=2023-10-27|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-11-05}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with [[Boban Apostolov|NaBBoo]])}} |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Juliette"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/Juliette/1728296457|titlu=Juliette - Song by AIDAN|data=2024-02-09|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2024-03-29}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2024 |1 | rowspan="2" |Singles mhux minn album |- ! scope="row" |"Hero" |— |- | colspan="4" style="font-size:90%" |"—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. |} === Kanzunetti oħra === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:15em;" | Titlu ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:1em;" | Sena ! L-ogħla pożizzjonijiet fil-klassifika ! rowspan="2" scope="col" | Album |- ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;" | MLT<br /> <ref name="MLT">Peak chart positions for singles in Malta: </ref> |- ! scope="row" | "Pupa" | 2023 | 1 | ''This Is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" | "Juliette" {{Small|([[A cappella]] version)}} | 2024 | 9 | {{N/a|Non-album single}} |- | colspan="4" style="font-size:90%" | |} == Referenzi == {{Referenzi}} {{Awtorità}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Cassar, Aidan}} [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1999]] [[Kategorija:Nies miż-Żejtun]] [[Kategorija:Kantanti Maltin]] oj0tvt14hw7s0kuawlzctbrrp5dc5oy 329976 329975 2026-05-15T06:40:52Z BabbaQ 4943 /* Karriera */ 329976 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Aidan Cassar''' (imwieled fis-17 ta' Diċembru 1999),<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.zejtunlocalcouncil.com/single-post/2018/03/22/aidan-cassar-u-francesca-mifsud-jingħataw-l-premju-fjamma-żagħżugħa|titlu=Aidan Cassar u Francesca Mifsud jingħataw l-premju 'Fjamma Żagħżugħa'|isem=Sean|awtur=Chircop|data=2018-03-22|sit=Żejtun Local Council|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> magħruf professjonalment bħala '''Aidan''', huwa kittieb tal-kanzunetti u kantant Malti. == Karriera == Fl-2018 huwa kkompeta fil-[[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2018|Malta Eurovision Song Contest]] bil-kanzunetta ''Dai Laga''. Wara rapporti li l-kanzunetta, oriġinarjament ippreżentata bħala kompożizzjoni oriġinali, kienet użat ritmu ta’ produzzjoni disponibbli pubblikament u setgħet potenzjalment tikser ir-regoli tal-Eurovision, ġiet imġedda u maħruġa mill-ġdid.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://wiwibloggs.com/2018/01/19/aidan-publishes-dai-laga-revamp-following-rule-breach-controversy-in-malta/210448/|titlu=Aidan publishes "Dai Laga" revamp following rule breach controversy in Malta|isem=William Lee|awtur=Adams|data=19 January 2018|sit=wiwibloggs|data-aċċess=16 January 2024|url-status=live|arkivju-url=https://archive.today/20240116222355/https://wiwibloggs.com/2018/01/19/aidan-publishes-dai-laga-revamp-following-rule-breach-controversy-in-malta/210448/|arkivju-data=16 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2018-01-10/local-news/PBS-looking-into-possible-breach-of-Eurovision-rules-by-MESC-song-entry-6736183440|titlu=PBS looking into possible breach of Eurovision rules by MESC song entry - The Malta Independent|sit=Malta Independent|data-aċċess=2024-02-18}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta ġiet fir-raba’ post fil-konkors.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://eurovisionworld.com/national/malta/mesc-2018|titlu=Malta: MESC 2018|sit=Eurovisionworld|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2024-02-18}}</ref> Wara dan huwa ħa sehem fl-''[[X Factor Malta]]''.<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/lifestyle/eurovision/exclusive-aidan-submits-upbeat-song-entirely-in-maltese-for-eurovision/|titlu=Exclusive: Aidan Submits Upbeat Song Entirely In Maltese For Eurovision|isem=Tim|awtur=Diacono|data=2021-12-15|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Fl-2019 irrappreżenta lil Malta fl-OGAE Song Contest 2019 bil-kanzunetta ''The Feeling''.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://ogae.uk/ogae-song-contest-2019-malta/|titlu=OGAE Song Contest 2019 - Malta|sit=OGAE UK|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2022-04-01|url-status=dead|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626082417/https://ogae.uk/ogae-song-contest-2019-malta/|arkivju-data=26 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/news/watch-maltas-summer-anthem-aidan-explains-unlikely-success-of-his-latest-hit-single-sung-entirely-in-maltese/|titlu=WATCH: Malta's Summer Anthem? Aidan Explains Unlikely Success Of His Latest Hit Single Sung Entirely In Maltese|isem=Jean Paul|awtur=Azzopardi|data=2021-05-20|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Is-single tiegħu ''[[Naħseb Fik]]'' ġiet imqabbla ma' ''Tick Tock'' ta' Clean Bandit u Mabel u ntqal li kellha progressjoni ta' akkordji simili. Huwa ċaħad li l-beat u l-melodija kienu kkupjati.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/news/aidan-responds-to-allegations-that-hit-single-nahseb-fik-was-lifted-from-a-clean-bandit-track/|titlu=Aidan Responds To Allegations That Hit Single 'Naħseb Fik' Was Lifted From A Clean Bandit Track|isem=Johnathan|awtur=Cilia|data=2021-05-27|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/musicians-raise-plagiarism-concerns-over-aidan-cassars-hit-song.874984|titlu=Musicians raise plagiarism concerns over Aidan Cassar's hit song|isem=Jessica|awtur=Arena|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta ddaħħlet fil-konkors [[Mużika Mużika]] fl-2021. Din kienet l-ewwel darba li kiteb kanzunetta bil-Malti, kif ukoll l-ewwel darba li kanta bil-Malti.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.festivals.mt/post/muzika-muzika-a-prestigious-launch-pad|titlu=Mużika Mużika, a prestigious launch pad for up and coming artists|data=2021-08-25|sit=Festivals Malta 2022|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-video mużikali rebaħ il-video mużikali tas-sena fil-Lovin Malta Social Media Awards tal-2021.<ref name=":0" /> Ħa sehem fil- [[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2022|Malta Eurovision Song Contest fl-2022]] bil-kanzunetta ''Ritmu'', u ġie fit-tieni post. <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imhabbra-t-22-semifinalista-tal-malta-eurovision-song-contest-2022/|titlu=Imħabbra t-22 semifinalista tal-Malta Eurovision Song Contest 2022|isem=Owen|awtur=Galea|data=29 December 2021|sit=TVMnews.mt|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/en/news/nofs-miljun-raw-it-tliet-serati-tal-eurovision-song-contest/|titlu=Record TV audience – over half a million viewers watch Eurovision Song Contest|data=20 February 2022|sit=TVMnews.mt|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta għaddiet biex tilħaq il-quċċata tal-klassifiċi tal-airplay fuq ir-radju f'Malti għal tliet ġimgħat konsekuttivi, u ndaqqet ukoll waqt pre-party tal-Eurovision [[Londra|f'Londra]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://maltadaily.mt/aidan-invited-to-perform-fan-favourite-ritmu-in-london/|titlu=Aidan invited to perform fan-favourite 'RITMU' in London|awtur=MaltaDaily|data=2022-04-06|sit=Malta Daily|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-04-07}}</ref> Aidan ħabbar ir-riżultati tal-ġurija għal Malta fil- [[Eurovision Song Contest 2022]] . Fl-24 ta’ Lulju, 2022, kanta live il-kanzunetti Naħseb Fik u “Ritmu”<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v5rFFcGa0Nc|titlu=Isle of MTV 2022|sit=YouTube}}</ref> waqt [[Isle of MTV|Isle Of MTV]] 2022 fil-[[Furjana]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/arts/music/117597/full_lineup_for_this_years_isle_of_mtv_announced|titlu=Full line-up for this year's Isle of MTV announced|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-01-14}}</ref> Fl-2023 reġa’ daħal għall-[[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2023|Malta Eurovision Song Contest]] bil-kanzunetta ''Reġina''. Huwa kien skwalifikat mill-konkors allegatament minħabba posts fuq il-media soċjali dwar il-kanzunetta tiegħu li ma kinux permessi mill-PBS bħala l-organizzaturi. Huwa hedded lill-PBS b'azzjoni legali<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/arts/entertainment/121048/aidan_cassar_withdraws_from_eurovision_legal_challenge|titlu=Aidan Cassar backs out of Eurovision legal challenge|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref> iżda din twarrbet meta kien mistieden ikanta medley tal-kanzunetti tiegħu waqt l-intervall tas-serata finali.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/singer-aidan-cassar-disqualified-malta-eurovision-song-contest.1009047|titlu=Singer Aidan Cassar disqualified from Malta Eurovision Song Contest|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/aidan-return-guest-singer-eurovision-final-show.1012983|titlu=Aidan to return as guest singer in Eurovision final show|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref> Fl-2026 reġa’ daħal għall-[[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2026|Malta Eurovision Song Contest]] bil-kanzunetta ''Bella''. == Diskografija == === Albums === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! scope="col" | Titlu ! scope="col" | Dettalji |- ! scope="row" | ''This Is Aidan'' | * Ħruġ: 31 ta' Marzu 2023 * Tikketta: maħruġ mill-kantant stess * Format: download diġitali |- ! scope="row"| ''Cowboys Don't Cry'' | * Ħruġ: 20 ta' Marzu 2026<ref name=":cowboys">{{Ċita web|url=https://youtube.com/playlist?list=OLAK5uy_mb9jS17nkY20psSmKHG_5g8oDKTh_oQSM|titlu=AIDAN - Cowboys Don't Cry (Album Playlist)|data=2026-03-20|data-aċċess=2026-04-24}}</ref> * Tikketta: maħruġ mill-kantant stess * Format: download diġitali |} === Singles === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:15em;" |Title ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:1em;" |Year !Peak chart positions ! rowspan="2" scope="col" |Album |- ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;" |MLT<br /><br /> |- ! scope="row" |"Rule the World"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=919IvcOQSqA|titlu=AIDAN - Rule The World (Audio)|data=2015-12-21|sit=[[YouTube]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2015 |— | rowspan="8" {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Bon Bon"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.reverbnation.com/aidancassar/song/28435191-aidan-bon-bon-official-audio|titlu=Aidan - Bon Bon (Official Audio) by Aidan Cassar {{!}} ReverbNation|data=2017-07-24|sit=[[ReverbNation ]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2017 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Drums"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/6oCD8c0y6LZpJezDCCloKF|titlu=Aidan - Drums {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2017-09-25|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |— |- ! scope="row" |"Dai Laga"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://eurovoix.com/2018/01/19/malta-aidan-revamped-dai-laga/|titlu=Malta: Aidan Releases Revamped Version Of "Dai Laga" After Rule Break|data=2018-01-19|sit=Eurovoix|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2018 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Mine"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-GLQ1Y1pCto|titlu=AIDAN - Mine (Official Audio)|data=2018-10-07|sit=[[YouTube]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |5 |- ! scope="row" |"The Feeling"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/1MNqCc2cIK29mwllUbrp9b|titlu=AIDAN - The Feeling {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2019-07-16|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2019 |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Somebody Like You"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/somebody-like-you-single/1534677084|titlu=Somebody Like You - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2020-10-08|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2020 |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Heart Emoji"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/heart-emoji-single/1552740068|titlu=Heart Emoji - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2021-02-12|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106232616/https://music.apple.com/mt/album/heart-emoji-single/1552740068|arkivju-data=2023-01-06|url-status=dead}}</ref> | rowspan="3" |2021 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Naħseb Fik"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/na%C4%A7seb-fik-single/1557633891|titlu=Naħseb Fik - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2021-03-19|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106232615/https://music.apple.com/mt/album/na%C4%A7seb-fik-single/1557633891|arkivju-data=2023-01-06|url-status=dead}}</ref> |1 |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"24/7"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/5RsPvZWJHt7PJXbeGlMOIH|titlu=24/7 - Single by Carlo Gerada, AIDAN {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2021-09-16|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with Carlo Gerarda)}} |1 | {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Ritmu"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/ritmu-single/1632935126|titlu=Ritmu - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2022-03-02|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2022 |1 |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"Madam"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/madam-single/1652732384|titlu=Madam - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2022-11-21|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2 | {{N/a|Non-album single}} |- ! scope="row" |"Rip (Rest in Peace)"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/rip-rest-in-peace-single/1660660457|titlu=Rip (Rest in Peace) - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2023-01-01|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with [[Ira Losco]])}} | rowspan="5" |2023 |1 | rowspan="3" |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"Reġina"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://mobile.twitter.com/AIDANOfficial__/status/1607815069794029568|titlu=AIDAN 👑 🇲🇹 on Twitter: "Reġina is my entry for Malta #Eurovision 2023, based on a true story and dedicated to my mother 👑 The song is in Maltese, Spanish and English 🇲🇹🇪🇸🇬🇧"|data=2022-12-27|sit=[[Twitter]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-09}}</ref> |2 |- ! scope="row" |"Hey Anna" |— |- ! scope="row" |"Strawberry"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/en/aidan-releases-music-video-for-new-single-strawberry/|titlu=AIDAN releases music video for new single ’Strawberry’|isem=|awtur=|data=2023-09-02|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-09-24}}</ref> |1 | rowspan="2" {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Head & Mind"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/head-mind-single/1704367426|titlu=Head & Mind - Single - Album by naBBoo & AIDAN|data=2023-10-27|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-11-05}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with [[Boban Apostolov|NaBBoo]])}} |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Juliette"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/Juliette/1728296457|titlu=Juliette - Song by AIDAN|data=2024-02-09|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2024-03-29}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2024 |1 | rowspan="2" |Singles mhux minn album |- ! scope="row" |"Hero" |— |- | colspan="4" style="font-size:90%" |"—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. |} === Kanzunetti oħra === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:15em;" | Titlu ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:1em;" | Sena ! L-ogħla pożizzjonijiet fil-klassifika ! rowspan="2" scope="col" | Album |- ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;" | MLT<br /> <ref name="MLT">Peak chart positions for singles in Malta: </ref> |- ! scope="row" | "Pupa" | 2023 | 1 | ''This Is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" | "Juliette" {{Small|([[A cappella]] version)}} | 2024 | 9 | {{N/a|Non-album single}} |- | colspan="4" style="font-size:90%" | |} == Referenzi == {{Referenzi}} {{Awtorità}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Cassar, Aidan}} [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1999]] [[Kategorija:Nies miż-Żejtun]] [[Kategorija:Kantanti Maltin]] s5no3ptuvfng0yhigjeneq9xhvyeh58 329977 329976 2026-05-15T06:43:49Z BabbaQ 4943 329977 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bijografija}} '''Aidan Cassar''' (imwieled fis-17 ta' Diċembru 1999),<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.zejtunlocalcouncil.com/single-post/2018/03/22/aidan-cassar-u-francesca-mifsud-jingħataw-l-premju-fjamma-żagħżugħa|titlu=Aidan Cassar u Francesca Mifsud jingħataw l-premju 'Fjamma Żagħżugħa'|isem=Sean|awtur=Chircop|data=2018-03-22|sit=Żejtun Local Council|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> magħruf professjonalment bħala '''Aidan''', huwa kittieb tal-kanzunetti u kantant Malti. == Karriera == Fl-2018 huwa kkompeta fil-[[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2018|Malta Eurovision Song Contest]] bil-kanzunetta ''Dai Laga''. Wara rapporti li l-kanzunetta, oriġinarjament ippreżentata bħala kompożizzjoni oriġinali, kienet użat ritmu ta’ produzzjoni disponibbli pubblikament u setgħet potenzjalment tikser ir-regoli tal-Eurovision, ġiet imġedda u maħruġa mill-ġdid.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://wiwibloggs.com/2018/01/19/aidan-publishes-dai-laga-revamp-following-rule-breach-controversy-in-malta/210448/|titlu=Aidan publishes "Dai Laga" revamp following rule breach controversy in Malta|isem=William Lee|awtur=Adams|data=19 January 2018|sit=wiwibloggs|data-aċċess=16 January 2024|url-status=live|arkivju-url=https://archive.today/20240116222355/https://wiwibloggs.com/2018/01/19/aidan-publishes-dai-laga-revamp-following-rule-breach-controversy-in-malta/210448/|arkivju-data=16 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2018-01-10/local-news/PBS-looking-into-possible-breach-of-Eurovision-rules-by-MESC-song-entry-6736183440|titlu=PBS looking into possible breach of Eurovision rules by MESC song entry - The Malta Independent|sit=Malta Independent|data-aċċess=2024-02-18}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta ġiet fir-raba’ post fil-konkors.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://eurovisionworld.com/national/malta/mesc-2018|titlu=Malta: MESC 2018|sit=Eurovisionworld|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2024-02-18}}</ref> Wara dan huwa ħa sehem fl-''[[X Factor Malta]]''.<ref name=":0">{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/lifestyle/eurovision/exclusive-aidan-submits-upbeat-song-entirely-in-maltese-for-eurovision/|titlu=Exclusive: Aidan Submits Upbeat Song Entirely In Maltese For Eurovision|isem=Tim|awtur=Diacono|data=2021-12-15|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Fl-2019 irrappreżenta lil Malta fl-OGAE Song Contest 2019 bil-kanzunetta ''The Feeling''.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://ogae.uk/ogae-song-contest-2019-malta/|titlu=OGAE Song Contest 2019 - Malta|sit=OGAE UK|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2022-04-01|url-status=dead|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626082417/https://ogae.uk/ogae-song-contest-2019-malta/|arkivju-data=26 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/news/watch-maltas-summer-anthem-aidan-explains-unlikely-success-of-his-latest-hit-single-sung-entirely-in-maltese/|titlu=WATCH: Malta's Summer Anthem? Aidan Explains Unlikely Success Of His Latest Hit Single Sung Entirely In Maltese|isem=Jean Paul|awtur=Azzopardi|data=2021-05-20|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Is-single tiegħu ''[[Naħseb Fik]]'' ġiet imqabbla ma' ''Tick Tock'' ta' Clean Bandit u Mabel u ntqal li kellha progressjoni ta' akkordji simili. Huwa ċaħad li l-beat u l-melodija kienu kkupjati.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/news/aidan-responds-to-allegations-that-hit-single-nahseb-fik-was-lifted-from-a-clean-bandit-track/|titlu=Aidan Responds To Allegations That Hit Single 'Naħseb Fik' Was Lifted From A Clean Bandit Track|isem=Johnathan|awtur=Cilia|data=2021-05-27|sit=Lovin Malta|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/musicians-raise-plagiarism-concerns-over-aidan-cassars-hit-song.874984|titlu=Musicians raise plagiarism concerns over Aidan Cassar's hit song|isem=Jessica|awtur=Arena|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta ddaħħlet fil-konkors [[Mużika Mużika]] fl-2021. Din kienet l-ewwel darba li kiteb kanzunetta bil-Malti, kif ukoll l-ewwel darba li kanta bil-Malti.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.festivals.mt/post/muzika-muzika-a-prestigious-launch-pad|titlu=Mużika Mużika, a prestigious launch pad for up and coming artists|data=2021-08-25|sit=Festivals Malta 2022|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-video mużikali rebaħ il-video mużikali tas-sena fil-Lovin Malta Social Media Awards tal-2021.<ref name=":0" /> Ħa sehem fil- [[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2022|Malta Eurovision Song Contest fl-2022]] bil-kanzunetta ''Ritmu'', u ġie fit-tieni post. <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imhabbra-t-22-semifinalista-tal-malta-eurovision-song-contest-2022/|titlu=Imħabbra t-22 semifinalista tal-Malta Eurovision Song Contest 2022|isem=Owen|awtur=Galea|data=29 December 2021|sit=TVMnews.mt|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/en/news/nofs-miljun-raw-it-tliet-serati-tal-eurovision-song-contest/|titlu=Record TV audience – over half a million viewers watch Eurovision Song Contest|data=20 February 2022|sit=TVMnews.mt|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-03-13}}</ref> Il-kanzunetta għaddiet biex tilħaq il-quċċata tal-klassifiċi tal-airplay fuq ir-radju f'Malti għal tliet ġimgħat konsekuttivi, u ndaqqet ukoll waqt pre-party tal-Eurovision [[Londra|f'Londra]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://maltadaily.mt/aidan-invited-to-perform-fan-favourite-ritmu-in-london/|titlu=Aidan invited to perform fan-favourite 'RITMU' in London|awtur=MaltaDaily|data=2022-04-06|sit=Malta Daily|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2022-04-07}}</ref> Aidan ħabbar ir-riżultati tal-ġurija għal Malta fil- [[Eurovision Song Contest 2022]] . Fl-24 ta’ Lulju, 2022, kanta live il-kanzunetti Naħseb Fik u “Ritmu”<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v5rFFcGa0Nc|titlu=Isle of MTV 2022|sit=YouTube}}</ref> waqt [[Isle of MTV|Isle Of MTV]] 2022 fil-[[Furjana]].<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/arts/music/117597/full_lineup_for_this_years_isle_of_mtv_announced|titlu=Full line-up for this year's Isle of MTV announced|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-01-14}}</ref> Fl-2023 reġa’ daħal għall-[[Malta fil-Eurovision Song Contest 2023|Malta Eurovision Song Contest]] bil-kanzunetta ''Reġina''. Huwa kien skwalifikat mill-konkors allegatament minħabba posts fuq il-media soċjali dwar il-kanzunetta tiegħu li ma kinux permessi mill-PBS bħala l-organizzaturi. Huwa hedded lill-PBS b'azzjoni legali<ref>{{Ċita web|url=http://www.maltatoday.com.mt/arts/entertainment/121048/aidan_cassar_withdraws_from_eurovision_legal_challenge|titlu=Aidan Cassar backs out of Eurovision legal challenge|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref> iżda din twarrbet meta kien mistieden ikanta medley tal-kanzunetti tiegħu waqt l-intervall tas-serata finali.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/singer-aidan-cassar-disqualified-malta-eurovision-song-contest.1009047|titlu=Singer Aidan Cassar disqualified from Malta Eurovision Song Contest|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/aidan-return-guest-singer-eurovision-final-show.1012983|titlu=Aidan to return as guest singer in Eurovision final show|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2023-03-19}}</ref> Fl-2026 reġa’ daħal għall-[[Festival tal-Eurovision 2026 |Malta Eurovision Song Contest]] bil-kanzunetta ''Bella''. == Diskografija == === Albums === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! scope="col" | Titlu ! scope="col" | Dettalji |- ! scope="row" | ''This Is Aidan'' | * Ħruġ: 31 ta' Marzu 2023 * Tikketta: maħruġ mill-kantant stess * Format: download diġitali |- ! scope="row"| ''Cowboys Don't Cry'' | * Ħruġ: 20 ta' Marzu 2026<ref name=":cowboys">{{Ċita web|url=https://youtube.com/playlist?list=OLAK5uy_mb9jS17nkY20psSmKHG_5g8oDKTh_oQSM|titlu=AIDAN - Cowboys Don't Cry (Album Playlist)|data=2026-03-20|data-aċċess=2026-04-24}}</ref> * Tikketta: maħruġ mill-kantant stess * Format: download diġitali |} === Singles === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:15em;" |Title ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:1em;" |Year !Peak chart positions ! rowspan="2" scope="col" |Album |- ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;" |MLT<br /><br /> |- ! scope="row" |"Rule the World"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=919IvcOQSqA|titlu=AIDAN - Rule The World (Audio)|data=2015-12-21|sit=[[YouTube]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2015 |— | rowspan="8" {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Bon Bon"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.reverbnation.com/aidancassar/song/28435191-aidan-bon-bon-official-audio|titlu=Aidan - Bon Bon (Official Audio) by Aidan Cassar {{!}} ReverbNation|data=2017-07-24|sit=[[ReverbNation ]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2017 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Drums"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/6oCD8c0y6LZpJezDCCloKF|titlu=Aidan - Drums {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2017-09-25|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |— |- ! scope="row" |"Dai Laga"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://eurovoix.com/2018/01/19/malta-aidan-revamped-dai-laga/|titlu=Malta: Aidan Releases Revamped Version Of "Dai Laga" After Rule Break|data=2018-01-19|sit=Eurovoix|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2018 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Mine"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-GLQ1Y1pCto|titlu=AIDAN - Mine (Official Audio)|data=2018-10-07|sit=[[YouTube]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |5 |- ! scope="row" |"The Feeling"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/1MNqCc2cIK29mwllUbrp9b|titlu=AIDAN - The Feeling {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2019-07-16|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2019 |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Somebody Like You"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/somebody-like-you-single/1534677084|titlu=Somebody Like You - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2020-10-08|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2020 |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Heart Emoji"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/heart-emoji-single/1552740068|titlu=Heart Emoji - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2021-02-12|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106232616/https://music.apple.com/mt/album/heart-emoji-single/1552740068|arkivju-data=2023-01-06|url-status=dead}}</ref> | rowspan="3" |2021 |— |- ! scope="row" |"Naħseb Fik"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/na%C4%A7seb-fik-single/1557633891|titlu=Naħseb Fik - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2021-03-19|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07|arkivju-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106232615/https://music.apple.com/mt/album/na%C4%A7seb-fik-single/1557633891|arkivju-data=2023-01-06|url-status=dead}}</ref> |1 |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"24/7"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/5RsPvZWJHt7PJXbeGlMOIH|titlu=24/7 - Single by Carlo Gerada, AIDAN {{!}} Listen on Spotify|data=2021-09-16|sit=[[Spotify]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with Carlo Gerarda)}} |1 | {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Ritmu"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/ritmu-single/1632935126|titlu=Ritmu - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2022-03-02|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2022 |1 |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"Madam"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/madam-single/1652732384|titlu=Madam - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2022-11-21|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref> |2 | {{N/a|Non-album single}} |- ! scope="row" |"Rip (Rest in Peace)"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/rip-rest-in-peace-single/1660660457|titlu=Rip (Rest in Peace) - Single by AIDAN on Apple Music|data=2023-01-01|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-07}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with [[Ira Losco]])}} | rowspan="5" |2023 |1 | rowspan="3" |''This is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" |"Reġina"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://mobile.twitter.com/AIDANOfficial__/status/1607815069794029568|titlu=AIDAN 👑 🇲🇹 on Twitter: "Reġina is my entry for Malta #Eurovision 2023, based on a true story and dedicated to my mother 👑 The song is in Maltese, Spanish and English 🇲🇹🇪🇸🇬🇧"|data=2022-12-27|sit=[[Twitter]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-01-09}}</ref> |2 |- ! scope="row" |"Hey Anna" |— |- ! scope="row" |"Strawberry"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/en/aidan-releases-music-video-for-new-single-strawberry/|titlu=AIDAN releases music video for new single ’Strawberry’|isem=|awtur=|data=2023-09-02|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2023-09-24}}</ref> |1 | rowspan="2" {{N/a|Singles mhux minn album}} |- ! scope="row" |"Head & Mind"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/head-mind-single/1704367426|titlu=Head & Mind - Single - Album by naBBoo & AIDAN|data=2023-10-27|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2023-11-05}}</ref><br /><br />{{Small|(with [[Boban Apostolov|NaBBoo]])}} |1 |- ! scope="row" |"Juliette"<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://music.apple.com/mt/album/Juliette/1728296457|titlu=Juliette - Song by AIDAN|data=2024-02-09|sit=[[Apple Music]]|lingwa=English|data-aċċess=2024-03-29}}</ref> | rowspan="2" |2024 |1 | rowspan="2" |Singles mhux minn album |- ! scope="row" |"Hero" |— |- | colspan="4" style="font-size:90%" |"—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. |} === Kanzunetti oħra === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:15em;" | Titlu ! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:1em;" | Sena ! L-ogħla pożizzjonijiet fil-klassifika ! rowspan="2" scope="col" | Album |- ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;" | MLT<br /> <ref name="MLT">Peak chart positions for singles in Malta: </ref> |- ! scope="row" | "Pupa" | 2023 | 1 | ''This Is Aidan'' |- ! scope="row" | "Juliette" {{Small|([[A cappella]] version)}} | 2024 | 9 | {{N/a|Non-album single}} |- | colspan="4" style="font-size:90%" | |} == Referenzi == {{Referenzi}} {{Awtorità}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Cassar, Aidan}} [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-1999]] [[Kategorija:Nies miż-Żejtun]] [[Kategorija:Kantanti Maltin]] 4gufz9odt8t8pcmagybuwv01ilrsftj 0 34089 329978 329770 2026-05-15T07:23:36Z ToniSant 4257 /* Mejju */ +Noel Galea Bason 329978 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Din hija lista ta' nies notevoli Maltin li mietu fl-2026.''' F'din il-lista jidhru biss ismijiet ta' nies li l-mewt tagħhom hija kkonfermata peremezz ta' rapport/i minn sorsi verifikabbli. Żidiet bla referenza għal sors verifikabbli jitneħħew minn hawn u jitpoġġew fil-[[Diskussjoni:Nies Maltin li mietu fl-2026|paġna ta' diskussjoni]] sakemm jiġu verifikati sew. Dwar kull persuna jinġabru biss dawn id-dettalji hawn: * Data: Isem u Kunjom, età (jew "??" meta din mhux magħrufa), għal xiex inhi magħrufa l-persuna, kawża tal-mewt (m'għandu jiddaħħal xejn meta mhux magħrufa uffiċjalment) - tagħrif ieħor f'każ ta' persuna li mhux inkluża f'Wikidata (eż. data tat-twelid), referenzi (għandu jkun hemm aktar minn waħda f'każ ta' nies aktar notevoli) '''''Nota:''' id-data tal-mewt m'għandix tkun dik ta' meta tħabbret imma ta' meta seħħet.'' ---- == Jannar == * 2: [[Tony Carr]], 98, mużiċist <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/tony-carr-pioneering-maltese-jazz-drummer-dies.1121949|titlu=Tony Carr, Maltese jazz drummer to the stars, dies|kunjom=Borg|isem=Emma|data=2026-01-02|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/il-perkussjonist-tony-carr-george-caruana-jmut-fl-eta-ta-98-sena/|titlu=Il-perkussjonist Tony Carr (George Caruana) jmut fl-età ta’ 98 sena|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=2 Jannar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://themalteseherald.com/2026/01/02/tony-carr-passes-away/|titlu=Renowned Maltese drummer, Tony Carr, passes away aged 98|kunjom=Fenech|isem=Gerald|data=2026-01-02|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2026-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/138938/maltese_jazz_great_tony_carr_dies_aged_98|titlu=Maltese jazz great Tony Carr dies aged 98|kunjom=Meilak|isem=Nicole|data=2 Jannar 2026|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-01-02/local-news/Maltese-jazz-legend-Tony-Carr-passes-away-aged-98-6736286044|titlu=Maltese jazz legend, Tony Carr, passes away aged 98 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|data-aċċess=2026-01-03}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-ta-98-sena-d-drummer-malti-tony-carr/|titlu=Imut ta' 98 sena d-drummer Malti Tony Carr|data=2026-01-02|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2026-01-03}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/imut-ta-98-sena-d-drummer-famuz-malti-tony-carr-li-daqq-mal-akbar-stilel-muzikali/|titlu=Imut ta’ 98 sena d-drummer famuż Malti Tony Carr li daqq mal-akbar stilel mużikali|kunjom=Caruana|isem=Josef|data=3 Jannar 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.melodija.eu/post/tony-carr-george-caruana-maltese-jazz-pioneer-dies-at-98|titlu=Tony Carr (George Caruana): Maltese Jazz Pioneer Dies at 98|kunjom=Mifsud|isem=Noel|data=2026-01-05|sit=Melodija|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-01-05}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.sussexexpress.co.uk/news/fond-tribute-on-death-of-drummer-who-played-with-the-greats-5465983|titlu=Fond tribute on death of drummer who played with the greats|kunjom=Hewitt|isem=Phil|data=2026-01-10|sit=SussexWorld|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-01-10}}</ref> * 5: [[George Spiteri]], 90, mużiċist u l-ewwel leader tal-[[Orkestra Filarmonika ta' Malta]] (twieled: 20 ta’ Lulju 1935) <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-january-6-2026.1122080|titlu=Announcements − January 6, 2026|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-01-06|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-06}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-george-spiteri-l-ewwel-leader-tal-orkestra-filarmonika-ta-malta/|titlu=Imut George Spiteri, l-ewwel leader tal-Orkestra Filarmonika ta’ Malta|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=6 Jannar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.facebook.com/reel/1540894257190704/?t=49|titlu=MPO: Protagonisti - George Spiteri|kunjom=Farrugia|isem=Joe Julian|data=6 Jannar 2026|sit=Facebook}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/a-real-gentleman-good-musician-violinist-george-spiteri-dies-aged-90.1122103|titlu='A real gentleman': trailblazing violinist George Spiteri dies at 90|kunjom=Cummings|isem=James|data=2026-01-06|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-06}}</ref> * 6: [[Thomas Farrell]], 89, għalliem u l-ewwel sindku ta' Ħaż Żabbar <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/thomas-farrell-first-mayor-zabbar-dies-aged-89.1122141|titlu=Thomas Farrell, first mayor of Żabbar, dies aged 89|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-01-07|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-07}}</ref> * 14: [[Paul Chetcuti Caruana]], 77, tabib u politiku <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-eks-deputat-laburista-t-tabib-paul-chetcuti-caruana/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-eks Deputat Laburista t-Tabib Paul Chetcuti Caruana|kunjom=Portelli|isem=Eman|data=14 Jannar 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/former-mp-paul-chetcuti-caruana-dies.1122497|titlu=Mosta doctor Paul Chetcuti Caruana, targeted by 1977 letter bomb, dies aged 77|kunjom=Calleja|isem=Claudia|data=2026-01-14|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-15}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-01-14/local-news/Paul-Chetcuti-Caruana-who-survived-letter-bomb-attempt-in-1977-dies-6736286334|titlu=Paul Chetcuti Caruana, who survived letter-bomb attempt in 1977, dies - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|data-aċċess=2026-01-15}}</ref> <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/parliament-pays-tribute-mosta-doctor-pl-mp-paul-chetcuti-caruana.1123482|titlu=Parliament pays tribute to Mosta doctor and PL MP Paul Chetcuti Caruana|kunjom=Magri|isem=Giulia|data=2026-02-02|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-02}}</ref> * 20: [[Matthew Wismayer]], 53, fundatur ta' Schools for Africa (Malta) Foundation <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/matthew-wismayer-schools-africa-foundation-entrepreneur-dies.1122791|titlu=Matthew Wismayer, who turned a cancer diagnosis into inspiration, dies aged 53|kunjom=Debono|isem=Fiona Galea|data=2026-01-20|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-matthew-wismayer-il-mohh-wara-progett-biex-jigu-meghjuna-tfal-fl-afrika/|titlu=Imut Matthew Wismayer, il-moħħ wara proġett biex jiġu megħjuna tfal fl-Afrika|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-01-20|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/malta/founder-of-prince-princess-malta-matthew-wismayer-passes-away/|titlu=Founder Of 'Prince & Princess Malta' Matthew Wismayer Passes Away|kunjom=Spiteri|isem=Rebecca Scalvini|data=2026-01-20|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://whoswho.mt/en/matthew-wismayer-passes-away-aged-53|titlu=Maltese Entrepreneur Matthew Wismayer passes away at 53|sit=whoswho.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-january-21-2026.1122811|titlu=Announcements – January 21, 2026|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-01-21|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref> * 21: [[George Callus]], ??, ko-fundatur tal-Comtec <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://whoswho.mt/en/comtec-co-founder-george-callus-has-passed-away|titlu=Comtec Co-Founder George Callus has passed away|sit=whoswho.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-ir-ragel-ta-amy-callus-orlando-mrs-axiak-ta-simpatici/|titlu=Imut ir-raġel ta’ Amy Callus Orlando, Mrs Axiak ta’ Simpatiċi|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=21 Jannar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://gwida.mt/nimmissjak-immens-ghaziz-l-attrici-amy-callus-thabbar-it-telfa-ta-zewgha-george/|titlu="Nimmissjak Immens, Għażiż" - L-Attriċi Amy Callus Tħabbar It-Telfa Ta' Żewġha George|kunjom=Zarb|isem=Kyle|data=2026-01-22|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref> == Frar == * 4: [[Alfred Abela]], 80, eks-assistent kummissarju tal-pulizija <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-eks-assistent-kummissarju-tal-pulizija-alfred-abela/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-eks Assistent Kummissarju tal-Pulizija Alfred Abela|kunjom=Portelli|isem=Eman|data=4 Frar 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 5: [[Philip Farrugia Randon]], 76, avukat u kittieb li ħoloq il-karattru ta' Puttinu <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/dedicated-patriot-philip-farrugia-randon-dies.1123612|titlu='Dedicated patriot' Philip Farrugia Randon dies|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-02-05|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-05}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-february-6-2026.1123652|titlu=Announcements − February 6, 2026|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-02-06|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-dr-philip-farrugia-randon-avukat-u-awtur-li-holoq-il-karattru-puttinu/|titlu=Imut Dr Philip Farrugia Randon, avukat u awtur li ħoloq il-karattru Puttinu|kunjom=Micallef|isem=Gaetano|data=2026-02-05|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-02-08}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/appreciation-philip-farrugia-randon.1124083|titlu=Appreciation: Philip Farrugia Randon|kunjom=De Bono|isem=Anthony|data=2026-02-15|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-15}}</ref> * 5: [[Helen Micallef]], 75, kantanta <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/helen-micallef-eurovision-1972-singer-dies-aged-75.1123643|titlu=Helen Micallef, Eurovision 1972 singer, dies aged 75|kunjom=Bonanno|isem=Matthew|data=2026-02-05|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-05}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/tmut-helen-micallef-l-ewwel-maltija-fil-eurovision/|titlu=Tmut Helen Micallef, l-ewwel kantanta Maltija fil-Eurovision|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=5 Frar 2025|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/139589/veteran_singer_helen_micallef_dies_aged_75|titlu=Veteran singer Helen Micallef dies aged 75|kunjom=Meilak|isem=Nicole|data=5 Frar 2026|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/helen-micallef-tinghata-l-ahhar-tislima-ghada-s-sibt/|titlu=Helen Micallef tingħata l-aħħar tislima għada s-Sibt|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=6 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-02-05/local-news/Helen-Micallef-first-Maltese-woman-at-Eurovision-dies-at-75-6736286990|titlu=Helen Micallef, first Maltese woman at Eurovision, dies at 75 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|data-aċċess=2026-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/iccelebrata-l-hajja-tal-kantanta-helen-micallef/|titlu=Iċċelebrata l-ħajja tal-kantanta Helen Micallef|kunjom=Falzon|isem=Anton|data=7 Frar 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 8: [[Paul Aquilina]], 94, Ġiżwita Malti bbażat fl-Indja <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-ta-fr-paul-aquilina-l-ahhar-patri-gizwita-malti-fl-indja/|titlu=Imut Fr Paul Aquilina – l-aħħar Ġiżwita Malti fl-Indja|kunjom=Camilleri|isem=Neil|data=8 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/l-ahhar-patri-gizwita-malti-fl-indja-jkanta-l-ghanjiet-tal-milied/|titlu=L-aħħar Patri Ġiżwita Malti fl-Indja jkanta l-Għanjiet tal-Milied|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=25 Diċembru 2025|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/mort-l-indja-biex-narah-jordna-sacerdot-u-kantajt-bil-malti-waqt-il-funeral-ta-fr-aquilina/|titlu=“Mort l-Indja nara żagħżugħ jiġi ordnat qassis, u spiċċajt inkanta bil-Malti fil-funeral ta’ Fr Aquilina”|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=11 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-february-15-2026.1124084|titlu=Announcements – February 15, 2026|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-02-15|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-15}}</ref> * 10: [[Lina Brockdorff|Lina Brockdorff,]] 95, kittieba <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/awardwinning-writer-lina-brockdorff-dies-aged-96.1123850|titlu=Novelist and playwright Lina Brockdorff dies aged 95|kunjom=Borg|isem=Emma|data=2026-02-10|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-10}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/tmut-l-awtrici-lina-brockdorff-fl-eta-ta-95-sena/|titlu=Tmut l-awtriċi Lina Brockdorff fl-età ta' 95 sena|data=2026-02-10|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-02-10}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/thabbret-il-mewt-tax-xandara-u-l-kittieba-lina-brockdorff/|titlu=Tħabbret il-mewt tax-xandara u l-kittieba Lina Brockdorff|kunjom=Lia|isem=Gabriel|data=10 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-02-10/local-news/Maltese-novelist-and-playwright-Lina-Brockdorff-dies-aged-95-6736287109|titlu=Maltese novelist and playwright Lina Brockdorff dies aged 95 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-02-10}}</ref> * 10: [[Achille Cauchi]], 86, monsinjur Għawdxi, ħu l-Isqof [[Nikol Cauchi]] <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-monsinjur-achille-cauchi/|titlu=Imut Monsinjur Achille Cauchi|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=11 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://rip.com.mt/obituary/mons-achille-cauchi-10-02-2026|titlu=Mons. Achille Cauchi - RIP.com.mt|kunjom=Gatt|isem=Thomas|sit=rip.com.mt|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-02-16}}</ref> * 15: [[Laurence Grech]], 77, ġurnalist u eks-editur tas-Sunday Times of Malta <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/former-times-malta-editor-laurence-grech-dies-aged-77.1124107|titlu=Former Times of Malta editor Laurence Grech dies, aged 77|kunjom=Carabott|isem=Sarah|data=2026-02-15|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-15}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-laurence-grech-il-ggant-tal-gurnalizmu-l-eks-editur-tat-times-of-malta/|titlu=Imut Laurence Grech, “il-ġgant tal-ġurnaliżmu”, l-eks-editur tat-Times of Malta|data=15 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-february-16-2026.1124125|titlu=Announcements – February 16, 2026|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-02-16|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-16}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://rip.com.mt/obituary/laurence-grech-15-02-2026|titlu=Laurence Grech - RIP.com.mt|kunjom=Gatt|isem=Thomas|sit=rip.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-02-16}}</ref> * 15: [[Esmeralda Galea Camilleri]], 37, mużiċista <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://gwida.mt/hafna-mahsuda-bil-mewt-tal-muzicista-brava-esmeralda-galea-camilleri/|titlu=Ħafna Maħsuda Bil-Mewt Tal-Mużiċista Brava Esmeralda Galea Camilleri|kunjom=Bayliss|isem=Emil Calleja|data=2026-02-16|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-02-16}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/kont-titpaxxa-tismaghha-tmut-il-muzicista-esmeralda-galea-camilleri/|titlu=“Kont titpaxxa tismagħha” – tmut il-mużiċista Esmeralda Galea Camilleri|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=16 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 16: [[Mario Bonnici]], 76, kantant <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/il-kanzunetta-li-kont-iddedikaktli-se-tibqa-fqalbi-imut-il-kantant-mario-bonnici/|titlu=“Il-kanzunetta li kont iddedikajtli se tibqa’ f’qalbi” – imut il-kantant Mario Bonnici|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=17 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 18: [[Julian Attard]], 44, amministratur tal-futbol ma' [[Marsaxlokk FC]] u [[Floriana FC]] (twieled fis-27 ta' Novembru 1981) <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://sport.timesofmalta.com/2026/02/18/former-marsaxlokk-and-floriana-fc-administrator-julian-attard-dies/|titlu=Former Marsaxlokk and Floriana FC administrator Julian Attard dies|kunjom=Lia|isem=Gianluca|data=2026-02-18|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2026-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/hallejtna-kmieni-wisq-habib-imut-julian-attard-tat-tim-tal-futbol-ta-marsaxlokk/|titlu=“Ħallejtna kmieni wisq ħabib” – imut Julian Attard, tat-tim tal-futbol ta’ Marsaxlokk|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=18 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 23: [[Manuel Casha]], 81, mużiċist, kittieb, u folklorista <ref> {{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-kittieb-u-muzicist-manuel-casha-fl-awstralja/ |sit=ONEnews|data=24 Frar 2026|isem=Josef|kunjom=Caruana|lingwa=mt|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-kittieb u mużiċist Manuel Casha fl-Awstralja}}</ref> * 28: [[Mario Buhagiar]], 81 professur tal-istorja tal-arti <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/mario-buhagiar-founder-art-history-department-dies-aged-81.1124795|titlu=Mario Buhagiar, founder of art history department dies aged 81|kunjom=Carabott|isem=Sarah|data=2026-03-01|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-03-01}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://themalteseherald.com/2026/03/02/prof-mario-buhagiar/|titlu=Founder of the arts History Department – Professor Mario Buhagiar passes away|kunjom=Fenech|isem=Gerald|data=2 Marzu 2026|sit=The Maltese Herald|lingwa=en}}</ref> == Marzu == * 8: [[Joseph Gatt (Caritas)|Joseph Gatt]], 81, pijunier fir-riabilitazzjoni tad-drogati f'Malta <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/joseph-gatt-drug-rehabilitation-pioneer-dies-aged-81.1125168|titlu=Joseph Gatt, drug rehabilitation pioneer, dies aged 81|kunjom=Cummings|isem=James|data=2026-03-08|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/segwi-meta-konna-fl-infern-habba-d-droga-joe-kien-anglu-kustodju/|titlu=Segwi: “Meta konna fl-infern ħabba d-droga Joe kien anġlu kustodju”|kunjom=Lia|isem=Gabriel|data=9 Marzu 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 13: [[Luciano Bonello Bianco]], 72, propjetarju ta' Luciano Restaurant <ref>{{Ċita web|url= https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-march-15-2026.1125478 |titlu=Announcements|sit=Times of Malta|data-aċċess=2026-03-15}}</ref> * 21: [[Charles Micallef St John]], 81, kittieb u eks-kunsillier tal-Gżira <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-l-awtur-charles-micallef-st-john/|titlu=Imut l-awtur Charles Micallef St John|kunjom=Camilleri|isem=Neil|data=21 Marzu 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/03/21/imut-l-awtur-chaf-st-john/|titlu=Imut l-awtur Charles Micallef St. John|kunjom=Balbi|isem=Nicole Sciberras|data=2026-03-21|sit=NETnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-03-23}}</ref> * 22: [[Calvin Brincat]], 32, parteċipant fil-programm tat-television ''Hazzzard'', kanċer <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-calvin-brincat-li-ggieled-2-tipi-ta-kancer-u-kien-ippartecipa-fhazzzard/|titlu=Imut Calvin Brincat li ġġieled 2 tipi ta' kanċer u kien ipparteċipa f'HazZzard|data=2026-03-23|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-03-23}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-iz-zaghzugh-calvin-brincat-ta-hazzzard/|titlu=Imut iż-żagħżugħ Calvin Brincat ta’ HazZzard|kunjom=Lia|isem=Gabriel|data=23 Marzu 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/tributes-paid-truly-sensitive-soul-cancer-patient-calvin-brincat.1125893|titlu=Tributes paid to 'truly sensitive soul', cancer victim Calvin Brincat|kunjom=Cummings|isem=James|data=2026-03-23|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-03-23}}</ref> * 29: [[Elio Lombardi]], 92, kittieb u direttur tal-films <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/prolific-filmmaker-author-elio-lombardi-dies-aged-92.1126197|titlu=Prolific film-maker, author Elio Lombardi dies aged 92|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-03-29|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-l-awtur-tal-kotba-u-direttur-tal-films-elio-lombardi/|titlu=Imut l-awtur tal-kotba u direttur tal-films Elio Lombardi|kunjom=Micallef|isem=Gaetano|data=2026-03-29|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/03/29/tithabbar-il-mewt-ta-elio-lombardi-fl-eta-ta-92-sena/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt ta' Elio Lombardi fl-età ta' 92 sena|kunjom=Catania|isem=Francesco|data=2026-03-29|sit=NETnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-kittieb-u-attur-elio-lombardi-fl-eta-ta-92-sena/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-kittieb u attur Elio Lombardi fl-età ta’ 92 Sena|kunjom=Farrugia|isem=Shanaya|data=29 Marzu 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-elio-lombardi-figura-prominenti-fil-films-u-l-letteratura-maltija/|titlu=Imut Elio Lombardi, figura prominenti fil-films u l-letteratura Maltija|kunjom=Cachia|isem=Paul|data=29 Marzu 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-03-29/local-news/Maltese-author-and-film-director-Elio-Lombardi-dies-aged-92-6736288379|titlu=Maltese author and film director Elio Lombardi dies aged 92 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|data-aċċess=2026-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/thabbar-meta-se-jinghata-l-ahhar-tislima-elio-lombardi/|titlu=Tħabbar meta se jingħata l-aħħar tislima Elio Lombardi|kunjom=Lia|isem=Gabriel|data=1 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/ara-elio-dejjem-gharaf-li-kien-mimli-doni-minn-alla/|titlu=Ara: “Elio dejjem għaraf li kien mimli doni minn Alla”|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=8 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tinghata-l-ahhar-tislima-lil-elio-lombardi-ikona-fid-drama-maltija/|titlu=Tingħata l-aħħar tislima lil Elio Lombardi … ikona fid-drama Maltija|kunjom=Camilleri|isem=Enrique|data=8 April 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref> == April == * 2: [[Edmond Zarb]], 81, kittieb u mużiċist <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/04/02/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-muzicist-u-awtur-edmond-zarb/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-mużiċist u awtur Edmond Zarb|kunjom=Catania|isem=Francesco|data=2026-04-02|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-02}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/tajt-kontribut-lill-kultura-maltija-imut-l-awtur-u-pjanist-edmond-zarb|titlu=“Tajt kontribut lill-kultura Maltija” – imut l-awtur u pjanist Edmond Zarb|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=2 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 6: [[Graziella Castillo]], 47, direttur tal-Aġenzija Appoġġ <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/graziella-castillo-director-agenzija-appogg-dies-aged-47.1126547|titlu=Graziella Castillo, director of Agenzija Appoġġ, dies aged 47|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-04-06|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-04-07}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/tmut-graziella-castillo-direttrici-tal-agenzija-appogg/|titlu=Tmut Graziella Castillo – Direttriċi tal-Aġenzija Appoġġ|data=6 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 11: [[Colin Willis]], 81, eks-kummissajru Awstraljan għal Malta u attur <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-04-13/local-news/Well-known-actor-Colin-Willis-passes-away-aged-81-6736288759|titlu=Well-known actor Colin Willis passes away aged 81 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-13}}</ref> * 12: [[Aurelio Belli]], 49, mużiċist u arranġatur <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/musician-mpo-manager-aurelio-belli-dies-aged-49.1126829|titlu=Musician and MPO manager Aurelio Belli dies, aged 49|kunjom=Cummings|isem=James|data=2026-04-12|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://slippedisc.com/2026/04/malta-mourns-maestro-49/|titlu=Malta mourns maestro, 49|kunjom=lebrecht|isem=Norman|data=12 April 2026|sit=Slipped Disc|lingwa=en}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-04-12/local-news/Maestro-Aurelio-Belli-dies-aged-49-6736288731|titlu=Maestro Aurelio Belli dies, aged 49 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/140933/maestro_aurelio_belli_dies_at_49_|titlu=Maestro Aurelio Belli dies at 49|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Juliana|data=12 April 2026|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-il-maestro-aurelio-belli/|titlu=Imut il-Maestro Aurelio Belli|kunjom=Camilleri|isem=Neil|data=12 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-is-surmast-aurelio-belli/|titlu=Imut is-Surmast Aurelio Belli|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-04-12|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-maestro-aurelio-belli-fl-eta-ta-49-sena/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-Maestro Aurelio Belli fl-età ta’ 49 sena|kunjom=Sacco Baldacchino|isem=Kimberley|data=12 April 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/04/12/tithabbar-il-mewt-tas-surmast-aurelio-belli/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tas-Surmast Aurelio Belli|kunjom=Catania|isem=Francesco|data=2026-04-12|sit=NETnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/il-maestro-aurelio-belli-jinghata-l-ahhar-tislima|titlu=Tislima lill-Maestro Aurelio Belli: “Mela s-silenzju b’ħajja ta’ noti”|kunjom=Mamo|isem=Christine|data=18 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 19: [[Desmond Morris]], 98, etoloġista Ingliż li għex f'Malta (1968–1974) <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/desmond-morris-famous-zoologist-author-painter-malta-past-dies-98.1127264|titlu=Desmond Morris, famous zoologist, author and painter with Malta past, dies at 98|kunjom=Debono|isem=Fiona Galea|data=2026-04-21|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-04-21}}</ref> * 24: [[Mary Grech]], 88, attriċi u xandara <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/veteran-actress-mary-grech-dies-aged-88.1127413|titlu=Veteran actress Mary Grech dies aged 88|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-04-24|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-04-24}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/tmut-l-attrici-u-prezentatrici-mary-grech/|titlu=Tmut l-attriċi u preżentatriċi Mary Grech|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=24 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/tmut-l-eks-prezentattrici-televiziva-mary-grech/|titlu=Tmut l-eks preżentattriċi televiżiva Mary Grech|kunjom=Attard|isem=Francesca|data=2026-04-24|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-24}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/04/24/tmut-mary-grech-pijufniera-tax-xandir-u-fost-l-ewwel-ucuh-tat-televizjoni-maltija/|titlu=Tmut Mary Grech, attriċi, pijuniera tax-xandir u fost l-ewwel uċuħ tat-televiżjoni Maltija|kunjom=Abdilla|isem=Raymond|data=2026-04-24|sit=NETnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-24}}</ref> == Mejju == * 1: [[Dolindo Cassar]], 83, xandar u eks-president tas-[[Soċjetà Filarmonika La Stella]] u tat-[[Teatru Astra]] <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://gwida.mt/tislima-lil-dolindo-cassar-li-ghadda-ghall-hajja-ta-dejjem-figura-li-halliet-marka-kbira-fil-kultura-ghawdxija/|titlu=Tislima Lil Dolindo Cassar Li Għadda Għall-Ħajja Ta’ Dejjem - Figura Li Ħalliet Marka Kbira Fil-Kultura Għawdxija|kunjom=Bayliss|isem=Emil Calleja|data=2026-05-05|sit=Gwida|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.stgeorge.org.mt/events/funeral-of-dolindo-cassar/|titlu=Funeral of DOLINDO CASSAR|data=2026-05-03|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2026-05-05}}</ref> * 14: [[Noel Galea Bason]], 71, skultur <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/05/15/imut-l-artist-noel-galea-bason/|titlu=Imut l-artist Noel Galea Bason|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-05-15|sit=NETnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-05-15}}</ref> == Ara aktar == * [[:Kategorija:Mietu fl-2026]] - tinkludi ħoloq għal artikli fil-Wikipedija dwar nies li mietu fl-2026 == Referenzi == {{Referenzi}} [[Kategorija:Nies Maltin]] [[Kategorija:2026 f'Malta]] [[Kategorija:Imwiet f'Malta]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-2026|*]] [[Kategorija:Listi ta' mwiet bis-sena]] hcv8u5jn47ixptzf21mncefw92jgg79 0 34424 329965 2026-05-14T15:14:29Z Trigcly 17859 Kontenut inizjali 329965 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Pathologists looking into microscopes (1).jpg|daqsminuri|Patologu jeżamina sezzjoni ta' tessuti għal evidenza ta' ċelloli kanċerużi waqt li [[kirurgu]] qed josserva.]] Il-'''patoloġija''' hija l-istudju tal-[[mard]]. Il-[[kelma]] ''patoloġija'' tirreferi wkoll għall-istudju tal-mard inġenerali, u tinkorpora firxa wiesgħa ta' oqsma tar-riċerka [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġika]] u ta' prattiċi [[Mediċina|mediċi]]. Madankollu, meta jintuża fil-kuntest tat-trattament mediku modern, it-terminu spiss jintuża b'mod idjaq biex jirreferi għall-proċessi u għat-testijiet marbuta mal-qasam mediku kontemporanju tal-"patoloġija ġenerali", qasam li jinkludi għadd ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet mediċi distinti iżda interrelatati li jiddijanjostikaw il-mard, l-iktar permezz tal-analiżi tal-kampjuni tat-tessuti u taċ-ċelloli [[Bniedem|umani]]. Il-patoloġija huwa qasam sinifikanti fid-dijanjożi medika moderna u fir-riċerka medika. [[Tabib]] li jipprattika l-patoloġija jissejjaħ patologu.<ref>Herausgeber., Cross, Simon S., Herausgeber. Underwood, James C. E. 1942- (30 April 2018). ''Underwood's pathology : a clinical approach''. Elsevier – Health Sciences Division. ISBN <bdi>978-0-7020-7212-3</bdi>. OCLC 1043350646.</ref> Bħala qasam tal-inkjesti u tar-riċerka ġenerali, il-patoloġija tindirizza l-komponenti tal-mard: il-kawża, il-mekkaniżmi tal-iżvilupp (patoġenesi), l-alterazzjonijiet strutturali taċ-ċelloli (bidliet morfoloġiċi), u l-konsegwenzi tal-bidliet (manifestazzjonijiet kliniċi).<ref>Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; Aster, Jon C. (2010). ''Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease'' (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN <bdi>978-1-4160-3121-5</bdi>.</ref> Fil-prattika medika komuni, il-patoloġija ġenerali tittratta l-iktar l-analiżi tal-abnormalitajiet kliniċi magħrufa li huma markaturi jew prekursuri kemm tal-mard infettiv kif ukoll tal-mard mhux infettiv, u ssir minn esperti f'waħda miż-żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet ewlenin, il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://freida.ama-assn.org/|titlu=FREIDA™ Pathology-Anatomic and Clinical Specialty Details|sit=FREIDA Residency Program Database {{!}} Medical Fellowship Database {{!}} AMA|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> Diviżjonijiet ulterjuri fl-ispeċjalizzazzjonijiet jeżistu abbażi tat-tipi tal-kampjuni involuti bħal fiċ-ċitopatoloġija, fl-ematopatoloġija u fl-istopatoloġija), tal-organi (bħal fil-patoloġija renali) u tas-sistemi fiżjoloġiċi (il-patoloġija orali), kif ukoll abbażi tal-enfasi tal-eżaminazzjoni (bħal fil-patoloġija forensika). Idjomatikament, "patoloġija" jaf tirreferi wkoll għall-progressjoni prevista jew effettiva ta' mard partikolari (bħal fl-istqarrija "il-forom differenti tal-[[kanċer]] ikollhom diversità ta' patoloġiji", fejn kelma iktar preċiża jaf tkun "patofiżjoloġiji"). Is-suffiss ''-patija'' xi kultant jintuża biex jiġi indikat stat tal-mard f'każijiet ta' mard fiżiku (bħal fil-kardjomijopatija) u ta' kundizzjonijiet psikoloġiċi (bħal fil-psikopatija).<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/138811|titlu=-pathy, comb. form : Oxford English Dictionary|sit=oed.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> == [[Etimoloġija]] == It-terminu [[Lingwa Latina|Latin]] ''pathologia'' oriġina mill-għerq [[Lingwa Griega antika|Grieg Antik]] ''pathos'' (πάθος), li tfisser "esperjenza" jew "tbatija", u ''-logia'' (-λογία), li tfisser "studju ta'". It-terminu għandu oriġini li tmur lura għall-bidu tas-seklu 16, u kulma jmur sar iktar popolarizzat wara s-snin 30 tas-seklu 16.<ref>Janssen, Diederik F. (April 2022). "From Pathognomicha and Passiologia to Pathologia: concise history of a neologism (1486-1598)". ''Pathologica''. '''114''' (2) 10: 185–188. doi:10.32074/1591-951X-261. ISSN 1591-951X. PMC 9248257. <nowiki>PMID 35481571</nowiki>.</ref> == [[Storja]] == L-istudju tal-patoloġija, inkluż l-eżaminazzjoni dettaljata tal-ġisem, id-dissezzjoni u l-inkjesti rigward mard speċifiku, imur lura għal żmien il-qedem. Il-fehim rudimentali ta' bosta kundizzjonijiet kien preżenti fil-biċċa l-kbira tas-soċjetajiet bikrin u ġie rreġistrat fir-rekords tal-iżjed soċjetajiet storiċi bikrin, fosthom dawk tal-Lvant Nofsani, tal-[[Indja]] u taċ-[[Ċina]].<ref>Long, Esmond (1965). ''History of Pathology''. New York: Dover. pp. 1+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-486-61342-0</bdi>.</ref> Sal-perjodu Elleniku tal-[[Greċja antika|Greċja Antika]], sar studju kawżali maqbul tal-mard, u bosta tobba notevoli bikrin (bħal [[Ippokrate]], li għalih jissemma l-ġurament Ippokratiku modern) żviluppaw metodi ta' dijanjożi u ta' pronjożi għal għadd ta' mardiet. Il-prattiċi mediċi tar-[[Imperu Ruman|Rumani]] u dawk tal-[[Biżantini]] komplew minn dawn l-għeruq [[Greċja|Griegi]], iżda bħal f'bosta oqsma tal-inkjesti [[Xjenza|xjentifiċi]], it-tkabbir fil-fehim tal-mediċina staġna kemxejn wara l-Era Klassika, iżda baqa' jiżviluppa bil-mod fost bosta [[Kultura|kulturi]]. B'mod partikolari, saru bosta avvanzi fl-era [[Medjuevu|Medjevali]] tal-[[Iżlam]], u matul dan iż-żmien ġew żviluppati bosta testi ta' patoloġiji kumplessi, ibbażati wkoll fuq it-tradizzjoni Griega. Minkejja dan, it-tkabbir fil-fehim kumpless tal-mard fil-biċċa l-kbira waqaf sa ma l-għarfien u l-isperimentazzjoni reġgħu bdew jiżdiedu fir-[[Rinaxximent]], fl-[[Illuminiżmu]] u fil-[[Barokk]], wara li reġa' feġġ il-metodu empiriku f'ċentri ġodda tal-istudju. Sas-[[seklu 17]], l-istudju tal-mikroskopija rudimentali u l-eżaminazzjoni tat-tessuti wasslu biex il-membru tas-Soċjetà Rjali [[Renju Unit|Brittanika]] [[Robert Hooke]] joħroġ bil-kelma "ċellola", u b'hekk witta t-triq għat-teorija suċċessiva tal-ġermi. Il-patoloġija moderna bdiet tiżviluppa bħala qasam distint ta' stħarriġ matul is-seklu 19 permezz tal-filosfi naturali u tat-tobba li studjaw il-mard u l-istudju informali tal-hekk imsejħa "[[anatomija]] patoloġika" jew "anatomija tal-mard". Madankollu, il-patoloġija bħala qasam formali speċjalizzat ma ġietx żviluppata għalkollox qabel l-aħħar tas-seklu 19 u l-bidu tas-seklu 20, bil-wasla tal-istudju dettaljat tal-mikrobijoloġija. Fis-seklu 19, it-tobba bdew jifhmu li jeżistu l-patoġeni li jikkawżaw il-mard, jew il-"ġermi" (terminu kumplessiv għall-mikrobi "patoġeniċi" jew li jikkawżaw il-mard, bħall-batterji, [[Virus|viruses]], fungi, amibi, mofof, protisti u prijoni) u li kienu kapaċi jirriproduċu u jimmultiplikaw. Dan il-fehim ħa post it-twemmin iktar bikri fl-umuri jew saħansitra fl-aġenti spiritwali, li kien iddomina fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-1,500 sena ta' qabel fil-mediċina Ewropea. Bil-fehim il-ġdid tal-aġenti kawżattivi, it-tobba bdew iqabblu l-karatteristiċi tas-sintomi tal-ġermi skont kif żviluppaw f'xi individwu affettwat u mqabbla mal-karatteristiċi u tal-ġermi u s-sintomi. Dan l-approċċ wassal għall-fehim fundamentali li l-mard kapaċi jirreplika ruħu, u li jista' jkollu bosta effetti profondi u varjati fuq l-ospitant uman. Sabiex jiġu ddeterminati l-kawżi tal-mardiet, l-esperti mediċi wżaw l-iżjed suppożizzjonijiet jew sintomi komuni u aċċettati b'mod wiesa' ta' żminijiethom, li huwa prinċipju ġenerali tal-approċċ li għadu jippersisti fil-mediċina moderna.<ref>King, Lester (1991). ''Transformations in American Medicine: From Benjamin Rush to William Osler''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP. pp. 27+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-8018-4057-9</bdi>.</ref><ref>Machevsky, Alberto; Wick, MR (2004). "Evidence-based Medicine, Medical Decision Analysis, and Pathology". ''Human Pathology''. '''35''' (10): 1179–88. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2004.06.004. <nowiki>PMID 15492984</nowiki>.</ref> Il-mediċina moderna avvanzat b'mod partikolari bl-iżviluppi ulterjuri tal-[[mikroskopju]] għall-analiżi tat-tessuti, bil-kontribut sinifikanti ta' [[Rudolf Virchow]], li wassal għal bosta żviluppi fir-riċerka. Sal-aħħar tas-snin 20 u l-bidu tas-snin 30 tas-seklu 20, il-patoloġija kienet meqjusa bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika.<ref>Rothstein, William G. (1979). "Pathology: The Evolution of a Specialty in American Medicine". ''Medical Care''. '''17''' (10): 975–988. doi:10.1097/00005650-197910000-00001. JSTOR 3763869. <nowiki>PMID 386008</nowiki>. S2CID 23045808.</ref> Flimkien mal-iżviluppi fil-fehim tal-fiżjoloġija ġenerali, sal-bidu tas-seklu 20, l-istudju tal-patoloġija beda jinqasam f'għadd ta' oqsma distinti, li wassal għall-iżvilupp ta' għadd kbir ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet moderni fi ħdan il-patoloġija u dixxiplini relatati tal-mediċina dijanjostika.<ref>Race, George J.; Tillery, G. Weldon; Dysert, Peter A. (Jannar 2004). "A history of pathology and laboratory medicine at Baylor University Medical Center". ''Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center)''. '''17''' (1): 42–55. doi:10.1080/08998280.2004.11927956. ISSN 0899-8280. PMC 1200640. <nowiki>PMID 16200088</nowiki>.</ref> == Patoloġija ġenerali == The modern practice of pathology is divided into a number of subdisciplines within the distinct but deeply interconnected aims of biological research and medical practice. Biomedical research into disease incorporates the work of a vast variety of life science specialists, whereas, in most parts of the world, to be licensed to practice pathology as a medical specialty, one has to complete medical school and secure a license to practice medicine. Structurally, the study of disease is divided into many different fields that study or diagnose markers for disease using methods and technologies particular to specific scales, organs, and tissue types. === Patoloġija anatomika === Anatomical pathology (''Commonwealth'') or anatomic pathology (''United States'') is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the gross, microscopic, chemical, immunologic and molecular examination of organs, tissues, and whole bodies (as in a general examination or an autopsy). Anatomical pathology is itself divided into subfields, the main divisions being surgical pathology, cytopathology, and forensic pathology. Anatomical pathology is one of two main divisions of the medical practice of pathology, the other being clinical pathology, the diagnosis of disease through the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids and tissues. Sometimes, pathologists practice both anatomical and clinical pathology, a combination known as general pathology. ==== Ċitopatoloġija ==== Cytopathology (sometimes referred to as "cytology") is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level. It is usually used to aid in the diagnosis of cancer, but also helps in the diagnosis of certain infectious diseases and other inflammatory conditions as well as thyroid lesions, diseases involving sterile body cavities (peritoneal, pleural, and cerebrospinal), and a wide range of other body sites. Cytopathology is generally used on samples of free cells or tissue fragments (in contrast to histopathology, which studies whole tissues) and cytopathologic tests are sometimes called smear tests because the samples may be smeared across a glass microscope slide for subsequent staining and microscopic examination. However, cytology samples may be prepared in other ways, including cytocentrifugation. ==== Dermatopatoloġija ==== Dermatopathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that focuses on the skin and the rest of the integumentary system as an organ. It is unique, in that there are two paths a physician can take to obtain the specialization. All general pathologists and general dermatologists train in the pathology of the skin, so the term dermatopathologist denotes either of these who has reached a certain level of accreditation and experience; in the US, either a general pathologist or a dermatologist can undergo a 1 to 2 year fellowship in the field of dermatopathology. The completion of this fellowship allows one to take a subspecialty board examination, and becomes a board certified dermatopathologist. Dermatologists are able to recognize most skin diseases based on their appearances, anatomic distributions, and behavior. Sometimes, however, those criteria do not lead to a conclusive diagnosis, and a skin biopsy is taken to be examined under the microscope using usual histological tests. In some cases, additional specialized testing needs to be performed on biopsies, including immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, flow cytometry, and molecular-pathologic analysis. One of the greatest challenges of dermatopathology is its scope. More than 1500 different disorders of the skin exist, including cutaneous eruptions ("rashes") and neoplasms. Therefore, dermatopathologists must maintain a broad base of knowledge in clinical dermatology, and be familiar with several other specialty areas in Medicine. ==== Patoloġija forensika ==== Forensic pathology focuses on determining the cause of death by post-mortem examination of a corpse or partial remains. An autopsy is typically performed by a coroner or medical examiner, often during criminal investigations; in this role, coroners and medical examiners are also frequently asked to confirm the identity of a corpse. The requirements for becoming a licensed practitioner of forensic pathology varies from country to country (and even within a given nation) but typically a minimal requirement is a medical doctorate with a specialty in general or anatomical pathology with subsequent study in forensic medicine. The methods forensic scientists use to determine death include examination of tissue specimens to identify the presence or absence of natural disease and other microscopic findings, interpretations of toxicology on body tissues and fluids to determine the chemical cause of overdoses, poisonings or other cases involving toxic agents, and examinations of physical trauma. Forensic pathology is a major component in the trans-disciplinary field of forensic science.^{[''citation needed'']} ==== Istopatoloġija ==== Histopathology refers to the microscopic examination of various forms of human tissue. Specifically, in clinical medicine, histopathology refers to the examination of a biopsy or surgical specimen by a pathologist, after the specimen has been processed and histological sections have been placed onto glass slides. This contrasts with the methods of cytopathology, which uses free cells or tissue fragments. Histopathological examination of tissues starts with surgery, biopsy, or autopsy. The tissue is removed from the body of an organism and then placed in a fixative that stabilizes the tissues to prevent decay. The most common fixative is formalin, although frozen section fixing is also common. To see the tissue under a microscope, the sections are stained with one or more pigments. The aim of staining is to reveal cellular components; counterstains are used to provide contrast. Histochemistry refers to the science of using chemical reactions between laboratory chemicals and components within tissue. The histological slides are then interpreted diagnostically and the resulting pathology report describes the histological findings and the opinion of the pathologist. In the case of cancer, this represents the tissue diagnosis required for most treatment protocols. ==== Newropatoloġija ==== Neuropathology is the study of disease of nervous system tissue, usually in the form of either surgical biopsies or sometimes whole brains in the case of autopsy. Neuropathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology, neurology, and neurosurgery. In many English-speaking countries, neuropathology is considered a subfield of anatomical pathology. A physician who specializes in neuropathology, usually by completing a fellowship after a residency in anatomical or general pathology, is called a neuropathologist. In day-to-day clinical practice, a neuropathologist generates diagnoses for patients. If a disease of the nervous system is suspected, and the diagnosis cannot be made by less invasive methods, a biopsy of nervous tissue is taken from the brain or cerebrospinal fluid is extracted from the spinal cord to aid in diagnosis. Biopsy is usually requested after a mass is detected by medical imaging. With autopsies, the principal work of the neuropathologist is to help in the post-mortem diagnosis of various conditions that affect the central nervous system. Biopsies can also consist of the skin. Epidermal nerve fiber density testing (ENFD) is a more recently developed neuropathology test in which a punch skin biopsy is taken to identify small fiber neuropathies by analyzing the nerve fibers of the skin. This test is becoming available in select labs as well as many universities; it replaces the traditional nerve biopsy test as less invasive. ==== Patoloġija pulmonari ==== Pulmonary pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic (and especially surgical) pathology that deals with diagnosis and characterization of neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases of the lungs and thoracic pleura. Diagnostic specimens are often obtained via bronchoscopic transbronchial biopsy, CT-guided percutaneous biopsy, or video-assisted thoracic surgery. These tests can be necessary to diagnose between infection, inflammation, or fibrotic conditions. ==== Patoloġija renali ==== Renal pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that deals with the diagnosis and characterization of disease of the kidneys. In a medical setting, renal pathologists work closely with nephrologists and transplant surgeons, who typically obtain diagnostic specimens via percutaneous renal biopsy. The renal pathologist must synthesize findings from traditional microscope histology, electron microscopy, and immunofluorescence to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Medical renal diseases may affect the glomerulus, the tubules and interstitium, the vessels, or a combination of these compartments. ==== Patoloġija kirurġika ==== Surgical pathology is one of the primary areas of practice for most anatomical pathologists. Surgical pathology involves the gross and microscopic examination of surgical specimens, as well as biopsies submitted by surgeons and non-surgeons such as general internists, medical subspecialists, dermatologists, and interventional radiologists. Often an excised tissue sample is the best and most definitive evidence of disease (or lack thereof) in cases where tissue is surgically removed from a patient. These determinations are usually accomplished by a combination of gross (i.e., macroscopic) and histologic (i.e., microscopic) examination of the tissue, and may involve evaluations of molecular properties of the tissue by immunohistochemistry or other laboratory tests. There are two major types of specimens submitted for surgical pathology analysis: biopsies and surgical resections. A biopsy is a small piece of tissue removed primarily for surgical pathology analysis, most often in order to render a definitive diagnosis. Types of biopsies include core biopsies, which are obtained through the use of large-bore needles, sometimes under the guidance of radiological techniques such as ultrasound, CT scan, or magnetic resonance imaging. Incisional biopsies are obtained through diagnostic surgical procedures that remove part of a suspicious lesion, whereas excisional biopsies remove the entire lesion, and are similar to therapeutic surgical resections. Excisional biopsies of skin lesions and gastrointestinal polyps are very common. The pathologist's interpretation of a biopsy is critical to establishing the diagnosis of a benign or malignant tumor, and can differentiate between different types and grades of cancer, as well as determining the activity of specific molecular pathways in the tumor. Surgical resection specimens are obtained by the therapeutic surgical removal of an entire diseased area or organ (and occasionally multiple organs). These procedures are often intended as definitive surgical treatment of a disease in which the diagnosis is already known or strongly suspected, but pathological analysis of these specimens remains important in confirming the previous diagnosis.^{[''citation needed'']} === Patoloġija klinika === Clinical pathology is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids such as blood and urine, as well as tissues, using the tools of chemistry, clinical microbiology, hematology and molecular pathology. Clinical pathologists work in close collaboration with medical technologists, hospital administrations, and referring physicians. Clinical pathologists learn to administer a number of visual and microscopic tests and an especially large variety of tests of the biophysical properties of tissue samples involving automated analysers and cultures. Sometimes the general term "laboratory medicine specialist" is used to refer to those working in clinical pathology, including medical doctors, Ph.D.s and doctors of pharmacology. Immunopathology, the study of an organism's immune response to infection, is sometimes considered to fall within the domain of clinical pathology. ==== Ematopatoloġija ==== Hematopathology is the study of diseases of blood cells (including constituents such as white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets) and the tissues, and organs comprising the hematopoietic system. The term hematopoietic system refers to tissues and organs that produce and/or primarily host hematopoietic cells and includes bone marrow, the lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, and other lymphoid tissues. In the United States, hematopathology is a board certified subspecialty (licensed under the American Board of Pathology) practiced by those physicians who have completed a general pathology residency (anatomic, clinical, or combined) and an additional year of fellowship training in hematology. The hematopathologist reviews biopsies of lymph nodes, bone marrows and other tissues involved by an infiltrate of cells of the hematopoietic system. In addition, the hematopathologist may be in charge of flow cytometric and/or molecular hematopathology studies.^{[''citation needed'']} === Patoloġija molekolari === Molecular pathology is focused upon the study and diagnosis of disease through the examination of molecules within organs, tissues or bodily fluids. Molecular pathology is multidisciplinary by nature and shares some aspects of practice with both anatomic pathology and clinical pathology, molecular biology, biochemistry, proteomics and genetics. It is often applied in a context that is as much scientific as directly medical and encompasses the development of molecular and genetic approaches to the diagnosis and classification of human diseases, the design and validation of predictive biomarkers for treatment response and disease progression, and the susceptibility of individuals of different genetic constitution to particular disorders. The crossover between molecular pathology and epidemiology is represented by a related field "molecular pathological epidemiology". Molecular pathology is commonly used in diagnosis of cancer and infectious diseases. Molecular Pathology is primarily used to detect cancers such as melanoma, brainstem glioma, brain tumors as well as many other types of cancer and infectious diseases. Techniques are numerous but include quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), multiplex PCR, DNA microarray, in situ hybridization, DNA sequencing, antibody-based immunofluorescence tissue assays, molecular profiling of pathogens, and analysis of bacterial genes for antimicrobial resistance. Techniques used are based on analyzing samples of DNA and RNA. Pathology is widely used for gene therapy and disease diagnosis. === Patoloġija orali u maksillofaċċali === Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology is one of nine dental specialties recognized by the American Dental Association, and is sometimes considered a specialty of both dentistry and pathology. Oral Pathologists must complete three years of post doctoral training in an accredited program and subsequently obtain diplomate status from the American Board of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology. The specialty focuses on the diagnosis, clinical management and investigation of diseases that affect the oral cavity and surrounding maxillofacial structures including but not limited to odontogenic, infectious, epithelial, salivary gland, bone and soft tissue pathologies. It also significantly intersects with the field of dental pathology. Although concerned with a broad variety of diseases of the oral cavity, they have roles distinct from otorhinolaryngologists ("ear, nose, and throat" specialists), and speech pathologists, the latter of which helps diagnose many neurological or neuromuscular conditions relevant to speech phonology or swallowing. Owing to the availability of the oral cavity to non-invasive examination, many conditions in the study of oral disease can be diagnosed, or at least suspected, from gross examination, but biopsies, cell smears, and other tissue analysis remain important diagnostic tools in oral pathology.^{[''citation needed'']} == Taħriġ mediku u akkreditazzjoni == Becoming a pathologist generally requires specialty-training after medical school, but individual nations vary somewhat in the medical licensing required of pathologists. In the United States, pathologists are physicians (D.O. or M.D.) who have completed a four-year undergraduate program, four years of medical school training, and three to four years of postgraduate training in the form of a pathology residency. Training may be within two primary specialties, as recognized by the American Board of Pathology: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology, each of which requires separate board certification. The American Osteopathic Board of Pathology also recognizes four primary specialties: anatomic pathology, dermatopathology, forensic pathology, and laboratory medicine. Pathologists may pursue specialised fellowship training within one or more subspecialties of either anatomical or clinical pathology. Some of these subspecialties permit additional board certification, while others do not. In the United Kingdom, pathologists are physicians licensed by the UK General Medical Council. The training to become a pathologist is overseen by the Royal College of Pathologists. After four to six years of undergraduate medical study, trainees proceed to a two-year foundation program. Full-time training in histopathology currently lasts between five and five and a half years, encompassing specialist training in surgical pathology, cytopathology, and autopsy pathology. It is also possible to take a Royal College of Pathologists diploma in forensic pathology, dermatopathology, or cytopathology, recognising additional specialist training and expertise, and to get specialist accreditation in forensic pathology, pediatric pathology, and neuropathology. The General Medical Council oversees all postgraduate medical training and education in the UK. In France, pathology is separated into two distinct specialties: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology. Residencies for both lasts four years. Residency in anatomical pathology is open to physicians only, while clinical pathology is open to both physicians and pharmacists. At the end of the second year of clinical pathology residency, residents can choose between general clinical pathology and a specialization in one of the disciplines, but they can not practice anatomical pathology, nor can anatomical pathology residents practice clinical pathology. == Trikkib ma' mediċina dijanjostika oħra == Though separate fields in terms of medical practice, a number of areas of inquiry in medicine and medical science either overlap greatly with general pathology, work in tandem with it, or contribute significantly to the understanding of the pathology of a given disease or its course in an individual. As a significant portion of all general pathology practice is concerned with cancer, the practice of oncology makes extensive use of both anatomical and clinical pathology in diagnosis and treatment. In particular, biopsy, resection, and blood tests are all examples of pathology work that is essential for the diagnoses of many kinds of cancer and for the staging of cancerous masses. In a similar fashion, the tissue and blood analysis techniques of general pathology are of central significance to the investigation of serious infectious disease and as such inform significantly upon the fields of epidemiology, etiology, immunology, and parasitology. General pathology methods are of great importance to biomedical research into disease, wherein they are sometimes referred to as "experimental" or "investigative" pathology.^{[''citation needed'']} Medical imaging is the generating of visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Medical imaging reveals details of internal physiology that help medical professionals plan appropriate treatments for tissue infection and trauma. Medical imaging is also central in supplying the biometric data necessary to establish baseline features of anatomy and physiology so as to increase the accuracy with which early or fine-detail abnormalities are detected. These diagnostic techniques are often performed in combination with general pathology procedures and are themselves often essential to developing new understanding of the pathogenesis of a given disease and tracking the progress of disease in specific medical cases. Examples of important subdivisions in medical imaging include radiology (which uses the imaging technologies of X-ray radiography) magnetic resonance imaging, medical ultrasonography (or ultrasound), endoscopy, elastography, tactile imaging, thermography, medical photography, nuclear medicine and functional imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography. Though they do not strictly relay images, readings from diagnostics tests involving electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, and electrocardiography often give hints as to the state and function of certain tissues in the brain and heart respectively. == Informatika fil-patoloġija == Pathology informatics is a subfield of health informatics. It is the use of information technology in pathology. It encompasses pathology laboratory operations, data analysis, and the interpretation of pathology-related information. Key aspects of pathology informatics include: * Laboratory information management systems (LIMS): Implementing and managing computer systems specifically designed for pathology departments. These systems help in tracking and managing patient specimens, results, and other pathology data. * Digital pathology: Involves the use of digital technology to create, manage, and analyze pathology images. This includes side scanning and automated image analysis. * Telepathology: Using technology to enable remote pathology consultation and collaboration. * Quality assurance and reporting: Implementing informatics solutions to ensure the quality and accuracy of pathology processes. == Psikopatoloġija == Psychopathology is the study of mental illness, particularly of severe disorders. Informed heavily by both psychology and neurology, its purpose is to classify mental illness, elucidate its underlying causes, and guide clinical psychiatric treatment accordingly. Although diagnosis and classification of mental norms and disorders is largely the purview of psychiatry—the results of which are guidelines such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which attempt to classify mental disease mostly on behavioural evidence, though not without controversy—the field is also heavily, and increasingly, informed upon by neuroscience and other of the biological cognitive sciences. Mental or social disorders or behaviours seen as generally unhealthy or excessive in a given individual, to the point where they cause harm or severe disruption to the person's lifestyle, are often called "pathological" (e.g., pathological gambling or pathological liar). == Mhux umani == Although the vast majority of lab work and research in pathology concerns the development of disease in humans, pathology is of significance throughout the biological sciences. Two main catch-all fields exist to represent most complex organisms capable of serving as host to a pathogen or other form of disease: veterinary pathology (concerned with all non-human species of kingdom of Animalia) and phytopathology, which studies disease in plants. === Patoloġija veterinarja === Veterinary pathology covers a vast array of species, but with a significantly smaller number of practitioners, so understanding of disease in non-human animals, especially as regards veterinary practice, varies considerably by species. Nevertheless, significant amounts of pathology research are conducted on animals, for two primary reasons: 1) The origins of diseases are typically zoonotic in nature, and many infectious pathogens have animal vectors and, as such, understanding the mechanisms of action for these pathogens in non-human hosts is essential to the understanding and application of epidemiology and 2) those animals that share physiological and genetic traits with humans can be used as surrogates for the study of the disease and potential treatments as well as the effects of various synthetic products. For this reason, as well as their roles as livestock and companion animals, mammals generally have the largest body of research in veterinary pathology. Animal testing remains a controversial practice, even in cases where it is used to research treatment for human disease. As in human medical pathology, the practice of veterinary pathology is customarily divided into the two main fields of anatomical and clinical pathology. === Patoloġija tal-pjanti === Although the pathogens and their mechanics differ greatly from those of animals, plants are subject to a wide variety of diseases, including those caused by fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants. Damage caused by insects, mites, vertebrate, and other small herbivores is not considered a part of the domain of plant pathology. The field is connected to plant disease epidemiology and especially concerned with the horticulture of species that are of high importance to the human diet or other human utility. == Referenzi == nkl8p07jc21kxk8yejre08y77w0dnl8 329966 329965 2026-05-14T16:13:52Z Trigcly 17859 /* Patoloġija ġenerali */ 329966 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Pathologists looking into microscopes (1).jpg|daqsminuri|Patologu jeżamina sezzjoni ta' tessuti għal evidenza ta' ċelloli kanċerużi waqt li [[kirurgu]] qed josserva.]] Il-'''patoloġija''' hija l-istudju tal-[[mard]]. Il-[[kelma]] ''patoloġija'' tirreferi wkoll għall-istudju tal-mard inġenerali, u tinkorpora firxa wiesgħa ta' oqsma tar-riċerka [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġika]] u ta' prattiċi [[Mediċina|mediċi]]. Madankollu, meta jintuża fil-kuntest tat-trattament mediku modern, it-terminu spiss jintuża b'mod idjaq biex jirreferi għall-proċessi u għat-testijiet marbuta mal-qasam mediku kontemporanju tal-"patoloġija ġenerali", qasam li jinkludi għadd ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet mediċi distinti iżda interrelatati li jiddijanjostikaw il-mard, l-iktar permezz tal-analiżi tal-kampjuni tat-tessuti u taċ-ċelloli [[Bniedem|umani]]. Il-patoloġija huwa qasam sinifikanti fid-dijanjożi medika moderna u fir-riċerka medika. [[Tabib]] li jipprattika l-patoloġija jissejjaħ patologu.<ref>Herausgeber., Cross, Simon S., Herausgeber. Underwood, James C. E. 1942- (30 April 2018). ''Underwood's pathology : a clinical approach''. Elsevier – Health Sciences Division. ISBN <bdi>978-0-7020-7212-3</bdi>. OCLC 1043350646.</ref> Bħala qasam tal-inkjesti u tar-riċerka ġenerali, il-patoloġija tindirizza l-komponenti tal-mard: il-kawża, il-mekkaniżmi tal-iżvilupp (patoġenesi), l-alterazzjonijiet strutturali taċ-ċelloli (bidliet morfoloġiċi), u l-konsegwenzi tal-bidliet (manifestazzjonijiet kliniċi).<ref>Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; Aster, Jon C. (2010). ''Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease'' (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN <bdi>978-1-4160-3121-5</bdi>.</ref> Fil-prattika medika komuni, il-patoloġija ġenerali tittratta l-iktar l-analiżi tal-abnormalitajiet kliniċi magħrufa li huma markaturi jew prekursuri kemm tal-mard infettiv kif ukoll tal-mard mhux infettiv, u ssir minn esperti f'waħda miż-żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet ewlenin, il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://freida.ama-assn.org/|titlu=FREIDA™ Pathology-Anatomic and Clinical Specialty Details|sit=FREIDA Residency Program Database {{!}} Medical Fellowship Database {{!}} AMA|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> Diviżjonijiet ulterjuri fl-ispeċjalizzazzjonijiet jeżistu abbażi tat-tipi tal-kampjuni involuti bħal fiċ-ċitopatoloġija, fl-ematopatoloġija u fl-istopatoloġija), tal-organi (bħal fil-patoloġija renali) u tas-sistemi fiżjoloġiċi (il-patoloġija orali), kif ukoll abbażi tal-enfasi tal-eżaminazzjoni (bħal fil-patoloġija forensika). Idjomatikament, "patoloġija" jaf tirreferi wkoll għall-progressjoni prevista jew effettiva ta' mard partikolari (bħal fl-istqarrija "il-forom differenti tal-[[kanċer]] ikollhom diversità ta' patoloġiji", fejn kelma iktar preċiża jaf tkun "patofiżjoloġiji"). Is-suffiss ''-patija'' xi kultant jintuża biex jiġi indikat stat tal-mard f'każijiet ta' mard fiżiku (bħal fil-kardjomijopatija) u ta' kundizzjonijiet psikoloġiċi (bħal fil-psikopatija).<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/138811|titlu=-pathy, comb. form : Oxford English Dictionary|sit=oed.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> == [[Etimoloġija]] == It-terminu [[Lingwa Latina|Latin]] ''pathologia'' oriġina mill-għerq [[Lingwa Griega antika|Grieg Antik]] ''pathos'' (πάθος), li tfisser "esperjenza" jew "tbatija", u ''-logia'' (-λογία), li tfisser "studju ta'". It-terminu għandu oriġini li tmur lura għall-bidu tas-seklu 16, u kulma jmur sar iktar popolarizzat wara s-snin 30 tas-seklu 16.<ref>Janssen, Diederik F. (April 2022). "From Pathognomicha and Passiologia to Pathologia: concise history of a neologism (1486-1598)". ''Pathologica''. '''114''' (2) 10: 185–188. doi:10.32074/1591-951X-261. ISSN 1591-951X. PMC 9248257. <nowiki>PMID 35481571</nowiki>.</ref> == [[Storja]] == L-istudju tal-patoloġija, inkluż l-eżaminazzjoni dettaljata tal-ġisem, id-dissezzjoni u l-inkjesti rigward mard speċifiku, imur lura għal żmien il-qedem. Il-fehim rudimentali ta' bosta kundizzjonijiet kien preżenti fil-biċċa l-kbira tas-soċjetajiet bikrin u ġie rreġistrat fir-rekords tal-iżjed soċjetajiet storiċi bikrin, fosthom dawk tal-Lvant Nofsani, tal-[[Indja]] u taċ-[[Ċina]].<ref>Long, Esmond (1965). ''History of Pathology''. New York: Dover. pp. 1+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-486-61342-0</bdi>.</ref> Sal-perjodu Elleniku tal-[[Greċja antika|Greċja Antika]], sar studju kawżali maqbul tal-mard, u bosta tobba notevoli bikrin (bħal [[Ippokrate]], li għalih jissemma l-ġurament Ippokratiku modern) żviluppaw metodi ta' dijanjożi u ta' pronjożi għal għadd ta' mardiet. Il-prattiċi mediċi tar-[[Imperu Ruman|Rumani]] u dawk tal-[[Biżantini]] komplew minn dawn l-għeruq [[Greċja|Griegi]], iżda bħal f'bosta oqsma tal-inkjesti [[Xjenza|xjentifiċi]], it-tkabbir fil-fehim tal-mediċina staġna kemxejn wara l-Era Klassika, iżda baqa' jiżviluppa bil-mod fost bosta [[Kultura|kulturi]]. B'mod partikolari, saru bosta avvanzi fl-era [[Medjuevu|Medjevali]] tal-[[Iżlam]], u matul dan iż-żmien ġew żviluppati bosta testi ta' patoloġiji kumplessi, ibbażati wkoll fuq it-tradizzjoni Griega. Minkejja dan, it-tkabbir fil-fehim kumpless tal-mard fil-biċċa l-kbira waqaf sa ma l-għarfien u l-isperimentazzjoni reġgħu bdew jiżdiedu fir-[[Rinaxximent]], fl-[[Illuminiżmu]] u fil-[[Barokk]], wara li reġa' feġġ il-metodu empiriku f'ċentri ġodda tal-istudju. Sas-[[seklu 17]], l-istudju tal-mikroskopija rudimentali u l-eżaminazzjoni tat-tessuti wasslu biex il-membru tas-Soċjetà Rjali [[Renju Unit|Brittanika]] [[Robert Hooke]] joħroġ bil-kelma "ċellola", u b'hekk witta t-triq għat-teorija suċċessiva tal-ġermi. Il-patoloġija moderna bdiet tiżviluppa bħala qasam distint ta' stħarriġ matul is-seklu 19 permezz tal-filosfi naturali u tat-tobba li studjaw il-mard u l-istudju informali tal-hekk imsejħa "[[anatomija]] patoloġika" jew "anatomija tal-mard". Madankollu, il-patoloġija bħala qasam formali speċjalizzat ma ġietx żviluppata għalkollox qabel l-aħħar tas-seklu 19 u l-bidu tas-seklu 20, bil-wasla tal-istudju dettaljat tal-mikrobijoloġija. Fis-seklu 19, it-tobba bdew jifhmu li jeżistu l-patoġeni li jikkawżaw il-mard, jew il-"ġermi" (terminu kumplessiv għall-mikrobi "patoġeniċi" jew li jikkawżaw il-mard, bħall-batterji, [[Virus|viruses]], fungi, amibi, mofof, protisti u prijoni) u li kienu kapaċi jirriproduċu u jimmultiplikaw. Dan il-fehim ħa post it-twemmin iktar bikri fl-umuri jew saħansitra fl-aġenti spiritwali, li kien iddomina fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-1,500 sena ta' qabel fil-mediċina Ewropea. Bil-fehim il-ġdid tal-aġenti kawżattivi, it-tobba bdew iqabblu l-karatteristiċi tas-sintomi tal-ġermi skont kif żviluppaw f'xi individwu affettwat u mqabbla mal-karatteristiċi u tal-ġermi u s-sintomi. Dan l-approċċ wassal għall-fehim fundamentali li l-mard kapaċi jirreplika ruħu, u li jista' jkollu bosta effetti profondi u varjati fuq l-ospitant uman. Sabiex jiġu ddeterminati l-kawżi tal-mardiet, l-esperti mediċi wżaw l-iżjed suppożizzjonijiet jew sintomi komuni u aċċettati b'mod wiesa' ta' żminijiethom, li huwa prinċipju ġenerali tal-approċċ li għadu jippersisti fil-mediċina moderna.<ref>King, Lester (1991). ''Transformations in American Medicine: From Benjamin Rush to William Osler''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP. pp. 27+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-8018-4057-9</bdi>.</ref><ref>Machevsky, Alberto; Wick, MR (2004). "Evidence-based Medicine, Medical Decision Analysis, and Pathology". ''Human Pathology''. '''35''' (10): 1179–88. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2004.06.004. <nowiki>PMID 15492984</nowiki>.</ref> Il-mediċina moderna avvanzat b'mod partikolari bl-iżviluppi ulterjuri tal-[[mikroskopju]] għall-analiżi tat-tessuti, bil-kontribut sinifikanti ta' [[Rudolf Virchow]], li wassal għal bosta żviluppi fir-riċerka. Sal-aħħar tas-snin 20 u l-bidu tas-snin 30 tas-seklu 20, il-patoloġija kienet meqjusa bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika.<ref>Rothstein, William G. (1979). "Pathology: The Evolution of a Specialty in American Medicine". ''Medical Care''. '''17''' (10): 975–988. doi:10.1097/00005650-197910000-00001. JSTOR 3763869. <nowiki>PMID 386008</nowiki>. S2CID 23045808.</ref> Flimkien mal-iżviluppi fil-fehim tal-fiżjoloġija ġenerali, sal-bidu tas-seklu 20, l-istudju tal-patoloġija beda jinqasam f'għadd ta' oqsma distinti, li wassal għall-iżvilupp ta' għadd kbir ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet moderni fi ħdan il-patoloġija u dixxiplini relatati tal-mediċina dijanjostika.<ref>Race, George J.; Tillery, G. Weldon; Dysert, Peter A. (Jannar 2004). "A history of pathology and laboratory medicine at Baylor University Medical Center". ''Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center)''. '''17''' (1): 42–55. doi:10.1080/08998280.2004.11927956. ISSN 0899-8280. PMC 1200640. <nowiki>PMID 16200088</nowiki>.</ref> == Patoloġija ġenerali == Il-prattika moderna tal-patoloġija hija maqsuma f'għadd ta' sottodixxiplini fi ħdan l-għanijiet distinti iżda ferm interkonnessi tar-riċerka bijoloġika u l-prattika medika. Ir-riċerka bijomedika dwar il-mard tinkorpora x-xogħol ta' varjetà vasta ta' speċjalisti tax-[[xjenza]] tal-[[ħajja]], billi, fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-partijiet tad-dinja, sabiex wieħed ikun liċenzjat biex jipprattika l-patoloġija bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika, wieħed irid ikun temm l-iskola medika u kiseb liċenzja biex jipprattika l-mediċina. Strutturalment, l-istudju tal-mard huwa maqsum f'bosta oqsma differenti li jistudjaw jew jiddijanjostikaw il-markaturi għall-mard bl-użu ta' metodi u teknoloġiċi partikolari għal tipi speċifiċi ta' skali, organi u tessuti. === Patoloġija anatomika === Il-patoloġija anatomika (fil-[[Commonwealth tan-Nazzjonijiet|Commonwealth]] jew fl-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]]) hija speċjalizzazzjoni medika li għandha x'taqsam mad-dijanjożi tal-mard abbażi tal-eżaminazzjoni grossa, mikroskopika, [[kimika]], immunoloġika u molekolari tal-organi, tat-tessuti u tal-iġsma sħaħ (bħal fl-eżaminazzjoni ġenerali jew fl-awtopsja). Il-patoloġija anatomika fiha nnifisha hija maqsuma f'sottooqsma, fosthom il-patoloġija kirurġika, iċ-ċitopatoloġija u l-patoloġija forensika. Il-patoloġija anatomika hija waħda miż-żewġ oqsma prinċipali tal-prattika medika tal-patoloġija, u l-oħra hija l-patoloġija klinika, id-dijanjożi tal-mard permezz tal-analiżi fil-laboratorju tal-fluwidi u tat-tessuti tal-ġisem. Xi kultant, il-patologi jipprattikaw kemm il-patoloġija anatomika kif ukoll dik klinika, kombinament magħruf bħala patoloġija ġenerali. ==== Ċitopatoloġija ==== Iċ-ċitopatoloġija (xi kultant magħrufa bħala ċ-"ċitoloġija") hija l-fergħa tal-patoloġija li tistudja u tiddijanjostika l-mard fuq il-livell ċellolari. Normalment tintuża biex tgħin fid-dijanjożi tal-kanċer, iżda tgħin ukoll fid-dijanjożi ta' ċertu mard infettiv u kundizzjonijiet infjammatorji oħra, kif ukoll leżjonijiet tat-tirojde, mard li jinvolvi l-kavitajiet sterili tal-ġisem (peritoneali, plewrali u ċerebrospinali), u firxa wiesgħa ta' siti oħra tal-ġisem. Iċ-ċitopatoloġija ġeneralment tintuża fuq kampanji ta' ċelloli liberi jew frammenti tat-tessuti (b'kuntrast mal-istopatoloġija, li tistudja t-tessuti sħaħ) u testijiet ċitopatoloġiċi li jistgħu jingħaddu fuq slide tal-[[ħġieġ]] tal-mikroskopju għal tebgħat u eżaminazzjoni mikroskopiku sussegwenti. Madankollu, il-kampjuni ċitoloġiċi jistgħu jitħejjew b'modi oħra, inkluż b'ċitoċentrifugazzjoni. ==== Dermatopatoloġija ==== Dermatopathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that focuses on the skin and the rest of the integumentary system as an organ. It is unique, in that there are two paths a physician can take to obtain the specialization. All general pathologists and general dermatologists train in the pathology of the skin, so the term dermatopathologist denotes either of these who has reached a certain level of accreditation and experience; in the US, either a general pathologist or a dermatologist can undergo a 1 to 2 year fellowship in the field of dermatopathology. The completion of this fellowship allows one to take a subspecialty board examination, and becomes a board certified dermatopathologist. Dermatologists are able to recognize most skin diseases based on their appearances, anatomic distributions, and behavior. Sometimes, however, those criteria do not lead to a conclusive diagnosis, and a skin biopsy is taken to be examined under the microscope using usual histological tests. In some cases, additional specialized testing needs to be performed on biopsies, including immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, flow cytometry, and molecular-pathologic analysis. One of the greatest challenges of dermatopathology is its scope. More than 1500 different disorders of the skin exist, including cutaneous eruptions ("rashes") and neoplasms. Therefore, dermatopathologists must maintain a broad base of knowledge in clinical dermatology, and be familiar with several other specialty areas in Medicine. ==== Patoloġija forensika ==== Forensic pathology focuses on determining the cause of death by post-mortem examination of a corpse or partial remains. An autopsy is typically performed by a coroner or medical examiner, often during criminal investigations; in this role, coroners and medical examiners are also frequently asked to confirm the identity of a corpse. The requirements for becoming a licensed practitioner of forensic pathology varies from country to country (and even within a given nation) but typically a minimal requirement is a medical doctorate with a specialty in general or anatomical pathology with subsequent study in forensic medicine. The methods forensic scientists use to determine death include examination of tissue specimens to identify the presence or absence of natural disease and other microscopic findings, interpretations of toxicology on body tissues and fluids to determine the chemical cause of overdoses, poisonings or other cases involving toxic agents, and examinations of physical trauma. Forensic pathology is a major component in the trans-disciplinary field of forensic science.^{[''citation needed'']} ==== Istopatoloġija ==== Histopathology refers to the microscopic examination of various forms of human tissue. Specifically, in clinical medicine, histopathology refers to the examination of a biopsy or surgical specimen by a pathologist, after the specimen has been processed and histological sections have been placed onto glass slides. This contrasts with the methods of cytopathology, which uses free cells or tissue fragments. Histopathological examination of tissues starts with surgery, biopsy, or autopsy. The tissue is removed from the body of an organism and then placed in a fixative that stabilizes the tissues to prevent decay. The most common fixative is formalin, although frozen section fixing is also common. To see the tissue under a microscope, the sections are stained with one or more pigments. The aim of staining is to reveal cellular components; counterstains are used to provide contrast. Histochemistry refers to the science of using chemical reactions between laboratory chemicals and components within tissue. The histological slides are then interpreted diagnostically and the resulting pathology report describes the histological findings and the opinion of the pathologist. In the case of cancer, this represents the tissue diagnosis required for most treatment protocols. ==== Newropatoloġija ==== Neuropathology is the study of disease of nervous system tissue, usually in the form of either surgical biopsies or sometimes whole brains in the case of autopsy. Neuropathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology, neurology, and neurosurgery. In many English-speaking countries, neuropathology is considered a subfield of anatomical pathology. A physician who specializes in neuropathology, usually by completing a fellowship after a residency in anatomical or general pathology, is called a neuropathologist. In day-to-day clinical practice, a neuropathologist generates diagnoses for patients. If a disease of the nervous system is suspected, and the diagnosis cannot be made by less invasive methods, a biopsy of nervous tissue is taken from the brain or cerebrospinal fluid is extracted from the spinal cord to aid in diagnosis. Biopsy is usually requested after a mass is detected by medical imaging. With autopsies, the principal work of the neuropathologist is to help in the post-mortem diagnosis of various conditions that affect the central nervous system. Biopsies can also consist of the skin. Epidermal nerve fiber density testing (ENFD) is a more recently developed neuropathology test in which a punch skin biopsy is taken to identify small fiber neuropathies by analyzing the nerve fibers of the skin. This test is becoming available in select labs as well as many universities; it replaces the traditional nerve biopsy test as less invasive. ==== Patoloġija pulmonari ==== Pulmonary pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic (and especially surgical) pathology that deals with diagnosis and characterization of neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases of the lungs and thoracic pleura. Diagnostic specimens are often obtained via bronchoscopic transbronchial biopsy, CT-guided percutaneous biopsy, or video-assisted thoracic surgery. These tests can be necessary to diagnose between infection, inflammation, or fibrotic conditions. ==== Patoloġija renali ==== Renal pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that deals with the diagnosis and characterization of disease of the kidneys. In a medical setting, renal pathologists work closely with nephrologists and transplant surgeons, who typically obtain diagnostic specimens via percutaneous renal biopsy. The renal pathologist must synthesize findings from traditional microscope histology, electron microscopy, and immunofluorescence to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Medical renal diseases may affect the glomerulus, the tubules and interstitium, the vessels, or a combination of these compartments. ==== Patoloġija kirurġika ==== Surgical pathology is one of the primary areas of practice for most anatomical pathologists. Surgical pathology involves the gross and microscopic examination of surgical specimens, as well as biopsies submitted by surgeons and non-surgeons such as general internists, medical subspecialists, dermatologists, and interventional radiologists. Often an excised tissue sample is the best and most definitive evidence of disease (or lack thereof) in cases where tissue is surgically removed from a patient. These determinations are usually accomplished by a combination of gross (i.e., macroscopic) and histologic (i.e., microscopic) examination of the tissue, and may involve evaluations of molecular properties of the tissue by immunohistochemistry or other laboratory tests. There are two major types of specimens submitted for surgical pathology analysis: biopsies and surgical resections. A biopsy is a small piece of tissue removed primarily for surgical pathology analysis, most often in order to render a definitive diagnosis. Types of biopsies include core biopsies, which are obtained through the use of large-bore needles, sometimes under the guidance of radiological techniques such as ultrasound, CT scan, or magnetic resonance imaging. Incisional biopsies are obtained through diagnostic surgical procedures that remove part of a suspicious lesion, whereas excisional biopsies remove the entire lesion, and are similar to therapeutic surgical resections. Excisional biopsies of skin lesions and gastrointestinal polyps are very common. The pathologist's interpretation of a biopsy is critical to establishing the diagnosis of a benign or malignant tumor, and can differentiate between different types and grades of cancer, as well as determining the activity of specific molecular pathways in the tumor. Surgical resection specimens are obtained by the therapeutic surgical removal of an entire diseased area or organ (and occasionally multiple organs). These procedures are often intended as definitive surgical treatment of a disease in which the diagnosis is already known or strongly suspected, but pathological analysis of these specimens remains important in confirming the previous diagnosis.^{[''citation needed'']} === Patoloġija klinika === Clinical pathology is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids such as blood and urine, as well as tissues, using the tools of chemistry, clinical microbiology, hematology and molecular pathology. Clinical pathologists work in close collaboration with medical technologists, hospital administrations, and referring physicians. Clinical pathologists learn to administer a number of visual and microscopic tests and an especially large variety of tests of the biophysical properties of tissue samples involving automated analysers and cultures. Sometimes the general term "laboratory medicine specialist" is used to refer to those working in clinical pathology, including medical doctors, Ph.D.s and doctors of pharmacology. Immunopathology, the study of an organism's immune response to infection, is sometimes considered to fall within the domain of clinical pathology. ==== Ematopatoloġija ==== Hematopathology is the study of diseases of blood cells (including constituents such as white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets) and the tissues, and organs comprising the hematopoietic system. The term hematopoietic system refers to tissues and organs that produce and/or primarily host hematopoietic cells and includes bone marrow, the lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, and other lymphoid tissues. In the United States, hematopathology is a board certified subspecialty (licensed under the American Board of Pathology) practiced by those physicians who have completed a general pathology residency (anatomic, clinical, or combined) and an additional year of fellowship training in hematology. The hematopathologist reviews biopsies of lymph nodes, bone marrows and other tissues involved by an infiltrate of cells of the hematopoietic system. In addition, the hematopathologist may be in charge of flow cytometric and/or molecular hematopathology studies.^{[''citation needed'']} === Patoloġija molekolari === Molecular pathology is focused upon the study and diagnosis of disease through the examination of molecules within organs, tissues or bodily fluids. Molecular pathology is multidisciplinary by nature and shares some aspects of practice with both anatomic pathology and clinical pathology, molecular biology, biochemistry, proteomics and genetics. It is often applied in a context that is as much scientific as directly medical and encompasses the development of molecular and genetic approaches to the diagnosis and classification of human diseases, the design and validation of predictive biomarkers for treatment response and disease progression, and the susceptibility of individuals of different genetic constitution to particular disorders. The crossover between molecular pathology and epidemiology is represented by a related field "molecular pathological epidemiology". Molecular pathology is commonly used in diagnosis of cancer and infectious diseases. Molecular Pathology is primarily used to detect cancers such as melanoma, brainstem glioma, brain tumors as well as many other types of cancer and infectious diseases. Techniques are numerous but include quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), multiplex PCR, DNA microarray, in situ hybridization, DNA sequencing, antibody-based immunofluorescence tissue assays, molecular profiling of pathogens, and analysis of bacterial genes for antimicrobial resistance. Techniques used are based on analyzing samples of DNA and RNA. Pathology is widely used for gene therapy and disease diagnosis. === Patoloġija orali u maksillofaċċali === Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology is one of nine dental specialties recognized by the American Dental Association, and is sometimes considered a specialty of both dentistry and pathology. Oral Pathologists must complete three years of post doctoral training in an accredited program and subsequently obtain diplomate status from the American Board of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology. The specialty focuses on the diagnosis, clinical management and investigation of diseases that affect the oral cavity and surrounding maxillofacial structures including but not limited to odontogenic, infectious, epithelial, salivary gland, bone and soft tissue pathologies. It also significantly intersects with the field of dental pathology. Although concerned with a broad variety of diseases of the oral cavity, they have roles distinct from otorhinolaryngologists ("ear, nose, and throat" specialists), and speech pathologists, the latter of which helps diagnose many neurological or neuromuscular conditions relevant to speech phonology or swallowing. Owing to the availability of the oral cavity to non-invasive examination, many conditions in the study of oral disease can be diagnosed, or at least suspected, from gross examination, but biopsies, cell smears, and other tissue analysis remain important diagnostic tools in oral pathology.^{[''citation needed'']} == Taħriġ mediku u akkreditazzjoni == Becoming a pathologist generally requires specialty-training after medical school, but individual nations vary somewhat in the medical licensing required of pathologists. In the United States, pathologists are physicians (D.O. or M.D.) who have completed a four-year undergraduate program, four years of medical school training, and three to four years of postgraduate training in the form of a pathology residency. Training may be within two primary specialties, as recognized by the American Board of Pathology: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology, each of which requires separate board certification. The American Osteopathic Board of Pathology also recognizes four primary specialties: anatomic pathology, dermatopathology, forensic pathology, and laboratory medicine. Pathologists may pursue specialised fellowship training within one or more subspecialties of either anatomical or clinical pathology. Some of these subspecialties permit additional board certification, while others do not. In the United Kingdom, pathologists are physicians licensed by the UK General Medical Council. The training to become a pathologist is overseen by the Royal College of Pathologists. After four to six years of undergraduate medical study, trainees proceed to a two-year foundation program. Full-time training in histopathology currently lasts between five and five and a half years, encompassing specialist training in surgical pathology, cytopathology, and autopsy pathology. It is also possible to take a Royal College of Pathologists diploma in forensic pathology, dermatopathology, or cytopathology, recognising additional specialist training and expertise, and to get specialist accreditation in forensic pathology, pediatric pathology, and neuropathology. The General Medical Council oversees all postgraduate medical training and education in the UK. In France, pathology is separated into two distinct specialties: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology. Residencies for both lasts four years. Residency in anatomical pathology is open to physicians only, while clinical pathology is open to both physicians and pharmacists. At the end of the second year of clinical pathology residency, residents can choose between general clinical pathology and a specialization in one of the disciplines, but they can not practice anatomical pathology, nor can anatomical pathology residents practice clinical pathology. == Trikkib ma' mediċina dijanjostika oħra == Though separate fields in terms of medical practice, a number of areas of inquiry in medicine and medical science either overlap greatly with general pathology, work in tandem with it, or contribute significantly to the understanding of the pathology of a given disease or its course in an individual. As a significant portion of all general pathology practice is concerned with cancer, the practice of oncology makes extensive use of both anatomical and clinical pathology in diagnosis and treatment. In particular, biopsy, resection, and blood tests are all examples of pathology work that is essential for the diagnoses of many kinds of cancer and for the staging of cancerous masses. In a similar fashion, the tissue and blood analysis techniques of general pathology are of central significance to the investigation of serious infectious disease and as such inform significantly upon the fields of epidemiology, etiology, immunology, and parasitology. General pathology methods are of great importance to biomedical research into disease, wherein they are sometimes referred to as "experimental" or "investigative" pathology.^{[''citation needed'']} Medical imaging is the generating of visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Medical imaging reveals details of internal physiology that help medical professionals plan appropriate treatments for tissue infection and trauma. Medical imaging is also central in supplying the biometric data necessary to establish baseline features of anatomy and physiology so as to increase the accuracy with which early or fine-detail abnormalities are detected. These diagnostic techniques are often performed in combination with general pathology procedures and are themselves often essential to developing new understanding of the pathogenesis of a given disease and tracking the progress of disease in specific medical cases. Examples of important subdivisions in medical imaging include radiology (which uses the imaging technologies of X-ray radiography) magnetic resonance imaging, medical ultrasonography (or ultrasound), endoscopy, elastography, tactile imaging, thermography, medical photography, nuclear medicine and functional imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography. Though they do not strictly relay images, readings from diagnostics tests involving electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, and electrocardiography often give hints as to the state and function of certain tissues in the brain and heart respectively. == Informatika fil-patoloġija == Pathology informatics is a subfield of health informatics. It is the use of information technology in pathology. It encompasses pathology laboratory operations, data analysis, and the interpretation of pathology-related information. Key aspects of pathology informatics include: * Laboratory information management systems (LIMS): Implementing and managing computer systems specifically designed for pathology departments. These systems help in tracking and managing patient specimens, results, and other pathology data. * Digital pathology: Involves the use of digital technology to create, manage, and analyze pathology images. This includes side scanning and automated image analysis. * Telepathology: Using technology to enable remote pathology consultation and collaboration. * Quality assurance and reporting: Implementing informatics solutions to ensure the quality and accuracy of pathology processes. == Psikopatoloġija == Psychopathology is the study of mental illness, particularly of severe disorders. Informed heavily by both psychology and neurology, its purpose is to classify mental illness, elucidate its underlying causes, and guide clinical psychiatric treatment accordingly. Although diagnosis and classification of mental norms and disorders is largely the purview of psychiatry—the results of which are guidelines such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which attempt to classify mental disease mostly on behavioural evidence, though not without controversy—the field is also heavily, and increasingly, informed upon by neuroscience and other of the biological cognitive sciences. Mental or social disorders or behaviours seen as generally unhealthy or excessive in a given individual, to the point where they cause harm or severe disruption to the person's lifestyle, are often called "pathological" (e.g., pathological gambling or pathological liar). == Mhux umani == Although the vast majority of lab work and research in pathology concerns the development of disease in humans, pathology is of significance throughout the biological sciences. Two main catch-all fields exist to represent most complex organisms capable of serving as host to a pathogen or other form of disease: veterinary pathology (concerned with all non-human species of kingdom of Animalia) and phytopathology, which studies disease in plants. === Patoloġija veterinarja === Veterinary pathology covers a vast array of species, but with a significantly smaller number of practitioners, so understanding of disease in non-human animals, especially as regards veterinary practice, varies considerably by species. Nevertheless, significant amounts of pathology research are conducted on animals, for two primary reasons: 1) The origins of diseases are typically zoonotic in nature, and many infectious pathogens have animal vectors and, as such, understanding the mechanisms of action for these pathogens in non-human hosts is essential to the understanding and application of epidemiology and 2) those animals that share physiological and genetic traits with humans can be used as surrogates for the study of the disease and potential treatments as well as the effects of various synthetic products. For this reason, as well as their roles as livestock and companion animals, mammals generally have the largest body of research in veterinary pathology. Animal testing remains a controversial practice, even in cases where it is used to research treatment for human disease. As in human medical pathology, the practice of veterinary pathology is customarily divided into the two main fields of anatomical and clinical pathology. === Patoloġija tal-pjanti === Although the pathogens and their mechanics differ greatly from those of animals, plants are subject to a wide variety of diseases, including those caused by fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants. Damage caused by insects, mites, vertebrate, and other small herbivores is not considered a part of the domain of plant pathology. The field is connected to plant disease epidemiology and especially concerned with the horticulture of species that are of high importance to the human diet or other human utility. == Referenzi == 82fz4hi59mci4qc3pcu7g6sin54ckix 329968 329966 2026-05-14T16:16:00Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Mediċina]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 329968 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Pathologists looking into microscopes (1).jpg|daqsminuri|Patologu jeżamina sezzjoni ta' tessuti għal evidenza ta' ċelloli kanċerużi waqt li [[kirurgu]] qed josserva.]] Il-'''patoloġija''' hija l-istudju tal-[[mard]]. Il-[[kelma]] ''patoloġija'' tirreferi wkoll għall-istudju tal-mard inġenerali, u tinkorpora firxa wiesgħa ta' oqsma tar-riċerka [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġika]] u ta' prattiċi [[Mediċina|mediċi]]. Madankollu, meta jintuża fil-kuntest tat-trattament mediku modern, it-terminu spiss jintuża b'mod idjaq biex jirreferi għall-proċessi u għat-testijiet marbuta mal-qasam mediku kontemporanju tal-"patoloġija ġenerali", qasam li jinkludi għadd ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet mediċi distinti iżda interrelatati li jiddijanjostikaw il-mard, l-iktar permezz tal-analiżi tal-kampjuni tat-tessuti u taċ-ċelloli [[Bniedem|umani]]. Il-patoloġija huwa qasam sinifikanti fid-dijanjożi medika moderna u fir-riċerka medika. [[Tabib]] li jipprattika l-patoloġija jissejjaħ patologu.<ref>Herausgeber., Cross, Simon S., Herausgeber. Underwood, James C. E. 1942- (30 April 2018). ''Underwood's pathology : a clinical approach''. Elsevier – Health Sciences Division. ISBN <bdi>978-0-7020-7212-3</bdi>. OCLC 1043350646.</ref> Bħala qasam tal-inkjesti u tar-riċerka ġenerali, il-patoloġija tindirizza l-komponenti tal-mard: il-kawża, il-mekkaniżmi tal-iżvilupp (patoġenesi), l-alterazzjonijiet strutturali taċ-ċelloli (bidliet morfoloġiċi), u l-konsegwenzi tal-bidliet (manifestazzjonijiet kliniċi).<ref>Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; Aster, Jon C. (2010). ''Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease'' (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN <bdi>978-1-4160-3121-5</bdi>.</ref> Fil-prattika medika komuni, il-patoloġija ġenerali tittratta l-iktar l-analiżi tal-abnormalitajiet kliniċi magħrufa li huma markaturi jew prekursuri kemm tal-mard infettiv kif ukoll tal-mard mhux infettiv, u ssir minn esperti f'waħda miż-żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet ewlenin, il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://freida.ama-assn.org/|titlu=FREIDA™ Pathology-Anatomic and Clinical Specialty Details|sit=FREIDA Residency Program Database {{!}} Medical Fellowship Database {{!}} AMA|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> Diviżjonijiet ulterjuri fl-ispeċjalizzazzjonijiet jeżistu abbażi tat-tipi tal-kampjuni involuti bħal fiċ-ċitopatoloġija, fl-ematopatoloġija u fl-istopatoloġija), tal-organi (bħal fil-patoloġija renali) u tas-sistemi fiżjoloġiċi (il-patoloġija orali), kif ukoll abbażi tal-enfasi tal-eżaminazzjoni (bħal fil-patoloġija forensika). Idjomatikament, "patoloġija" jaf tirreferi wkoll għall-progressjoni prevista jew effettiva ta' mard partikolari (bħal fl-istqarrija "il-forom differenti tal-[[kanċer]] ikollhom diversità ta' patoloġiji", fejn kelma iktar preċiża jaf tkun "patofiżjoloġiji"). Is-suffiss ''-patija'' xi kultant jintuża biex jiġi indikat stat tal-mard f'każijiet ta' mard fiżiku (bħal fil-kardjomijopatija) u ta' kundizzjonijiet psikoloġiċi (bħal fil-psikopatija).<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/138811|titlu=-pathy, comb. form : Oxford English Dictionary|sit=oed.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> == [[Etimoloġija]] == It-terminu [[Lingwa Latina|Latin]] ''pathologia'' oriġina mill-għerq [[Lingwa Griega antika|Grieg Antik]] ''pathos'' (πάθος), li tfisser "esperjenza" jew "tbatija", u ''-logia'' (-λογία), li tfisser "studju ta'". It-terminu għandu oriġini li tmur lura għall-bidu tas-seklu 16, u kulma jmur sar iktar popolarizzat wara s-snin 30 tas-seklu 16.<ref>Janssen, Diederik F. (April 2022). "From Pathognomicha and Passiologia to Pathologia: concise history of a neologism (1486-1598)". ''Pathologica''. '''114''' (2) 10: 185–188. doi:10.32074/1591-951X-261. ISSN 1591-951X. PMC 9248257. <nowiki>PMID 35481571</nowiki>.</ref> == [[Storja]] == L-istudju tal-patoloġija, inkluż l-eżaminazzjoni dettaljata tal-ġisem, id-dissezzjoni u l-inkjesti rigward mard speċifiku, imur lura għal żmien il-qedem. Il-fehim rudimentali ta' bosta kundizzjonijiet kien preżenti fil-biċċa l-kbira tas-soċjetajiet bikrin u ġie rreġistrat fir-rekords tal-iżjed soċjetajiet storiċi bikrin, fosthom dawk tal-Lvant Nofsani, tal-[[Indja]] u taċ-[[Ċina]].<ref>Long, Esmond (1965). ''History of Pathology''. New York: Dover. pp. 1+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-486-61342-0</bdi>.</ref> Sal-perjodu Elleniku tal-[[Greċja antika|Greċja Antika]], sar studju kawżali maqbul tal-mard, u bosta tobba notevoli bikrin (bħal [[Ippokrate]], li għalih jissemma l-ġurament Ippokratiku modern) żviluppaw metodi ta' dijanjożi u ta' pronjożi għal għadd ta' mardiet. Il-prattiċi mediċi tar-[[Imperu Ruman|Rumani]] u dawk tal-[[Biżantini]] komplew minn dawn l-għeruq [[Greċja|Griegi]], iżda bħal f'bosta oqsma tal-inkjesti [[Xjenza|xjentifiċi]], it-tkabbir fil-fehim tal-mediċina staġna kemxejn wara l-Era Klassika, iżda baqa' jiżviluppa bil-mod fost bosta [[Kultura|kulturi]]. B'mod partikolari, saru bosta avvanzi fl-era [[Medjuevu|Medjevali]] tal-[[Iżlam]], u matul dan iż-żmien ġew żviluppati bosta testi ta' patoloġiji kumplessi, ibbażati wkoll fuq it-tradizzjoni Griega. Minkejja dan, it-tkabbir fil-fehim kumpless tal-mard fil-biċċa l-kbira waqaf sa ma l-għarfien u l-isperimentazzjoni reġgħu bdew jiżdiedu fir-[[Rinaxximent]], fl-[[Illuminiżmu]] u fil-[[Barokk]], wara li reġa' feġġ il-metodu empiriku f'ċentri ġodda tal-istudju. Sas-[[seklu 17]], l-istudju tal-mikroskopija rudimentali u l-eżaminazzjoni tat-tessuti wasslu biex il-membru tas-Soċjetà Rjali [[Renju Unit|Brittanika]] [[Robert Hooke]] joħroġ bil-kelma "ċellola", u b'hekk witta t-triq għat-teorija suċċessiva tal-ġermi. Il-patoloġija moderna bdiet tiżviluppa bħala qasam distint ta' stħarriġ matul is-seklu 19 permezz tal-filosfi naturali u tat-tobba li studjaw il-mard u l-istudju informali tal-hekk imsejħa "[[anatomija]] patoloġika" jew "anatomija tal-mard". Madankollu, il-patoloġija bħala qasam formali speċjalizzat ma ġietx żviluppata għalkollox qabel l-aħħar tas-seklu 19 u l-bidu tas-seklu 20, bil-wasla tal-istudju dettaljat tal-mikrobijoloġija. Fis-seklu 19, it-tobba bdew jifhmu li jeżistu l-patoġeni li jikkawżaw il-mard, jew il-"ġermi" (terminu kumplessiv għall-mikrobi "patoġeniċi" jew li jikkawżaw il-mard, bħall-batterji, [[Virus|viruses]], fungi, amibi, mofof, protisti u prijoni) u li kienu kapaċi jirriproduċu u jimmultiplikaw. Dan il-fehim ħa post it-twemmin iktar bikri fl-umuri jew saħansitra fl-aġenti spiritwali, li kien iddomina fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-1,500 sena ta' qabel fil-mediċina Ewropea. Bil-fehim il-ġdid tal-aġenti kawżattivi, it-tobba bdew iqabblu l-karatteristiċi tas-sintomi tal-ġermi skont kif żviluppaw f'xi individwu affettwat u mqabbla mal-karatteristiċi u tal-ġermi u s-sintomi. Dan l-approċċ wassal għall-fehim fundamentali li l-mard kapaċi jirreplika ruħu, u li jista' jkollu bosta effetti profondi u varjati fuq l-ospitant uman. Sabiex jiġu ddeterminati l-kawżi tal-mardiet, l-esperti mediċi wżaw l-iżjed suppożizzjonijiet jew sintomi komuni u aċċettati b'mod wiesa' ta' żminijiethom, li huwa prinċipju ġenerali tal-approċċ li għadu jippersisti fil-mediċina moderna.<ref>King, Lester (1991). ''Transformations in American Medicine: From Benjamin Rush to William Osler''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP. pp. 27+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-8018-4057-9</bdi>.</ref><ref>Machevsky, Alberto; Wick, MR (2004). "Evidence-based Medicine, Medical Decision Analysis, and Pathology". ''Human Pathology''. '''35''' (10): 1179–88. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2004.06.004. <nowiki>PMID 15492984</nowiki>.</ref> Il-mediċina moderna avvanzat b'mod partikolari bl-iżviluppi ulterjuri tal-[[mikroskopju]] għall-analiżi tat-tessuti, bil-kontribut sinifikanti ta' [[Rudolf Virchow]], li wassal għal bosta żviluppi fir-riċerka. Sal-aħħar tas-snin 20 u l-bidu tas-snin 30 tas-seklu 20, il-patoloġija kienet meqjusa bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika.<ref>Rothstein, William G. (1979). "Pathology: The Evolution of a Specialty in American Medicine". ''Medical Care''. '''17''' (10): 975–988. doi:10.1097/00005650-197910000-00001. JSTOR 3763869. <nowiki>PMID 386008</nowiki>. S2CID 23045808.</ref> Flimkien mal-iżviluppi fil-fehim tal-fiżjoloġija ġenerali, sal-bidu tas-seklu 20, l-istudju tal-patoloġija beda jinqasam f'għadd ta' oqsma distinti, li wassal għall-iżvilupp ta' għadd kbir ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet moderni fi ħdan il-patoloġija u dixxiplini relatati tal-mediċina dijanjostika.<ref>Race, George J.; Tillery, G. Weldon; Dysert, Peter A. (Jannar 2004). "A history of pathology and laboratory medicine at Baylor University Medical Center". ''Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center)''. '''17''' (1): 42–55. doi:10.1080/08998280.2004.11927956. ISSN 0899-8280. PMC 1200640. <nowiki>PMID 16200088</nowiki>.</ref> == Patoloġija ġenerali == Il-prattika moderna tal-patoloġija hija maqsuma f'għadd ta' sottodixxiplini fi ħdan l-għanijiet distinti iżda ferm interkonnessi tar-riċerka bijoloġika u l-prattika medika. Ir-riċerka bijomedika dwar il-mard tinkorpora x-xogħol ta' varjetà vasta ta' speċjalisti tax-[[xjenza]] tal-[[ħajja]], billi, fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-partijiet tad-dinja, sabiex wieħed ikun liċenzjat biex jipprattika l-patoloġija bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika, wieħed irid ikun temm l-iskola medika u kiseb liċenzja biex jipprattika l-mediċina. Strutturalment, l-istudju tal-mard huwa maqsum f'bosta oqsma differenti li jistudjaw jew jiddijanjostikaw il-markaturi għall-mard bl-użu ta' metodi u teknoloġiċi partikolari għal tipi speċifiċi ta' skali, organi u tessuti. === Patoloġija anatomika === Il-patoloġija anatomika (fil-[[Commonwealth tan-Nazzjonijiet|Commonwealth]] jew fl-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]]) hija speċjalizzazzjoni medika li għandha x'taqsam mad-dijanjożi tal-mard abbażi tal-eżaminazzjoni grossa, mikroskopika, [[kimika]], immunoloġika u molekolari tal-organi, tat-tessuti u tal-iġsma sħaħ (bħal fl-eżaminazzjoni ġenerali jew fl-awtopsja). Il-patoloġija anatomika fiha nnifisha hija maqsuma f'sottooqsma, fosthom il-patoloġija kirurġika, iċ-ċitopatoloġija u l-patoloġija forensika. Il-patoloġija anatomika hija waħda miż-żewġ oqsma prinċipali tal-prattika medika tal-patoloġija, u l-oħra hija l-patoloġija klinika, id-dijanjożi tal-mard permezz tal-analiżi fil-laboratorju tal-fluwidi u tat-tessuti tal-ġisem. Xi kultant, il-patologi jipprattikaw kemm il-patoloġija anatomika kif ukoll dik klinika, kombinament magħruf bħala patoloġija ġenerali. ==== Ċitopatoloġija ==== Iċ-ċitopatoloġija (xi kultant magħrufa bħala ċ-"ċitoloġija") hija l-fergħa tal-patoloġija li tistudja u tiddijanjostika l-mard fuq il-livell ċellolari. Normalment tintuża biex tgħin fid-dijanjożi tal-kanċer, iżda tgħin ukoll fid-dijanjożi ta' ċertu mard infettiv u kundizzjonijiet infjammatorji oħra, kif ukoll leżjonijiet tat-tirojde, mard li jinvolvi l-kavitajiet sterili tal-ġisem (peritoneali, plewrali u ċerebrospinali), u firxa wiesgħa ta' siti oħra tal-ġisem. Iċ-ċitopatoloġija ġeneralment tintuża fuq kampanji ta' ċelloli liberi jew frammenti tat-tessuti (b'kuntrast mal-istopatoloġija, li tistudja t-tessuti sħaħ) u testijiet ċitopatoloġiċi li jistgħu jingħaddu fuq slide tal-[[ħġieġ]] tal-mikroskopju għal tebgħat u eżaminazzjoni mikroskopiku sussegwenti. Madankollu, il-kampjuni ċitoloġiċi jistgħu jitħejjew b'modi oħra, inkluż b'ċitoċentrifugazzjoni. ==== Dermatopatoloġija ==== Dermatopathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that focuses on the skin and the rest of the integumentary system as an organ. It is unique, in that there are two paths a physician can take to obtain the specialization. All general pathologists and general dermatologists train in the pathology of the skin, so the term dermatopathologist denotes either of these who has reached a certain level of accreditation and experience; in the US, either a general pathologist or a dermatologist can undergo a 1 to 2 year fellowship in the field of dermatopathology. The completion of this fellowship allows one to take a subspecialty board examination, and becomes a board certified dermatopathologist. Dermatologists are able to recognize most skin diseases based on their appearances, anatomic distributions, and behavior. Sometimes, however, those criteria do not lead to a conclusive diagnosis, and a skin biopsy is taken to be examined under the microscope using usual histological tests. In some cases, additional specialized testing needs to be performed on biopsies, including immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, flow cytometry, and molecular-pathologic analysis. One of the greatest challenges of dermatopathology is its scope. More than 1500 different disorders of the skin exist, including cutaneous eruptions ("rashes") and neoplasms. Therefore, dermatopathologists must maintain a broad base of knowledge in clinical dermatology, and be familiar with several other specialty areas in Medicine. ==== Patoloġija forensika ==== Forensic pathology focuses on determining the cause of death by post-mortem examination of a corpse or partial remains. An autopsy is typically performed by a coroner or medical examiner, often during criminal investigations; in this role, coroners and medical examiners are also frequently asked to confirm the identity of a corpse. The requirements for becoming a licensed practitioner of forensic pathology varies from country to country (and even within a given nation) but typically a minimal requirement is a medical doctorate with a specialty in general or anatomical pathology with subsequent study in forensic medicine. The methods forensic scientists use to determine death include examination of tissue specimens to identify the presence or absence of natural disease and other microscopic findings, interpretations of toxicology on body tissues and fluids to determine the chemical cause of overdoses, poisonings or other cases involving toxic agents, and examinations of physical trauma. Forensic pathology is a major component in the trans-disciplinary field of forensic science.^{[''citation needed'']} ==== Istopatoloġija ==== Histopathology refers to the microscopic examination of various forms of human tissue. Specifically, in clinical medicine, histopathology refers to the examination of a biopsy or surgical specimen by a pathologist, after the specimen has been processed and histological sections have been placed onto glass slides. This contrasts with the methods of cytopathology, which uses free cells or tissue fragments. Histopathological examination of tissues starts with surgery, biopsy, or autopsy. The tissue is removed from the body of an organism and then placed in a fixative that stabilizes the tissues to prevent decay. The most common fixative is formalin, although frozen section fixing is also common. To see the tissue under a microscope, the sections are stained with one or more pigments. The aim of staining is to reveal cellular components; counterstains are used to provide contrast. Histochemistry refers to the science of using chemical reactions between laboratory chemicals and components within tissue. The histological slides are then interpreted diagnostically and the resulting pathology report describes the histological findings and the opinion of the pathologist. In the case of cancer, this represents the tissue diagnosis required for most treatment protocols. ==== Newropatoloġija ==== Neuropathology is the study of disease of nervous system tissue, usually in the form of either surgical biopsies or sometimes whole brains in the case of autopsy. Neuropathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology, neurology, and neurosurgery. In many English-speaking countries, neuropathology is considered a subfield of anatomical pathology. A physician who specializes in neuropathology, usually by completing a fellowship after a residency in anatomical or general pathology, is called a neuropathologist. In day-to-day clinical practice, a neuropathologist generates diagnoses for patients. If a disease of the nervous system is suspected, and the diagnosis cannot be made by less invasive methods, a biopsy of nervous tissue is taken from the brain or cerebrospinal fluid is extracted from the spinal cord to aid in diagnosis. Biopsy is usually requested after a mass is detected by medical imaging. With autopsies, the principal work of the neuropathologist is to help in the post-mortem diagnosis of various conditions that affect the central nervous system. Biopsies can also consist of the skin. Epidermal nerve fiber density testing (ENFD) is a more recently developed neuropathology test in which a punch skin biopsy is taken to identify small fiber neuropathies by analyzing the nerve fibers of the skin. This test is becoming available in select labs as well as many universities; it replaces the traditional nerve biopsy test as less invasive. ==== Patoloġija pulmonari ==== Pulmonary pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic (and especially surgical) pathology that deals with diagnosis and characterization of neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases of the lungs and thoracic pleura. Diagnostic specimens are often obtained via bronchoscopic transbronchial biopsy, CT-guided percutaneous biopsy, or video-assisted thoracic surgery. These tests can be necessary to diagnose between infection, inflammation, or fibrotic conditions. ==== Patoloġija renali ==== Renal pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that deals with the diagnosis and characterization of disease of the kidneys. In a medical setting, renal pathologists work closely with nephrologists and transplant surgeons, who typically obtain diagnostic specimens via percutaneous renal biopsy. The renal pathologist must synthesize findings from traditional microscope histology, electron microscopy, and immunofluorescence to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Medical renal diseases may affect the glomerulus, the tubules and interstitium, the vessels, or a combination of these compartments. ==== Patoloġija kirurġika ==== Surgical pathology is one of the primary areas of practice for most anatomical pathologists. Surgical pathology involves the gross and microscopic examination of surgical specimens, as well as biopsies submitted by surgeons and non-surgeons such as general internists, medical subspecialists, dermatologists, and interventional radiologists. Often an excised tissue sample is the best and most definitive evidence of disease (or lack thereof) in cases where tissue is surgically removed from a patient. These determinations are usually accomplished by a combination of gross (i.e., macroscopic) and histologic (i.e., microscopic) examination of the tissue, and may involve evaluations of molecular properties of the tissue by immunohistochemistry or other laboratory tests. There are two major types of specimens submitted for surgical pathology analysis: biopsies and surgical resections. A biopsy is a small piece of tissue removed primarily for surgical pathology analysis, most often in order to render a definitive diagnosis. Types of biopsies include core biopsies, which are obtained through the use of large-bore needles, sometimes under the guidance of radiological techniques such as ultrasound, CT scan, or magnetic resonance imaging. Incisional biopsies are obtained through diagnostic surgical procedures that remove part of a suspicious lesion, whereas excisional biopsies remove the entire lesion, and are similar to therapeutic surgical resections. Excisional biopsies of skin lesions and gastrointestinal polyps are very common. The pathologist's interpretation of a biopsy is critical to establishing the diagnosis of a benign or malignant tumor, and can differentiate between different types and grades of cancer, as well as determining the activity of specific molecular pathways in the tumor. Surgical resection specimens are obtained by the therapeutic surgical removal of an entire diseased area or organ (and occasionally multiple organs). These procedures are often intended as definitive surgical treatment of a disease in which the diagnosis is already known or strongly suspected, but pathological analysis of these specimens remains important in confirming the previous diagnosis.^{[''citation needed'']} === Patoloġija klinika === Clinical pathology is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids such as blood and urine, as well as tissues, using the tools of chemistry, clinical microbiology, hematology and molecular pathology. Clinical pathologists work in close collaboration with medical technologists, hospital administrations, and referring physicians. Clinical pathologists learn to administer a number of visual and microscopic tests and an especially large variety of tests of the biophysical properties of tissue samples involving automated analysers and cultures. Sometimes the general term "laboratory medicine specialist" is used to refer to those working in clinical pathology, including medical doctors, Ph.D.s and doctors of pharmacology. Immunopathology, the study of an organism's immune response to infection, is sometimes considered to fall within the domain of clinical pathology. ==== Ematopatoloġija ==== Hematopathology is the study of diseases of blood cells (including constituents such as white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets) and the tissues, and organs comprising the hematopoietic system. The term hematopoietic system refers to tissues and organs that produce and/or primarily host hematopoietic cells and includes bone marrow, the lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, and other lymphoid tissues. In the United States, hematopathology is a board certified subspecialty (licensed under the American Board of Pathology) practiced by those physicians who have completed a general pathology residency (anatomic, clinical, or combined) and an additional year of fellowship training in hematology. The hematopathologist reviews biopsies of lymph nodes, bone marrows and other tissues involved by an infiltrate of cells of the hematopoietic system. In addition, the hematopathologist may be in charge of flow cytometric and/or molecular hematopathology studies.^{[''citation needed'']} === Patoloġija molekolari === Molecular pathology is focused upon the study and diagnosis of disease through the examination of molecules within organs, tissues or bodily fluids. Molecular pathology is multidisciplinary by nature and shares some aspects of practice with both anatomic pathology and clinical pathology, molecular biology, biochemistry, proteomics and genetics. It is often applied in a context that is as much scientific as directly medical and encompasses the development of molecular and genetic approaches to the diagnosis and classification of human diseases, the design and validation of predictive biomarkers for treatment response and disease progression, and the susceptibility of individuals of different genetic constitution to particular disorders. The crossover between molecular pathology and epidemiology is represented by a related field "molecular pathological epidemiology". Molecular pathology is commonly used in diagnosis of cancer and infectious diseases. Molecular Pathology is primarily used to detect cancers such as melanoma, brainstem glioma, brain tumors as well as many other types of cancer and infectious diseases. Techniques are numerous but include quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), multiplex PCR, DNA microarray, in situ hybridization, DNA sequencing, antibody-based immunofluorescence tissue assays, molecular profiling of pathogens, and analysis of bacterial genes for antimicrobial resistance. Techniques used are based on analyzing samples of DNA and RNA. Pathology is widely used for gene therapy and disease diagnosis. === Patoloġija orali u maksillofaċċali === Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology is one of nine dental specialties recognized by the American Dental Association, and is sometimes considered a specialty of both dentistry and pathology. Oral Pathologists must complete three years of post doctoral training in an accredited program and subsequently obtain diplomate status from the American Board of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology. The specialty focuses on the diagnosis, clinical management and investigation of diseases that affect the oral cavity and surrounding maxillofacial structures including but not limited to odontogenic, infectious, epithelial, salivary gland, bone and soft tissue pathologies. It also significantly intersects with the field of dental pathology. Although concerned with a broad variety of diseases of the oral cavity, they have roles distinct from otorhinolaryngologists ("ear, nose, and throat" specialists), and speech pathologists, the latter of which helps diagnose many neurological or neuromuscular conditions relevant to speech phonology or swallowing. Owing to the availability of the oral cavity to non-invasive examination, many conditions in the study of oral disease can be diagnosed, or at least suspected, from gross examination, but biopsies, cell smears, and other tissue analysis remain important diagnostic tools in oral pathology.^{[''citation needed'']} == Taħriġ mediku u akkreditazzjoni == Becoming a pathologist generally requires specialty-training after medical school, but individual nations vary somewhat in the medical licensing required of pathologists. In the United States, pathologists are physicians (D.O. or M.D.) who have completed a four-year undergraduate program, four years of medical school training, and three to four years of postgraduate training in the form of a pathology residency. Training may be within two primary specialties, as recognized by the American Board of Pathology: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology, each of which requires separate board certification. The American Osteopathic Board of Pathology also recognizes four primary specialties: anatomic pathology, dermatopathology, forensic pathology, and laboratory medicine. Pathologists may pursue specialised fellowship training within one or more subspecialties of either anatomical or clinical pathology. Some of these subspecialties permit additional board certification, while others do not. In the United Kingdom, pathologists are physicians licensed by the UK General Medical Council. The training to become a pathologist is overseen by the Royal College of Pathologists. After four to six years of undergraduate medical study, trainees proceed to a two-year foundation program. Full-time training in histopathology currently lasts between five and five and a half years, encompassing specialist training in surgical pathology, cytopathology, and autopsy pathology. It is also possible to take a Royal College of Pathologists diploma in forensic pathology, dermatopathology, or cytopathology, recognising additional specialist training and expertise, and to get specialist accreditation in forensic pathology, pediatric pathology, and neuropathology. The General Medical Council oversees all postgraduate medical training and education in the UK. In France, pathology is separated into two distinct specialties: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology. Residencies for both lasts four years. Residency in anatomical pathology is open to physicians only, while clinical pathology is open to both physicians and pharmacists. At the end of the second year of clinical pathology residency, residents can choose between general clinical pathology and a specialization in one of the disciplines, but they can not practice anatomical pathology, nor can anatomical pathology residents practice clinical pathology. == Trikkib ma' mediċina dijanjostika oħra == Though separate fields in terms of medical practice, a number of areas of inquiry in medicine and medical science either overlap greatly with general pathology, work in tandem with it, or contribute significantly to the understanding of the pathology of a given disease or its course in an individual. As a significant portion of all general pathology practice is concerned with cancer, the practice of oncology makes extensive use of both anatomical and clinical pathology in diagnosis and treatment. In particular, biopsy, resection, and blood tests are all examples of pathology work that is essential for the diagnoses of many kinds of cancer and for the staging of cancerous masses. In a similar fashion, the tissue and blood analysis techniques of general pathology are of central significance to the investigation of serious infectious disease and as such inform significantly upon the fields of epidemiology, etiology, immunology, and parasitology. General pathology methods are of great importance to biomedical research into disease, wherein they are sometimes referred to as "experimental" or "investigative" pathology.^{[''citation needed'']} Medical imaging is the generating of visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Medical imaging reveals details of internal physiology that help medical professionals plan appropriate treatments for tissue infection and trauma. Medical imaging is also central in supplying the biometric data necessary to establish baseline features of anatomy and physiology so as to increase the accuracy with which early or fine-detail abnormalities are detected. These diagnostic techniques are often performed in combination with general pathology procedures and are themselves often essential to developing new understanding of the pathogenesis of a given disease and tracking the progress of disease in specific medical cases. Examples of important subdivisions in medical imaging include radiology (which uses the imaging technologies of X-ray radiography) magnetic resonance imaging, medical ultrasonography (or ultrasound), endoscopy, elastography, tactile imaging, thermography, medical photography, nuclear medicine and functional imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography. Though they do not strictly relay images, readings from diagnostics tests involving electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, and electrocardiography often give hints as to the state and function of certain tissues in the brain and heart respectively. == Informatika fil-patoloġija == Pathology informatics is a subfield of health informatics. It is the use of information technology in pathology. It encompasses pathology laboratory operations, data analysis, and the interpretation of pathology-related information. Key aspects of pathology informatics include: * Laboratory information management systems (LIMS): Implementing and managing computer systems specifically designed for pathology departments. These systems help in tracking and managing patient specimens, results, and other pathology data. * Digital pathology: Involves the use of digital technology to create, manage, and analyze pathology images. This includes side scanning and automated image analysis. * Telepathology: Using technology to enable remote pathology consultation and collaboration. * Quality assurance and reporting: Implementing informatics solutions to ensure the quality and accuracy of pathology processes. == Psikopatoloġija == Psychopathology is the study of mental illness, particularly of severe disorders. Informed heavily by both psychology and neurology, its purpose is to classify mental illness, elucidate its underlying causes, and guide clinical psychiatric treatment accordingly. Although diagnosis and classification of mental norms and disorders is largely the purview of psychiatry—the results of which are guidelines such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which attempt to classify mental disease mostly on behavioural evidence, though not without controversy—the field is also heavily, and increasingly, informed upon by neuroscience and other of the biological cognitive sciences. Mental or social disorders or behaviours seen as generally unhealthy or excessive in a given individual, to the point where they cause harm or severe disruption to the person's lifestyle, are often called "pathological" (e.g., pathological gambling or pathological liar). == Mhux umani == Although the vast majority of lab work and research in pathology concerns the development of disease in humans, pathology is of significance throughout the biological sciences. Two main catch-all fields exist to represent most complex organisms capable of serving as host to a pathogen or other form of disease: veterinary pathology (concerned with all non-human species of kingdom of Animalia) and phytopathology, which studies disease in plants. === Patoloġija veterinarja === Veterinary pathology covers a vast array of species, but with a significantly smaller number of practitioners, so understanding of disease in non-human animals, especially as regards veterinary practice, varies considerably by species. Nevertheless, significant amounts of pathology research are conducted on animals, for two primary reasons: 1) The origins of diseases are typically zoonotic in nature, and many infectious pathogens have animal vectors and, as such, understanding the mechanisms of action for these pathogens in non-human hosts is essential to the understanding and application of epidemiology and 2) those animals that share physiological and genetic traits with humans can be used as surrogates for the study of the disease and potential treatments as well as the effects of various synthetic products. For this reason, as well as their roles as livestock and companion animals, mammals generally have the largest body of research in veterinary pathology. Animal testing remains a controversial practice, even in cases where it is used to research treatment for human disease. As in human medical pathology, the practice of veterinary pathology is customarily divided into the two main fields of anatomical and clinical pathology. === Patoloġija tal-pjanti === Although the pathogens and their mechanics differ greatly from those of animals, plants are subject to a wide variety of diseases, including those caused by fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants. Damage caused by insects, mites, vertebrate, and other small herbivores is not considered a part of the domain of plant pathology. The field is connected to plant disease epidemiology and especially concerned with the horticulture of species that are of high importance to the human diet or other human utility. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Mediċina]] 1cx4uvxmao580htbgjy5ez32r5u33hh 329969 329968 2026-05-14T16:16:12Z Trigcly 17859 added [[Category:Bijoloġija]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 329969 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Pathologists looking into microscopes (1).jpg|daqsminuri|Patologu jeżamina sezzjoni ta' tessuti għal evidenza ta' ċelloli kanċerużi waqt li [[kirurgu]] qed josserva.]] Il-'''patoloġija''' hija l-istudju tal-[[mard]]. Il-[[kelma]] ''patoloġija'' tirreferi wkoll għall-istudju tal-mard inġenerali, u tinkorpora firxa wiesgħa ta' oqsma tar-riċerka [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġika]] u ta' prattiċi [[Mediċina|mediċi]]. Madankollu, meta jintuża fil-kuntest tat-trattament mediku modern, it-terminu spiss jintuża b'mod idjaq biex jirreferi għall-proċessi u għat-testijiet marbuta mal-qasam mediku kontemporanju tal-"patoloġija ġenerali", qasam li jinkludi għadd ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet mediċi distinti iżda interrelatati li jiddijanjostikaw il-mard, l-iktar permezz tal-analiżi tal-kampjuni tat-tessuti u taċ-ċelloli [[Bniedem|umani]]. Il-patoloġija huwa qasam sinifikanti fid-dijanjożi medika moderna u fir-riċerka medika. [[Tabib]] li jipprattika l-patoloġija jissejjaħ patologu.<ref>Herausgeber., Cross, Simon S., Herausgeber. Underwood, James C. E. 1942- (30 April 2018). ''Underwood's pathology : a clinical approach''. Elsevier – Health Sciences Division. ISBN <bdi>978-0-7020-7212-3</bdi>. OCLC 1043350646.</ref> Bħala qasam tal-inkjesti u tar-riċerka ġenerali, il-patoloġija tindirizza l-komponenti tal-mard: il-kawża, il-mekkaniżmi tal-iżvilupp (patoġenesi), l-alterazzjonijiet strutturali taċ-ċelloli (bidliet morfoloġiċi), u l-konsegwenzi tal-bidliet (manifestazzjonijiet kliniċi).<ref>Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; Aster, Jon C. (2010). ''Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease'' (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN <bdi>978-1-4160-3121-5</bdi>.</ref> Fil-prattika medika komuni, il-patoloġija ġenerali tittratta l-iktar l-analiżi tal-abnormalitajiet kliniċi magħrufa li huma markaturi jew prekursuri kemm tal-mard infettiv kif ukoll tal-mard mhux infettiv, u ssir minn esperti f'waħda miż-żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet ewlenin, il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://freida.ama-assn.org/|titlu=FREIDA™ Pathology-Anatomic and Clinical Specialty Details|sit=FREIDA Residency Program Database {{!}} Medical Fellowship Database {{!}} AMA|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> Diviżjonijiet ulterjuri fl-ispeċjalizzazzjonijiet jeżistu abbażi tat-tipi tal-kampjuni involuti bħal fiċ-ċitopatoloġija, fl-ematopatoloġija u fl-istopatoloġija), tal-organi (bħal fil-patoloġija renali) u tas-sistemi fiżjoloġiċi (il-patoloġija orali), kif ukoll abbażi tal-enfasi tal-eżaminazzjoni (bħal fil-patoloġija forensika). Idjomatikament, "patoloġija" jaf tirreferi wkoll għall-progressjoni prevista jew effettiva ta' mard partikolari (bħal fl-istqarrija "il-forom differenti tal-[[kanċer]] ikollhom diversità ta' patoloġiji", fejn kelma iktar preċiża jaf tkun "patofiżjoloġiji"). Is-suffiss ''-patija'' xi kultant jintuża biex jiġi indikat stat tal-mard f'każijiet ta' mard fiżiku (bħal fil-kardjomijopatija) u ta' kundizzjonijiet psikoloġiċi (bħal fil-psikopatija).<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/138811|titlu=-pathy, comb. form : Oxford English Dictionary|sit=oed.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> == [[Etimoloġija]] == It-terminu [[Lingwa Latina|Latin]] ''pathologia'' oriġina mill-għerq [[Lingwa Griega antika|Grieg Antik]] ''pathos'' (πάθος), li tfisser "esperjenza" jew "tbatija", u ''-logia'' (-λογία), li tfisser "studju ta'". It-terminu għandu oriġini li tmur lura għall-bidu tas-seklu 16, u kulma jmur sar iktar popolarizzat wara s-snin 30 tas-seklu 16.<ref>Janssen, Diederik F. (April 2022). "From Pathognomicha and Passiologia to Pathologia: concise history of a neologism (1486-1598)". ''Pathologica''. '''114''' (2) 10: 185–188. doi:10.32074/1591-951X-261. ISSN 1591-951X. PMC 9248257. <nowiki>PMID 35481571</nowiki>.</ref> == [[Storja]] == L-istudju tal-patoloġija, inkluż l-eżaminazzjoni dettaljata tal-ġisem, id-dissezzjoni u l-inkjesti rigward mard speċifiku, imur lura għal żmien il-qedem. Il-fehim rudimentali ta' bosta kundizzjonijiet kien preżenti fil-biċċa l-kbira tas-soċjetajiet bikrin u ġie rreġistrat fir-rekords tal-iżjed soċjetajiet storiċi bikrin, fosthom dawk tal-Lvant Nofsani, tal-[[Indja]] u taċ-[[Ċina]].<ref>Long, Esmond (1965). ''History of Pathology''. New York: Dover. pp. 1+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-486-61342-0</bdi>.</ref> Sal-perjodu Elleniku tal-[[Greċja antika|Greċja Antika]], sar studju kawżali maqbul tal-mard, u bosta tobba notevoli bikrin (bħal [[Ippokrate]], li għalih jissemma l-ġurament Ippokratiku modern) żviluppaw metodi ta' dijanjożi u ta' pronjożi għal għadd ta' mardiet. Il-prattiċi mediċi tar-[[Imperu Ruman|Rumani]] u dawk tal-[[Biżantini]] komplew minn dawn l-għeruq [[Greċja|Griegi]], iżda bħal f'bosta oqsma tal-inkjesti [[Xjenza|xjentifiċi]], it-tkabbir fil-fehim tal-mediċina staġna kemxejn wara l-Era Klassika, iżda baqa' jiżviluppa bil-mod fost bosta [[Kultura|kulturi]]. B'mod partikolari, saru bosta avvanzi fl-era [[Medjuevu|Medjevali]] tal-[[Iżlam]], u matul dan iż-żmien ġew żviluppati bosta testi ta' patoloġiji kumplessi, ibbażati wkoll fuq it-tradizzjoni Griega. Minkejja dan, it-tkabbir fil-fehim kumpless tal-mard fil-biċċa l-kbira waqaf sa ma l-għarfien u l-isperimentazzjoni reġgħu bdew jiżdiedu fir-[[Rinaxximent]], fl-[[Illuminiżmu]] u fil-[[Barokk]], wara li reġa' feġġ il-metodu empiriku f'ċentri ġodda tal-istudju. Sas-[[seklu 17]], l-istudju tal-mikroskopija rudimentali u l-eżaminazzjoni tat-tessuti wasslu biex il-membru tas-Soċjetà Rjali [[Renju Unit|Brittanika]] [[Robert Hooke]] joħroġ bil-kelma "ċellola", u b'hekk witta t-triq għat-teorija suċċessiva tal-ġermi. Il-patoloġija moderna bdiet tiżviluppa bħala qasam distint ta' stħarriġ matul is-seklu 19 permezz tal-filosfi naturali u tat-tobba li studjaw il-mard u l-istudju informali tal-hekk imsejħa "[[anatomija]] patoloġika" jew "anatomija tal-mard". Madankollu, il-patoloġija bħala qasam formali speċjalizzat ma ġietx żviluppata għalkollox qabel l-aħħar tas-seklu 19 u l-bidu tas-seklu 20, bil-wasla tal-istudju dettaljat tal-mikrobijoloġija. Fis-seklu 19, it-tobba bdew jifhmu li jeżistu l-patoġeni li jikkawżaw il-mard, jew il-"ġermi" (terminu kumplessiv għall-mikrobi "patoġeniċi" jew li jikkawżaw il-mard, bħall-batterji, [[Virus|viruses]], fungi, amibi, mofof, protisti u prijoni) u li kienu kapaċi jirriproduċu u jimmultiplikaw. Dan il-fehim ħa post it-twemmin iktar bikri fl-umuri jew saħansitra fl-aġenti spiritwali, li kien iddomina fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-1,500 sena ta' qabel fil-mediċina Ewropea. Bil-fehim il-ġdid tal-aġenti kawżattivi, it-tobba bdew iqabblu l-karatteristiċi tas-sintomi tal-ġermi skont kif żviluppaw f'xi individwu affettwat u mqabbla mal-karatteristiċi u tal-ġermi u s-sintomi. Dan l-approċċ wassal għall-fehim fundamentali li l-mard kapaċi jirreplika ruħu, u li jista' jkollu bosta effetti profondi u varjati fuq l-ospitant uman. Sabiex jiġu ddeterminati l-kawżi tal-mardiet, l-esperti mediċi wżaw l-iżjed suppożizzjonijiet jew sintomi komuni u aċċettati b'mod wiesa' ta' żminijiethom, li huwa prinċipju ġenerali tal-approċċ li għadu jippersisti fil-mediċina moderna.<ref>King, Lester (1991). ''Transformations in American Medicine: From Benjamin Rush to William Osler''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP. pp. 27+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-8018-4057-9</bdi>.</ref><ref>Machevsky, Alberto; Wick, MR (2004). "Evidence-based Medicine, Medical Decision Analysis, and Pathology". ''Human Pathology''. '''35''' (10): 1179–88. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2004.06.004. <nowiki>PMID 15492984</nowiki>.</ref> Il-mediċina moderna avvanzat b'mod partikolari bl-iżviluppi ulterjuri tal-[[mikroskopju]] għall-analiżi tat-tessuti, bil-kontribut sinifikanti ta' [[Rudolf Virchow]], li wassal għal bosta żviluppi fir-riċerka. Sal-aħħar tas-snin 20 u l-bidu tas-snin 30 tas-seklu 20, il-patoloġija kienet meqjusa bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika.<ref>Rothstein, William G. (1979). "Pathology: The Evolution of a Specialty in American Medicine". ''Medical Care''. '''17''' (10): 975–988. doi:10.1097/00005650-197910000-00001. JSTOR 3763869. <nowiki>PMID 386008</nowiki>. S2CID 23045808.</ref> Flimkien mal-iżviluppi fil-fehim tal-fiżjoloġija ġenerali, sal-bidu tas-seklu 20, l-istudju tal-patoloġija beda jinqasam f'għadd ta' oqsma distinti, li wassal għall-iżvilupp ta' għadd kbir ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet moderni fi ħdan il-patoloġija u dixxiplini relatati tal-mediċina dijanjostika.<ref>Race, George J.; Tillery, G. Weldon; Dysert, Peter A. (Jannar 2004). "A history of pathology and laboratory medicine at Baylor University Medical Center". ''Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center)''. '''17''' (1): 42–55. doi:10.1080/08998280.2004.11927956. ISSN 0899-8280. PMC 1200640. <nowiki>PMID 16200088</nowiki>.</ref> == Patoloġija ġenerali == Il-prattika moderna tal-patoloġija hija maqsuma f'għadd ta' sottodixxiplini fi ħdan l-għanijiet distinti iżda ferm interkonnessi tar-riċerka bijoloġika u l-prattika medika. Ir-riċerka bijomedika dwar il-mard tinkorpora x-xogħol ta' varjetà vasta ta' speċjalisti tax-[[xjenza]] tal-[[ħajja]], billi, fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-partijiet tad-dinja, sabiex wieħed ikun liċenzjat biex jipprattika l-patoloġija bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika, wieħed irid ikun temm l-iskola medika u kiseb liċenzja biex jipprattika l-mediċina. Strutturalment, l-istudju tal-mard huwa maqsum f'bosta oqsma differenti li jistudjaw jew jiddijanjostikaw il-markaturi għall-mard bl-użu ta' metodi u teknoloġiċi partikolari għal tipi speċifiċi ta' skali, organi u tessuti. === Patoloġija anatomika === Il-patoloġija anatomika (fil-[[Commonwealth tan-Nazzjonijiet|Commonwealth]] jew fl-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]]) hija speċjalizzazzjoni medika li għandha x'taqsam mad-dijanjożi tal-mard abbażi tal-eżaminazzjoni grossa, mikroskopika, [[kimika]], immunoloġika u molekolari tal-organi, tat-tessuti u tal-iġsma sħaħ (bħal fl-eżaminazzjoni ġenerali jew fl-awtopsja). Il-patoloġija anatomika fiha nnifisha hija maqsuma f'sottooqsma, fosthom il-patoloġija kirurġika, iċ-ċitopatoloġija u l-patoloġija forensika. Il-patoloġija anatomika hija waħda miż-żewġ oqsma prinċipali tal-prattika medika tal-patoloġija, u l-oħra hija l-patoloġija klinika, id-dijanjożi tal-mard permezz tal-analiżi fil-laboratorju tal-fluwidi u tat-tessuti tal-ġisem. Xi kultant, il-patologi jipprattikaw kemm il-patoloġija anatomika kif ukoll dik klinika, kombinament magħruf bħala patoloġija ġenerali. ==== Ċitopatoloġija ==== Iċ-ċitopatoloġija (xi kultant magħrufa bħala ċ-"ċitoloġija") hija l-fergħa tal-patoloġija li tistudja u tiddijanjostika l-mard fuq il-livell ċellolari. Normalment tintuża biex tgħin fid-dijanjożi tal-kanċer, iżda tgħin ukoll fid-dijanjożi ta' ċertu mard infettiv u kundizzjonijiet infjammatorji oħra, kif ukoll leżjonijiet tat-tirojde, mard li jinvolvi l-kavitajiet sterili tal-ġisem (peritoneali, plewrali u ċerebrospinali), u firxa wiesgħa ta' siti oħra tal-ġisem. Iċ-ċitopatoloġija ġeneralment tintuża fuq kampanji ta' ċelloli liberi jew frammenti tat-tessuti (b'kuntrast mal-istopatoloġija, li tistudja t-tessuti sħaħ) u testijiet ċitopatoloġiċi li jistgħu jingħaddu fuq slide tal-[[ħġieġ]] tal-mikroskopju għal tebgħat u eżaminazzjoni mikroskopiku sussegwenti. Madankollu, il-kampjuni ċitoloġiċi jistgħu jitħejjew b'modi oħra, inkluż b'ċitoċentrifugazzjoni. ==== Dermatopatoloġija ==== Dermatopathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that focuses on the skin and the rest of the integumentary system as an organ. It is unique, in that there are two paths a physician can take to obtain the specialization. All general pathologists and general dermatologists train in the pathology of the skin, so the term dermatopathologist denotes either of these who has reached a certain level of accreditation and experience; in the US, either a general pathologist or a dermatologist can undergo a 1 to 2 year fellowship in the field of dermatopathology. The completion of this fellowship allows one to take a subspecialty board examination, and becomes a board certified dermatopathologist. Dermatologists are able to recognize most skin diseases based on their appearances, anatomic distributions, and behavior. Sometimes, however, those criteria do not lead to a conclusive diagnosis, and a skin biopsy is taken to be examined under the microscope using usual histological tests. In some cases, additional specialized testing needs to be performed on biopsies, including immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, flow cytometry, and molecular-pathologic analysis. One of the greatest challenges of dermatopathology is its scope. More than 1500 different disorders of the skin exist, including cutaneous eruptions ("rashes") and neoplasms. Therefore, dermatopathologists must maintain a broad base of knowledge in clinical dermatology, and be familiar with several other specialty areas in Medicine. ==== Patoloġija forensika ==== Forensic pathology focuses on determining the cause of death by post-mortem examination of a corpse or partial remains. An autopsy is typically performed by a coroner or medical examiner, often during criminal investigations; in this role, coroners and medical examiners are also frequently asked to confirm the identity of a corpse. The requirements for becoming a licensed practitioner of forensic pathology varies from country to country (and even within a given nation) but typically a minimal requirement is a medical doctorate with a specialty in general or anatomical pathology with subsequent study in forensic medicine. The methods forensic scientists use to determine death include examination of tissue specimens to identify the presence or absence of natural disease and other microscopic findings, interpretations of toxicology on body tissues and fluids to determine the chemical cause of overdoses, poisonings or other cases involving toxic agents, and examinations of physical trauma. Forensic pathology is a major component in the trans-disciplinary field of forensic science.^{[''citation needed'']} ==== Istopatoloġija ==== Histopathology refers to the microscopic examination of various forms of human tissue. Specifically, in clinical medicine, histopathology refers to the examination of a biopsy or surgical specimen by a pathologist, after the specimen has been processed and histological sections have been placed onto glass slides. This contrasts with the methods of cytopathology, which uses free cells or tissue fragments. Histopathological examination of tissues starts with surgery, biopsy, or autopsy. The tissue is removed from the body of an organism and then placed in a fixative that stabilizes the tissues to prevent decay. The most common fixative is formalin, although frozen section fixing is also common. To see the tissue under a microscope, the sections are stained with one or more pigments. The aim of staining is to reveal cellular components; counterstains are used to provide contrast. Histochemistry refers to the science of using chemical reactions between laboratory chemicals and components within tissue. The histological slides are then interpreted diagnostically and the resulting pathology report describes the histological findings and the opinion of the pathologist. In the case of cancer, this represents the tissue diagnosis required for most treatment protocols. ==== Newropatoloġija ==== Neuropathology is the study of disease of nervous system tissue, usually in the form of either surgical biopsies or sometimes whole brains in the case of autopsy. Neuropathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology, neurology, and neurosurgery. In many English-speaking countries, neuropathology is considered a subfield of anatomical pathology. A physician who specializes in neuropathology, usually by completing a fellowship after a residency in anatomical or general pathology, is called a neuropathologist. In day-to-day clinical practice, a neuropathologist generates diagnoses for patients. If a disease of the nervous system is suspected, and the diagnosis cannot be made by less invasive methods, a biopsy of nervous tissue is taken from the brain or cerebrospinal fluid is extracted from the spinal cord to aid in diagnosis. Biopsy is usually requested after a mass is detected by medical imaging. With autopsies, the principal work of the neuropathologist is to help in the post-mortem diagnosis of various conditions that affect the central nervous system. Biopsies can also consist of the skin. Epidermal nerve fiber density testing (ENFD) is a more recently developed neuropathology test in which a punch skin biopsy is taken to identify small fiber neuropathies by analyzing the nerve fibers of the skin. This test is becoming available in select labs as well as many universities; it replaces the traditional nerve biopsy test as less invasive. ==== Patoloġija pulmonari ==== Pulmonary pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic (and especially surgical) pathology that deals with diagnosis and characterization of neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases of the lungs and thoracic pleura. Diagnostic specimens are often obtained via bronchoscopic transbronchial biopsy, CT-guided percutaneous biopsy, or video-assisted thoracic surgery. These tests can be necessary to diagnose between infection, inflammation, or fibrotic conditions. ==== Patoloġija renali ==== Renal pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that deals with the diagnosis and characterization of disease of the kidneys. In a medical setting, renal pathologists work closely with nephrologists and transplant surgeons, who typically obtain diagnostic specimens via percutaneous renal biopsy. The renal pathologist must synthesize findings from traditional microscope histology, electron microscopy, and immunofluorescence to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Medical renal diseases may affect the glomerulus, the tubules and interstitium, the vessels, or a combination of these compartments. ==== Patoloġija kirurġika ==== Surgical pathology is one of the primary areas of practice for most anatomical pathologists. Surgical pathology involves the gross and microscopic examination of surgical specimens, as well as biopsies submitted by surgeons and non-surgeons such as general internists, medical subspecialists, dermatologists, and interventional radiologists. Often an excised tissue sample is the best and most definitive evidence of disease (or lack thereof) in cases where tissue is surgically removed from a patient. These determinations are usually accomplished by a combination of gross (i.e., macroscopic) and histologic (i.e., microscopic) examination of the tissue, and may involve evaluations of molecular properties of the tissue by immunohistochemistry or other laboratory tests. There are two major types of specimens submitted for surgical pathology analysis: biopsies and surgical resections. A biopsy is a small piece of tissue removed primarily for surgical pathology analysis, most often in order to render a definitive diagnosis. Types of biopsies include core biopsies, which are obtained through the use of large-bore needles, sometimes under the guidance of radiological techniques such as ultrasound, CT scan, or magnetic resonance imaging. Incisional biopsies are obtained through diagnostic surgical procedures that remove part of a suspicious lesion, whereas excisional biopsies remove the entire lesion, and are similar to therapeutic surgical resections. Excisional biopsies of skin lesions and gastrointestinal polyps are very common. The pathologist's interpretation of a biopsy is critical to establishing the diagnosis of a benign or malignant tumor, and can differentiate between different types and grades of cancer, as well as determining the activity of specific molecular pathways in the tumor. Surgical resection specimens are obtained by the therapeutic surgical removal of an entire diseased area or organ (and occasionally multiple organs). These procedures are often intended as definitive surgical treatment of a disease in which the diagnosis is already known or strongly suspected, but pathological analysis of these specimens remains important in confirming the previous diagnosis.^{[''citation needed'']} === Patoloġija klinika === Clinical pathology is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids such as blood and urine, as well as tissues, using the tools of chemistry, clinical microbiology, hematology and molecular pathology. Clinical pathologists work in close collaboration with medical technologists, hospital administrations, and referring physicians. Clinical pathologists learn to administer a number of visual and microscopic tests and an especially large variety of tests of the biophysical properties of tissue samples involving automated analysers and cultures. Sometimes the general term "laboratory medicine specialist" is used to refer to those working in clinical pathology, including medical doctors, Ph.D.s and doctors of pharmacology. Immunopathology, the study of an organism's immune response to infection, is sometimes considered to fall within the domain of clinical pathology. ==== Ematopatoloġija ==== Hematopathology is the study of diseases of blood cells (including constituents such as white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets) and the tissues, and organs comprising the hematopoietic system. The term hematopoietic system refers to tissues and organs that produce and/or primarily host hematopoietic cells and includes bone marrow, the lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, and other lymphoid tissues. In the United States, hematopathology is a board certified subspecialty (licensed under the American Board of Pathology) practiced by those physicians who have completed a general pathology residency (anatomic, clinical, or combined) and an additional year of fellowship training in hematology. The hematopathologist reviews biopsies of lymph nodes, bone marrows and other tissues involved by an infiltrate of cells of the hematopoietic system. In addition, the hematopathologist may be in charge of flow cytometric and/or molecular hematopathology studies.^{[''citation needed'']} === Patoloġija molekolari === Molecular pathology is focused upon the study and diagnosis of disease through the examination of molecules within organs, tissues or bodily fluids. Molecular pathology is multidisciplinary by nature and shares some aspects of practice with both anatomic pathology and clinical pathology, molecular biology, biochemistry, proteomics and genetics. It is often applied in a context that is as much scientific as directly medical and encompasses the development of molecular and genetic approaches to the diagnosis and classification of human diseases, the design and validation of predictive biomarkers for treatment response and disease progression, and the susceptibility of individuals of different genetic constitution to particular disorders. The crossover between molecular pathology and epidemiology is represented by a related field "molecular pathological epidemiology". Molecular pathology is commonly used in diagnosis of cancer and infectious diseases. Molecular Pathology is primarily used to detect cancers such as melanoma, brainstem glioma, brain tumors as well as many other types of cancer and infectious diseases. Techniques are numerous but include quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), multiplex PCR, DNA microarray, in situ hybridization, DNA sequencing, antibody-based immunofluorescence tissue assays, molecular profiling of pathogens, and analysis of bacterial genes for antimicrobial resistance. Techniques used are based on analyzing samples of DNA and RNA. Pathology is widely used for gene therapy and disease diagnosis. === Patoloġija orali u maksillofaċċali === Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology is one of nine dental specialties recognized by the American Dental Association, and is sometimes considered a specialty of both dentistry and pathology. Oral Pathologists must complete three years of post doctoral training in an accredited program and subsequently obtain diplomate status from the American Board of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology. The specialty focuses on the diagnosis, clinical management and investigation of diseases that affect the oral cavity and surrounding maxillofacial structures including but not limited to odontogenic, infectious, epithelial, salivary gland, bone and soft tissue pathologies. It also significantly intersects with the field of dental pathology. Although concerned with a broad variety of diseases of the oral cavity, they have roles distinct from otorhinolaryngologists ("ear, nose, and throat" specialists), and speech pathologists, the latter of which helps diagnose many neurological or neuromuscular conditions relevant to speech phonology or swallowing. Owing to the availability of the oral cavity to non-invasive examination, many conditions in the study of oral disease can be diagnosed, or at least suspected, from gross examination, but biopsies, cell smears, and other tissue analysis remain important diagnostic tools in oral pathology.^{[''citation needed'']} == Taħriġ mediku u akkreditazzjoni == Becoming a pathologist generally requires specialty-training after medical school, but individual nations vary somewhat in the medical licensing required of pathologists. In the United States, pathologists are physicians (D.O. or M.D.) who have completed a four-year undergraduate program, four years of medical school training, and three to four years of postgraduate training in the form of a pathology residency. Training may be within two primary specialties, as recognized by the American Board of Pathology: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology, each of which requires separate board certification. The American Osteopathic Board of Pathology also recognizes four primary specialties: anatomic pathology, dermatopathology, forensic pathology, and laboratory medicine. Pathologists may pursue specialised fellowship training within one or more subspecialties of either anatomical or clinical pathology. Some of these subspecialties permit additional board certification, while others do not. In the United Kingdom, pathologists are physicians licensed by the UK General Medical Council. The training to become a pathologist is overseen by the Royal College of Pathologists. After four to six years of undergraduate medical study, trainees proceed to a two-year foundation program. Full-time training in histopathology currently lasts between five and five and a half years, encompassing specialist training in surgical pathology, cytopathology, and autopsy pathology. It is also possible to take a Royal College of Pathologists diploma in forensic pathology, dermatopathology, or cytopathology, recognising additional specialist training and expertise, and to get specialist accreditation in forensic pathology, pediatric pathology, and neuropathology. The General Medical Council oversees all postgraduate medical training and education in the UK. In France, pathology is separated into two distinct specialties: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology. Residencies for both lasts four years. Residency in anatomical pathology is open to physicians only, while clinical pathology is open to both physicians and pharmacists. At the end of the second year of clinical pathology residency, residents can choose between general clinical pathology and a specialization in one of the disciplines, but they can not practice anatomical pathology, nor can anatomical pathology residents practice clinical pathology. == Trikkib ma' mediċina dijanjostika oħra == Though separate fields in terms of medical practice, a number of areas of inquiry in medicine and medical science either overlap greatly with general pathology, work in tandem with it, or contribute significantly to the understanding of the pathology of a given disease or its course in an individual. As a significant portion of all general pathology practice is concerned with cancer, the practice of oncology makes extensive use of both anatomical and clinical pathology in diagnosis and treatment. In particular, biopsy, resection, and blood tests are all examples of pathology work that is essential for the diagnoses of many kinds of cancer and for the staging of cancerous masses. In a similar fashion, the tissue and blood analysis techniques of general pathology are of central significance to the investigation of serious infectious disease and as such inform significantly upon the fields of epidemiology, etiology, immunology, and parasitology. General pathology methods are of great importance to biomedical research into disease, wherein they are sometimes referred to as "experimental" or "investigative" pathology.^{[''citation needed'']} Medical imaging is the generating of visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Medical imaging reveals details of internal physiology that help medical professionals plan appropriate treatments for tissue infection and trauma. Medical imaging is also central in supplying the biometric data necessary to establish baseline features of anatomy and physiology so as to increase the accuracy with which early or fine-detail abnormalities are detected. These diagnostic techniques are often performed in combination with general pathology procedures and are themselves often essential to developing new understanding of the pathogenesis of a given disease and tracking the progress of disease in specific medical cases. Examples of important subdivisions in medical imaging include radiology (which uses the imaging technologies of X-ray radiography) magnetic resonance imaging, medical ultrasonography (or ultrasound), endoscopy, elastography, tactile imaging, thermography, medical photography, nuclear medicine and functional imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography. Though they do not strictly relay images, readings from diagnostics tests involving electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, and electrocardiography often give hints as to the state and function of certain tissues in the brain and heart respectively. == Informatika fil-patoloġija == Pathology informatics is a subfield of health informatics. It is the use of information technology in pathology. It encompasses pathology laboratory operations, data analysis, and the interpretation of pathology-related information. Key aspects of pathology informatics include: * Laboratory information management systems (LIMS): Implementing and managing computer systems specifically designed for pathology departments. These systems help in tracking and managing patient specimens, results, and other pathology data. * Digital pathology: Involves the use of digital technology to create, manage, and analyze pathology images. This includes side scanning and automated image analysis. * Telepathology: Using technology to enable remote pathology consultation and collaboration. * Quality assurance and reporting: Implementing informatics solutions to ensure the quality and accuracy of pathology processes. == Psikopatoloġija == Psychopathology is the study of mental illness, particularly of severe disorders. Informed heavily by both psychology and neurology, its purpose is to classify mental illness, elucidate its underlying causes, and guide clinical psychiatric treatment accordingly. Although diagnosis and classification of mental norms and disorders is largely the purview of psychiatry—the results of which are guidelines such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which attempt to classify mental disease mostly on behavioural evidence, though not without controversy—the field is also heavily, and increasingly, informed upon by neuroscience and other of the biological cognitive sciences. Mental or social disorders or behaviours seen as generally unhealthy or excessive in a given individual, to the point where they cause harm or severe disruption to the person's lifestyle, are often called "pathological" (e.g., pathological gambling or pathological liar). == Mhux umani == Although the vast majority of lab work and research in pathology concerns the development of disease in humans, pathology is of significance throughout the biological sciences. Two main catch-all fields exist to represent most complex organisms capable of serving as host to a pathogen or other form of disease: veterinary pathology (concerned with all non-human species of kingdom of Animalia) and phytopathology, which studies disease in plants. === Patoloġija veterinarja === Veterinary pathology covers a vast array of species, but with a significantly smaller number of practitioners, so understanding of disease in non-human animals, especially as regards veterinary practice, varies considerably by species. Nevertheless, significant amounts of pathology research are conducted on animals, for two primary reasons: 1) The origins of diseases are typically zoonotic in nature, and many infectious pathogens have animal vectors and, as such, understanding the mechanisms of action for these pathogens in non-human hosts is essential to the understanding and application of epidemiology and 2) those animals that share physiological and genetic traits with humans can be used as surrogates for the study of the disease and potential treatments as well as the effects of various synthetic products. For this reason, as well as their roles as livestock and companion animals, mammals generally have the largest body of research in veterinary pathology. Animal testing remains a controversial practice, even in cases where it is used to research treatment for human disease. As in human medical pathology, the practice of veterinary pathology is customarily divided into the two main fields of anatomical and clinical pathology. === Patoloġija tal-pjanti === Although the pathogens and their mechanics differ greatly from those of animals, plants are subject to a wide variety of diseases, including those caused by fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants. Damage caused by insects, mites, vertebrate, and other small herbivores is not considered a part of the domain of plant pathology. The field is connected to plant disease epidemiology and especially concerned with the horticulture of species that are of high importance to the human diet or other human utility. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Mediċina]] [[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]] 8ehvxwqkomsg17zs91wc5k0cr4qo5kv 329970 329969 2026-05-14T16:23:44Z Trigcly 17859 /* Dermatopatoloġija */ 329970 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Pathologists looking into microscopes (1).jpg|daqsminuri|Patologu jeżamina sezzjoni ta' tessuti għal evidenza ta' ċelloli kanċerużi waqt li [[kirurgu]] qed josserva.]] Il-'''patoloġija''' hija l-istudju tal-[[mard]]. Il-[[kelma]] ''patoloġija'' tirreferi wkoll għall-istudju tal-mard inġenerali, u tinkorpora firxa wiesgħa ta' oqsma tar-riċerka [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġika]] u ta' prattiċi [[Mediċina|mediċi]]. Madankollu, meta jintuża fil-kuntest tat-trattament mediku modern, it-terminu spiss jintuża b'mod idjaq biex jirreferi għall-proċessi u għat-testijiet marbuta mal-qasam mediku kontemporanju tal-"patoloġija ġenerali", qasam li jinkludi għadd ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet mediċi distinti iżda interrelatati li jiddijanjostikaw il-mard, l-iktar permezz tal-analiżi tal-kampjuni tat-tessuti u taċ-ċelloli [[Bniedem|umani]]. Il-patoloġija huwa qasam sinifikanti fid-dijanjożi medika moderna u fir-riċerka medika. [[Tabib]] li jipprattika l-patoloġija jissejjaħ patologu.<ref>Herausgeber., Cross, Simon S., Herausgeber. Underwood, James C. E. 1942- (30 April 2018). ''Underwood's pathology : a clinical approach''. Elsevier – Health Sciences Division. ISBN <bdi>978-0-7020-7212-3</bdi>. OCLC 1043350646.</ref> Bħala qasam tal-inkjesti u tar-riċerka ġenerali, il-patoloġija tindirizza l-komponenti tal-mard: il-kawża, il-mekkaniżmi tal-iżvilupp (patoġenesi), l-alterazzjonijiet strutturali taċ-ċelloli (bidliet morfoloġiċi), u l-konsegwenzi tal-bidliet (manifestazzjonijiet kliniċi).<ref>Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; Aster, Jon C. (2010). ''Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease'' (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN <bdi>978-1-4160-3121-5</bdi>.</ref> Fil-prattika medika komuni, il-patoloġija ġenerali tittratta l-iktar l-analiżi tal-abnormalitajiet kliniċi magħrufa li huma markaturi jew prekursuri kemm tal-mard infettiv kif ukoll tal-mard mhux infettiv, u ssir minn esperti f'waħda miż-żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet ewlenin, il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://freida.ama-assn.org/|titlu=FREIDA™ Pathology-Anatomic and Clinical Specialty Details|sit=FREIDA Residency Program Database {{!}} Medical Fellowship Database {{!}} AMA|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> Diviżjonijiet ulterjuri fl-ispeċjalizzazzjonijiet jeżistu abbażi tat-tipi tal-kampjuni involuti bħal fiċ-ċitopatoloġija, fl-ematopatoloġija u fl-istopatoloġija), tal-organi (bħal fil-patoloġija renali) u tas-sistemi fiżjoloġiċi (il-patoloġija orali), kif ukoll abbażi tal-enfasi tal-eżaminazzjoni (bħal fil-patoloġija forensika). Idjomatikament, "patoloġija" jaf tirreferi wkoll għall-progressjoni prevista jew effettiva ta' mard partikolari (bħal fl-istqarrija "il-forom differenti tal-[[kanċer]] ikollhom diversità ta' patoloġiji", fejn kelma iktar preċiża jaf tkun "patofiżjoloġiji"). Is-suffiss ''-patija'' xi kultant jintuża biex jiġi indikat stat tal-mard f'każijiet ta' mard fiżiku (bħal fil-kardjomijopatija) u ta' kundizzjonijiet psikoloġiċi (bħal fil-psikopatija).<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/138811|titlu=-pathy, comb. form : Oxford English Dictionary|sit=oed.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> == [[Etimoloġija]] == It-terminu [[Lingwa Latina|Latin]] ''pathologia'' oriġina mill-għerq [[Lingwa Griega antika|Grieg Antik]] ''pathos'' (πάθος), li tfisser "esperjenza" jew "tbatija", u ''-logia'' (-λογία), li tfisser "studju ta'". It-terminu għandu oriġini li tmur lura għall-bidu tas-seklu 16, u kulma jmur sar iktar popolarizzat wara s-snin 30 tas-seklu 16.<ref>Janssen, Diederik F. (April 2022). "From Pathognomicha and Passiologia to Pathologia: concise history of a neologism (1486-1598)". ''Pathologica''. '''114''' (2) 10: 185–188. doi:10.32074/1591-951X-261. ISSN 1591-951X. PMC 9248257. <nowiki>PMID 35481571</nowiki>.</ref> == [[Storja]] == L-istudju tal-patoloġija, inkluż l-eżaminazzjoni dettaljata tal-ġisem, id-dissezzjoni u l-inkjesti rigward mard speċifiku, imur lura għal żmien il-qedem. Il-fehim rudimentali ta' bosta kundizzjonijiet kien preżenti fil-biċċa l-kbira tas-soċjetajiet bikrin u ġie rreġistrat fir-rekords tal-iżjed soċjetajiet storiċi bikrin, fosthom dawk tal-Lvant Nofsani, tal-[[Indja]] u taċ-[[Ċina]].<ref>Long, Esmond (1965). ''History of Pathology''. New York: Dover. pp. 1+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-486-61342-0</bdi>.</ref> Sal-perjodu Elleniku tal-[[Greċja antika|Greċja Antika]], sar studju kawżali maqbul tal-mard, u bosta tobba notevoli bikrin (bħal [[Ippokrate]], li għalih jissemma l-ġurament Ippokratiku modern) żviluppaw metodi ta' dijanjożi u ta' pronjożi għal għadd ta' mardiet. Il-prattiċi mediċi tar-[[Imperu Ruman|Rumani]] u dawk tal-[[Biżantini]] komplew minn dawn l-għeruq [[Greċja|Griegi]], iżda bħal f'bosta oqsma tal-inkjesti [[Xjenza|xjentifiċi]], it-tkabbir fil-fehim tal-mediċina staġna kemxejn wara l-Era Klassika, iżda baqa' jiżviluppa bil-mod fost bosta [[Kultura|kulturi]]. B'mod partikolari, saru bosta avvanzi fl-era [[Medjuevu|Medjevali]] tal-[[Iżlam]], u matul dan iż-żmien ġew żviluppati bosta testi ta' patoloġiji kumplessi, ibbażati wkoll fuq it-tradizzjoni Griega. Minkejja dan, it-tkabbir fil-fehim kumpless tal-mard fil-biċċa l-kbira waqaf sa ma l-għarfien u l-isperimentazzjoni reġgħu bdew jiżdiedu fir-[[Rinaxximent]], fl-[[Illuminiżmu]] u fil-[[Barokk]], wara li reġa' feġġ il-metodu empiriku f'ċentri ġodda tal-istudju. Sas-[[seklu 17]], l-istudju tal-mikroskopija rudimentali u l-eżaminazzjoni tat-tessuti wasslu biex il-membru tas-Soċjetà Rjali [[Renju Unit|Brittanika]] [[Robert Hooke]] joħroġ bil-kelma "ċellola", u b'hekk witta t-triq għat-teorija suċċessiva tal-ġermi. Il-patoloġija moderna bdiet tiżviluppa bħala qasam distint ta' stħarriġ matul is-seklu 19 permezz tal-filosfi naturali u tat-tobba li studjaw il-mard u l-istudju informali tal-hekk imsejħa "[[anatomija]] patoloġika" jew "anatomija tal-mard". Madankollu, il-patoloġija bħala qasam formali speċjalizzat ma ġietx żviluppata għalkollox qabel l-aħħar tas-seklu 19 u l-bidu tas-seklu 20, bil-wasla tal-istudju dettaljat tal-mikrobijoloġija. Fis-seklu 19, it-tobba bdew jifhmu li jeżistu l-patoġeni li jikkawżaw il-mard, jew il-"ġermi" (terminu kumplessiv għall-mikrobi "patoġeniċi" jew li jikkawżaw il-mard, bħall-batterji, [[Virus|viruses]], fungi, amibi, mofof, protisti u prijoni) u li kienu kapaċi jirriproduċu u jimmultiplikaw. Dan il-fehim ħa post it-twemmin iktar bikri fl-umuri jew saħansitra fl-aġenti spiritwali, li kien iddomina fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-1,500 sena ta' qabel fil-mediċina Ewropea. Bil-fehim il-ġdid tal-aġenti kawżattivi, it-tobba bdew iqabblu l-karatteristiċi tas-sintomi tal-ġermi skont kif żviluppaw f'xi individwu affettwat u mqabbla mal-karatteristiċi u tal-ġermi u s-sintomi. Dan l-approċċ wassal għall-fehim fundamentali li l-mard kapaċi jirreplika ruħu, u li jista' jkollu bosta effetti profondi u varjati fuq l-ospitant uman. Sabiex jiġu ddeterminati l-kawżi tal-mardiet, l-esperti mediċi wżaw l-iżjed suppożizzjonijiet jew sintomi komuni u aċċettati b'mod wiesa' ta' żminijiethom, li huwa prinċipju ġenerali tal-approċċ li għadu jippersisti fil-mediċina moderna.<ref>King, Lester (1991). ''Transformations in American Medicine: From Benjamin Rush to William Osler''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP. pp. 27+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-8018-4057-9</bdi>.</ref><ref>Machevsky, Alberto; Wick, MR (2004). "Evidence-based Medicine, Medical Decision Analysis, and Pathology". ''Human Pathology''. '''35''' (10): 1179–88. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2004.06.004. <nowiki>PMID 15492984</nowiki>.</ref> Il-mediċina moderna avvanzat b'mod partikolari bl-iżviluppi ulterjuri tal-[[mikroskopju]] għall-analiżi tat-tessuti, bil-kontribut sinifikanti ta' [[Rudolf Virchow]], li wassal għal bosta żviluppi fir-riċerka. Sal-aħħar tas-snin 20 u l-bidu tas-snin 30 tas-seklu 20, il-patoloġija kienet meqjusa bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika.<ref>Rothstein, William G. (1979). "Pathology: The Evolution of a Specialty in American Medicine". ''Medical Care''. '''17''' (10): 975–988. doi:10.1097/00005650-197910000-00001. JSTOR 3763869. <nowiki>PMID 386008</nowiki>. S2CID 23045808.</ref> Flimkien mal-iżviluppi fil-fehim tal-fiżjoloġija ġenerali, sal-bidu tas-seklu 20, l-istudju tal-patoloġija beda jinqasam f'għadd ta' oqsma distinti, li wassal għall-iżvilupp ta' għadd kbir ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet moderni fi ħdan il-patoloġija u dixxiplini relatati tal-mediċina dijanjostika.<ref>Race, George J.; Tillery, G. Weldon; Dysert, Peter A. (Jannar 2004). "A history of pathology and laboratory medicine at Baylor University Medical Center". ''Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center)''. '''17''' (1): 42–55. doi:10.1080/08998280.2004.11927956. ISSN 0899-8280. PMC 1200640. <nowiki>PMID 16200088</nowiki>.</ref> == Patoloġija ġenerali == Il-prattika moderna tal-patoloġija hija maqsuma f'għadd ta' sottodixxiplini fi ħdan l-għanijiet distinti iżda ferm interkonnessi tar-riċerka bijoloġika u l-prattika medika. Ir-riċerka bijomedika dwar il-mard tinkorpora x-xogħol ta' varjetà vasta ta' speċjalisti tax-[[xjenza]] tal-[[ħajja]], billi, fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-partijiet tad-dinja, sabiex wieħed ikun liċenzjat biex jipprattika l-patoloġija bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika, wieħed irid ikun temm l-iskola medika u kiseb liċenzja biex jipprattika l-mediċina. Strutturalment, l-istudju tal-mard huwa maqsum f'bosta oqsma differenti li jistudjaw jew jiddijanjostikaw il-markaturi għall-mard bl-użu ta' metodi u teknoloġiċi partikolari għal tipi speċifiċi ta' skali, organi u tessuti. === Patoloġija anatomika === Il-patoloġija anatomika (fil-[[Commonwealth tan-Nazzjonijiet|Commonwealth]] jew fl-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]]) hija speċjalizzazzjoni medika li għandha x'taqsam mad-dijanjożi tal-mard abbażi tal-eżaminazzjoni grossa, mikroskopika, [[kimika]], immunoloġika u molekolari tal-organi, tat-tessuti u tal-iġsma sħaħ (bħal fl-eżaminazzjoni ġenerali jew fl-awtopsja). Il-patoloġija anatomika fiha nnifisha hija maqsuma f'sottooqsma, fosthom il-patoloġija kirurġika, iċ-ċitopatoloġija u l-patoloġija forensika. Il-patoloġija anatomika hija waħda miż-żewġ oqsma prinċipali tal-prattika medika tal-patoloġija, u l-oħra hija l-patoloġija klinika, id-dijanjożi tal-mard permezz tal-analiżi fil-laboratorju tal-fluwidi u tat-tessuti tal-ġisem. Xi kultant, il-patologi jipprattikaw kemm il-patoloġija anatomika kif ukoll dik klinika, kombinament magħruf bħala patoloġija ġenerali. ==== Ċitopatoloġija ==== Iċ-ċitopatoloġija (xi kultant magħrufa bħala ċ-"ċitoloġija") hija l-fergħa tal-patoloġija li tistudja u tiddijanjostika l-mard fuq il-livell ċellolari. Normalment tintuża biex tgħin fid-dijanjożi tal-kanċer, iżda tgħin ukoll fid-dijanjożi ta' ċertu mard infettiv u kundizzjonijiet infjammatorji oħra, kif ukoll leżjonijiet tat-tirojde, mard li jinvolvi l-kavitajiet sterili tal-ġisem (peritoneali, plewrali u ċerebrospinali), u firxa wiesgħa ta' siti oħra tal-ġisem. Iċ-ċitopatoloġija ġeneralment tintuża fuq kampanji ta' ċelloli liberi jew frammenti tat-tessuti (b'kuntrast mal-istopatoloġija, li tistudja t-tessuti sħaħ) u testijiet ċitopatoloġiċi li jistgħu jingħaddu fuq slide tal-[[ħġieġ]] tal-mikroskopju għal tebgħat u eżaminazzjoni mikroskopiku sussegwenti. Madankollu, il-kampjuni ċitoloġiċi jistgħu jitħejjew b'modi oħra, inkluż b'ċitoċentrifugazzjoni. ==== Dermatopatoloġija ==== Id-dermatopatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika li tiffoka fuq il-ġilda u l-bqija tas-sistema integumentarja bħala organu. Hija unika, peress li hemm żewġ modi kif tabib jista' jikseb speċjalizzazzjoni. Il-patologi ġenerali u d-dermatologi ġenerali kollha jitħarrġu fil-patoloġija tal-ġilda, għaldaqstant it-terminu dermatopatologu jirreferi għalihom it-tnejn skont ċertu livell ta' akkreditazzjoni u esperjenza; fl-Istati Uniti, patologu ġenerali jew dermatologu jistgħu jagħmlu apprendistat ta' sena sa sentejn fil-qasam tad-dermatopatoloġija. It-tlestija ta' dan l-apprendistat twassal għall-possibbiltà li wieħed jagħmel eżami quddiem bord ta' sottospeċjalizzazzjoni biex isir dermatopatologu ċċertifikat mill-bord. Dermatologists are able to recognize most skin diseases based on their appearances, anatomic distributions, and behavior. Sometimes, however, those criteria do not lead to a conclusive diagnosis, and a skin biopsy is taken to be examined under the microscope using usual histological tests. In some cases, additional specialized testing needs to be performed on biopsies, including immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, flow cytometry, and molecular-pathologic analysis. One of the greatest challenges of dermatopathology is its scope. More than 1500 different disorders of the skin exist, including cutaneous eruptions ("rashes") and neoplasms. Therefore, dermatopathologists must maintain a broad base of knowledge in clinical dermatology, and be familiar with several other specialty areas in Medicine. ==== Patoloġija forensika ==== Forensic pathology focuses on determining the cause of death by post-mortem examination of a corpse or partial remains. An autopsy is typically performed by a coroner or medical examiner, often during criminal investigations; in this role, coroners and medical examiners are also frequently asked to confirm the identity of a corpse. The requirements for becoming a licensed practitioner of forensic pathology varies from country to country (and even within a given nation) but typically a minimal requirement is a medical doctorate with a specialty in general or anatomical pathology with subsequent study in forensic medicine. The methods forensic scientists use to determine death include examination of tissue specimens to identify the presence or absence of natural disease and other microscopic findings, interpretations of toxicology on body tissues and fluids to determine the chemical cause of overdoses, poisonings or other cases involving toxic agents, and examinations of physical trauma. Forensic pathology is a major component in the trans-disciplinary field of forensic science.^{[''citation needed'']} ==== Istopatoloġija ==== Histopathology refers to the microscopic examination of various forms of human tissue. Specifically, in clinical medicine, histopathology refers to the examination of a biopsy or surgical specimen by a pathologist, after the specimen has been processed and histological sections have been placed onto glass slides. This contrasts with the methods of cytopathology, which uses free cells or tissue fragments. Histopathological examination of tissues starts with surgery, biopsy, or autopsy. The tissue is removed from the body of an organism and then placed in a fixative that stabilizes the tissues to prevent decay. The most common fixative is formalin, although frozen section fixing is also common. To see the tissue under a microscope, the sections are stained with one or more pigments. The aim of staining is to reveal cellular components; counterstains are used to provide contrast. Histochemistry refers to the science of using chemical reactions between laboratory chemicals and components within tissue. The histological slides are then interpreted diagnostically and the resulting pathology report describes the histological findings and the opinion of the pathologist. In the case of cancer, this represents the tissue diagnosis required for most treatment protocols. ==== Newropatoloġija ==== Neuropathology is the study of disease of nervous system tissue, usually in the form of either surgical biopsies or sometimes whole brains in the case of autopsy. Neuropathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology, neurology, and neurosurgery. In many English-speaking countries, neuropathology is considered a subfield of anatomical pathology. A physician who specializes in neuropathology, usually by completing a fellowship after a residency in anatomical or general pathology, is called a neuropathologist. In day-to-day clinical practice, a neuropathologist generates diagnoses for patients. If a disease of the nervous system is suspected, and the diagnosis cannot be made by less invasive methods, a biopsy of nervous tissue is taken from the brain or cerebrospinal fluid is extracted from the spinal cord to aid in diagnosis. Biopsy is usually requested after a mass is detected by medical imaging. With autopsies, the principal work of the neuropathologist is to help in the post-mortem diagnosis of various conditions that affect the central nervous system. Biopsies can also consist of the skin. Epidermal nerve fiber density testing (ENFD) is a more recently developed neuropathology test in which a punch skin biopsy is taken to identify small fiber neuropathies by analyzing the nerve fibers of the skin. This test is becoming available in select labs as well as many universities; it replaces the traditional nerve biopsy test as less invasive. ==== Patoloġija pulmonari ==== Pulmonary pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic (and especially surgical) pathology that deals with diagnosis and characterization of neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases of the lungs and thoracic pleura. Diagnostic specimens are often obtained via bronchoscopic transbronchial biopsy, CT-guided percutaneous biopsy, or video-assisted thoracic surgery. These tests can be necessary to diagnose between infection, inflammation, or fibrotic conditions. ==== Patoloġija renali ==== Renal pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that deals with the diagnosis and characterization of disease of the kidneys. In a medical setting, renal pathologists work closely with nephrologists and transplant surgeons, who typically obtain diagnostic specimens via percutaneous renal biopsy. The renal pathologist must synthesize findings from traditional microscope histology, electron microscopy, and immunofluorescence to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Medical renal diseases may affect the glomerulus, the tubules and interstitium, the vessels, or a combination of these compartments. ==== Patoloġija kirurġika ==== Surgical pathology is one of the primary areas of practice for most anatomical pathologists. Surgical pathology involves the gross and microscopic examination of surgical specimens, as well as biopsies submitted by surgeons and non-surgeons such as general internists, medical subspecialists, dermatologists, and interventional radiologists. Often an excised tissue sample is the best and most definitive evidence of disease (or lack thereof) in cases where tissue is surgically removed from a patient. These determinations are usually accomplished by a combination of gross (i.e., macroscopic) and histologic (i.e., microscopic) examination of the tissue, and may involve evaluations of molecular properties of the tissue by immunohistochemistry or other laboratory tests. There are two major types of specimens submitted for surgical pathology analysis: biopsies and surgical resections. A biopsy is a small piece of tissue removed primarily for surgical pathology analysis, most often in order to render a definitive diagnosis. Types of biopsies include core biopsies, which are obtained through the use of large-bore needles, sometimes under the guidance of radiological techniques such as ultrasound, CT scan, or magnetic resonance imaging. Incisional biopsies are obtained through diagnostic surgical procedures that remove part of a suspicious lesion, whereas excisional biopsies remove the entire lesion, and are similar to therapeutic surgical resections. Excisional biopsies of skin lesions and gastrointestinal polyps are very common. The pathologist's interpretation of a biopsy is critical to establishing the diagnosis of a benign or malignant tumor, and can differentiate between different types and grades of cancer, as well as determining the activity of specific molecular pathways in the tumor. Surgical resection specimens are obtained by the therapeutic surgical removal of an entire diseased area or organ (and occasionally multiple organs). These procedures are often intended as definitive surgical treatment of a disease in which the diagnosis is already known or strongly suspected, but pathological analysis of these specimens remains important in confirming the previous diagnosis.^{[''citation needed'']} === Patoloġija klinika === Clinical pathology is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids such as blood and urine, as well as tissues, using the tools of chemistry, clinical microbiology, hematology and molecular pathology. Clinical pathologists work in close collaboration with medical technologists, hospital administrations, and referring physicians. Clinical pathologists learn to administer a number of visual and microscopic tests and an especially large variety of tests of the biophysical properties of tissue samples involving automated analysers and cultures. Sometimes the general term "laboratory medicine specialist" is used to refer to those working in clinical pathology, including medical doctors, Ph.D.s and doctors of pharmacology. Immunopathology, the study of an organism's immune response to infection, is sometimes considered to fall within the domain of clinical pathology. ==== Ematopatoloġija ==== Hematopathology is the study of diseases of blood cells (including constituents such as white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets) and the tissues, and organs comprising the hematopoietic system. The term hematopoietic system refers to tissues and organs that produce and/or primarily host hematopoietic cells and includes bone marrow, the lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, and other lymphoid tissues. In the United States, hematopathology is a board certified subspecialty (licensed under the American Board of Pathology) practiced by those physicians who have completed a general pathology residency (anatomic, clinical, or combined) and an additional year of fellowship training in hematology. The hematopathologist reviews biopsies of lymph nodes, bone marrows and other tissues involved by an infiltrate of cells of the hematopoietic system. In addition, the hematopathologist may be in charge of flow cytometric and/or molecular hematopathology studies. === Patoloġija molekolari === Molecular pathology is focused upon the study and diagnosis of disease through the examination of molecules within organs, tissues or bodily fluids. Molecular pathology is multidisciplinary by nature and shares some aspects of practice with both anatomic pathology and clinical pathology, molecular biology, biochemistry, proteomics and genetics. It is often applied in a context that is as much scientific as directly medical and encompasses the development of molecular and genetic approaches to the diagnosis and classification of human diseases, the design and validation of predictive biomarkers for treatment response and disease progression, and the susceptibility of individuals of different genetic constitution to particular disorders. The crossover between molecular pathology and epidemiology is represented by a related field "molecular pathological epidemiology". Molecular pathology is commonly used in diagnosis of cancer and infectious diseases. Molecular Pathology is primarily used to detect cancers such as melanoma, brainstem glioma, brain tumors as well as many other types of cancer and infectious diseases. Techniques are numerous but include quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), multiplex PCR, DNA microarray, in situ hybridization, DNA sequencing, antibody-based immunofluorescence tissue assays, molecular profiling of pathogens, and analysis of bacterial genes for antimicrobial resistance. Techniques used are based on analyzing samples of DNA and RNA. Pathology is widely used for gene therapy and disease diagnosis. === Patoloġija orali u maksillofaċċali === Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology is one of nine dental specialties recognized by the American Dental Association, and is sometimes considered a specialty of both dentistry and pathology. Oral Pathologists must complete three years of post doctoral training in an accredited program and subsequently obtain diplomate status from the American Board of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology. The specialty focuses on the diagnosis, clinical management and investigation of diseases that affect the oral cavity and surrounding maxillofacial structures including but not limited to odontogenic, infectious, epithelial, salivary gland, bone and soft tissue pathologies. It also significantly intersects with the field of dental pathology. Although concerned with a broad variety of diseases of the oral cavity, they have roles distinct from otorhinolaryngologists ("ear, nose, and throat" specialists), and speech pathologists, the latter of which helps diagnose many neurological or neuromuscular conditions relevant to speech phonology or swallowing. Owing to the availability of the oral cavity to non-invasive examination, many conditions in the study of oral disease can be diagnosed, or at least suspected, from gross examination, but biopsies, cell smears, and other tissue analysis remain important diagnostic tools in oral pathology. == Taħriġ mediku u akkreditazzjoni == Becoming a pathologist generally requires specialty-training after medical school, but individual nations vary somewhat in the medical licensing required of pathologists. In the United States, pathologists are physicians (D.O. or M.D.) who have completed a four-year undergraduate program, four years of medical school training, and three to four years of postgraduate training in the form of a pathology residency. Training may be within two primary specialties, as recognized by the American Board of Pathology: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology, each of which requires separate board certification. The American Osteopathic Board of Pathology also recognizes four primary specialties: anatomic pathology, dermatopathology, forensic pathology, and laboratory medicine. Pathologists may pursue specialised fellowship training within one or more subspecialties of either anatomical or clinical pathology. Some of these subspecialties permit additional board certification, while others do not. In the United Kingdom, pathologists are physicians licensed by the UK General Medical Council. The training to become a pathologist is overseen by the Royal College of Pathologists. After four to six years of undergraduate medical study, trainees proceed to a two-year foundation program. Full-time training in histopathology currently lasts between five and five and a half years, encompassing specialist training in surgical pathology, cytopathology, and autopsy pathology. It is also possible to take a Royal College of Pathologists diploma in forensic pathology, dermatopathology, or cytopathology, recognising additional specialist training and expertise, and to get specialist accreditation in forensic pathology, pediatric pathology, and neuropathology. The General Medical Council oversees all postgraduate medical training and education in the UK. In France, pathology is separated into two distinct specialties: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology. Residencies for both lasts four years. Residency in anatomical pathology is open to physicians only, while clinical pathology is open to both physicians and pharmacists. At the end of the second year of clinical pathology residency, residents can choose between general clinical pathology and a specialization in one of the disciplines, but they can not practice anatomical pathology, nor can anatomical pathology residents practice clinical pathology. == Trikkib ma' mediċina dijanjostika oħra == Though separate fields in terms of medical practice, a number of areas of inquiry in medicine and medical science either overlap greatly with general pathology, work in tandem with it, or contribute significantly to the understanding of the pathology of a given disease or its course in an individual. As a significant portion of all general pathology practice is concerned with cancer, the practice of oncology makes extensive use of both anatomical and clinical pathology in diagnosis and treatment. In particular, biopsy, resection, and blood tests are all examples of pathology work that is essential for the diagnoses of many kinds of cancer and for the staging of cancerous masses. In a similar fashion, the tissue and blood analysis techniques of general pathology are of central significance to the investigation of serious infectious disease and as such inform significantly upon the fields of epidemiology, etiology, immunology, and parasitology. General pathology methods are of great importance to biomedical research into disease, wherein they are sometimes referred to as "experimental" or "investigative" pathology.^{[''citation needed'']} Medical imaging is the generating of visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Medical imaging reveals details of internal physiology that help medical professionals plan appropriate treatments for tissue infection and trauma. Medical imaging is also central in supplying the biometric data necessary to establish baseline features of anatomy and physiology so as to increase the accuracy with which early or fine-detail abnormalities are detected. These diagnostic techniques are often performed in combination with general pathology procedures and are themselves often essential to developing new understanding of the pathogenesis of a given disease and tracking the progress of disease in specific medical cases. Examples of important subdivisions in medical imaging include radiology (which uses the imaging technologies of X-ray radiography) magnetic resonance imaging, medical ultrasonography (or ultrasound), endoscopy, elastography, tactile imaging, thermography, medical photography, nuclear medicine and functional imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography. Though they do not strictly relay images, readings from diagnostics tests involving electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, and electrocardiography often give hints as to the state and function of certain tissues in the brain and heart respectively. == Informatika fil-patoloġija == Pathology informatics is a subfield of health informatics. It is the use of information technology in pathology. It encompasses pathology laboratory operations, data analysis, and the interpretation of pathology-related information. Key aspects of pathology informatics include: * Laboratory information management systems (LIMS): Implementing and managing computer systems specifically designed for pathology departments. These systems help in tracking and managing patient specimens, results, and other pathology data. * Digital pathology: Involves the use of digital technology to create, manage, and analyze pathology images. This includes side scanning and automated image analysis. * Telepathology: Using technology to enable remote pathology consultation and collaboration. * Quality assurance and reporting: Implementing informatics solutions to ensure the quality and accuracy of pathology processes. == Psikopatoloġija == Psychopathology is the study of mental illness, particularly of severe disorders. Informed heavily by both psychology and neurology, its purpose is to classify mental illness, elucidate its underlying causes, and guide clinical psychiatric treatment accordingly. Although diagnosis and classification of mental norms and disorders is largely the purview of psychiatry—the results of which are guidelines such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which attempt to classify mental disease mostly on behavioural evidence, though not without controversy—the field is also heavily, and increasingly, informed upon by neuroscience and other of the biological cognitive sciences. Mental or social disorders or behaviours seen as generally unhealthy or excessive in a given individual, to the point where they cause harm or severe disruption to the person's lifestyle, are often called "pathological" (e.g., pathological gambling or pathological liar). == Mhux umani == Although the vast majority of lab work and research in pathology concerns the development of disease in humans, pathology is of significance throughout the biological sciences. Two main catch-all fields exist to represent most complex organisms capable of serving as host to a pathogen or other form of disease: veterinary pathology (concerned with all non-human species of kingdom of Animalia) and phytopathology, which studies disease in plants. === Patoloġija veterinarja === Veterinary pathology covers a vast array of species, but with a significantly smaller number of practitioners, so understanding of disease in non-human animals, especially as regards veterinary practice, varies considerably by species. Nevertheless, significant amounts of pathology research are conducted on animals, for two primary reasons: 1) The origins of diseases are typically zoonotic in nature, and many infectious pathogens have animal vectors and, as such, understanding the mechanisms of action for these pathogens in non-human hosts is essential to the understanding and application of epidemiology and 2) those animals that share physiological and genetic traits with humans can be used as surrogates for the study of the disease and potential treatments as well as the effects of various synthetic products. For this reason, as well as their roles as livestock and companion animals, mammals generally have the largest body of research in veterinary pathology. Animal testing remains a controversial practice, even in cases where it is used to research treatment for human disease. As in human medical pathology, the practice of veterinary pathology is customarily divided into the two main fields of anatomical and clinical pathology. === Patoloġija tal-pjanti === Although the pathogens and their mechanics differ greatly from those of animals, plants are subject to a wide variety of diseases, including those caused by fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants. Damage caused by insects, mites, vertebrate, and other small herbivores is not considered a part of the domain of plant pathology. The field is connected to plant disease epidemiology and especially concerned with the horticulture of species that are of high importance to the human diet or other human utility. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Mediċina]] [[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]] p2nsespweq6ngaud7cpij8xyuxunyz6 329971 329970 2026-05-14T17:21:31Z Trigcly 17859 /* Dermatopatoloġija */ 329971 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Pathologists looking into microscopes (1).jpg|daqsminuri|Patologu jeżamina sezzjoni ta' tessuti għal evidenza ta' ċelloli kanċerużi waqt li [[kirurgu]] qed josserva.]] Il-'''patoloġija''' hija l-istudju tal-[[mard]]. Il-[[kelma]] ''patoloġija'' tirreferi wkoll għall-istudju tal-mard inġenerali, u tinkorpora firxa wiesgħa ta' oqsma tar-riċerka [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġika]] u ta' prattiċi [[Mediċina|mediċi]]. Madankollu, meta jintuża fil-kuntest tat-trattament mediku modern, it-terminu spiss jintuża b'mod idjaq biex jirreferi għall-proċessi u għat-testijiet marbuta mal-qasam mediku kontemporanju tal-"patoloġija ġenerali", qasam li jinkludi għadd ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet mediċi distinti iżda interrelatati li jiddijanjostikaw il-mard, l-iktar permezz tal-analiżi tal-kampjuni tat-tessuti u taċ-ċelloli [[Bniedem|umani]]. Il-patoloġija huwa qasam sinifikanti fid-dijanjożi medika moderna u fir-riċerka medika. [[Tabib]] li jipprattika l-patoloġija jissejjaħ patologu.<ref>Herausgeber., Cross, Simon S., Herausgeber. Underwood, James C. E. 1942- (30 April 2018). ''Underwood's pathology : a clinical approach''. Elsevier – Health Sciences Division. ISBN <bdi>978-0-7020-7212-3</bdi>. OCLC 1043350646.</ref> Bħala qasam tal-inkjesti u tar-riċerka ġenerali, il-patoloġija tindirizza l-komponenti tal-mard: il-kawża, il-mekkaniżmi tal-iżvilupp (patoġenesi), l-alterazzjonijiet strutturali taċ-ċelloli (bidliet morfoloġiċi), u l-konsegwenzi tal-bidliet (manifestazzjonijiet kliniċi).<ref>Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; Aster, Jon C. (2010). ''Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease'' (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN <bdi>978-1-4160-3121-5</bdi>.</ref> Fil-prattika medika komuni, il-patoloġija ġenerali tittratta l-iktar l-analiżi tal-abnormalitajiet kliniċi magħrufa li huma markaturi jew prekursuri kemm tal-mard infettiv kif ukoll tal-mard mhux infettiv, u ssir minn esperti f'waħda miż-żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet ewlenin, il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://freida.ama-assn.org/|titlu=FREIDA™ Pathology-Anatomic and Clinical Specialty Details|sit=FREIDA Residency Program Database {{!}} Medical Fellowship Database {{!}} AMA|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> Diviżjonijiet ulterjuri fl-ispeċjalizzazzjonijiet jeżistu abbażi tat-tipi tal-kampjuni involuti bħal fiċ-ċitopatoloġija, fl-ematopatoloġija u fl-istopatoloġija), tal-organi (bħal fil-patoloġija renali) u tas-sistemi fiżjoloġiċi (il-patoloġija orali), kif ukoll abbażi tal-enfasi tal-eżaminazzjoni (bħal fil-patoloġija forensika). Idjomatikament, "patoloġija" jaf tirreferi wkoll għall-progressjoni prevista jew effettiva ta' mard partikolari (bħal fl-istqarrija "il-forom differenti tal-[[kanċer]] ikollhom diversità ta' patoloġiji", fejn kelma iktar preċiża jaf tkun "patofiżjoloġiji"). Is-suffiss ''-patija'' xi kultant jintuża biex jiġi indikat stat tal-mard f'każijiet ta' mard fiżiku (bħal fil-kardjomijopatija) u ta' kundizzjonijiet psikoloġiċi (bħal fil-psikopatija).<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/138811|titlu=-pathy, comb. form : Oxford English Dictionary|sit=oed.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> == [[Etimoloġija]] == It-terminu [[Lingwa Latina|Latin]] ''pathologia'' oriġina mill-għerq [[Lingwa Griega antika|Grieg Antik]] ''pathos'' (πάθος), li tfisser "esperjenza" jew "tbatija", u ''-logia'' (-λογία), li tfisser "studju ta'". It-terminu għandu oriġini li tmur lura għall-bidu tas-seklu 16, u kulma jmur sar iktar popolarizzat wara s-snin 30 tas-seklu 16.<ref>Janssen, Diederik F. (April 2022). "From Pathognomicha and Passiologia to Pathologia: concise history of a neologism (1486-1598)". ''Pathologica''. '''114''' (2) 10: 185–188. doi:10.32074/1591-951X-261. ISSN 1591-951X. PMC 9248257. <nowiki>PMID 35481571</nowiki>.</ref> == [[Storja]] == L-istudju tal-patoloġija, inkluż l-eżaminazzjoni dettaljata tal-ġisem, id-dissezzjoni u l-inkjesti rigward mard speċifiku, imur lura għal żmien il-qedem. Il-fehim rudimentali ta' bosta kundizzjonijiet kien preżenti fil-biċċa l-kbira tas-soċjetajiet bikrin u ġie rreġistrat fir-rekords tal-iżjed soċjetajiet storiċi bikrin, fosthom dawk tal-Lvant Nofsani, tal-[[Indja]] u taċ-[[Ċina]].<ref>Long, Esmond (1965). ''History of Pathology''. New York: Dover. pp. 1+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-486-61342-0</bdi>.</ref> Sal-perjodu Elleniku tal-[[Greċja antika|Greċja Antika]], sar studju kawżali maqbul tal-mard, u bosta tobba notevoli bikrin (bħal [[Ippokrate]], li għalih jissemma l-ġurament Ippokratiku modern) żviluppaw metodi ta' dijanjożi u ta' pronjożi għal għadd ta' mardiet. Il-prattiċi mediċi tar-[[Imperu Ruman|Rumani]] u dawk tal-[[Biżantini]] komplew minn dawn l-għeruq [[Greċja|Griegi]], iżda bħal f'bosta oqsma tal-inkjesti [[Xjenza|xjentifiċi]], it-tkabbir fil-fehim tal-mediċina staġna kemxejn wara l-Era Klassika, iżda baqa' jiżviluppa bil-mod fost bosta [[Kultura|kulturi]]. B'mod partikolari, saru bosta avvanzi fl-era [[Medjuevu|Medjevali]] tal-[[Iżlam]], u matul dan iż-żmien ġew żviluppati bosta testi ta' patoloġiji kumplessi, ibbażati wkoll fuq it-tradizzjoni Griega. Minkejja dan, it-tkabbir fil-fehim kumpless tal-mard fil-biċċa l-kbira waqaf sa ma l-għarfien u l-isperimentazzjoni reġgħu bdew jiżdiedu fir-[[Rinaxximent]], fl-[[Illuminiżmu]] u fil-[[Barokk]], wara li reġa' feġġ il-metodu empiriku f'ċentri ġodda tal-istudju. Sas-[[seklu 17]], l-istudju tal-mikroskopija rudimentali u l-eżaminazzjoni tat-tessuti wasslu biex il-membru tas-Soċjetà Rjali [[Renju Unit|Brittanika]] [[Robert Hooke]] joħroġ bil-kelma "ċellola", u b'hekk witta t-triq għat-teorija suċċessiva tal-ġermi. Il-patoloġija moderna bdiet tiżviluppa bħala qasam distint ta' stħarriġ matul is-seklu 19 permezz tal-filosfi naturali u tat-tobba li studjaw il-mard u l-istudju informali tal-hekk imsejħa "[[anatomija]] patoloġika" jew "anatomija tal-mard". Madankollu, il-patoloġija bħala qasam formali speċjalizzat ma ġietx żviluppata għalkollox qabel l-aħħar tas-seklu 19 u l-bidu tas-seklu 20, bil-wasla tal-istudju dettaljat tal-mikrobijoloġija. Fis-seklu 19, it-tobba bdew jifhmu li jeżistu l-patoġeni li jikkawżaw il-mard, jew il-"ġermi" (terminu kumplessiv għall-mikrobi "patoġeniċi" jew li jikkawżaw il-mard, bħall-batterji, [[Virus|viruses]], fungi, amibi, mofof, protisti u prijoni) u li kienu kapaċi jirriproduċu u jimmultiplikaw. Dan il-fehim ħa post it-twemmin iktar bikri fl-umuri jew saħansitra fl-aġenti spiritwali, li kien iddomina fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-1,500 sena ta' qabel fil-mediċina Ewropea. Bil-fehim il-ġdid tal-aġenti kawżattivi, it-tobba bdew iqabblu l-karatteristiċi tas-sintomi tal-ġermi skont kif żviluppaw f'xi individwu affettwat u mqabbla mal-karatteristiċi u tal-ġermi u s-sintomi. Dan l-approċċ wassal għall-fehim fundamentali li l-mard kapaċi jirreplika ruħu, u li jista' jkollu bosta effetti profondi u varjati fuq l-ospitant uman. Sabiex jiġu ddeterminati l-kawżi tal-mardiet, l-esperti mediċi wżaw l-iżjed suppożizzjonijiet jew sintomi komuni u aċċettati b'mod wiesa' ta' żminijiethom, li huwa prinċipju ġenerali tal-approċċ li għadu jippersisti fil-mediċina moderna.<ref>King, Lester (1991). ''Transformations in American Medicine: From Benjamin Rush to William Osler''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP. pp. 27+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-8018-4057-9</bdi>.</ref><ref>Machevsky, Alberto; Wick, MR (2004). "Evidence-based Medicine, Medical Decision Analysis, and Pathology". ''Human Pathology''. '''35''' (10): 1179–88. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2004.06.004. <nowiki>PMID 15492984</nowiki>.</ref> Il-mediċina moderna avvanzat b'mod partikolari bl-iżviluppi ulterjuri tal-[[mikroskopju]] għall-analiżi tat-tessuti, bil-kontribut sinifikanti ta' [[Rudolf Virchow]], li wassal għal bosta żviluppi fir-riċerka. Sal-aħħar tas-snin 20 u l-bidu tas-snin 30 tas-seklu 20, il-patoloġija kienet meqjusa bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika.<ref>Rothstein, William G. (1979). "Pathology: The Evolution of a Specialty in American Medicine". ''Medical Care''. '''17''' (10): 975–988. doi:10.1097/00005650-197910000-00001. JSTOR 3763869. <nowiki>PMID 386008</nowiki>. S2CID 23045808.</ref> Flimkien mal-iżviluppi fil-fehim tal-fiżjoloġija ġenerali, sal-bidu tas-seklu 20, l-istudju tal-patoloġija beda jinqasam f'għadd ta' oqsma distinti, li wassal għall-iżvilupp ta' għadd kbir ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet moderni fi ħdan il-patoloġija u dixxiplini relatati tal-mediċina dijanjostika.<ref>Race, George J.; Tillery, G. Weldon; Dysert, Peter A. (Jannar 2004). "A history of pathology and laboratory medicine at Baylor University Medical Center". ''Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center)''. '''17''' (1): 42–55. doi:10.1080/08998280.2004.11927956. ISSN 0899-8280. PMC 1200640. <nowiki>PMID 16200088</nowiki>.</ref> == Patoloġija ġenerali == Il-prattika moderna tal-patoloġija hija maqsuma f'għadd ta' sottodixxiplini fi ħdan l-għanijiet distinti iżda ferm interkonnessi tar-riċerka bijoloġika u l-prattika medika. Ir-riċerka bijomedika dwar il-mard tinkorpora x-xogħol ta' varjetà vasta ta' speċjalisti tax-[[xjenza]] tal-[[ħajja]], billi, fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-partijiet tad-dinja, sabiex wieħed ikun liċenzjat biex jipprattika l-patoloġija bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika, wieħed irid ikun temm l-iskola medika u kiseb liċenzja biex jipprattika l-mediċina. Strutturalment, l-istudju tal-mard huwa maqsum f'bosta oqsma differenti li jistudjaw jew jiddijanjostikaw il-markaturi għall-mard bl-użu ta' metodi u teknoloġiċi partikolari għal tipi speċifiċi ta' skali, organi u tessuti. === Patoloġija anatomika === Il-patoloġija anatomika (fil-[[Commonwealth tan-Nazzjonijiet|Commonwealth]] jew fl-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]]) hija speċjalizzazzjoni medika li għandha x'taqsam mad-dijanjożi tal-mard abbażi tal-eżaminazzjoni grossa, mikroskopika, [[kimika]], immunoloġika u molekolari tal-organi, tat-tessuti u tal-iġsma sħaħ (bħal fl-eżaminazzjoni ġenerali jew fl-awtopsja). Il-patoloġija anatomika fiha nnifisha hija maqsuma f'sottooqsma, fosthom il-patoloġija kirurġika, iċ-ċitopatoloġija u l-patoloġija forensika. Il-patoloġija anatomika hija waħda miż-żewġ oqsma prinċipali tal-prattika medika tal-patoloġija, u l-oħra hija l-patoloġija klinika, id-dijanjożi tal-mard permezz tal-analiżi fil-laboratorju tal-fluwidi u tat-tessuti tal-ġisem. Xi kultant, il-patologi jipprattikaw kemm il-patoloġija anatomika kif ukoll dik klinika, kombinament magħruf bħala patoloġija ġenerali. ==== Ċitopatoloġija ==== Iċ-ċitopatoloġija (xi kultant magħrufa bħala ċ-"ċitoloġija") hija l-fergħa tal-patoloġija li tistudja u tiddijanjostika l-mard fuq il-livell ċellolari. Normalment tintuża biex tgħin fid-dijanjożi tal-kanċer, iżda tgħin ukoll fid-dijanjożi ta' ċertu mard infettiv u kundizzjonijiet infjammatorji oħra, kif ukoll leżjonijiet tat-tirojde, mard li jinvolvi l-kavitajiet sterili tal-ġisem (peritoneali, plewrali u ċerebrospinali), u firxa wiesgħa ta' siti oħra tal-ġisem. Iċ-ċitopatoloġija ġeneralment tintuża fuq kampanji ta' ċelloli liberi jew frammenti tat-tessuti (b'kuntrast mal-istopatoloġija, li tistudja t-tessuti sħaħ) u testijiet ċitopatoloġiċi li jistgħu jingħaddu fuq slide tal-[[ħġieġ]] tal-mikroskopju għal tebgħat u eżaminazzjoni mikroskopiku sussegwenti. Madankollu, il-kampjuni ċitoloġiċi jistgħu jitħejjew b'modi oħra, inkluż b'ċitoċentrifugazzjoni. ==== Dermatopatoloġija ==== Id-dermatopatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika li tiffoka fuq il-ġilda u l-bqija tas-sistema integumentarja bħala organu. Hija unika, peress li hemm żewġ modi kif tabib jista' jikseb speċjalizzazzjoni. Il-patologi ġenerali u d-dermatologi ġenerali kollha jitħarrġu fil-patoloġija tal-ġilda, għaldaqstant it-terminu dermatopatologu jirreferi għalihom it-tnejn skont ċertu livell ta' akkreditazzjoni u esperjenza; fl-Istati Uniti, patologu ġenerali jew dermatologu jistgħu jagħmlu apprendistat ta' sena sa sentejn fil-qasam tad-dermatopatoloġija. It-tlestija ta' dan l-apprendistat twassal għall-possibbiltà li wieħed jagħmel eżami quddiem bord ta' sottospeċjalizzazzjoni biex isir dermatopatologu ċċertifikat mill-bord. Id-dermatologi kapaċi jagħrfu l-biċċa l-kbira tal-mardiet tal-ġilda abbażi tad-dehra, id-distribuzzjonijiet anatomiċi u l-imġiba. Madankollu, xi kultant dawk il-kriterji ma jwasslux għal dijanjożi konklużiva, u ssir bijopsija tal-ġilda biex tiġi eżaminata taħt il-mikroskopju bl-użu ta' testijiet istoloġiċi tas-soltu. F'xi każijiet, ikun meħtieġ li jsir ittestjar speċjalizzat fuq il-bijopsiji, fosthom l-immunofluworexxenza, l-immunoistokimika, il-mikroskopija bl-elettroni, iċ-ċitometrija bil-fluss u l-analiżi patoloġika molekolari. Waħda mill-ikbar sfidi tad-dermatopatoloġija hija l-kobor tagħha. Jeżistu iktar minn 1,500 diżordni differenti tal-ġilda, inkluż raxx tal-ġilda u neoplażmi. Għaldaqstant, id-dermatopatologi jrid ikollhom bażi wiesgħa ta' għarfien fid-dermatoloġija klinika, u jkunu midħla ta' diversi oqsma oħra ta' speċjalizzazzjoni fil-mediċina. ==== Patoloġija forensika ==== Il-patoloġija forensika tiffoka fuq li tiġi ddeterminata l-kawża tal-[[mewt]] b'eżaminazzjoni ''post mortem'' tal-katavru jew ta' fdalijiet parzjali. Tipikament issir awtopsja minn eżaminatur mediku, spiss waqt l-investigazzjonijiet kriminali; f'dan ir-rwol, l-eżaminaturi mediċi sikwit jiġu mistoqsija jikkonfirmaw l-identità ta' katavru. Ir-rekwiżiti biex wieħed isir prattikant liċenzjat tal-patoloġija forensika jvarjaw minn pajjiż għal ieħor (u saħansitra fl-istess nazzjon xi kultant) iżda tipikament rekwiżit minimu huwa dottorat mediku bi speċjalizzazzjoni fil-patoloġija ġenerali jew anatomika bi studju sussegwenti fil-mediċina forensika. Il-metodi li jużaw ix-xjenzati forensiċi biex jiddeterminaw il-mewt jinkludu l-eżaminazzjoni tal-eżemplari tat-tessuti sabiex tiġi identifikata l-preżenza jew l-assenza ta' mard naturali u sejbiet mikroskopiċi oħra, l-interpretazzjonijiet tat-tossikoloġija fuq it-tessuti u l-fluwidi tal-ġisem biex tiġi ddeterminata l-kawża kimika ta' dożi eċċessivi, avvelenamenti jew każijiet oħra li jinvolvu aġenti tossiċi, u eżaminazzjonijiet ta' trawmi fiżiċi. Il-patoloġija forensika hija komponent ewlieni fil-qasam transdixxiplinari tax-xjenza forensika. ==== Istopatoloġija ==== Histopathology refers to the microscopic examination of various forms of human tissue. Specifically, in clinical medicine, histopathology refers to the examination of a biopsy or surgical specimen by a pathologist, after the specimen has been processed and histological sections have been placed onto glass slides. This contrasts with the methods of cytopathology, which uses free cells or tissue fragments. Histopathological examination of tissues starts with surgery, biopsy, or autopsy. The tissue is removed from the body of an organism and then placed in a fixative that stabilizes the tissues to prevent decay. The most common fixative is formalin, although frozen section fixing is also common. To see the tissue under a microscope, the sections are stained with one or more pigments. The aim of staining is to reveal cellular components; counterstains are used to provide contrast. Histochemistry refers to the science of using chemical reactions between laboratory chemicals and components within tissue. The histological slides are then interpreted diagnostically and the resulting pathology report describes the histological findings and the opinion of the pathologist. In the case of cancer, this represents the tissue diagnosis required for most treatment protocols. ==== Newropatoloġija ==== Neuropathology is the study of disease of nervous system tissue, usually in the form of either surgical biopsies or sometimes whole brains in the case of autopsy. Neuropathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology, neurology, and neurosurgery. In many English-speaking countries, neuropathology is considered a subfield of anatomical pathology. A physician who specializes in neuropathology, usually by completing a fellowship after a residency in anatomical or general pathology, is called a neuropathologist. In day-to-day clinical practice, a neuropathologist generates diagnoses for patients. If a disease of the nervous system is suspected, and the diagnosis cannot be made by less invasive methods, a biopsy of nervous tissue is taken from the brain or cerebrospinal fluid is extracted from the spinal cord to aid in diagnosis. Biopsy is usually requested after a mass is detected by medical imaging. With autopsies, the principal work of the neuropathologist is to help in the post-mortem diagnosis of various conditions that affect the central nervous system. Biopsies can also consist of the skin. Epidermal nerve fiber density testing (ENFD) is a more recently developed neuropathology test in which a punch skin biopsy is taken to identify small fiber neuropathies by analyzing the nerve fibers of the skin. This test is becoming available in select labs as well as many universities; it replaces the traditional nerve biopsy test as less invasive. ==== Patoloġija pulmonari ==== Pulmonary pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic (and especially surgical) pathology that deals with diagnosis and characterization of neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases of the lungs and thoracic pleura. Diagnostic specimens are often obtained via bronchoscopic transbronchial biopsy, CT-guided percutaneous biopsy, or video-assisted thoracic surgery. These tests can be necessary to diagnose between infection, inflammation, or fibrotic conditions. ==== Patoloġija renali ==== Renal pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that deals with the diagnosis and characterization of disease of the kidneys. In a medical setting, renal pathologists work closely with nephrologists and transplant surgeons, who typically obtain diagnostic specimens via percutaneous renal biopsy. The renal pathologist must synthesize findings from traditional microscope histology, electron microscopy, and immunofluorescence to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Medical renal diseases may affect the glomerulus, the tubules and interstitium, the vessels, or a combination of these compartments. ==== Patoloġija kirurġika ==== Surgical pathology is one of the primary areas of practice for most anatomical pathologists. Surgical pathology involves the gross and microscopic examination of surgical specimens, as well as biopsies submitted by surgeons and non-surgeons such as general internists, medical subspecialists, dermatologists, and interventional radiologists. Often an excised tissue sample is the best and most definitive evidence of disease (or lack thereof) in cases where tissue is surgically removed from a patient. These determinations are usually accomplished by a combination of gross (i.e., macroscopic) and histologic (i.e., microscopic) examination of the tissue, and may involve evaluations of molecular properties of the tissue by immunohistochemistry or other laboratory tests. There are two major types of specimens submitted for surgical pathology analysis: biopsies and surgical resections. A biopsy is a small piece of tissue removed primarily for surgical pathology analysis, most often in order to render a definitive diagnosis. Types of biopsies include core biopsies, which are obtained through the use of large-bore needles, sometimes under the guidance of radiological techniques such as ultrasound, CT scan, or magnetic resonance imaging. Incisional biopsies are obtained through diagnostic surgical procedures that remove part of a suspicious lesion, whereas excisional biopsies remove the entire lesion, and are similar to therapeutic surgical resections. Excisional biopsies of skin lesions and gastrointestinal polyps are very common. The pathologist's interpretation of a biopsy is critical to establishing the diagnosis of a benign or malignant tumor, and can differentiate between different types and grades of cancer, as well as determining the activity of specific molecular pathways in the tumor. Surgical resection specimens are obtained by the therapeutic surgical removal of an entire diseased area or organ (and occasionally multiple organs). These procedures are often intended as definitive surgical treatment of a disease in which the diagnosis is already known or strongly suspected, but pathological analysis of these specimens remains important in confirming the previous diagnosis.^{[''citation needed'']} === Patoloġija klinika === Clinical pathology is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids such as blood and urine, as well as tissues, using the tools of chemistry, clinical microbiology, hematology and molecular pathology. Clinical pathologists work in close collaboration with medical technologists, hospital administrations, and referring physicians. Clinical pathologists learn to administer a number of visual and microscopic tests and an especially large variety of tests of the biophysical properties of tissue samples involving automated analysers and cultures. Sometimes the general term "laboratory medicine specialist" is used to refer to those working in clinical pathology, including medical doctors, Ph.D.s and doctors of pharmacology. Immunopathology, the study of an organism's immune response to infection, is sometimes considered to fall within the domain of clinical pathology. ==== Ematopatoloġija ==== Hematopathology is the study of diseases of blood cells (including constituents such as white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets) and the tissues, and organs comprising the hematopoietic system. The term hematopoietic system refers to tissues and organs that produce and/or primarily host hematopoietic cells and includes bone marrow, the lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, and other lymphoid tissues. In the United States, hematopathology is a board certified subspecialty (licensed under the American Board of Pathology) practiced by those physicians who have completed a general pathology residency (anatomic, clinical, or combined) and an additional year of fellowship training in hematology. The hematopathologist reviews biopsies of lymph nodes, bone marrows and other tissues involved by an infiltrate of cells of the hematopoietic system. In addition, the hematopathologist may be in charge of flow cytometric and/or molecular hematopathology studies. === Patoloġija molekolari === Molecular pathology is focused upon the study and diagnosis of disease through the examination of molecules within organs, tissues or bodily fluids. Molecular pathology is multidisciplinary by nature and shares some aspects of practice with both anatomic pathology and clinical pathology, molecular biology, biochemistry, proteomics and genetics. It is often applied in a context that is as much scientific as directly medical and encompasses the development of molecular and genetic approaches to the diagnosis and classification of human diseases, the design and validation of predictive biomarkers for treatment response and disease progression, and the susceptibility of individuals of different genetic constitution to particular disorders. The crossover between molecular pathology and epidemiology is represented by a related field "molecular pathological epidemiology". Molecular pathology is commonly used in diagnosis of cancer and infectious diseases. Molecular Pathology is primarily used to detect cancers such as melanoma, brainstem glioma, brain tumors as well as many other types of cancer and infectious diseases. Techniques are numerous but include quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), multiplex PCR, DNA microarray, in situ hybridization, DNA sequencing, antibody-based immunofluorescence tissue assays, molecular profiling of pathogens, and analysis of bacterial genes for antimicrobial resistance. Techniques used are based on analyzing samples of DNA and RNA. Pathology is widely used for gene therapy and disease diagnosis. === Patoloġija orali u maksillofaċċali === Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology is one of nine dental specialties recognized by the American Dental Association, and is sometimes considered a specialty of both dentistry and pathology. Oral Pathologists must complete three years of post doctoral training in an accredited program and subsequently obtain diplomate status from the American Board of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology. The specialty focuses on the diagnosis, clinical management and investigation of diseases that affect the oral cavity and surrounding maxillofacial structures including but not limited to odontogenic, infectious, epithelial, salivary gland, bone and soft tissue pathologies. It also significantly intersects with the field of dental pathology. Although concerned with a broad variety of diseases of the oral cavity, they have roles distinct from otorhinolaryngologists ("ear, nose, and throat" specialists), and speech pathologists, the latter of which helps diagnose many neurological or neuromuscular conditions relevant to speech phonology or swallowing. Owing to the availability of the oral cavity to non-invasive examination, many conditions in the study of oral disease can be diagnosed, or at least suspected, from gross examination, but biopsies, cell smears, and other tissue analysis remain important diagnostic tools in oral pathology. == Taħriġ mediku u akkreditazzjoni == Becoming a pathologist generally requires specialty-training after medical school, but individual nations vary somewhat in the medical licensing required of pathologists. In the United States, pathologists are physicians (D.O. or M.D.) who have completed a four-year undergraduate program, four years of medical school training, and three to four years of postgraduate training in the form of a pathology residency. Training may be within two primary specialties, as recognized by the American Board of Pathology: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology, each of which requires separate board certification. The American Osteopathic Board of Pathology also recognizes four primary specialties: anatomic pathology, dermatopathology, forensic pathology, and laboratory medicine. Pathologists may pursue specialised fellowship training within one or more subspecialties of either anatomical or clinical pathology. Some of these subspecialties permit additional board certification, while others do not. In the United Kingdom, pathologists are physicians licensed by the UK General Medical Council. The training to become a pathologist is overseen by the Royal College of Pathologists. After four to six years of undergraduate medical study, trainees proceed to a two-year foundation program. Full-time training in histopathology currently lasts between five and five and a half years, encompassing specialist training in surgical pathology, cytopathology, and autopsy pathology. It is also possible to take a Royal College of Pathologists diploma in forensic pathology, dermatopathology, or cytopathology, recognising additional specialist training and expertise, and to get specialist accreditation in forensic pathology, pediatric pathology, and neuropathology. The General Medical Council oversees all postgraduate medical training and education in the UK. In France, pathology is separated into two distinct specialties: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology. Residencies for both lasts four years. Residency in anatomical pathology is open to physicians only, while clinical pathology is open to both physicians and pharmacists. At the end of the second year of clinical pathology residency, residents can choose between general clinical pathology and a specialization in one of the disciplines, but they can not practice anatomical pathology, nor can anatomical pathology residents practice clinical pathology. == Trikkib ma' mediċina dijanjostika oħra == Though separate fields in terms of medical practice, a number of areas of inquiry in medicine and medical science either overlap greatly with general pathology, work in tandem with it, or contribute significantly to the understanding of the pathology of a given disease or its course in an individual. As a significant portion of all general pathology practice is concerned with cancer, the practice of oncology makes extensive use of both anatomical and clinical pathology in diagnosis and treatment. In particular, biopsy, resection, and blood tests are all examples of pathology work that is essential for the diagnoses of many kinds of cancer and for the staging of cancerous masses. In a similar fashion, the tissue and blood analysis techniques of general pathology are of central significance to the investigation of serious infectious disease and as such inform significantly upon the fields of epidemiology, etiology, immunology, and parasitology. General pathology methods are of great importance to biomedical research into disease, wherein they are sometimes referred to as "experimental" or "investigative" pathology.^{[''citation needed'']} Medical imaging is the generating of visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Medical imaging reveals details of internal physiology that help medical professionals plan appropriate treatments for tissue infection and trauma. Medical imaging is also central in supplying the biometric data necessary to establish baseline features of anatomy and physiology so as to increase the accuracy with which early or fine-detail abnormalities are detected. These diagnostic techniques are often performed in combination with general pathology procedures and are themselves often essential to developing new understanding of the pathogenesis of a given disease and tracking the progress of disease in specific medical cases. Examples of important subdivisions in medical imaging include radiology (which uses the imaging technologies of X-ray radiography) magnetic resonance imaging, medical ultrasonography (or ultrasound), endoscopy, elastography, tactile imaging, thermography, medical photography, nuclear medicine and functional imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography. Though they do not strictly relay images, readings from diagnostics tests involving electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, and electrocardiography often give hints as to the state and function of certain tissues in the brain and heart respectively. == Informatika fil-patoloġija == Pathology informatics is a subfield of health informatics. It is the use of information technology in pathology. It encompasses pathology laboratory operations, data analysis, and the interpretation of pathology-related information. Key aspects of pathology informatics include: * Laboratory information management systems (LIMS): Implementing and managing computer systems specifically designed for pathology departments. These systems help in tracking and managing patient specimens, results, and other pathology data. * Digital pathology: Involves the use of digital technology to create, manage, and analyze pathology images. This includes side scanning and automated image analysis. * Telepathology: Using technology to enable remote pathology consultation and collaboration. * Quality assurance and reporting: Implementing informatics solutions to ensure the quality and accuracy of pathology processes. == Psikopatoloġija == Psychopathology is the study of mental illness, particularly of severe disorders. Informed heavily by both psychology and neurology, its purpose is to classify mental illness, elucidate its underlying causes, and guide clinical psychiatric treatment accordingly. Although diagnosis and classification of mental norms and disorders is largely the purview of psychiatry—the results of which are guidelines such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which attempt to classify mental disease mostly on behavioural evidence, though not without controversy—the field is also heavily, and increasingly, informed upon by neuroscience and other of the biological cognitive sciences. Mental or social disorders or behaviours seen as generally unhealthy or excessive in a given individual, to the point where they cause harm or severe disruption to the person's lifestyle, are often called "pathological" (e.g., pathological gambling or pathological liar). == Mhux umani == Although the vast majority of lab work and research in pathology concerns the development of disease in humans, pathology is of significance throughout the biological sciences. Two main catch-all fields exist to represent most complex organisms capable of serving as host to a pathogen or other form of disease: veterinary pathology (concerned with all non-human species of kingdom of Animalia) and phytopathology, which studies disease in plants. === Patoloġija veterinarja === Veterinary pathology covers a vast array of species, but with a significantly smaller number of practitioners, so understanding of disease in non-human animals, especially as regards veterinary practice, varies considerably by species. Nevertheless, significant amounts of pathology research are conducted on animals, for two primary reasons: 1) The origins of diseases are typically zoonotic in nature, and many infectious pathogens have animal vectors and, as such, understanding the mechanisms of action for these pathogens in non-human hosts is essential to the understanding and application of epidemiology and 2) those animals that share physiological and genetic traits with humans can be used as surrogates for the study of the disease and potential treatments as well as the effects of various synthetic products. For this reason, as well as their roles as livestock and companion animals, mammals generally have the largest body of research in veterinary pathology. Animal testing remains a controversial practice, even in cases where it is used to research treatment for human disease. As in human medical pathology, the practice of veterinary pathology is customarily divided into the two main fields of anatomical and clinical pathology. === Patoloġija tal-pjanti === Although the pathogens and their mechanics differ greatly from those of animals, plants are subject to a wide variety of diseases, including those caused by fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants. Damage caused by insects, mites, vertebrate, and other small herbivores is not considered a part of the domain of plant pathology. The field is connected to plant disease epidemiology and especially concerned with the horticulture of species that are of high importance to the human diet or other human utility. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Mediċina]] [[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]] tefeet8xp5hiesb3x635wyhyzporn8d 329972 329971 2026-05-14T18:01:19Z Trigcly 17859 /* Istopatoloġija */ 329972 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Pathologists looking into microscopes (1).jpg|daqsminuri|Patologu jeżamina sezzjoni ta' tessuti għal evidenza ta' ċelloli kanċerużi waqt li [[kirurgu]] qed josserva.]] Il-'''patoloġija''' hija l-istudju tal-[[mard]]. Il-[[kelma]] ''patoloġija'' tirreferi wkoll għall-istudju tal-mard inġenerali, u tinkorpora firxa wiesgħa ta' oqsma tar-riċerka [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġika]] u ta' prattiċi [[Mediċina|mediċi]]. Madankollu, meta jintuża fil-kuntest tat-trattament mediku modern, it-terminu spiss jintuża b'mod idjaq biex jirreferi għall-proċessi u għat-testijiet marbuta mal-qasam mediku kontemporanju tal-"patoloġija ġenerali", qasam li jinkludi għadd ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet mediċi distinti iżda interrelatati li jiddijanjostikaw il-mard, l-iktar permezz tal-analiżi tal-kampjuni tat-tessuti u taċ-ċelloli [[Bniedem|umani]]. Il-patoloġija huwa qasam sinifikanti fid-dijanjożi medika moderna u fir-riċerka medika. [[Tabib]] li jipprattika l-patoloġija jissejjaħ patologu.<ref>Herausgeber., Cross, Simon S., Herausgeber. Underwood, James C. E. 1942- (30 April 2018). ''Underwood's pathology : a clinical approach''. Elsevier – Health Sciences Division. ISBN <bdi>978-0-7020-7212-3</bdi>. OCLC 1043350646.</ref> Bħala qasam tal-inkjesti u tar-riċerka ġenerali, il-patoloġija tindirizza l-komponenti tal-mard: il-kawża, il-mekkaniżmi tal-iżvilupp (patoġenesi), l-alterazzjonijiet strutturali taċ-ċelloli (bidliet morfoloġiċi), u l-konsegwenzi tal-bidliet (manifestazzjonijiet kliniċi).<ref>Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; Aster, Jon C. (2010). ''Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease'' (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN <bdi>978-1-4160-3121-5</bdi>.</ref> Fil-prattika medika komuni, il-patoloġija ġenerali tittratta l-iktar l-analiżi tal-abnormalitajiet kliniċi magħrufa li huma markaturi jew prekursuri kemm tal-mard infettiv kif ukoll tal-mard mhux infettiv, u ssir minn esperti f'waħda miż-żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet ewlenin, il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://freida.ama-assn.org/|titlu=FREIDA™ Pathology-Anatomic and Clinical Specialty Details|sit=FREIDA Residency Program Database {{!}} Medical Fellowship Database {{!}} AMA|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> Diviżjonijiet ulterjuri fl-ispeċjalizzazzjonijiet jeżistu abbażi tat-tipi tal-kampjuni involuti bħal fiċ-ċitopatoloġija, fl-ematopatoloġija u fl-istopatoloġija), tal-organi (bħal fil-patoloġija renali) u tas-sistemi fiżjoloġiċi (il-patoloġija orali), kif ukoll abbażi tal-enfasi tal-eżaminazzjoni (bħal fil-patoloġija forensika). Idjomatikament, "patoloġija" jaf tirreferi wkoll għall-progressjoni prevista jew effettiva ta' mard partikolari (bħal fl-istqarrija "il-forom differenti tal-[[kanċer]] ikollhom diversità ta' patoloġiji", fejn kelma iktar preċiża jaf tkun "patofiżjoloġiji"). Is-suffiss ''-patija'' xi kultant jintuża biex jiġi indikat stat tal-mard f'każijiet ta' mard fiżiku (bħal fil-kardjomijopatija) u ta' kundizzjonijiet psikoloġiċi (bħal fil-psikopatija).<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/138811|titlu=-pathy, comb. form : Oxford English Dictionary|sit=oed.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> == [[Etimoloġija]] == It-terminu [[Lingwa Latina|Latin]] ''pathologia'' oriġina mill-għerq [[Lingwa Griega antika|Grieg Antik]] ''pathos'' (πάθος), li tfisser "esperjenza" jew "tbatija", u ''-logia'' (-λογία), li tfisser "studju ta'". It-terminu għandu oriġini li tmur lura għall-bidu tas-seklu 16, u kulma jmur sar iktar popolarizzat wara s-snin 30 tas-seklu 16.<ref>Janssen, Diederik F. (April 2022). "From Pathognomicha and Passiologia to Pathologia: concise history of a neologism (1486-1598)". ''Pathologica''. '''114''' (2) 10: 185–188. doi:10.32074/1591-951X-261. ISSN 1591-951X. PMC 9248257. <nowiki>PMID 35481571</nowiki>.</ref> == [[Storja]] == L-istudju tal-patoloġija, inkluż l-eżaminazzjoni dettaljata tal-ġisem, id-dissezzjoni u l-inkjesti rigward mard speċifiku, imur lura għal żmien il-qedem. Il-fehim rudimentali ta' bosta kundizzjonijiet kien preżenti fil-biċċa l-kbira tas-soċjetajiet bikrin u ġie rreġistrat fir-rekords tal-iżjed soċjetajiet storiċi bikrin, fosthom dawk tal-Lvant Nofsani, tal-[[Indja]] u taċ-[[Ċina]].<ref>Long, Esmond (1965). ''History of Pathology''. New York: Dover. pp. 1+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-486-61342-0</bdi>.</ref> Sal-perjodu Elleniku tal-[[Greċja antika|Greċja Antika]], sar studju kawżali maqbul tal-mard, u bosta tobba notevoli bikrin (bħal [[Ippokrate]], li għalih jissemma l-ġurament Ippokratiku modern) żviluppaw metodi ta' dijanjożi u ta' pronjożi għal għadd ta' mardiet. Il-prattiċi mediċi tar-[[Imperu Ruman|Rumani]] u dawk tal-[[Biżantini]] komplew minn dawn l-għeruq [[Greċja|Griegi]], iżda bħal f'bosta oqsma tal-inkjesti [[Xjenza|xjentifiċi]], it-tkabbir fil-fehim tal-mediċina staġna kemxejn wara l-Era Klassika, iżda baqa' jiżviluppa bil-mod fost bosta [[Kultura|kulturi]]. B'mod partikolari, saru bosta avvanzi fl-era [[Medjuevu|Medjevali]] tal-[[Iżlam]], u matul dan iż-żmien ġew żviluppati bosta testi ta' patoloġiji kumplessi, ibbażati wkoll fuq it-tradizzjoni Griega. Minkejja dan, it-tkabbir fil-fehim kumpless tal-mard fil-biċċa l-kbira waqaf sa ma l-għarfien u l-isperimentazzjoni reġgħu bdew jiżdiedu fir-[[Rinaxximent]], fl-[[Illuminiżmu]] u fil-[[Barokk]], wara li reġa' feġġ il-metodu empiriku f'ċentri ġodda tal-istudju. Sas-[[seklu 17]], l-istudju tal-mikroskopija rudimentali u l-eżaminazzjoni tat-tessuti wasslu biex il-membru tas-Soċjetà Rjali [[Renju Unit|Brittanika]] [[Robert Hooke]] joħroġ bil-kelma "ċellola", u b'hekk witta t-triq għat-teorija suċċessiva tal-ġermi. Il-patoloġija moderna bdiet tiżviluppa bħala qasam distint ta' stħarriġ matul is-seklu 19 permezz tal-filosfi naturali u tat-tobba li studjaw il-mard u l-istudju informali tal-hekk imsejħa "[[anatomija]] patoloġika" jew "anatomija tal-mard". Madankollu, il-patoloġija bħala qasam formali speċjalizzat ma ġietx żviluppata għalkollox qabel l-aħħar tas-seklu 19 u l-bidu tas-seklu 20, bil-wasla tal-istudju dettaljat tal-mikrobijoloġija. Fis-seklu 19, it-tobba bdew jifhmu li jeżistu l-patoġeni li jikkawżaw il-mard, jew il-"ġermi" (terminu kumplessiv għall-mikrobi "patoġeniċi" jew li jikkawżaw il-mard, bħall-batterji, [[Virus|viruses]], fungi, amibi, mofof, protisti u prijoni) u li kienu kapaċi jirriproduċu u jimmultiplikaw. Dan il-fehim ħa post it-twemmin iktar bikri fl-umuri jew saħansitra fl-aġenti spiritwali, li kien iddomina fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-1,500 sena ta' qabel fil-mediċina Ewropea. Bil-fehim il-ġdid tal-aġenti kawżattivi, it-tobba bdew iqabblu l-karatteristiċi tas-sintomi tal-ġermi skont kif żviluppaw f'xi individwu affettwat u mqabbla mal-karatteristiċi u tal-ġermi u s-sintomi. Dan l-approċċ wassal għall-fehim fundamentali li l-mard kapaċi jirreplika ruħu, u li jista' jkollu bosta effetti profondi u varjati fuq l-ospitant uman. Sabiex jiġu ddeterminati l-kawżi tal-mardiet, l-esperti mediċi wżaw l-iżjed suppożizzjonijiet jew sintomi komuni u aċċettati b'mod wiesa' ta' żminijiethom, li huwa prinċipju ġenerali tal-approċċ li għadu jippersisti fil-mediċina moderna.<ref>King, Lester (1991). ''Transformations in American Medicine: From Benjamin Rush to William Osler''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP. pp. 27+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-8018-4057-9</bdi>.</ref><ref>Machevsky, Alberto; Wick, MR (2004). "Evidence-based Medicine, Medical Decision Analysis, and Pathology". ''Human Pathology''. '''35''' (10): 1179–88. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2004.06.004. <nowiki>PMID 15492984</nowiki>.</ref> Il-mediċina moderna avvanzat b'mod partikolari bl-iżviluppi ulterjuri tal-[[mikroskopju]] għall-analiżi tat-tessuti, bil-kontribut sinifikanti ta' [[Rudolf Virchow]], li wassal għal bosta żviluppi fir-riċerka. Sal-aħħar tas-snin 20 u l-bidu tas-snin 30 tas-seklu 20, il-patoloġija kienet meqjusa bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika.<ref>Rothstein, William G. (1979). "Pathology: The Evolution of a Specialty in American Medicine". ''Medical Care''. '''17''' (10): 975–988. doi:10.1097/00005650-197910000-00001. JSTOR 3763869. <nowiki>PMID 386008</nowiki>. S2CID 23045808.</ref> Flimkien mal-iżviluppi fil-fehim tal-fiżjoloġija ġenerali, sal-bidu tas-seklu 20, l-istudju tal-patoloġija beda jinqasam f'għadd ta' oqsma distinti, li wassal għall-iżvilupp ta' għadd kbir ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet moderni fi ħdan il-patoloġija u dixxiplini relatati tal-mediċina dijanjostika.<ref>Race, George J.; Tillery, G. Weldon; Dysert, Peter A. (Jannar 2004). "A history of pathology and laboratory medicine at Baylor University Medical Center". ''Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center)''. '''17''' (1): 42–55. doi:10.1080/08998280.2004.11927956. ISSN 0899-8280. PMC 1200640. <nowiki>PMID 16200088</nowiki>.</ref> == Patoloġija ġenerali == Il-prattika moderna tal-patoloġija hija maqsuma f'għadd ta' sottodixxiplini fi ħdan l-għanijiet distinti iżda ferm interkonnessi tar-riċerka bijoloġika u l-prattika medika. Ir-riċerka bijomedika dwar il-mard tinkorpora x-xogħol ta' varjetà vasta ta' speċjalisti tax-[[xjenza]] tal-[[ħajja]], billi, fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-partijiet tad-dinja, sabiex wieħed ikun liċenzjat biex jipprattika l-patoloġija bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika, wieħed irid ikun temm l-iskola medika u kiseb liċenzja biex jipprattika l-mediċina. Strutturalment, l-istudju tal-mard huwa maqsum f'bosta oqsma differenti li jistudjaw jew jiddijanjostikaw il-markaturi għall-mard bl-użu ta' metodi u teknoloġiċi partikolari għal tipi speċifiċi ta' skali, organi u tessuti. === Patoloġija anatomika === Il-patoloġija anatomika (fil-[[Commonwealth tan-Nazzjonijiet|Commonwealth]] jew fl-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]]) hija speċjalizzazzjoni medika li għandha x'taqsam mad-dijanjożi tal-mard abbażi tal-eżaminazzjoni grossa, mikroskopika, [[kimika]], immunoloġika u molekolari tal-organi, tat-tessuti u tal-iġsma sħaħ (bħal fl-eżaminazzjoni ġenerali jew fl-awtopsja). Il-patoloġija anatomika fiha nnifisha hija maqsuma f'sottooqsma, fosthom il-patoloġija kirurġika, iċ-ċitopatoloġija u l-patoloġija forensika. Il-patoloġija anatomika hija waħda miż-żewġ oqsma prinċipali tal-prattika medika tal-patoloġija, u l-oħra hija l-patoloġija klinika, id-dijanjożi tal-mard permezz tal-analiżi fil-laboratorju tal-fluwidi u tat-tessuti tal-ġisem. Xi kultant, il-patologi jipprattikaw kemm il-patoloġija anatomika kif ukoll dik klinika, kombinament magħruf bħala patoloġija ġenerali. ==== Ċitopatoloġija ==== Iċ-ċitopatoloġija (xi kultant magħrufa bħala ċ-"ċitoloġija") hija l-fergħa tal-patoloġija li tistudja u tiddijanjostika l-mard fuq il-livell ċellolari. Normalment tintuża biex tgħin fid-dijanjożi tal-kanċer, iżda tgħin ukoll fid-dijanjożi ta' ċertu mard infettiv u kundizzjonijiet infjammatorji oħra, kif ukoll leżjonijiet tat-tirojde, mard li jinvolvi l-kavitajiet sterili tal-ġisem (peritoneali, plewrali u ċerebrospinali), u firxa wiesgħa ta' siti oħra tal-ġisem. Iċ-ċitopatoloġija ġeneralment tintuża fuq kampanji ta' ċelloli liberi jew frammenti tat-tessuti (b'kuntrast mal-istopatoloġija, li tistudja t-tessuti sħaħ) u testijiet ċitopatoloġiċi li jistgħu jingħaddu fuq slide tal-[[ħġieġ]] tal-mikroskopju għal tebgħat u eżaminazzjoni mikroskopiku sussegwenti. Madankollu, il-kampjuni ċitoloġiċi jistgħu jitħejjew b'modi oħra, inkluż b'ċitoċentrifugazzjoni. ==== Dermatopatoloġija ==== Id-dermatopatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika li tiffoka fuq il-ġilda u l-bqija tas-sistema integumentarja bħala organu. Hija unika, peress li hemm żewġ modi kif tabib jista' jikseb speċjalizzazzjoni. Il-patologi ġenerali u d-dermatologi ġenerali kollha jitħarrġu fil-patoloġija tal-ġilda, għaldaqstant it-terminu dermatopatologu jirreferi għalihom it-tnejn skont ċertu livell ta' akkreditazzjoni u esperjenza; fl-Istati Uniti, patologu ġenerali jew dermatologu jistgħu jagħmlu apprendistat ta' sena sa sentejn fil-qasam tad-dermatopatoloġija. It-tlestija ta' dan l-apprendistat twassal għall-possibbiltà li wieħed jagħmel eżami quddiem bord ta' sottospeċjalizzazzjoni biex isir dermatopatologu ċċertifikat mill-bord. Id-dermatologi kapaċi jagħrfu l-biċċa l-kbira tal-mardiet tal-ġilda abbażi tad-dehra, id-distribuzzjonijiet anatomiċi u l-imġiba. Madankollu, xi kultant dawk il-kriterji ma jwasslux għal dijanjożi konklużiva, u ssir bijopsija tal-ġilda biex tiġi eżaminata taħt il-mikroskopju bl-użu ta' testijiet istoloġiċi tas-soltu. F'xi każijiet, ikun meħtieġ li jsir ittestjar speċjalizzat fuq il-bijopsiji, fosthom l-immunofluworexxenza, l-immunoistokimika, il-mikroskopija bl-elettroni, iċ-ċitometrija bil-fluss u l-analiżi patoloġika molekolari. Waħda mill-ikbar sfidi tad-dermatopatoloġija hija l-kobor tagħha. Jeżistu iktar minn 1,500 diżordni differenti tal-ġilda, inkluż raxx tal-ġilda u neoplażmi. Għaldaqstant, id-dermatopatologi jrid ikollhom bażi wiesgħa ta' għarfien fid-dermatoloġija klinika, u jkunu midħla ta' diversi oqsma oħra ta' speċjalizzazzjoni fil-mediċina. ==== Patoloġija forensika ==== Il-patoloġija forensika tiffoka fuq li tiġi ddeterminata l-kawża tal-[[mewt]] b'eżaminazzjoni ''post mortem'' tal-katavru jew ta' fdalijiet parzjali. Tipikament issir awtopsja minn eżaminatur mediku, spiss waqt l-investigazzjonijiet kriminali; f'dan ir-rwol, l-eżaminaturi mediċi sikwit jiġu mistoqsija jikkonfirmaw l-identità ta' katavru. Ir-rekwiżiti biex wieħed isir prattikant liċenzjat tal-patoloġija forensika jvarjaw minn pajjiż għal ieħor (u saħansitra fl-istess nazzjon xi kultant) iżda tipikament rekwiżit minimu huwa dottorat mediku bi speċjalizzazzjoni fil-patoloġija ġenerali jew anatomika bi studju sussegwenti fil-mediċina forensika. Il-metodi li jużaw ix-xjenzati forensiċi biex jiddeterminaw il-mewt jinkludu l-eżaminazzjoni tal-eżemplari tat-tessuti sabiex tiġi identifikata l-preżenza jew l-assenza ta' mard naturali u sejbiet mikroskopiċi oħra, l-interpretazzjonijiet tat-tossikoloġija fuq it-tessuti u l-fluwidi tal-ġisem biex tiġi ddeterminata l-kawża kimika ta' dożi eċċessivi, avvelenamenti jew każijiet oħra li jinvolvu aġenti tossiċi, u eżaminazzjonijiet ta' trawmi fiżiċi. Il-patoloġija forensika hija komponent ewlieni fil-qasam transdixxiplinari tax-xjenza forensika. ==== Istopatoloġija ==== L-istopatoloġija tirreferi għall-eżaminazzjoni mikroskopika ta' diversi forom ta' tessuti umani. B'mod speċifiku, fil-mediċina klinika, l-istopatoloġija tirreferi għall-eżaminazzjoni ta' bijopsija jew eżemplar kirurġiku minn patologu, wara li l-eżemplar ikun ġie pproċessat u s-sezzjonijiet istoloġiċi jkunu tpoġġew fuq slides tal-ħġieġ. Dan jikkuntrasta mal-metodi taċ-ċitopatoloġija, li tuża ċ-ċelloli liberi jew il-frammenti tat-tessuti. L-eżaminazzjoni istopatoloġika tat-tessuti tibda b'operazzjoni, b'bijopsija jew b'awtopsija. It-tessuti jitneħħew mill-ġisem ta' organiżmu u mbagħad jitpoġġew f'fissativ li jistabbilizza t-tessuti biex jiġi evitat id-deterjorament. L-iżjed fissativ komuni huwa l-formalin, għalkemm l-iffissar ta' sezzjoni ffriżata huwa komuni wkoll. Sabiex wieħed jara t-tessuti b'mikroskopju, is-sezzjonijiet jittebbgħu b'pigment wieħed jew iktar. L-għan ta' dan hu li jiġu żvelati l-komponenti ċellolari; il-kontrotebgħat jintużaw biex jipprovdu kuntrast. L-istokimika tirreferi għax-xjenza tal-użu tar-reazzjonijiet kimiċi bejn is-sustanzi kimiċi tal-laboratorju u l-komponenti fi ħdan it-tessuti. Is-slides istoloġiċi mbagħad jiġu interpretati b'mod dijanjostiku u r-rapport patoloġiku li jirriżulta jiddeskrivi s-sejbiet istoloġiċi u l-opinjoni tal-patologu. Fil-każ tal-kanċer, dan jirrappreżenta d-dijanjożi tat-tessuti meħtieġa għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-protokolli tat-trattamenti. ==== Newropatoloġija ==== In-newropatoloġija hija l-istudju tal-mard fit-tessuti tas-sistema nervuża, normalment fil-forma ta' bijopsiji kirurġiċi jew xi kultant imħuħ sħaħ fil-każ ta' awtopsija. In-newropatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika, tan-newroloġija u tan-newrokirurġija. F'bosta pajjiżi, in-newropatoloġija titqies bħala sottoqasam tal-patoloġija anatomika. Tabib li jispeċjalizza fin-newropatoloġija, normalment wara li jlesti apprendistat fil-patoloġija anatomika jew ġenerali, jissejjaħ newropatologu. Fil-prattika klinika ta' kuljum, newropatologu jiġġenera d-dijanjożi għall-pazjenti. Jekk ikun hemm suspett ta' mard fis-sistema nervuża, u d-dijanjożi ma tkunx tista' ssir b'metodi inqas invażivi, issir bijopsija tat-tessuti nervużi mill-moħħ jew jiġi estratt fluwidu ċerebrospinali mis-sinsla biex jgħin fid-dijanjożi. Bijopsija normalment tintalab wara li tinstab massa bl-immaġnijiet mediċi. Bl-awtopsji, ix-xogħol prinċipali tan-newropatologu hu li jgħin fid-dijanjożi ''post mortem'' ta' diversi kundizzjonijiet li jaffettwaw is-sistema nervuża ċentrali. Il-bijopsiji jistgħu jikkonsistu wkoll mill-ġilda. L-ittestjar tad-densità tal-fibri nervużi epidermali (ENFD) huwa test tan-newropatoloġija li ġie żviluppat iktar reċentement fejn issir bijopsija biex jiġu identifikati newropatiji tal-fibri nervużi żgħar bl-analiżi tal-fibri nervużi tal-ġilda. Dan it-test qed isir disponibbli f'għadd ta' laboratorji kif ukoll f'bosta universitajiet; jissostitwixxi t-test tal-bijopsija nervuża tradizzjonali peress li huwa inqas invażiv. ==== Patoloġija pulmonari ==== Il-patoloġija pulmonari hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika (u speċjalment kirurġika) li tittratta d-dijanjożi u l-karatterizzazzjoni tal-mard neoplastiku u mhux neoplastiku tal-[[Pulmun|pulmuni]] u tal-plewra toraċika. L-eżemplari dijanjostiċi spiss jinklisbu permezz ta' bijopsija transbronkjali bronkoskopika, bijopsija perkutanja ggwidata b'CT scan jew kirurġija toraċika assistita bil-filmati. Dawn it-testijiet jaf ikunu meħtieġa għal dijanjożi bejn infezzjoni, infjammazzjoni jew kundizzjonijiet fibrotiċi. ==== Patoloġija renali ==== Il-patoloġija renali hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika li tittratta d-dijanjożi u l-karatterizzazzjoni tal-mard tal-kliewi. F'ambjent mediku, il-patologi renali jaħdmu mill-qrib man-nefrologi u mal-kirurgi tat-trapjanti, li tipikament jiksbu eżemplari dijanjostiċi permezz ta' bijopsija renali perkutanja. Il-patologu renali jrid jissintetizza s-sejbiet mill-istoloġija mikroskopika tradizzjonali, mill-mikroskopija bl-elettroni u bl-immunofluworexxenza biex jikseb dijanjożi definittiva. Il-mard renali mediku jista' jaffettwa l-glomerulu, it-tubuli u l-interstizju, il-vażi jew taħlita ta' dawn il-kompartimenti. ==== Patoloġija kirurġika ==== Surgical pathology is one of the primary areas of practice for most anatomical pathologists. Surgical pathology involves the gross and microscopic examination of surgical specimens, as well as biopsies submitted by surgeons and non-surgeons such as general internists, medical subspecialists, dermatologists, and interventional radiologists. Often an excised tissue sample is the best and most definitive evidence of disease (or lack thereof) in cases where tissue is surgically removed from a patient. These determinations are usually accomplished by a combination of gross (i.e., macroscopic) and histologic (i.e., microscopic) examination of the tissue, and may involve evaluations of molecular properties of the tissue by immunohistochemistry or other laboratory tests. There are two major types of specimens submitted for surgical pathology analysis: biopsies and surgical resections. A biopsy is a small piece of tissue removed primarily for surgical pathology analysis, most often in order to render a definitive diagnosis. Types of biopsies include core biopsies, which are obtained through the use of large-bore needles, sometimes under the guidance of radiological techniques such as ultrasound, CT scan, or magnetic resonance imaging. Incisional biopsies are obtained through diagnostic surgical procedures that remove part of a suspicious lesion, whereas excisional biopsies remove the entire lesion, and are similar to therapeutic surgical resections. Excisional biopsies of skin lesions and gastrointestinal polyps are very common. The pathologist's interpretation of a biopsy is critical to establishing the diagnosis of a benign or malignant tumor, and can differentiate between different types and grades of cancer, as well as determining the activity of specific molecular pathways in the tumor. Surgical resection specimens are obtained by the therapeutic surgical removal of an entire diseased area or organ (and occasionally multiple organs). These procedures are often intended as definitive surgical treatment of a disease in which the diagnosis is already known or strongly suspected, but pathological analysis of these specimens remains important in confirming the previous diagnosis.^{[''citation needed'']} === Patoloġija klinika === Clinical pathology is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids such as blood and urine, as well as tissues, using the tools of chemistry, clinical microbiology, hematology and molecular pathology. Clinical pathologists work in close collaboration with medical technologists, hospital administrations, and referring physicians. Clinical pathologists learn to administer a number of visual and microscopic tests and an especially large variety of tests of the biophysical properties of tissue samples involving automated analysers and cultures. Sometimes the general term "laboratory medicine specialist" is used to refer to those working in clinical pathology, including medical doctors, Ph.D.s and doctors of pharmacology. Immunopathology, the study of an organism's immune response to infection, is sometimes considered to fall within the domain of clinical pathology. ==== Ematopatoloġija ==== Hematopathology is the study of diseases of blood cells (including constituents such as white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets) and the tissues, and organs comprising the hematopoietic system. The term hematopoietic system refers to tissues and organs that produce and/or primarily host hematopoietic cells and includes bone marrow, the lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, and other lymphoid tissues. In the United States, hematopathology is a board certified subspecialty (licensed under the American Board of Pathology) practiced by those physicians who have completed a general pathology residency (anatomic, clinical, or combined) and an additional year of fellowship training in hematology. The hematopathologist reviews biopsies of lymph nodes, bone marrows and other tissues involved by an infiltrate of cells of the hematopoietic system. In addition, the hematopathologist may be in charge of flow cytometric and/or molecular hematopathology studies. === Patoloġija molekolari === Molecular pathology is focused upon the study and diagnosis of disease through the examination of molecules within organs, tissues or bodily fluids. Molecular pathology is multidisciplinary by nature and shares some aspects of practice with both anatomic pathology and clinical pathology, molecular biology, biochemistry, proteomics and genetics. It is often applied in a context that is as much scientific as directly medical and encompasses the development of molecular and genetic approaches to the diagnosis and classification of human diseases, the design and validation of predictive biomarkers for treatment response and disease progression, and the susceptibility of individuals of different genetic constitution to particular disorders. The crossover between molecular pathology and epidemiology is represented by a related field "molecular pathological epidemiology". Molecular pathology is commonly used in diagnosis of cancer and infectious diseases. Molecular Pathology is primarily used to detect cancers such as melanoma, brainstem glioma, brain tumors as well as many other types of cancer and infectious diseases. Techniques are numerous but include quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), multiplex PCR, DNA microarray, in situ hybridization, DNA sequencing, antibody-based immunofluorescence tissue assays, molecular profiling of pathogens, and analysis of bacterial genes for antimicrobial resistance. Techniques used are based on analyzing samples of DNA and RNA. Pathology is widely used for gene therapy and disease diagnosis. === Patoloġija orali u maksillofaċċali === Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology is one of nine dental specialties recognized by the American Dental Association, and is sometimes considered a specialty of both dentistry and pathology. Oral Pathologists must complete three years of post doctoral training in an accredited program and subsequently obtain diplomate status from the American Board of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology. The specialty focuses on the diagnosis, clinical management and investigation of diseases that affect the oral cavity and surrounding maxillofacial structures including but not limited to odontogenic, infectious, epithelial, salivary gland, bone and soft tissue pathologies. It also significantly intersects with the field of dental pathology. Although concerned with a broad variety of diseases of the oral cavity, they have roles distinct from otorhinolaryngologists ("ear, nose, and throat" specialists), and speech pathologists, the latter of which helps diagnose many neurological or neuromuscular conditions relevant to speech phonology or swallowing. Owing to the availability of the oral cavity to non-invasive examination, many conditions in the study of oral disease can be diagnosed, or at least suspected, from gross examination, but biopsies, cell smears, and other tissue analysis remain important diagnostic tools in oral pathology. == Taħriġ mediku u akkreditazzjoni == Becoming a pathologist generally requires specialty-training after medical school, but individual nations vary somewhat in the medical licensing required of pathologists. In the United States, pathologists are physicians (D.O. or M.D.) who have completed a four-year undergraduate program, four years of medical school training, and three to four years of postgraduate training in the form of a pathology residency. Training may be within two primary specialties, as recognized by the American Board of Pathology: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology, each of which requires separate board certification. The American Osteopathic Board of Pathology also recognizes four primary specialties: anatomic pathology, dermatopathology, forensic pathology, and laboratory medicine. Pathologists may pursue specialised fellowship training within one or more subspecialties of either anatomical or clinical pathology. Some of these subspecialties permit additional board certification, while others do not. In the United Kingdom, pathologists are physicians licensed by the UK General Medical Council. The training to become a pathologist is overseen by the Royal College of Pathologists. After four to six years of undergraduate medical study, trainees proceed to a two-year foundation program. Full-time training in histopathology currently lasts between five and five and a half years, encompassing specialist training in surgical pathology, cytopathology, and autopsy pathology. It is also possible to take a Royal College of Pathologists diploma in forensic pathology, dermatopathology, or cytopathology, recognising additional specialist training and expertise, and to get specialist accreditation in forensic pathology, pediatric pathology, and neuropathology. The General Medical Council oversees all postgraduate medical training and education in the UK. In France, pathology is separated into two distinct specialties: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology. Residencies for both lasts four years. Residency in anatomical pathology is open to physicians only, while clinical pathology is open to both physicians and pharmacists. At the end of the second year of clinical pathology residency, residents can choose between general clinical pathology and a specialization in one of the disciplines, but they can not practice anatomical pathology, nor can anatomical pathology residents practice clinical pathology. == Trikkib ma' mediċina dijanjostika oħra == Though separate fields in terms of medical practice, a number of areas of inquiry in medicine and medical science either overlap greatly with general pathology, work in tandem with it, or contribute significantly to the understanding of the pathology of a given disease or its course in an individual. As a significant portion of all general pathology practice is concerned with cancer, the practice of oncology makes extensive use of both anatomical and clinical pathology in diagnosis and treatment. In particular, biopsy, resection, and blood tests are all examples of pathology work that is essential for the diagnoses of many kinds of cancer and for the staging of cancerous masses. In a similar fashion, the tissue and blood analysis techniques of general pathology are of central significance to the investigation of serious infectious disease and as such inform significantly upon the fields of epidemiology, etiology, immunology, and parasitology. General pathology methods are of great importance to biomedical research into disease, wherein they are sometimes referred to as "experimental" or "investigative" pathology.^{[''citation needed'']} Medical imaging is the generating of visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Medical imaging reveals details of internal physiology that help medical professionals plan appropriate treatments for tissue infection and trauma. Medical imaging is also central in supplying the biometric data necessary to establish baseline features of anatomy and physiology so as to increase the accuracy with which early or fine-detail abnormalities are detected. These diagnostic techniques are often performed in combination with general pathology procedures and are themselves often essential to developing new understanding of the pathogenesis of a given disease and tracking the progress of disease in specific medical cases. Examples of important subdivisions in medical imaging include radiology (which uses the imaging technologies of X-ray radiography) magnetic resonance imaging, medical ultrasonography (or ultrasound), endoscopy, elastography, tactile imaging, thermography, medical photography, nuclear medicine and functional imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography. Though they do not strictly relay images, readings from diagnostics tests involving electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, and electrocardiography often give hints as to the state and function of certain tissues in the brain and heart respectively. == Informatika fil-patoloġija == Pathology informatics is a subfield of health informatics. It is the use of information technology in pathology. It encompasses pathology laboratory operations, data analysis, and the interpretation of pathology-related information. Key aspects of pathology informatics include: * Laboratory information management systems (LIMS): Implementing and managing computer systems specifically designed for pathology departments. These systems help in tracking and managing patient specimens, results, and other pathology data. * Digital pathology: Involves the use of digital technology to create, manage, and analyze pathology images. This includes side scanning and automated image analysis. * Telepathology: Using technology to enable remote pathology consultation and collaboration. * Quality assurance and reporting: Implementing informatics solutions to ensure the quality and accuracy of pathology processes. == Psikopatoloġija == Psychopathology is the study of mental illness, particularly of severe disorders. Informed heavily by both psychology and neurology, its purpose is to classify mental illness, elucidate its underlying causes, and guide clinical psychiatric treatment accordingly. Although diagnosis and classification of mental norms and disorders is largely the purview of psychiatry—the results of which are guidelines such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which attempt to classify mental disease mostly on behavioural evidence, though not without controversy—the field is also heavily, and increasingly, informed upon by neuroscience and other of the biological cognitive sciences. Mental or social disorders or behaviours seen as generally unhealthy or excessive in a given individual, to the point where they cause harm or severe disruption to the person's lifestyle, are often called "pathological" (e.g., pathological gambling or pathological liar). == Mhux umani == Although the vast majority of lab work and research in pathology concerns the development of disease in humans, pathology is of significance throughout the biological sciences. Two main catch-all fields exist to represent most complex organisms capable of serving as host to a pathogen or other form of disease: veterinary pathology (concerned with all non-human species of kingdom of Animalia) and phytopathology, which studies disease in plants. === Patoloġija veterinarja === Veterinary pathology covers a vast array of species, but with a significantly smaller number of practitioners, so understanding of disease in non-human animals, especially as regards veterinary practice, varies considerably by species. Nevertheless, significant amounts of pathology research are conducted on animals, for two primary reasons: 1) The origins of diseases are typically zoonotic in nature, and many infectious pathogens have animal vectors and, as such, understanding the mechanisms of action for these pathogens in non-human hosts is essential to the understanding and application of epidemiology and 2) those animals that share physiological and genetic traits with humans can be used as surrogates for the study of the disease and potential treatments as well as the effects of various synthetic products. For this reason, as well as their roles as livestock and companion animals, mammals generally have the largest body of research in veterinary pathology. Animal testing remains a controversial practice, even in cases where it is used to research treatment for human disease. As in human medical pathology, the practice of veterinary pathology is customarily divided into the two main fields of anatomical and clinical pathology. === Patoloġija tal-pjanti === Although the pathogens and their mechanics differ greatly from those of animals, plants are subject to a wide variety of diseases, including those caused by fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants. Damage caused by insects, mites, vertebrate, and other small herbivores is not considered a part of the domain of plant pathology. The field is connected to plant disease epidemiology and especially concerned with the horticulture of species that are of high importance to the human diet or other human utility. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Mediċina]] [[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]] t4hs83tq9zhm1bc5inne8fuhqq24qwd 329973 329972 2026-05-14T18:21:45Z Trigcly 17859 /* Patoloġija kirurġika */ 329973 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Pathologists looking into microscopes (1).jpg|daqsminuri|Patologu jeżamina sezzjoni ta' tessuti għal evidenza ta' ċelloli kanċerużi waqt li [[kirurgu]] qed josserva.]] Il-'''patoloġija''' hija l-istudju tal-[[mard]]. Il-[[kelma]] ''patoloġija'' tirreferi wkoll għall-istudju tal-mard inġenerali, u tinkorpora firxa wiesgħa ta' oqsma tar-riċerka [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġika]] u ta' prattiċi [[Mediċina|mediċi]]. Madankollu, meta jintuża fil-kuntest tat-trattament mediku modern, it-terminu spiss jintuża b'mod idjaq biex jirreferi għall-proċessi u għat-testijiet marbuta mal-qasam mediku kontemporanju tal-"patoloġija ġenerali", qasam li jinkludi għadd ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet mediċi distinti iżda interrelatati li jiddijanjostikaw il-mard, l-iktar permezz tal-analiżi tal-kampjuni tat-tessuti u taċ-ċelloli [[Bniedem|umani]]. Il-patoloġija huwa qasam sinifikanti fid-dijanjożi medika moderna u fir-riċerka medika. [[Tabib]] li jipprattika l-patoloġija jissejjaħ patologu.<ref>Herausgeber., Cross, Simon S., Herausgeber. Underwood, James C. E. 1942- (30 April 2018). ''Underwood's pathology : a clinical approach''. Elsevier – Health Sciences Division. ISBN <bdi>978-0-7020-7212-3</bdi>. OCLC 1043350646.</ref> Bħala qasam tal-inkjesti u tar-riċerka ġenerali, il-patoloġija tindirizza l-komponenti tal-mard: il-kawża, il-mekkaniżmi tal-iżvilupp (patoġenesi), l-alterazzjonijiet strutturali taċ-ċelloli (bidliet morfoloġiċi), u l-konsegwenzi tal-bidliet (manifestazzjonijiet kliniċi).<ref>Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; Aster, Jon C. (2010). ''Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease'' (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN <bdi>978-1-4160-3121-5</bdi>.</ref> Fil-prattika medika komuni, il-patoloġija ġenerali tittratta l-iktar l-analiżi tal-abnormalitajiet kliniċi magħrufa li huma markaturi jew prekursuri kemm tal-mard infettiv kif ukoll tal-mard mhux infettiv, u ssir minn esperti f'waħda miż-żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet ewlenin, il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://freida.ama-assn.org/|titlu=FREIDA™ Pathology-Anatomic and Clinical Specialty Details|sit=FREIDA Residency Program Database {{!}} Medical Fellowship Database {{!}} AMA|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> Diviżjonijiet ulterjuri fl-ispeċjalizzazzjonijiet jeżistu abbażi tat-tipi tal-kampjuni involuti bħal fiċ-ċitopatoloġija, fl-ematopatoloġija u fl-istopatoloġija), tal-organi (bħal fil-patoloġija renali) u tas-sistemi fiżjoloġiċi (il-patoloġija orali), kif ukoll abbażi tal-enfasi tal-eżaminazzjoni (bħal fil-patoloġija forensika). Idjomatikament, "patoloġija" jaf tirreferi wkoll għall-progressjoni prevista jew effettiva ta' mard partikolari (bħal fl-istqarrija "il-forom differenti tal-[[kanċer]] ikollhom diversità ta' patoloġiji", fejn kelma iktar preċiża jaf tkun "patofiżjoloġiji"). Is-suffiss ''-patija'' xi kultant jintuża biex jiġi indikat stat tal-mard f'każijiet ta' mard fiżiku (bħal fil-kardjomijopatija) u ta' kundizzjonijiet psikoloġiċi (bħal fil-psikopatija).<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/138811|titlu=-pathy, comb. form : Oxford English Dictionary|sit=oed.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> == [[Etimoloġija]] == It-terminu [[Lingwa Latina|Latin]] ''pathologia'' oriġina mill-għerq [[Lingwa Griega antika|Grieg Antik]] ''pathos'' (πάθος), li tfisser "esperjenza" jew "tbatija", u ''-logia'' (-λογία), li tfisser "studju ta'". It-terminu għandu oriġini li tmur lura għall-bidu tas-seklu 16, u kulma jmur sar iktar popolarizzat wara s-snin 30 tas-seklu 16.<ref>Janssen, Diederik F. (April 2022). "From Pathognomicha and Passiologia to Pathologia: concise history of a neologism (1486-1598)". ''Pathologica''. '''114''' (2) 10: 185–188. doi:10.32074/1591-951X-261. ISSN 1591-951X. PMC 9248257. <nowiki>PMID 35481571</nowiki>.</ref> == [[Storja]] == L-istudju tal-patoloġija, inkluż l-eżaminazzjoni dettaljata tal-ġisem, id-dissezzjoni u l-inkjesti rigward mard speċifiku, imur lura għal żmien il-qedem. Il-fehim rudimentali ta' bosta kundizzjonijiet kien preżenti fil-biċċa l-kbira tas-soċjetajiet bikrin u ġie rreġistrat fir-rekords tal-iżjed soċjetajiet storiċi bikrin, fosthom dawk tal-Lvant Nofsani, tal-[[Indja]] u taċ-[[Ċina]].<ref>Long, Esmond (1965). ''History of Pathology''. New York: Dover. pp. 1+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-486-61342-0</bdi>.</ref> Sal-perjodu Elleniku tal-[[Greċja antika|Greċja Antika]], sar studju kawżali maqbul tal-mard, u bosta tobba notevoli bikrin (bħal [[Ippokrate]], li għalih jissemma l-ġurament Ippokratiku modern) żviluppaw metodi ta' dijanjożi u ta' pronjożi għal għadd ta' mardiet. Il-prattiċi mediċi tar-[[Imperu Ruman|Rumani]] u dawk tal-[[Biżantini]] komplew minn dawn l-għeruq [[Greċja|Griegi]], iżda bħal f'bosta oqsma tal-inkjesti [[Xjenza|xjentifiċi]], it-tkabbir fil-fehim tal-mediċina staġna kemxejn wara l-Era Klassika, iżda baqa' jiżviluppa bil-mod fost bosta [[Kultura|kulturi]]. B'mod partikolari, saru bosta avvanzi fl-era [[Medjuevu|Medjevali]] tal-[[Iżlam]], u matul dan iż-żmien ġew żviluppati bosta testi ta' patoloġiji kumplessi, ibbażati wkoll fuq it-tradizzjoni Griega. Minkejja dan, it-tkabbir fil-fehim kumpless tal-mard fil-biċċa l-kbira waqaf sa ma l-għarfien u l-isperimentazzjoni reġgħu bdew jiżdiedu fir-[[Rinaxximent]], fl-[[Illuminiżmu]] u fil-[[Barokk]], wara li reġa' feġġ il-metodu empiriku f'ċentri ġodda tal-istudju. Sas-[[seklu 17]], l-istudju tal-mikroskopija rudimentali u l-eżaminazzjoni tat-tessuti wasslu biex il-membru tas-Soċjetà Rjali [[Renju Unit|Brittanika]] [[Robert Hooke]] joħroġ bil-kelma "ċellola", u b'hekk witta t-triq għat-teorija suċċessiva tal-ġermi. Il-patoloġija moderna bdiet tiżviluppa bħala qasam distint ta' stħarriġ matul is-seklu 19 permezz tal-filosfi naturali u tat-tobba li studjaw il-mard u l-istudju informali tal-hekk imsejħa "[[anatomija]] patoloġika" jew "anatomija tal-mard". Madankollu, il-patoloġija bħala qasam formali speċjalizzat ma ġietx żviluppata għalkollox qabel l-aħħar tas-seklu 19 u l-bidu tas-seklu 20, bil-wasla tal-istudju dettaljat tal-mikrobijoloġija. Fis-seklu 19, it-tobba bdew jifhmu li jeżistu l-patoġeni li jikkawżaw il-mard, jew il-"ġermi" (terminu kumplessiv għall-mikrobi "patoġeniċi" jew li jikkawżaw il-mard, bħall-batterji, [[Virus|viruses]], fungi, amibi, mofof, protisti u prijoni) u li kienu kapaċi jirriproduċu u jimmultiplikaw. Dan il-fehim ħa post it-twemmin iktar bikri fl-umuri jew saħansitra fl-aġenti spiritwali, li kien iddomina fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-1,500 sena ta' qabel fil-mediċina Ewropea. Bil-fehim il-ġdid tal-aġenti kawżattivi, it-tobba bdew iqabblu l-karatteristiċi tas-sintomi tal-ġermi skont kif żviluppaw f'xi individwu affettwat u mqabbla mal-karatteristiċi u tal-ġermi u s-sintomi. Dan l-approċċ wassal għall-fehim fundamentali li l-mard kapaċi jirreplika ruħu, u li jista' jkollu bosta effetti profondi u varjati fuq l-ospitant uman. Sabiex jiġu ddeterminati l-kawżi tal-mardiet, l-esperti mediċi wżaw l-iżjed suppożizzjonijiet jew sintomi komuni u aċċettati b'mod wiesa' ta' żminijiethom, li huwa prinċipju ġenerali tal-approċċ li għadu jippersisti fil-mediċina moderna.<ref>King, Lester (1991). ''Transformations in American Medicine: From Benjamin Rush to William Osler''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP. pp. 27+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-8018-4057-9</bdi>.</ref><ref>Machevsky, Alberto; Wick, MR (2004). "Evidence-based Medicine, Medical Decision Analysis, and Pathology". ''Human Pathology''. '''35''' (10): 1179–88. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2004.06.004. <nowiki>PMID 15492984</nowiki>.</ref> Il-mediċina moderna avvanzat b'mod partikolari bl-iżviluppi ulterjuri tal-[[mikroskopju]] għall-analiżi tat-tessuti, bil-kontribut sinifikanti ta' [[Rudolf Virchow]], li wassal għal bosta żviluppi fir-riċerka. Sal-aħħar tas-snin 20 u l-bidu tas-snin 30 tas-seklu 20, il-patoloġija kienet meqjusa bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika.<ref>Rothstein, William G. (1979). "Pathology: The Evolution of a Specialty in American Medicine". ''Medical Care''. '''17''' (10): 975–988. doi:10.1097/00005650-197910000-00001. JSTOR 3763869. <nowiki>PMID 386008</nowiki>. S2CID 23045808.</ref> Flimkien mal-iżviluppi fil-fehim tal-fiżjoloġija ġenerali, sal-bidu tas-seklu 20, l-istudju tal-patoloġija beda jinqasam f'għadd ta' oqsma distinti, li wassal għall-iżvilupp ta' għadd kbir ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet moderni fi ħdan il-patoloġija u dixxiplini relatati tal-mediċina dijanjostika.<ref>Race, George J.; Tillery, G. Weldon; Dysert, Peter A. (Jannar 2004). "A history of pathology and laboratory medicine at Baylor University Medical Center". ''Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center)''. '''17''' (1): 42–55. doi:10.1080/08998280.2004.11927956. ISSN 0899-8280. PMC 1200640. <nowiki>PMID 16200088</nowiki>.</ref> == Patoloġija ġenerali == Il-prattika moderna tal-patoloġija hija maqsuma f'għadd ta' sottodixxiplini fi ħdan l-għanijiet distinti iżda ferm interkonnessi tar-riċerka bijoloġika u l-prattika medika. Ir-riċerka bijomedika dwar il-mard tinkorpora x-xogħol ta' varjetà vasta ta' speċjalisti tax-[[xjenza]] tal-[[ħajja]], billi, fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-partijiet tad-dinja, sabiex wieħed ikun liċenzjat biex jipprattika l-patoloġija bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika, wieħed irid ikun temm l-iskola medika u kiseb liċenzja biex jipprattika l-mediċina. Strutturalment, l-istudju tal-mard huwa maqsum f'bosta oqsma differenti li jistudjaw jew jiddijanjostikaw il-markaturi għall-mard bl-użu ta' metodi u teknoloġiċi partikolari għal tipi speċifiċi ta' skali, organi u tessuti. === Patoloġija anatomika === Il-patoloġija anatomika (fil-[[Commonwealth tan-Nazzjonijiet|Commonwealth]] jew fl-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]]) hija speċjalizzazzjoni medika li għandha x'taqsam mad-dijanjożi tal-mard abbażi tal-eżaminazzjoni grossa, mikroskopika, [[kimika]], immunoloġika u molekolari tal-organi, tat-tessuti u tal-iġsma sħaħ (bħal fl-eżaminazzjoni ġenerali jew fl-awtopsja). Il-patoloġija anatomika fiha nnifisha hija maqsuma f'sottooqsma, fosthom il-patoloġija kirurġika, iċ-ċitopatoloġija u l-patoloġija forensika. Il-patoloġija anatomika hija waħda miż-żewġ oqsma prinċipali tal-prattika medika tal-patoloġija, u l-oħra hija l-patoloġija klinika, id-dijanjożi tal-mard permezz tal-analiżi fil-laboratorju tal-fluwidi u tat-tessuti tal-ġisem. Xi kultant, il-patologi jipprattikaw kemm il-patoloġija anatomika kif ukoll dik klinika, kombinament magħruf bħala patoloġija ġenerali. ==== Ċitopatoloġija ==== Iċ-ċitopatoloġija (xi kultant magħrufa bħala ċ-"ċitoloġija") hija l-fergħa tal-patoloġija li tistudja u tiddijanjostika l-mard fuq il-livell ċellolari. Normalment tintuża biex tgħin fid-dijanjożi tal-kanċer, iżda tgħin ukoll fid-dijanjożi ta' ċertu mard infettiv u kundizzjonijiet infjammatorji oħra, kif ukoll leżjonijiet tat-tirojde, mard li jinvolvi l-kavitajiet sterili tal-ġisem (peritoneali, plewrali u ċerebrospinali), u firxa wiesgħa ta' siti oħra tal-ġisem. Iċ-ċitopatoloġija ġeneralment tintuża fuq kampanji ta' ċelloli liberi jew frammenti tat-tessuti (b'kuntrast mal-istopatoloġija, li tistudja t-tessuti sħaħ) u testijiet ċitopatoloġiċi li jistgħu jingħaddu fuq slide tal-[[ħġieġ]] tal-mikroskopju għal tebgħat u eżaminazzjoni mikroskopiku sussegwenti. Madankollu, il-kampjuni ċitoloġiċi jistgħu jitħejjew b'modi oħra, inkluż b'ċitoċentrifugazzjoni. ==== Dermatopatoloġija ==== Id-dermatopatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika li tiffoka fuq il-ġilda u l-bqija tas-sistema integumentarja bħala organu. Hija unika, peress li hemm żewġ modi kif tabib jista' jikseb speċjalizzazzjoni. Il-patologi ġenerali u d-dermatologi ġenerali kollha jitħarrġu fil-patoloġija tal-ġilda, għaldaqstant it-terminu dermatopatologu jirreferi għalihom it-tnejn skont ċertu livell ta' akkreditazzjoni u esperjenza; fl-Istati Uniti, patologu ġenerali jew dermatologu jistgħu jagħmlu apprendistat ta' sena sa sentejn fil-qasam tad-dermatopatoloġija. It-tlestija ta' dan l-apprendistat twassal għall-possibbiltà li wieħed jagħmel eżami quddiem bord ta' sottospeċjalizzazzjoni biex isir dermatopatologu ċċertifikat mill-bord. Id-dermatologi kapaċi jagħrfu l-biċċa l-kbira tal-mardiet tal-ġilda abbażi tad-dehra, id-distribuzzjonijiet anatomiċi u l-imġiba. Madankollu, xi kultant dawk il-kriterji ma jwasslux għal dijanjożi konklużiva, u ssir bijopsija tal-ġilda biex tiġi eżaminata taħt il-mikroskopju bl-użu ta' testijiet istoloġiċi tas-soltu. F'xi każijiet, ikun meħtieġ li jsir ittestjar speċjalizzat fuq il-bijopsiji, fosthom l-immunofluworexxenza, l-immunoistokimika, il-mikroskopija bl-elettroni, iċ-ċitometrija bil-fluss u l-analiżi patoloġika molekolari. Waħda mill-ikbar sfidi tad-dermatopatoloġija hija l-kobor tagħha. Jeżistu iktar minn 1,500 diżordni differenti tal-ġilda, inkluż raxx tal-ġilda u neoplażmi. Għaldaqstant, id-dermatopatologi jrid ikollhom bażi wiesgħa ta' għarfien fid-dermatoloġija klinika, u jkunu midħla ta' diversi oqsma oħra ta' speċjalizzazzjoni fil-mediċina. ==== Patoloġija forensika ==== Il-patoloġija forensika tiffoka fuq li tiġi ddeterminata l-kawża tal-[[mewt]] b'eżaminazzjoni ''post mortem'' tal-katavru jew ta' fdalijiet parzjali. Tipikament issir awtopsja minn eżaminatur mediku, spiss waqt l-investigazzjonijiet kriminali; f'dan ir-rwol, l-eżaminaturi mediċi sikwit jiġu mistoqsija jikkonfirmaw l-identità ta' katavru. Ir-rekwiżiti biex wieħed isir prattikant liċenzjat tal-patoloġija forensika jvarjaw minn pajjiż għal ieħor (u saħansitra fl-istess nazzjon xi kultant) iżda tipikament rekwiżit minimu huwa dottorat mediku bi speċjalizzazzjoni fil-patoloġija ġenerali jew anatomika bi studju sussegwenti fil-mediċina forensika. Il-metodi li jużaw ix-xjenzati forensiċi biex jiddeterminaw il-mewt jinkludu l-eżaminazzjoni tal-eżemplari tat-tessuti sabiex tiġi identifikata l-preżenza jew l-assenza ta' mard naturali u sejbiet mikroskopiċi oħra, l-interpretazzjonijiet tat-tossikoloġija fuq it-tessuti u l-fluwidi tal-ġisem biex tiġi ddeterminata l-kawża kimika ta' dożi eċċessivi, avvelenamenti jew każijiet oħra li jinvolvu aġenti tossiċi, u eżaminazzjonijiet ta' trawmi fiżiċi. Il-patoloġija forensika hija komponent ewlieni fil-qasam transdixxiplinari tax-xjenza forensika. ==== Istopatoloġija ==== L-istopatoloġija tirreferi għall-eżaminazzjoni mikroskopika ta' diversi forom ta' tessuti umani. B'mod speċifiku, fil-mediċina klinika, l-istopatoloġija tirreferi għall-eżaminazzjoni ta' bijopsija jew eżemplar kirurġiku minn patologu, wara li l-eżemplar ikun ġie pproċessat u s-sezzjonijiet istoloġiċi jkunu tpoġġew fuq slides tal-ħġieġ. Dan jikkuntrasta mal-metodi taċ-ċitopatoloġija, li tuża ċ-ċelloli liberi jew il-frammenti tat-tessuti. L-eżaminazzjoni istopatoloġika tat-tessuti tibda b'operazzjoni, b'bijopsija jew b'awtopsija. It-tessuti jitneħħew mill-ġisem ta' organiżmu u mbagħad jitpoġġew f'fissativ li jistabbilizza t-tessuti biex jiġi evitat id-deterjorament. L-iżjed fissativ komuni huwa l-formalin, għalkemm l-iffissar ta' sezzjoni ffriżata huwa komuni wkoll. Sabiex wieħed jara t-tessuti b'mikroskopju, is-sezzjonijiet jittebbgħu b'pigment wieħed jew iktar. L-għan ta' dan hu li jiġu żvelati l-komponenti ċellolari; il-kontrotebgħat jintużaw biex jipprovdu kuntrast. L-istokimika tirreferi għax-xjenza tal-użu tar-reazzjonijiet kimiċi bejn is-sustanzi kimiċi tal-laboratorju u l-komponenti fi ħdan it-tessuti. Is-slides istoloġiċi mbagħad jiġu interpretati b'mod dijanjostiku u r-rapport patoloġiku li jirriżulta jiddeskrivi s-sejbiet istoloġiċi u l-opinjoni tal-patologu. Fil-każ tal-kanċer, dan jirrappreżenta d-dijanjożi tat-tessuti meħtieġa għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-protokolli tat-trattamenti. ==== Newropatoloġija ==== In-newropatoloġija hija l-istudju tal-mard fit-tessuti tas-sistema nervuża, normalment fil-forma ta' bijopsiji kirurġiċi jew xi kultant imħuħ sħaħ fil-każ ta' awtopsija. In-newropatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika, tan-newroloġija u tan-newrokirurġija. F'bosta pajjiżi, in-newropatoloġija titqies bħala sottoqasam tal-patoloġija anatomika. Tabib li jispeċjalizza fin-newropatoloġija, normalment wara li jlesti apprendistat fil-patoloġija anatomika jew ġenerali, jissejjaħ newropatologu. Fil-prattika klinika ta' kuljum, newropatologu jiġġenera d-dijanjożi għall-pazjenti. Jekk ikun hemm suspett ta' mard fis-sistema nervuża, u d-dijanjożi ma tkunx tista' ssir b'metodi inqas invażivi, issir bijopsija tat-tessuti nervużi mill-moħħ jew jiġi estratt fluwidu ċerebrospinali mis-sinsla biex jgħin fid-dijanjożi. Bijopsija normalment tintalab wara li tinstab massa bl-immaġnijiet mediċi. Bl-awtopsji, ix-xogħol prinċipali tan-newropatologu hu li jgħin fid-dijanjożi ''post mortem'' ta' diversi kundizzjonijiet li jaffettwaw is-sistema nervuża ċentrali. Il-bijopsiji jistgħu jikkonsistu wkoll mill-ġilda. L-ittestjar tad-densità tal-fibri nervużi epidermali (ENFD) huwa test tan-newropatoloġija li ġie żviluppat iktar reċentement fejn issir bijopsija biex jiġu identifikati newropatiji tal-fibri nervużi żgħar bl-analiżi tal-fibri nervużi tal-ġilda. Dan it-test qed isir disponibbli f'għadd ta' laboratorji kif ukoll f'bosta universitajiet; jissostitwixxi t-test tal-bijopsija nervuża tradizzjonali peress li huwa inqas invażiv. ==== Patoloġija pulmonari ==== Il-patoloġija pulmonari hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika (u speċjalment kirurġika) li tittratta d-dijanjożi u l-karatterizzazzjoni tal-mard neoplastiku u mhux neoplastiku tal-[[Pulmun|pulmuni]] u tal-plewra toraċika. L-eżemplari dijanjostiċi spiss jinklisbu permezz ta' bijopsija transbronkjali bronkoskopika, bijopsija perkutanja ggwidata b'CT scan jew kirurġija toraċika assistita bil-filmati. Dawn it-testijiet jaf ikunu meħtieġa għal dijanjożi bejn infezzjoni, infjammazzjoni jew kundizzjonijiet fibrotiċi. ==== Patoloġija renali ==== Il-patoloġija renali hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika li tittratta d-dijanjożi u l-karatterizzazzjoni tal-mard tal-kliewi. F'ambjent mediku, il-patologi renali jaħdmu mill-qrib man-nefrologi u mal-kirurgi tat-trapjanti, li tipikament jiksbu eżemplari dijanjostiċi permezz ta' bijopsija renali perkutanja. Il-patologu renali jrid jissintetizza s-sejbiet mill-istoloġija mikroskopika tradizzjonali, mill-mikroskopija bl-elettroni u bl-immunofluworexxenza biex jikseb dijanjożi definittiva. Il-mard renali mediku jista' jaffettwa l-glomerulu, it-tubuli u l-interstizju, il-vażi jew taħlita ta' dawn il-kompartimenti. ==== Patoloġija kirurġika ==== Il-patoloġija kirurġika hija waħda mill-oqsma primarji tal-prattika tal-biċċa l-kbira tal-patologi anatomiċi. Il-patoloġija kirurġika tinvolvi l-eżaminazzjoni grossa u mikroskopika tal-eżemplari kirurġiċi, kif ukoll bijopsiji li jsiru minn kirurgi u persunal mhux kirurġiku bħal internisti ġenerali, sottospeċjalisti mediċi, dermatologi u radjologi intervenzjonali. Spiss il-qtugħ ta' kampjun ta' tessut huwa l-aqwa evidenza u l-iktar waħda definittiva ta' marda (jew ta' nuqqas tagħha) f'każijiet fejn it-tessuti jitneħħew b'mod kirurġiku minn pazjent. Dawn id-determinazzjonijiet normalment jitwettqu permezz ta' taħlita ta' eżaminazzjonijiet grossi (jiġifieri makroskopiċi) u istoloġiċi (jiġifieri mikroskopiċi) tat-tessuti, u jistgħu jinvolvu evalwazzjonijiet tal-proprjetajiet molekolari tat-tessuti bl-immunoistokimika jew b'testijiet oħra tal-laboratorju. Hemm żewġ tipi ewlenin ta' eżemplari li jitressqu għal analiżi tal-patoloġija kirurġika: il-bijopsiji u l-intersezzjoni kirurġika. Bijopsija hija t-tneħħija ta' biċċa żgħira ta' tessut primarjament għal analiżi tal-patoloġija kirurġika, spiss sabiex twassal għal dijanjożi definittiva. Fost it-tipi ta' bijopsiji hemm il-bijopsiji bil-labar, li jinkisbu bl-użu ta' labar kbar, xi kultant bil-gwida ta' tekniki radjoloġiċi bħall-ultrasound, CT scan, jew immaġnijiet ta' risonanza manjetika. Il-bijopsiji b'inċiżjoni jinkisbu permezz ta' proċeduri kirurġiċi dijanjostiċi fejn titneħħa parti minn leżjoni suspettuża, filwaqt li fil-bijopsiji bil-qtugħ titneħħa leżjoni sħiħa, u jkunu simili għal intersezzjonijiet kirurġiċi terapewtiċi. Il-bijopsiji intersezzjonali tal-leżjonijiet tal-ġilda u tal-polipi gastrointestinali huma komuni ħafna. L-interpretazzjoni tal-patologu rigward bijopsija hija kritika biex tiġi stabbilita dijanjożi ta' tumur benevoli jew malinn, u tista' tiddistingwi bejn it-tipi u l-livelli differenti ta' kanċer, kif ukoll tiddetermina l-attività ta' mogħdijiet molekolari speċifiċi fit-tumur. L-eżemplari tal-intersezzjonijiet kirurġiċi jinkisbu bit-tneħħija kirurġika terapewtika ta' żona marida sħiħa jew organu sħiħ (u okkażjonalment ta' diversi organi). Dawn il-proċeduri spiss huma maħsuba bħala trattament kirurġiku definittiv ta' marda fejn id-dijanjożi tkun ġa magħrufa jew suspettata sew, iżda l-analiżi patoloġika ta' dawn l-eżemplari tibqa' importanti biex tiġi kkonfermata d-dijanjożi preċedenti. === Patoloġija klinika === Il-patoloġija klinika hija speċjalizzazzjoni medika marbuta mad-dijanjożi tal-mard abbażi tal-analiżi fil-laboratorju tal-fluwidi tal-ġisem bħad-[[demm]] u l-awrina, kif ukoll tat-tessuti, bl-użu tal-għodda tal-kimika, tal-mikrobijoloġija klinika, tal-ematoloġija u tal-patoloġija molekolari. Il-patologi kliniċi jaħdmu b'kollaborazzjoni mill-qrib mat-teknoloġisti mediċi, mal-amministrazzjonijiet tal-isptarijiet u mat-tobba speċjalizzati. Il-patologi kliniċi jitgħallmu jagħmlu għadd ta' testijiet viżivi u mikroskopiċi, kif ukoll għadd tassew kbir ta' testijiet tal-proprjetajiet bijofiżiċi tal-kampjuni tat-tessuti li jinvolvu l-analizzaturi u l-kulturi awtomatizzati. Xi kultant jintuża t-terminu "speċjalist mediku tal-laboratorju" biex jirreferi għal min jaħdem fil-patoloġija klinika, fosthom it-tobba mediċi, l-ispeċjalisti bid-dottorati u dawk b'dottorati fil-farmakoloġija. L-immunopatoloġija, l-istudju tar-rispons immunoloġiku ta' organiżmu għal infezzjoni, xi kultant titqies li tagħmel parti mid-dominju tal-patoloġija klinika. ==== Ematopatoloġija ==== Hematopathology is the study of diseases of blood cells (including constituents such as white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets) and the tissues, and organs comprising the hematopoietic system. The term hematopoietic system refers to tissues and organs that produce and/or primarily host hematopoietic cells and includes bone marrow, the lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, and other lymphoid tissues. In the United States, hematopathology is a board certified subspecialty (licensed under the American Board of Pathology) practiced by those physicians who have completed a general pathology residency (anatomic, clinical, or combined) and an additional year of fellowship training in hematology. The hematopathologist reviews biopsies of lymph nodes, bone marrows and other tissues involved by an infiltrate of cells of the hematopoietic system. In addition, the hematopathologist may be in charge of flow cytometric and/or molecular hematopathology studies. === Patoloġija molekolari === Molecular pathology is focused upon the study and diagnosis of disease through the examination of molecules within organs, tissues or bodily fluids. Molecular pathology is multidisciplinary by nature and shares some aspects of practice with both anatomic pathology and clinical pathology, molecular biology, biochemistry, proteomics and genetics. It is often applied in a context that is as much scientific as directly medical and encompasses the development of molecular and genetic approaches to the diagnosis and classification of human diseases, the design and validation of predictive biomarkers for treatment response and disease progression, and the susceptibility of individuals of different genetic constitution to particular disorders. The crossover between molecular pathology and epidemiology is represented by a related field "molecular pathological epidemiology". Molecular pathology is commonly used in diagnosis of cancer and infectious diseases. Molecular Pathology is primarily used to detect cancers such as melanoma, brainstem glioma, brain tumors as well as many other types of cancer and infectious diseases. Techniques are numerous but include quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), multiplex PCR, DNA microarray, in situ hybridization, DNA sequencing, antibody-based immunofluorescence tissue assays, molecular profiling of pathogens, and analysis of bacterial genes for antimicrobial resistance. Techniques used are based on analyzing samples of DNA and RNA. Pathology is widely used for gene therapy and disease diagnosis. === Patoloġija orali u maksillofaċċali === Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology is one of nine dental specialties recognized by the American Dental Association, and is sometimes considered a specialty of both dentistry and pathology. Oral Pathologists must complete three years of post doctoral training in an accredited program and subsequently obtain diplomate status from the American Board of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology. The specialty focuses on the diagnosis, clinical management and investigation of diseases that affect the oral cavity and surrounding maxillofacial structures including but not limited to odontogenic, infectious, epithelial, salivary gland, bone and soft tissue pathologies. It also significantly intersects with the field of dental pathology. Although concerned with a broad variety of diseases of the oral cavity, they have roles distinct from otorhinolaryngologists ("ear, nose, and throat" specialists), and speech pathologists, the latter of which helps diagnose many neurological or neuromuscular conditions relevant to speech phonology or swallowing. Owing to the availability of the oral cavity to non-invasive examination, many conditions in the study of oral disease can be diagnosed, or at least suspected, from gross examination, but biopsies, cell smears, and other tissue analysis remain important diagnostic tools in oral pathology. == Taħriġ mediku u akkreditazzjoni == Becoming a pathologist generally requires specialty-training after medical school, but individual nations vary somewhat in the medical licensing required of pathologists. In the United States, pathologists are physicians (D.O. or M.D.) who have completed a four-year undergraduate program, four years of medical school training, and three to four years of postgraduate training in the form of a pathology residency. Training may be within two primary specialties, as recognized by the American Board of Pathology: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology, each of which requires separate board certification. The American Osteopathic Board of Pathology also recognizes four primary specialties: anatomic pathology, dermatopathology, forensic pathology, and laboratory medicine. Pathologists may pursue specialised fellowship training within one or more subspecialties of either anatomical or clinical pathology. Some of these subspecialties permit additional board certification, while others do not. In the United Kingdom, pathologists are physicians licensed by the UK General Medical Council. The training to become a pathologist is overseen by the Royal College of Pathologists. After four to six years of undergraduate medical study, trainees proceed to a two-year foundation program. Full-time training in histopathology currently lasts between five and five and a half years, encompassing specialist training in surgical pathology, cytopathology, and autopsy pathology. It is also possible to take a Royal College of Pathologists diploma in forensic pathology, dermatopathology, or cytopathology, recognising additional specialist training and expertise, and to get specialist accreditation in forensic pathology, pediatric pathology, and neuropathology. The General Medical Council oversees all postgraduate medical training and education in the UK. In France, pathology is separated into two distinct specialties: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology. Residencies for both lasts four years. Residency in anatomical pathology is open to physicians only, while clinical pathology is open to both physicians and pharmacists. At the end of the second year of clinical pathology residency, residents can choose between general clinical pathology and a specialization in one of the disciplines, but they can not practice anatomical pathology, nor can anatomical pathology residents practice clinical pathology. == Trikkib ma' mediċina dijanjostika oħra == Though separate fields in terms of medical practice, a number of areas of inquiry in medicine and medical science either overlap greatly with general pathology, work in tandem with it, or contribute significantly to the understanding of the pathology of a given disease or its course in an individual. As a significant portion of all general pathology practice is concerned with cancer, the practice of oncology makes extensive use of both anatomical and clinical pathology in diagnosis and treatment. In particular, biopsy, resection, and blood tests are all examples of pathology work that is essential for the diagnoses of many kinds of cancer and for the staging of cancerous masses. In a similar fashion, the tissue and blood analysis techniques of general pathology are of central significance to the investigation of serious infectious disease and as such inform significantly upon the fields of epidemiology, etiology, immunology, and parasitology. General pathology methods are of great importance to biomedical research into disease, wherein they are sometimes referred to as "experimental" or "investigative" pathology.^{[''citation needed'']} Medical imaging is the generating of visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Medical imaging reveals details of internal physiology that help medical professionals plan appropriate treatments for tissue infection and trauma. Medical imaging is also central in supplying the biometric data necessary to establish baseline features of anatomy and physiology so as to increase the accuracy with which early or fine-detail abnormalities are detected. These diagnostic techniques are often performed in combination with general pathology procedures and are themselves often essential to developing new understanding of the pathogenesis of a given disease and tracking the progress of disease in specific medical cases. Examples of important subdivisions in medical imaging include radiology (which uses the imaging technologies of X-ray radiography) magnetic resonance imaging, medical ultrasonography (or ultrasound), endoscopy, elastography, tactile imaging, thermography, medical photography, nuclear medicine and functional imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography. Though they do not strictly relay images, readings from diagnostics tests involving electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, and electrocardiography often give hints as to the state and function of certain tissues in the brain and heart respectively. == Informatika fil-patoloġija == Pathology informatics is a subfield of health informatics. It is the use of information technology in pathology. It encompasses pathology laboratory operations, data analysis, and the interpretation of pathology-related information. Key aspects of pathology informatics include: * Laboratory information management systems (LIMS): Implementing and managing computer systems specifically designed for pathology departments. These systems help in tracking and managing patient specimens, results, and other pathology data. * Digital pathology: Involves the use of digital technology to create, manage, and analyze pathology images. This includes side scanning and automated image analysis. * Telepathology: Using technology to enable remote pathology consultation and collaboration. * Quality assurance and reporting: Implementing informatics solutions to ensure the quality and accuracy of pathology processes. == Psikopatoloġija == Psychopathology is the study of mental illness, particularly of severe disorders. Informed heavily by both psychology and neurology, its purpose is to classify mental illness, elucidate its underlying causes, and guide clinical psychiatric treatment accordingly. Although diagnosis and classification of mental norms and disorders is largely the purview of psychiatry—the results of which are guidelines such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which attempt to classify mental disease mostly on behavioural evidence, though not without controversy—the field is also heavily, and increasingly, informed upon by neuroscience and other of the biological cognitive sciences. Mental or social disorders or behaviours seen as generally unhealthy or excessive in a given individual, to the point where they cause harm or severe disruption to the person's lifestyle, are often called "pathological" (e.g., pathological gambling or pathological liar). == Mhux umani == Although the vast majority of lab work and research in pathology concerns the development of disease in humans, pathology is of significance throughout the biological sciences. Two main catch-all fields exist to represent most complex organisms capable of serving as host to a pathogen or other form of disease: veterinary pathology (concerned with all non-human species of kingdom of Animalia) and phytopathology, which studies disease in plants. === Patoloġija veterinarja === Veterinary pathology covers a vast array of species, but with a significantly smaller number of practitioners, so understanding of disease in non-human animals, especially as regards veterinary practice, varies considerably by species. Nevertheless, significant amounts of pathology research are conducted on animals, for two primary reasons: 1) The origins of diseases are typically zoonotic in nature, and many infectious pathogens have animal vectors and, as such, understanding the mechanisms of action for these pathogens in non-human hosts is essential to the understanding and application of epidemiology and 2) those animals that share physiological and genetic traits with humans can be used as surrogates for the study of the disease and potential treatments as well as the effects of various synthetic products. For this reason, as well as their roles as livestock and companion animals, mammals generally have the largest body of research in veterinary pathology. Animal testing remains a controversial practice, even in cases where it is used to research treatment for human disease. As in human medical pathology, the practice of veterinary pathology is customarily divided into the two main fields of anatomical and clinical pathology. === Patoloġija tal-pjanti === Although the pathogens and their mechanics differ greatly from those of animals, plants are subject to a wide variety of diseases, including those caused by fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants. Damage caused by insects, mites, vertebrate, and other small herbivores is not considered a part of the domain of plant pathology. The field is connected to plant disease epidemiology and especially concerned with the horticulture of species that are of high importance to the human diet or other human utility. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Mediċina]] [[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]] s47sx0bmjux3b26i9zum9m9mvg16h4g 329974 329973 2026-05-14T18:50:51Z Trigcly 17859 /* Patoloġija tal-pjanti */ 329974 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Pathologists looking into microscopes (1).jpg|daqsminuri|Patologu jeżamina sezzjoni ta' tessuti għal evidenza ta' ċelloli kanċerużi waqt li [[kirurgu]] qed josserva.]] Il-'''patoloġija''' hija l-istudju tal-[[mard]]. Il-[[kelma]] ''patoloġija'' tirreferi wkoll għall-istudju tal-mard inġenerali, u tinkorpora firxa wiesgħa ta' oqsma tar-riċerka [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġika]] u ta' prattiċi [[Mediċina|mediċi]]. Madankollu, meta jintuża fil-kuntest tat-trattament mediku modern, it-terminu spiss jintuża b'mod idjaq biex jirreferi għall-proċessi u għat-testijiet marbuta mal-qasam mediku kontemporanju tal-"patoloġija ġenerali", qasam li jinkludi għadd ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet mediċi distinti iżda interrelatati li jiddijanjostikaw il-mard, l-iktar permezz tal-analiżi tal-kampjuni tat-tessuti u taċ-ċelloli [[Bniedem|umani]]. Il-patoloġija huwa qasam sinifikanti fid-dijanjożi medika moderna u fir-riċerka medika. [[Tabib]] li jipprattika l-patoloġija jissejjaħ patologu.<ref>Herausgeber., Cross, Simon S., Herausgeber. Underwood, James C. E. 1942- (30 April 2018). ''Underwood's pathology : a clinical approach''. Elsevier – Health Sciences Division. ISBN <bdi>978-0-7020-7212-3</bdi>. OCLC 1043350646.</ref> Bħala qasam tal-inkjesti u tar-riċerka ġenerali, il-patoloġija tindirizza l-komponenti tal-mard: il-kawża, il-mekkaniżmi tal-iżvilupp (patoġenesi), l-alterazzjonijiet strutturali taċ-ċelloli (bidliet morfoloġiċi), u l-konsegwenzi tal-bidliet (manifestazzjonijiet kliniċi).<ref>Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; Aster, Jon C. (2010). ''Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease'' (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN <bdi>978-1-4160-3121-5</bdi>.</ref> Fil-prattika medika komuni, il-patoloġija ġenerali tittratta l-iktar l-analiżi tal-abnormalitajiet kliniċi magħrufa li huma markaturi jew prekursuri kemm tal-mard infettiv kif ukoll tal-mard mhux infettiv, u ssir minn esperti f'waħda miż-żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet ewlenin, il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://freida.ama-assn.org/|titlu=FREIDA™ Pathology-Anatomic and Clinical Specialty Details|sit=FREIDA Residency Program Database {{!}} Medical Fellowship Database {{!}} AMA|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> Diviżjonijiet ulterjuri fl-ispeċjalizzazzjonijiet jeżistu abbażi tat-tipi tal-kampjuni involuti bħal fiċ-ċitopatoloġija, fl-ematopatoloġija u fl-istopatoloġija), tal-organi (bħal fil-patoloġija renali) u tas-sistemi fiżjoloġiċi (il-patoloġija orali), kif ukoll abbażi tal-enfasi tal-eżaminazzjoni (bħal fil-patoloġija forensika). Idjomatikament, "patoloġija" jaf tirreferi wkoll għall-progressjoni prevista jew effettiva ta' mard partikolari (bħal fl-istqarrija "il-forom differenti tal-[[kanċer]] ikollhom diversità ta' patoloġiji", fejn kelma iktar preċiża jaf tkun "patofiżjoloġiji"). Is-suffiss ''-patija'' xi kultant jintuża biex jiġi indikat stat tal-mard f'każijiet ta' mard fiżiku (bħal fil-kardjomijopatija) u ta' kundizzjonijiet psikoloġiċi (bħal fil-psikopatija).<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/138811|titlu=-pathy, comb. form : Oxford English Dictionary|sit=oed.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> == [[Etimoloġija]] == It-terminu [[Lingwa Latina|Latin]] ''pathologia'' oriġina mill-għerq [[Lingwa Griega antika|Grieg Antik]] ''pathos'' (πάθος), li tfisser "esperjenza" jew "tbatija", u ''-logia'' (-λογία), li tfisser "studju ta'". It-terminu għandu oriġini li tmur lura għall-bidu tas-seklu 16, u kulma jmur sar iktar popolarizzat wara s-snin 30 tas-seklu 16.<ref>Janssen, Diederik F. (April 2022). "From Pathognomicha and Passiologia to Pathologia: concise history of a neologism (1486-1598)". ''Pathologica''. '''114''' (2) 10: 185–188. doi:10.32074/1591-951X-261. ISSN 1591-951X. PMC 9248257. <nowiki>PMID 35481571</nowiki>.</ref> == [[Storja]] == L-istudju tal-patoloġija, inkluż l-eżaminazzjoni dettaljata tal-ġisem, id-dissezzjoni u l-inkjesti rigward mard speċifiku, imur lura għal żmien il-qedem. Il-fehim rudimentali ta' bosta kundizzjonijiet kien preżenti fil-biċċa l-kbira tas-soċjetajiet bikrin u ġie rreġistrat fir-rekords tal-iżjed soċjetajiet storiċi bikrin, fosthom dawk tal-Lvant Nofsani, tal-[[Indja]] u taċ-[[Ċina]].<ref>Long, Esmond (1965). ''History of Pathology''. New York: Dover. pp. 1+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-486-61342-0</bdi>.</ref> Sal-perjodu Elleniku tal-[[Greċja antika|Greċja Antika]], sar studju kawżali maqbul tal-mard, u bosta tobba notevoli bikrin (bħal [[Ippokrate]], li għalih jissemma l-ġurament Ippokratiku modern) żviluppaw metodi ta' dijanjożi u ta' pronjożi għal għadd ta' mardiet. Il-prattiċi mediċi tar-[[Imperu Ruman|Rumani]] u dawk tal-[[Biżantini]] komplew minn dawn l-għeruq [[Greċja|Griegi]], iżda bħal f'bosta oqsma tal-inkjesti [[Xjenza|xjentifiċi]], it-tkabbir fil-fehim tal-mediċina staġna kemxejn wara l-Era Klassika, iżda baqa' jiżviluppa bil-mod fost bosta [[Kultura|kulturi]]. B'mod partikolari, saru bosta avvanzi fl-era [[Medjuevu|Medjevali]] tal-[[Iżlam]], u matul dan iż-żmien ġew żviluppati bosta testi ta' patoloġiji kumplessi, ibbażati wkoll fuq it-tradizzjoni Griega. Minkejja dan, it-tkabbir fil-fehim kumpless tal-mard fil-biċċa l-kbira waqaf sa ma l-għarfien u l-isperimentazzjoni reġgħu bdew jiżdiedu fir-[[Rinaxximent]], fl-[[Illuminiżmu]] u fil-[[Barokk]], wara li reġa' feġġ il-metodu empiriku f'ċentri ġodda tal-istudju. Sas-[[seklu 17]], l-istudju tal-mikroskopija rudimentali u l-eżaminazzjoni tat-tessuti wasslu biex il-membru tas-Soċjetà Rjali [[Renju Unit|Brittanika]] [[Robert Hooke]] joħroġ bil-kelma "ċellola", u b'hekk witta t-triq għat-teorija suċċessiva tal-ġermi. Il-patoloġija moderna bdiet tiżviluppa bħala qasam distint ta' stħarriġ matul is-seklu 19 permezz tal-filosfi naturali u tat-tobba li studjaw il-mard u l-istudju informali tal-hekk imsejħa "[[anatomija]] patoloġika" jew "anatomija tal-mard". Madankollu, il-patoloġija bħala qasam formali speċjalizzat ma ġietx żviluppata għalkollox qabel l-aħħar tas-seklu 19 u l-bidu tas-seklu 20, bil-wasla tal-istudju dettaljat tal-mikrobijoloġija. Fis-seklu 19, it-tobba bdew jifhmu li jeżistu l-patoġeni li jikkawżaw il-mard, jew il-"ġermi" (terminu kumplessiv għall-mikrobi "patoġeniċi" jew li jikkawżaw il-mard, bħall-batterji, [[Virus|viruses]], fungi, amibi, mofof, protisti u prijoni) u li kienu kapaċi jirriproduċu u jimmultiplikaw. Dan il-fehim ħa post it-twemmin iktar bikri fl-umuri jew saħansitra fl-aġenti spiritwali, li kien iddomina fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-1,500 sena ta' qabel fil-mediċina Ewropea. Bil-fehim il-ġdid tal-aġenti kawżattivi, it-tobba bdew iqabblu l-karatteristiċi tas-sintomi tal-ġermi skont kif żviluppaw f'xi individwu affettwat u mqabbla mal-karatteristiċi u tal-ġermi u s-sintomi. Dan l-approċċ wassal għall-fehim fundamentali li l-mard kapaċi jirreplika ruħu, u li jista' jkollu bosta effetti profondi u varjati fuq l-ospitant uman. Sabiex jiġu ddeterminati l-kawżi tal-mardiet, l-esperti mediċi wżaw l-iżjed suppożizzjonijiet jew sintomi komuni u aċċettati b'mod wiesa' ta' żminijiethom, li huwa prinċipju ġenerali tal-approċċ li għadu jippersisti fil-mediċina moderna.<ref>King, Lester (1991). ''Transformations in American Medicine: From Benjamin Rush to William Osler''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP. pp. 27+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-8018-4057-9</bdi>.</ref><ref>Machevsky, Alberto; Wick, MR (2004). "Evidence-based Medicine, Medical Decision Analysis, and Pathology". ''Human Pathology''. '''35''' (10): 1179–88. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2004.06.004. <nowiki>PMID 15492984</nowiki>.</ref> Il-mediċina moderna avvanzat b'mod partikolari bl-iżviluppi ulterjuri tal-[[mikroskopju]] għall-analiżi tat-tessuti, bil-kontribut sinifikanti ta' [[Rudolf Virchow]], li wassal għal bosta żviluppi fir-riċerka. Sal-aħħar tas-snin 20 u l-bidu tas-snin 30 tas-seklu 20, il-patoloġija kienet meqjusa bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika.<ref>Rothstein, William G. (1979). "Pathology: The Evolution of a Specialty in American Medicine". ''Medical Care''. '''17''' (10): 975–988. doi:10.1097/00005650-197910000-00001. JSTOR 3763869. <nowiki>PMID 386008</nowiki>. S2CID 23045808.</ref> Flimkien mal-iżviluppi fil-fehim tal-fiżjoloġija ġenerali, sal-bidu tas-seklu 20, l-istudju tal-patoloġija beda jinqasam f'għadd ta' oqsma distinti, li wassal għall-iżvilupp ta' għadd kbir ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet moderni fi ħdan il-patoloġija u dixxiplini relatati tal-mediċina dijanjostika.<ref>Race, George J.; Tillery, G. Weldon; Dysert, Peter A. (Jannar 2004). "A history of pathology and laboratory medicine at Baylor University Medical Center". ''Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center)''. '''17''' (1): 42–55. doi:10.1080/08998280.2004.11927956. ISSN 0899-8280. PMC 1200640. <nowiki>PMID 16200088</nowiki>.</ref> == Patoloġija ġenerali == Il-prattika moderna tal-patoloġija hija maqsuma f'għadd ta' sottodixxiplini fi ħdan l-għanijiet distinti iżda ferm interkonnessi tar-riċerka bijoloġika u l-prattika medika. Ir-riċerka bijomedika dwar il-mard tinkorpora x-xogħol ta' varjetà vasta ta' speċjalisti tax-[[xjenza]] tal-[[ħajja]], billi, fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-partijiet tad-dinja, sabiex wieħed ikun liċenzjat biex jipprattika l-patoloġija bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika, wieħed irid ikun temm l-iskola medika u kiseb liċenzja biex jipprattika l-mediċina. Strutturalment, l-istudju tal-mard huwa maqsum f'bosta oqsma differenti li jistudjaw jew jiddijanjostikaw il-markaturi għall-mard bl-użu ta' metodi u teknoloġiċi partikolari għal tipi speċifiċi ta' skali, organi u tessuti. === Patoloġija anatomika === Il-patoloġija anatomika (fil-[[Commonwealth tan-Nazzjonijiet|Commonwealth]] jew fl-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]]) hija speċjalizzazzjoni medika li għandha x'taqsam mad-dijanjożi tal-mard abbażi tal-eżaminazzjoni grossa, mikroskopika, [[kimika]], immunoloġika u molekolari tal-organi, tat-tessuti u tal-iġsma sħaħ (bħal fl-eżaminazzjoni ġenerali jew fl-awtopsja). Il-patoloġija anatomika fiha nnifisha hija maqsuma f'sottooqsma, fosthom il-patoloġija kirurġika, iċ-ċitopatoloġija u l-patoloġija forensika. Il-patoloġija anatomika hija waħda miż-żewġ oqsma prinċipali tal-prattika medika tal-patoloġija, u l-oħra hija l-patoloġija klinika, id-dijanjożi tal-mard permezz tal-analiżi fil-laboratorju tal-fluwidi u tat-tessuti tal-ġisem. Xi kultant, il-patologi jipprattikaw kemm il-patoloġija anatomika kif ukoll dik klinika, kombinament magħruf bħala patoloġija ġenerali. ==== Ċitopatoloġija ==== Iċ-ċitopatoloġija (xi kultant magħrufa bħala ċ-"ċitoloġija") hija l-fergħa tal-patoloġija li tistudja u tiddijanjostika l-mard fuq il-livell ċellolari. Normalment tintuża biex tgħin fid-dijanjożi tal-kanċer, iżda tgħin ukoll fid-dijanjożi ta' ċertu mard infettiv u kundizzjonijiet infjammatorji oħra, kif ukoll leżjonijiet tat-tirojde, mard li jinvolvi l-kavitajiet sterili tal-ġisem (peritoneali, plewrali u ċerebrospinali), u firxa wiesgħa ta' siti oħra tal-ġisem. Iċ-ċitopatoloġija ġeneralment tintuża fuq kampanji ta' ċelloli liberi jew frammenti tat-tessuti (b'kuntrast mal-istopatoloġija, li tistudja t-tessuti sħaħ) u testijiet ċitopatoloġiċi li jistgħu jingħaddu fuq slide tal-[[ħġieġ]] tal-mikroskopju għal tebgħat u eżaminazzjoni mikroskopiku sussegwenti. Madankollu, il-kampjuni ċitoloġiċi jistgħu jitħejjew b'modi oħra, inkluż b'ċitoċentrifugazzjoni. ==== Dermatopatoloġija ==== Id-dermatopatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika li tiffoka fuq il-ġilda u l-bqija tas-sistema integumentarja bħala organu. Hija unika, peress li hemm żewġ modi kif tabib jista' jikseb speċjalizzazzjoni. Il-patologi ġenerali u d-dermatologi ġenerali kollha jitħarrġu fil-patoloġija tal-ġilda, għaldaqstant it-terminu dermatopatologu jirreferi għalihom it-tnejn skont ċertu livell ta' akkreditazzjoni u esperjenza; fl-Istati Uniti, patologu ġenerali jew dermatologu jistgħu jagħmlu apprendistat ta' sena sa sentejn fil-qasam tad-dermatopatoloġija. It-tlestija ta' dan l-apprendistat twassal għall-possibbiltà li wieħed jagħmel eżami quddiem bord ta' sottospeċjalizzazzjoni biex isir dermatopatologu ċċertifikat mill-bord. Id-dermatologi kapaċi jagħrfu l-biċċa l-kbira tal-mardiet tal-ġilda abbażi tad-dehra, id-distribuzzjonijiet anatomiċi u l-imġiba. Madankollu, xi kultant dawk il-kriterji ma jwasslux għal dijanjożi konklużiva, u ssir bijopsija tal-ġilda biex tiġi eżaminata taħt il-mikroskopju bl-użu ta' testijiet istoloġiċi tas-soltu. F'xi każijiet, ikun meħtieġ li jsir ittestjar speċjalizzat fuq il-bijopsiji, fosthom l-immunofluworexxenza, l-immunoistokimika, il-mikroskopija bl-elettroni, iċ-ċitometrija bil-fluss u l-analiżi patoloġika molekolari. Waħda mill-ikbar sfidi tad-dermatopatoloġija hija l-kobor tagħha. Jeżistu iktar minn 1,500 diżordni differenti tal-ġilda, inkluż raxx tal-ġilda u neoplażmi. Għaldaqstant, id-dermatopatologi jrid ikollhom bażi wiesgħa ta' għarfien fid-dermatoloġija klinika, u jkunu midħla ta' diversi oqsma oħra ta' speċjalizzazzjoni fil-mediċina. ==== Patoloġija forensika ==== Il-patoloġija forensika tiffoka fuq li tiġi ddeterminata l-kawża tal-[[mewt]] b'eżaminazzjoni ''post mortem'' tal-katavru jew ta' fdalijiet parzjali. Tipikament issir awtopsja minn eżaminatur mediku, spiss waqt l-investigazzjonijiet kriminali; f'dan ir-rwol, l-eżaminaturi mediċi sikwit jiġu mistoqsija jikkonfirmaw l-identità ta' katavru. Ir-rekwiżiti biex wieħed isir prattikant liċenzjat tal-patoloġija forensika jvarjaw minn pajjiż għal ieħor (u saħansitra fl-istess nazzjon xi kultant) iżda tipikament rekwiżit minimu huwa dottorat mediku bi speċjalizzazzjoni fil-patoloġija ġenerali jew anatomika bi studju sussegwenti fil-mediċina forensika. Il-metodi li jużaw ix-xjenzati forensiċi biex jiddeterminaw il-mewt jinkludu l-eżaminazzjoni tal-eżemplari tat-tessuti sabiex tiġi identifikata l-preżenza jew l-assenza ta' mard naturali u sejbiet mikroskopiċi oħra, l-interpretazzjonijiet tat-tossikoloġija fuq it-tessuti u l-fluwidi tal-ġisem biex tiġi ddeterminata l-kawża kimika ta' dożi eċċessivi, avvelenamenti jew każijiet oħra li jinvolvu aġenti tossiċi, u eżaminazzjonijiet ta' trawmi fiżiċi. Il-patoloġija forensika hija komponent ewlieni fil-qasam transdixxiplinari tax-xjenza forensika. ==== Istopatoloġija ==== L-istopatoloġija tirreferi għall-eżaminazzjoni mikroskopika ta' diversi forom ta' tessuti umani. B'mod speċifiku, fil-mediċina klinika, l-istopatoloġija tirreferi għall-eżaminazzjoni ta' bijopsija jew eżemplar kirurġiku minn patologu, wara li l-eżemplar ikun ġie pproċessat u s-sezzjonijiet istoloġiċi jkunu tpoġġew fuq slides tal-ħġieġ. Dan jikkuntrasta mal-metodi taċ-ċitopatoloġija, li tuża ċ-ċelloli liberi jew il-frammenti tat-tessuti. L-eżaminazzjoni istopatoloġika tat-tessuti tibda b'operazzjoni, b'bijopsija jew b'awtopsija. It-tessuti jitneħħew mill-ġisem ta' organiżmu u mbagħad jitpoġġew f'fissativ li jistabbilizza t-tessuti biex jiġi evitat id-deterjorament. L-iżjed fissativ komuni huwa l-formalin, għalkemm l-iffissar ta' sezzjoni ffriżata huwa komuni wkoll. Sabiex wieħed jara t-tessuti b'mikroskopju, is-sezzjonijiet jittebbgħu b'pigment wieħed jew iktar. L-għan ta' dan hu li jiġu żvelati l-komponenti ċellolari; il-kontrotebgħat jintużaw biex jipprovdu kuntrast. L-istokimika tirreferi għax-xjenza tal-użu tar-reazzjonijiet kimiċi bejn is-sustanzi kimiċi tal-laboratorju u l-komponenti fi ħdan it-tessuti. Is-slides istoloġiċi mbagħad jiġu interpretati b'mod dijanjostiku u r-rapport patoloġiku li jirriżulta jiddeskrivi s-sejbiet istoloġiċi u l-opinjoni tal-patologu. Fil-każ tal-kanċer, dan jirrappreżenta d-dijanjożi tat-tessuti meħtieġa għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-protokolli tat-trattamenti. ==== Newropatoloġija ==== In-newropatoloġija hija l-istudju tal-mard fit-tessuti tas-sistema nervuża, normalment fil-forma ta' bijopsiji kirurġiċi jew xi kultant imħuħ sħaħ fil-każ ta' awtopsija. In-newropatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika, tan-newroloġija u tan-newrokirurġija. F'bosta pajjiżi, in-newropatoloġija titqies bħala sottoqasam tal-patoloġija anatomika. Tabib li jispeċjalizza fin-newropatoloġija, normalment wara li jlesti apprendistat fil-patoloġija anatomika jew ġenerali, jissejjaħ newropatologu. Fil-prattika klinika ta' kuljum, newropatologu jiġġenera d-dijanjożi għall-pazjenti. Jekk ikun hemm suspett ta' mard fis-sistema nervuża, u d-dijanjożi ma tkunx tista' ssir b'metodi inqas invażivi, issir bijopsija tat-tessuti nervużi mill-moħħ jew jiġi estratt fluwidu ċerebrospinali mis-sinsla biex jgħin fid-dijanjożi. Bijopsija normalment tintalab wara li tinstab massa bl-immaġnijiet mediċi. Bl-awtopsji, ix-xogħol prinċipali tan-newropatologu hu li jgħin fid-dijanjożi ''post mortem'' ta' diversi kundizzjonijiet li jaffettwaw is-sistema nervuża ċentrali. Il-bijopsiji jistgħu jikkonsistu wkoll mill-ġilda. L-ittestjar tad-densità tal-fibri nervużi epidermali (ENFD) huwa test tan-newropatoloġija li ġie żviluppat iktar reċentement fejn issir bijopsija biex jiġu identifikati newropatiji tal-fibri nervużi żgħar bl-analiżi tal-fibri nervużi tal-ġilda. Dan it-test qed isir disponibbli f'għadd ta' laboratorji kif ukoll f'bosta universitajiet; jissostitwixxi t-test tal-bijopsija nervuża tradizzjonali peress li huwa inqas invażiv. ==== Patoloġija pulmonari ==== Il-patoloġija pulmonari hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika (u speċjalment kirurġika) li tittratta d-dijanjożi u l-karatterizzazzjoni tal-mard neoplastiku u mhux neoplastiku tal-[[Pulmun|pulmuni]] u tal-plewra toraċika. L-eżemplari dijanjostiċi spiss jinklisbu permezz ta' bijopsija transbronkjali bronkoskopika, bijopsija perkutanja ggwidata b'CT scan jew kirurġija toraċika assistita bil-filmati. Dawn it-testijiet jaf ikunu meħtieġa għal dijanjożi bejn infezzjoni, infjammazzjoni jew kundizzjonijiet fibrotiċi. ==== Patoloġija renali ==== Il-patoloġija renali hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika li tittratta d-dijanjożi u l-karatterizzazzjoni tal-mard tal-kliewi. F'ambjent mediku, il-patologi renali jaħdmu mill-qrib man-nefrologi u mal-kirurgi tat-trapjanti, li tipikament jiksbu eżemplari dijanjostiċi permezz ta' bijopsija renali perkutanja. Il-patologu renali jrid jissintetizza s-sejbiet mill-istoloġija mikroskopika tradizzjonali, mill-mikroskopija bl-elettroni u bl-immunofluworexxenza biex jikseb dijanjożi definittiva. Il-mard renali mediku jista' jaffettwa l-glomerulu, it-tubuli u l-interstizju, il-vażi jew taħlita ta' dawn il-kompartimenti. ==== Patoloġija kirurġika ==== Il-patoloġija kirurġika hija waħda mill-oqsma primarji tal-prattika tal-biċċa l-kbira tal-patologi anatomiċi. Il-patoloġija kirurġika tinvolvi l-eżaminazzjoni grossa u mikroskopika tal-eżemplari kirurġiċi, kif ukoll bijopsiji li jsiru minn kirurgi u persunal mhux kirurġiku bħal internisti ġenerali, sottospeċjalisti mediċi, dermatologi u radjologi intervenzjonali. Spiss il-qtugħ ta' kampjun ta' tessut huwa l-aqwa evidenza u l-iktar waħda definittiva ta' marda (jew ta' nuqqas tagħha) f'każijiet fejn it-tessuti jitneħħew b'mod kirurġiku minn pazjent. Dawn id-determinazzjonijiet normalment jitwettqu permezz ta' taħlita ta' eżaminazzjonijiet grossi (jiġifieri makroskopiċi) u istoloġiċi (jiġifieri mikroskopiċi) tat-tessuti, u jistgħu jinvolvu evalwazzjonijiet tal-proprjetajiet molekolari tat-tessuti bl-immunoistokimika jew b'testijiet oħra tal-laboratorju. Hemm żewġ tipi ewlenin ta' eżemplari li jitressqu għal analiżi tal-patoloġija kirurġika: il-bijopsiji u l-intersezzjoni kirurġika. Bijopsija hija t-tneħħija ta' biċċa żgħira ta' tessut primarjament għal analiżi tal-patoloġija kirurġika, spiss sabiex twassal għal dijanjożi definittiva. Fost it-tipi ta' bijopsiji hemm il-bijopsiji bil-labar, li jinkisbu bl-użu ta' labar kbar, xi kultant bil-gwida ta' tekniki radjoloġiċi bħall-ultrasound, CT scan, jew immaġnijiet ta' risonanza manjetika. Il-bijopsiji b'inċiżjoni jinkisbu permezz ta' proċeduri kirurġiċi dijanjostiċi fejn titneħħa parti minn leżjoni suspettuża, filwaqt li fil-bijopsiji bil-qtugħ titneħħa leżjoni sħiħa, u jkunu simili għal intersezzjonijiet kirurġiċi terapewtiċi. Il-bijopsiji intersezzjonali tal-leżjonijiet tal-ġilda u tal-polipi gastrointestinali huma komuni ħafna. L-interpretazzjoni tal-patologu rigward bijopsija hija kritika biex tiġi stabbilita dijanjożi ta' tumur benevoli jew malinn, u tista' tiddistingwi bejn it-tipi u l-livelli differenti ta' kanċer, kif ukoll tiddetermina l-attività ta' mogħdijiet molekolari speċifiċi fit-tumur. L-eżemplari tal-intersezzjonijiet kirurġiċi jinkisbu bit-tneħħija kirurġika terapewtika ta' żona marida sħiħa jew organu sħiħ (u okkażjonalment ta' diversi organi). Dawn il-proċeduri spiss huma maħsuba bħala trattament kirurġiku definittiv ta' marda fejn id-dijanjożi tkun ġa magħrufa jew suspettata sew, iżda l-analiżi patoloġika ta' dawn l-eżemplari tibqa' importanti biex tiġi kkonfermata d-dijanjożi preċedenti. === Patoloġija klinika === Il-patoloġija klinika hija speċjalizzazzjoni medika marbuta mad-dijanjożi tal-mard abbażi tal-analiżi fil-laboratorju tal-fluwidi tal-ġisem bħad-[[demm]] u l-awrina, kif ukoll tat-tessuti, bl-użu tal-għodda tal-kimika, tal-mikrobijoloġija klinika, tal-ematoloġija u tal-patoloġija molekolari. Il-patologi kliniċi jaħdmu b'kollaborazzjoni mill-qrib mat-teknoloġisti mediċi, mal-amministrazzjonijiet tal-isptarijiet u mat-tobba speċjalizzati. Il-patologi kliniċi jitgħallmu jagħmlu għadd ta' testijiet viżivi u mikroskopiċi, kif ukoll għadd tassew kbir ta' testijiet tal-proprjetajiet bijofiżiċi tal-kampjuni tat-tessuti li jinvolvu l-analizzaturi u l-kulturi awtomatizzati. Xi kultant jintuża t-terminu "speċjalist mediku tal-laboratorju" biex jirreferi għal min jaħdem fil-patoloġija klinika, fosthom it-tobba mediċi, l-ispeċjalisti bid-dottorati u dawk b'dottorati fil-farmakoloġija. L-immunopatoloġija, l-istudju tar-rispons immunoloġiku ta' organiżmu għal infezzjoni, xi kultant titqies li tagħmel parti mid-dominju tal-patoloġija klinika. ==== Ematopatoloġija ==== L-ematopatoloġija hija l-istudju tal-mard taċ-ċelloli tad-demm (inkluż il-kostitwenti bħaċ-ċelloli tad-demm bojod, iċ-ċelloli tad-demm ħomor u l-pjastrini) u tat-tessuti, kif ukoll tal-organi li jagħmlu parti mis-sistema ematopojetika. Dan it-terminu tal-aħħar jirreferi għat-tessuti u għall-organi li jipproduċu u/jew primarjament jospitaw iċ-ċelloli ematopojetiċi u jinkludi l-mudullun tal-għadam, in-nodi linfatiċi, it-timus, il-milsa u tessuti linfojdi oħra. Fl-Istati Uniti, l-ematopatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni ċċertifikata minn bord (liċenzjata skont il-Bord Amerikan tal-Patoloġija) li tiġi pprattikata minn dawk it-tobba li jkunu lestew l-istudji tal-patoloġija ġenerali (anatomika, klinika jew it-tnejn) u sena addizzjonali ta' apprendistat fl-ematoloġija. L-ematopatologu jirrieżamina l-bijopsiji tan-nodi linfatiċi, tal-mudullun tal-għadam u ta' tessuti oħra involuti b'infiltrazzjoni ta' ċelloli tas-sistema ematopojetika. Barra minn hekk, l-ematopatologu jaf ikun inkarigat li jwettaq studji ċitometriċi tal-fluss u/jew tal-ematopatoloġija molekolari. === Patoloġija molekolari === Il-patoloġija molekolari hija ffukata fuq l-istudju u d-dijanjożi tal-mard permezz tal-eżaminazzjoni tal-molekoli fi ħdan l-organi, it-tessuti jew il-fluwidi tal-ġisem. Il-patoloġija molekolari hija multidixxiplinari min-natura tagħha u tikkondividi xi aspetti tal-prattika mal-patoloġija anatomika, mal-patoloġija klinika, mal-bijoloġija molekolari, mal-bijokimika, mal-proteomika u mal-ġenetika. Spiss tiġi applikata f'kuntest li jkun xjentifiku u mediku, u tinvolvi l-iżvilupp ta' approċċi molekolari u ġenetiċi għad-dijanjożi u għall-klassifikazzjoni tal-mard tal-bniedem, għad-disinn u għall-validazzjoni ta' bijomarkaturi ta' previżjoni għar-rispons għat-trattamenti u għall-progressjoni tal-mard, u għas-suxxettibbiltà tal-individwi ta' kostituzzjoni ġenetika differenti għal diżordnijiet partikolari. It-trikkib bejn il-patoloġija molekolari u l-epidemjoloġija huwa rrappreżentat b'qasam relatat, jiġifieri l-"epidemjoloġija patoloġika molekolari". Il-patoloġija molekolari spiss tintuża fid-dijanjożi tal-kanċer u ta' mard infettiv. Il-patoloġija molekolari tintuża primarjament għad-detezzjoni tal-kanċer, bħall-melanoma, glijoma fiz-zokk enċefaliku, tumuri fil-moħħ kif ukoll bosta tipi oħra ta' kanċer u ta' mard infettiv. Hemm bosta tekniki li jinkludu r-reazzjoni katina kwantitattiva bil-polimerażi (qPCR), reazzjoni katina multiplex bil-polimerażi, mikrosekwenza tad-[[DNA]], ibridizzazzjoni fil-post, sekwenzar tad-DNA, assaġġi tat-tessuti bl-immunofluworexxenza bbażati fuq l-antikorpi, profili molekolari tal-patoġeni, u analiżi tal-ġeni batterjali għar-reżistenza antimikrobika. It-tekniki li jintużaw huma bbażati fuq l-analiżi tal-kampjuni tad-DNA u tal-RNA. Il-patoloġija tintuża b'mod wiesa' għat-terapija tal-ġeni u għad-dijanjożi tal-mard. === Patoloġija orali u maksillofaċċali === Il-patoloġija orali u maksillofaċċali hija waħda mid-disa' speċjalizzazzjoni dentali rikonoxxuti mill-Assoċjazzjoni Dentali Amerikana, u xi kultant titqies bħala speċjalizzazzjoni kemm tad-dentistrija kif ukoll tal-patoloġija. Il-patologi orali jridu jlestu 3 snin ta' taħriġ wara d-dottorat bi programm akkreditat u sussegwentement jiksbu status ta' lawrja mill-Bord Amerikan tal-Patoloġija Orali u Maksillofaċċali. Din l-ispeċjalizzazzjoni tiffoka fuq id-dijanjożi, il-ġestjoni klinika u l-investigazzjoni tal-mard li jaffettwa l-kavità orali u l-istrutturi maksillofaċċali tal-madwar, inkluż iżda mhux limitat għal patoloġiji odontoġeniċi, infettivi, epiteljali, tal-glandola salivarja, tal-għadam u tat-tessuti rotob. Hemm trikkib sinifikanti wkoll mal-qasam tal-patoloġija dentali. Għalkemm hija marbuta ma' firxa wiesgħa ta' mardiet tal-kavità orali, il-patologi orali u maksillofaċċali għandhom rwoli distinti minn tal-otorinolarinġologi (speċjalisti tal-"widnejn, tal-imnieħer u tal-griżmejn"), u tal-patologi tat-taħdit. Dawn tal-aħħar jgħinu fid-dijanjożi ta' bosta kundizzjonijiet newroloġiċi jew newromuskolari li huma rilevanti għall-fonoloġija tat-taħdit jew il-bligħ. Minħabba d-disponibbiltà tal-kavità orali għall-eżaminazzjoni mhux invażiva, bosta kundizzjonijiet fl-istudju tal-mard orali jistgħu jiġu dijanjostikati, jew mill-inqas suspettati, mill-eżaminazzjoni grossa, iżda l-bijopsija, smears ċellolari, u analiżi ta' tessuti oħra jibqgħu għodod dijanjostiċi importanti fil-patoloġija orali. == Taħriġ mediku u akkreditazzjoni == Becoming a pathologist generally requires specialty-training after medical school, but individual nations vary somewhat in the medical licensing required of pathologists. In the United States, pathologists are physicians (D.O. or M.D.) who have completed a four-year undergraduate program, four years of medical school training, and three to four years of postgraduate training in the form of a pathology residency. Training may be within two primary specialties, as recognized by the American Board of Pathology: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology, each of which requires separate board certification. The American Osteopathic Board of Pathology also recognizes four primary specialties: anatomic pathology, dermatopathology, forensic pathology, and laboratory medicine. Pathologists may pursue specialised fellowship training within one or more subspecialties of either anatomical or clinical pathology. Some of these subspecialties permit additional board certification, while others do not. In the United Kingdom, pathologists are physicians licensed by the UK General Medical Council. The training to become a pathologist is overseen by the Royal College of Pathologists. After four to six years of undergraduate medical study, trainees proceed to a two-year foundation program. Full-time training in histopathology currently lasts between five and five and a half years, encompassing specialist training in surgical pathology, cytopathology, and autopsy pathology. It is also possible to take a Royal College of Pathologists diploma in forensic pathology, dermatopathology, or cytopathology, recognising additional specialist training and expertise, and to get specialist accreditation in forensic pathology, pediatric pathology, and neuropathology. The General Medical Council oversees all postgraduate medical training and education in the UK. In France, pathology is separated into two distinct specialties: anatomical pathology and clinical pathology. Residencies for both lasts four years. Residency in anatomical pathology is open to physicians only, while clinical pathology is open to both physicians and pharmacists. At the end of the second year of clinical pathology residency, residents can choose between general clinical pathology and a specialization in one of the disciplines, but they can not practice anatomical pathology, nor can anatomical pathology residents practice clinical pathology. == Trikkib ma' mediċina dijanjostika oħra == Though separate fields in terms of medical practice, a number of areas of inquiry in medicine and medical science either overlap greatly with general pathology, work in tandem with it, or contribute significantly to the understanding of the pathology of a given disease or its course in an individual. As a significant portion of all general pathology practice is concerned with cancer, the practice of oncology makes extensive use of both anatomical and clinical pathology in diagnosis and treatment. In particular, biopsy, resection, and blood tests are all examples of pathology work that is essential for the diagnoses of many kinds of cancer and for the staging of cancerous masses. In a similar fashion, the tissue and blood analysis techniques of general pathology are of central significance to the investigation of serious infectious disease and as such inform significantly upon the fields of epidemiology, etiology, immunology, and parasitology. General pathology methods are of great importance to biomedical research into disease, wherein they are sometimes referred to as "experimental" or "investigative" pathology.^{[''citation needed'']} Medical imaging is the generating of visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Medical imaging reveals details of internal physiology that help medical professionals plan appropriate treatments for tissue infection and trauma. Medical imaging is also central in supplying the biometric data necessary to establish baseline features of anatomy and physiology so as to increase the accuracy with which early or fine-detail abnormalities are detected. These diagnostic techniques are often performed in combination with general pathology procedures and are themselves often essential to developing new understanding of the pathogenesis of a given disease and tracking the progress of disease in specific medical cases. Examples of important subdivisions in medical imaging include radiology (which uses the imaging technologies of X-ray radiography) magnetic resonance imaging, medical ultrasonography (or ultrasound), endoscopy, elastography, tactile imaging, thermography, medical photography, nuclear medicine and functional imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography. Though they do not strictly relay images, readings from diagnostics tests involving electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, and electrocardiography often give hints as to the state and function of certain tissues in the brain and heart respectively. == Informatika fil-patoloġija == Pathology informatics is a subfield of health informatics. It is the use of information technology in pathology. It encompasses pathology laboratory operations, data analysis, and the interpretation of pathology-related information. Key aspects of pathology informatics include: * Laboratory information management systems (LIMS): Implementing and managing computer systems specifically designed for pathology departments. These systems help in tracking and managing patient specimens, results, and other pathology data. * Digital pathology: Involves the use of digital technology to create, manage, and analyze pathology images. This includes side scanning and automated image analysis. * Telepathology: Using technology to enable remote pathology consultation and collaboration. * Quality assurance and reporting: Implementing informatics solutions to ensure the quality and accuracy of pathology processes. == Psikopatoloġija == Psychopathology is the study of mental illness, particularly of severe disorders. Informed heavily by both psychology and neurology, its purpose is to classify mental illness, elucidate its underlying causes, and guide clinical psychiatric treatment accordingly. Although diagnosis and classification of mental norms and disorders is largely the purview of psychiatry—the results of which are guidelines such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which attempt to classify mental disease mostly on behavioural evidence, though not without controversy—the field is also heavily, and increasingly, informed upon by neuroscience and other of the biological cognitive sciences. Mental or social disorders or behaviours seen as generally unhealthy or excessive in a given individual, to the point where they cause harm or severe disruption to the person's lifestyle, are often called "pathological" (e.g., pathological gambling or pathological liar). == Mhux umani == Although the vast majority of lab work and research in pathology concerns the development of disease in humans, pathology is of significance throughout the biological sciences. Two main catch-all fields exist to represent most complex organisms capable of serving as host to a pathogen or other form of disease: veterinary pathology (concerned with all non-human species of kingdom of Animalia) and phytopathology, which studies disease in plants. === Patoloġija veterinarja === Veterinary pathology covers a vast array of species, but with a significantly smaller number of practitioners, so understanding of disease in non-human animals, especially as regards veterinary practice, varies considerably by species. Nevertheless, significant amounts of pathology research are conducted on animals, for two primary reasons: 1) The origins of diseases are typically zoonotic in nature, and many infectious pathogens have animal vectors and, as such, understanding the mechanisms of action for these pathogens in non-human hosts is essential to the understanding and application of epidemiology and 2) those animals that share physiological and genetic traits with humans can be used as surrogates for the study of the disease and potential treatments as well as the effects of various synthetic products. For this reason, as well as their roles as livestock and companion animals, mammals generally have the largest body of research in veterinary pathology. Animal testing remains a controversial practice, even in cases where it is used to research treatment for human disease. As in human medical pathology, the practice of veterinary pathology is customarily divided into the two main fields of anatomical and clinical pathology. === Patoloġija tal-[[Pjanta|pjanti]] === Although the pathogens and their mechanics differ greatly from those of animals, plants are subject to a wide variety of diseases, including those caused by fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants. Damage caused by insects, mites, vertebrate, and other small herbivores is not considered a part of the domain of plant pathology. The field is connected to plant disease epidemiology and especially concerned with the horticulture of species that are of high importance to the human diet or other human utility. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Mediċina]] [[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]] jobsno2serlhu5ga2yssg0pueuqawv0 329979 329974 2026-05-15T07:25:34Z Trigcly 17859 /* Taħriġ mediku u akkreditazzjoni */ 329979 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Pathologists looking into microscopes (1).jpg|daqsminuri|Patologu jeżamina sezzjoni ta' tessuti għal evidenza ta' ċelloli kanċerużi waqt li [[kirurgu]] qed josserva.]] Il-'''patoloġija''' hija l-istudju tal-[[mard]]. Il-[[kelma]] ''patoloġija'' tirreferi wkoll għall-istudju tal-mard inġenerali, u tinkorpora firxa wiesgħa ta' oqsma tar-riċerka [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġika]] u ta' prattiċi [[Mediċina|mediċi]]. Madankollu, meta jintuża fil-kuntest tat-trattament mediku modern, it-terminu spiss jintuża b'mod idjaq biex jirreferi għall-proċessi u għat-testijiet marbuta mal-qasam mediku kontemporanju tal-"patoloġija ġenerali", qasam li jinkludi għadd ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet mediċi distinti iżda interrelatati li jiddijanjostikaw il-mard, l-iktar permezz tal-analiżi tal-kampjuni tat-tessuti u taċ-ċelloli [[Bniedem|umani]]. Il-patoloġija huwa qasam sinifikanti fid-dijanjożi medika moderna u fir-riċerka medika. [[Tabib]] li jipprattika l-patoloġija jissejjaħ patologu.<ref>Herausgeber., Cross, Simon S., Herausgeber. Underwood, James C. E. 1942- (30 April 2018). ''Underwood's pathology : a clinical approach''. Elsevier – Health Sciences Division. ISBN <bdi>978-0-7020-7212-3</bdi>. OCLC 1043350646.</ref> Bħala qasam tal-inkjesti u tar-riċerka ġenerali, il-patoloġija tindirizza l-komponenti tal-mard: il-kawża, il-mekkaniżmi tal-iżvilupp (patoġenesi), l-alterazzjonijiet strutturali taċ-ċelloli (bidliet morfoloġiċi), u l-konsegwenzi tal-bidliet (manifestazzjonijiet kliniċi).<ref>Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; Aster, Jon C. (2010). ''Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease'' (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN <bdi>978-1-4160-3121-5</bdi>.</ref> Fil-prattika medika komuni, il-patoloġija ġenerali tittratta l-iktar l-analiżi tal-abnormalitajiet kliniċi magħrufa li huma markaturi jew prekursuri kemm tal-mard infettiv kif ukoll tal-mard mhux infettiv, u ssir minn esperti f'waħda miż-żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet ewlenin, il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://freida.ama-assn.org/|titlu=FREIDA™ Pathology-Anatomic and Clinical Specialty Details|sit=FREIDA Residency Program Database {{!}} Medical Fellowship Database {{!}} AMA|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> Diviżjonijiet ulterjuri fl-ispeċjalizzazzjonijiet jeżistu abbażi tat-tipi tal-kampjuni involuti bħal fiċ-ċitopatoloġija, fl-ematopatoloġija u fl-istopatoloġija), tal-organi (bħal fil-patoloġija renali) u tas-sistemi fiżjoloġiċi (il-patoloġija orali), kif ukoll abbażi tal-enfasi tal-eżaminazzjoni (bħal fil-patoloġija forensika). Idjomatikament, "patoloġija" jaf tirreferi wkoll għall-progressjoni prevista jew effettiva ta' mard partikolari (bħal fl-istqarrija "il-forom differenti tal-[[kanċer]] ikollhom diversità ta' patoloġiji", fejn kelma iktar preċiża jaf tkun "patofiżjoloġiji"). Is-suffiss ''-patija'' xi kultant jintuża biex jiġi indikat stat tal-mard f'każijiet ta' mard fiżiku (bħal fil-kardjomijopatija) u ta' kundizzjonijiet psikoloġiċi (bħal fil-psikopatija).<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/138811|titlu=-pathy, comb. form : Oxford English Dictionary|sit=oed.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> == [[Etimoloġija]] == It-terminu [[Lingwa Latina|Latin]] ''pathologia'' oriġina mill-għerq [[Lingwa Griega antika|Grieg Antik]] ''pathos'' (πάθος), li tfisser "esperjenza" jew "tbatija", u ''-logia'' (-λογία), li tfisser "studju ta'". It-terminu għandu oriġini li tmur lura għall-bidu tas-seklu 16, u kulma jmur sar iktar popolarizzat wara s-snin 30 tas-seklu 16.<ref>Janssen, Diederik F. (April 2022). "From Pathognomicha and Passiologia to Pathologia: concise history of a neologism (1486-1598)". ''Pathologica''. '''114''' (2) 10: 185–188. doi:10.32074/1591-951X-261. ISSN 1591-951X. PMC 9248257. <nowiki>PMID 35481571</nowiki>.</ref> == [[Storja]] == L-istudju tal-patoloġija, inkluż l-eżaminazzjoni dettaljata tal-ġisem, id-dissezzjoni u l-inkjesti rigward mard speċifiku, imur lura għal żmien il-qedem. Il-fehim rudimentali ta' bosta kundizzjonijiet kien preżenti fil-biċċa l-kbira tas-soċjetajiet bikrin u ġie rreġistrat fir-rekords tal-iżjed soċjetajiet storiċi bikrin, fosthom dawk tal-Lvant Nofsani, tal-[[Indja]] u taċ-[[Ċina]].<ref>Long, Esmond (1965). ''History of Pathology''. New York: Dover. pp. 1+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-486-61342-0</bdi>.</ref> Sal-perjodu Elleniku tal-[[Greċja antika|Greċja Antika]], sar studju kawżali maqbul tal-mard, u bosta tobba notevoli bikrin (bħal [[Ippokrate]], li għalih jissemma l-ġurament Ippokratiku modern) żviluppaw metodi ta' dijanjożi u ta' pronjożi għal għadd ta' mardiet. Il-prattiċi mediċi tar-[[Imperu Ruman|Rumani]] u dawk tal-[[Biżantini]] komplew minn dawn l-għeruq [[Greċja|Griegi]], iżda bħal f'bosta oqsma tal-inkjesti [[Xjenza|xjentifiċi]], it-tkabbir fil-fehim tal-mediċina staġna kemxejn wara l-Era Klassika, iżda baqa' jiżviluppa bil-mod fost bosta [[Kultura|kulturi]]. B'mod partikolari, saru bosta avvanzi fl-era [[Medjuevu|Medjevali]] tal-[[Iżlam]], u matul dan iż-żmien ġew żviluppati bosta testi ta' patoloġiji kumplessi, ibbażati wkoll fuq it-tradizzjoni Griega. Minkejja dan, it-tkabbir fil-fehim kumpless tal-mard fil-biċċa l-kbira waqaf sa ma l-għarfien u l-isperimentazzjoni reġgħu bdew jiżdiedu fir-[[Rinaxximent]], fl-[[Illuminiżmu]] u fil-[[Barokk]], wara li reġa' feġġ il-metodu empiriku f'ċentri ġodda tal-istudju. Sas-[[seklu 17]], l-istudju tal-mikroskopija rudimentali u l-eżaminazzjoni tat-tessuti wasslu biex il-membru tas-Soċjetà Rjali [[Renju Unit|Brittanika]] [[Robert Hooke]] joħroġ bil-kelma "ċellola", u b'hekk witta t-triq għat-teorija suċċessiva tal-ġermi. Il-patoloġija moderna bdiet tiżviluppa bħala qasam distint ta' stħarriġ matul is-seklu 19 permezz tal-filosfi naturali u tat-tobba li studjaw il-mard u l-istudju informali tal-hekk imsejħa "[[anatomija]] patoloġika" jew "anatomija tal-mard". Madankollu, il-patoloġija bħala qasam formali speċjalizzat ma ġietx żviluppata għalkollox qabel l-aħħar tas-seklu 19 u l-bidu tas-seklu 20, bil-wasla tal-istudju dettaljat tal-mikrobijoloġija. Fis-seklu 19, it-tobba bdew jifhmu li jeżistu l-patoġeni li jikkawżaw il-mard, jew il-"ġermi" (terminu kumplessiv għall-mikrobi "patoġeniċi" jew li jikkawżaw il-mard, bħall-batterji, [[Virus|viruses]], fungi, amibi, mofof, protisti u prijoni) u li kienu kapaċi jirriproduċu u jimmultiplikaw. Dan il-fehim ħa post it-twemmin iktar bikri fl-umuri jew saħansitra fl-aġenti spiritwali, li kien iddomina fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-1,500 sena ta' qabel fil-mediċina Ewropea. Bil-fehim il-ġdid tal-aġenti kawżattivi, it-tobba bdew iqabblu l-karatteristiċi tas-sintomi tal-ġermi skont kif żviluppaw f'xi individwu affettwat u mqabbla mal-karatteristiċi u tal-ġermi u s-sintomi. Dan l-approċċ wassal għall-fehim fundamentali li l-mard kapaċi jirreplika ruħu, u li jista' jkollu bosta effetti profondi u varjati fuq l-ospitant uman. Sabiex jiġu ddeterminati l-kawżi tal-mardiet, l-esperti mediċi wżaw l-iżjed suppożizzjonijiet jew sintomi komuni u aċċettati b'mod wiesa' ta' żminijiethom, li huwa prinċipju ġenerali tal-approċċ li għadu jippersisti fil-mediċina moderna.<ref>King, Lester (1991). ''Transformations in American Medicine: From Benjamin Rush to William Osler''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP. pp. 27+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-8018-4057-9</bdi>.</ref><ref>Machevsky, Alberto; Wick, MR (2004). "Evidence-based Medicine, Medical Decision Analysis, and Pathology". ''Human Pathology''. '''35''' (10): 1179–88. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2004.06.004. <nowiki>PMID 15492984</nowiki>.</ref> Il-mediċina moderna avvanzat b'mod partikolari bl-iżviluppi ulterjuri tal-[[mikroskopju]] għall-analiżi tat-tessuti, bil-kontribut sinifikanti ta' [[Rudolf Virchow]], li wassal għal bosta żviluppi fir-riċerka. Sal-aħħar tas-snin 20 u l-bidu tas-snin 30 tas-seklu 20, il-patoloġija kienet meqjusa bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika.<ref>Rothstein, William G. (1979). "Pathology: The Evolution of a Specialty in American Medicine". ''Medical Care''. '''17''' (10): 975–988. doi:10.1097/00005650-197910000-00001. JSTOR 3763869. <nowiki>PMID 386008</nowiki>. S2CID 23045808.</ref> Flimkien mal-iżviluppi fil-fehim tal-fiżjoloġija ġenerali, sal-bidu tas-seklu 20, l-istudju tal-patoloġija beda jinqasam f'għadd ta' oqsma distinti, li wassal għall-iżvilupp ta' għadd kbir ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet moderni fi ħdan il-patoloġija u dixxiplini relatati tal-mediċina dijanjostika.<ref>Race, George J.; Tillery, G. Weldon; Dysert, Peter A. (Jannar 2004). "A history of pathology and laboratory medicine at Baylor University Medical Center". ''Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center)''. '''17''' (1): 42–55. doi:10.1080/08998280.2004.11927956. ISSN 0899-8280. PMC 1200640. <nowiki>PMID 16200088</nowiki>.</ref> == Patoloġija ġenerali == Il-prattika moderna tal-patoloġija hija maqsuma f'għadd ta' sottodixxiplini fi ħdan l-għanijiet distinti iżda ferm interkonnessi tar-riċerka bijoloġika u l-prattika medika. Ir-riċerka bijomedika dwar il-mard tinkorpora x-xogħol ta' varjetà vasta ta' speċjalisti tax-[[xjenza]] tal-[[ħajja]], billi, fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-partijiet tad-dinja, sabiex wieħed ikun liċenzjat biex jipprattika l-patoloġija bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika, wieħed irid ikun temm l-iskola medika u kiseb liċenzja biex jipprattika l-mediċina. Strutturalment, l-istudju tal-mard huwa maqsum f'bosta oqsma differenti li jistudjaw jew jiddijanjostikaw il-markaturi għall-mard bl-użu ta' metodi u teknoloġiċi partikolari għal tipi speċifiċi ta' skali, organi u tessuti. === Patoloġija anatomika === Il-patoloġija anatomika (fil-[[Commonwealth tan-Nazzjonijiet|Commonwealth]] jew fl-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]]) hija speċjalizzazzjoni medika li għandha x'taqsam mad-dijanjożi tal-mard abbażi tal-eżaminazzjoni grossa, mikroskopika, [[kimika]], immunoloġika u molekolari tal-organi, tat-tessuti u tal-iġsma sħaħ (bħal fl-eżaminazzjoni ġenerali jew fl-awtopsja). Il-patoloġija anatomika fiha nnifisha hija maqsuma f'sottooqsma, fosthom il-patoloġija kirurġika, iċ-ċitopatoloġija u l-patoloġija forensika. Il-patoloġija anatomika hija waħda miż-żewġ oqsma prinċipali tal-prattika medika tal-patoloġija, u l-oħra hija l-patoloġija klinika, id-dijanjożi tal-mard permezz tal-analiżi fil-laboratorju tal-fluwidi u tat-tessuti tal-ġisem. Xi kultant, il-patologi jipprattikaw kemm il-patoloġija anatomika kif ukoll dik klinika, kombinament magħruf bħala patoloġija ġenerali. ==== Ċitopatoloġija ==== Iċ-ċitopatoloġija (xi kultant magħrufa bħala ċ-"ċitoloġija") hija l-fergħa tal-patoloġija li tistudja u tiddijanjostika l-mard fuq il-livell ċellolari. Normalment tintuża biex tgħin fid-dijanjożi tal-kanċer, iżda tgħin ukoll fid-dijanjożi ta' ċertu mard infettiv u kundizzjonijiet infjammatorji oħra, kif ukoll leżjonijiet tat-tirojde, mard li jinvolvi l-kavitajiet sterili tal-ġisem (peritoneali, plewrali u ċerebrospinali), u firxa wiesgħa ta' siti oħra tal-ġisem. Iċ-ċitopatoloġija ġeneralment tintuża fuq kampanji ta' ċelloli liberi jew frammenti tat-tessuti (b'kuntrast mal-istopatoloġija, li tistudja t-tessuti sħaħ) u testijiet ċitopatoloġiċi li jistgħu jingħaddu fuq slide tal-[[ħġieġ]] tal-mikroskopju għal tebgħat u eżaminazzjoni mikroskopiku sussegwenti. Madankollu, il-kampjuni ċitoloġiċi jistgħu jitħejjew b'modi oħra, inkluż b'ċitoċentrifugazzjoni. ==== Dermatopatoloġija ==== Id-dermatopatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika li tiffoka fuq il-ġilda u l-bqija tas-sistema integumentarja bħala organu. Hija unika, peress li hemm żewġ modi kif tabib jista' jikseb speċjalizzazzjoni. Il-patologi ġenerali u d-dermatologi ġenerali kollha jitħarrġu fil-patoloġija tal-ġilda, għaldaqstant it-terminu dermatopatologu jirreferi għalihom it-tnejn skont ċertu livell ta' akkreditazzjoni u esperjenza; fl-Istati Uniti, patologu ġenerali jew dermatologu jistgħu jagħmlu apprendistat ta' sena sa sentejn fil-qasam tad-dermatopatoloġija. It-tlestija ta' dan l-apprendistat twassal għall-possibbiltà li wieħed jagħmel eżami quddiem bord ta' sottospeċjalizzazzjoni biex isir dermatopatologu ċċertifikat mill-bord. Id-dermatologi kapaċi jagħrfu l-biċċa l-kbira tal-mardiet tal-ġilda abbażi tad-dehra, id-distribuzzjonijiet anatomiċi u l-imġiba. Madankollu, xi kultant dawk il-kriterji ma jwasslux għal dijanjożi konklużiva, u ssir bijopsija tal-ġilda biex tiġi eżaminata taħt il-mikroskopju bl-użu ta' testijiet istoloġiċi tas-soltu. F'xi każijiet, ikun meħtieġ li jsir ittestjar speċjalizzat fuq il-bijopsiji, fosthom l-immunofluworexxenza, l-immunoistokimika, il-mikroskopija bl-elettroni, iċ-ċitometrija bil-fluss u l-analiżi patoloġika molekolari. Waħda mill-ikbar sfidi tad-dermatopatoloġija hija l-kobor tagħha. Jeżistu iktar minn 1,500 diżordni differenti tal-ġilda, inkluż raxx tal-ġilda u neoplażmi. Għaldaqstant, id-dermatopatologi jrid ikollhom bażi wiesgħa ta' għarfien fid-dermatoloġija klinika, u jkunu midħla ta' diversi oqsma oħra ta' speċjalizzazzjoni fil-mediċina. ==== Patoloġija forensika ==== Il-patoloġija forensika tiffoka fuq li tiġi ddeterminata l-kawża tal-[[mewt]] b'eżaminazzjoni ''post mortem'' tal-katavru jew ta' fdalijiet parzjali. Tipikament issir awtopsja minn eżaminatur mediku, spiss waqt l-investigazzjonijiet kriminali; f'dan ir-rwol, l-eżaminaturi mediċi sikwit jiġu mistoqsija jikkonfirmaw l-identità ta' katavru. Ir-rekwiżiti biex wieħed isir prattikant liċenzjat tal-patoloġija forensika jvarjaw minn pajjiż għal ieħor (u saħansitra fl-istess nazzjon xi kultant) iżda tipikament rekwiżit minimu huwa dottorat mediku bi speċjalizzazzjoni fil-patoloġija ġenerali jew anatomika bi studju sussegwenti fil-mediċina forensika. Il-metodi li jużaw ix-xjenzati forensiċi biex jiddeterminaw il-mewt jinkludu l-eżaminazzjoni tal-eżemplari tat-tessuti sabiex tiġi identifikata l-preżenza jew l-assenza ta' mard naturali u sejbiet mikroskopiċi oħra, l-interpretazzjonijiet tat-tossikoloġija fuq it-tessuti u l-fluwidi tal-ġisem biex tiġi ddeterminata l-kawża kimika ta' dożi eċċessivi, avvelenamenti jew każijiet oħra li jinvolvu aġenti tossiċi, u eżaminazzjonijiet ta' trawmi fiżiċi. Il-patoloġija forensika hija komponent ewlieni fil-qasam transdixxiplinari tax-xjenza forensika. ==== Istopatoloġija ==== L-istopatoloġija tirreferi għall-eżaminazzjoni mikroskopika ta' diversi forom ta' tessuti umani. B'mod speċifiku, fil-mediċina klinika, l-istopatoloġija tirreferi għall-eżaminazzjoni ta' bijopsija jew eżemplar kirurġiku minn patologu, wara li l-eżemplar ikun ġie pproċessat u s-sezzjonijiet istoloġiċi jkunu tpoġġew fuq slides tal-ħġieġ. Dan jikkuntrasta mal-metodi taċ-ċitopatoloġija, li tuża ċ-ċelloli liberi jew il-frammenti tat-tessuti. L-eżaminazzjoni istopatoloġika tat-tessuti tibda b'operazzjoni, b'bijopsija jew b'awtopsija. It-tessuti jitneħħew mill-ġisem ta' organiżmu u mbagħad jitpoġġew f'fissativ li jistabbilizza t-tessuti biex jiġi evitat id-deterjorament. L-iżjed fissativ komuni huwa l-formalin, għalkemm l-iffissar ta' sezzjoni ffriżata huwa komuni wkoll. Sabiex wieħed jara t-tessuti b'mikroskopju, is-sezzjonijiet jittebbgħu b'pigment wieħed jew iktar. L-għan ta' dan hu li jiġu żvelati l-komponenti ċellolari; il-kontrotebgħat jintużaw biex jipprovdu kuntrast. L-istokimika tirreferi għax-xjenza tal-użu tar-reazzjonijiet kimiċi bejn is-sustanzi kimiċi tal-laboratorju u l-komponenti fi ħdan it-tessuti. Is-slides istoloġiċi mbagħad jiġu interpretati b'mod dijanjostiku u r-rapport patoloġiku li jirriżulta jiddeskrivi s-sejbiet istoloġiċi u l-opinjoni tal-patologu. Fil-każ tal-kanċer, dan jirrappreżenta d-dijanjożi tat-tessuti meħtieġa għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-protokolli tat-trattamenti. ==== Newropatoloġija ==== In-newropatoloġija hija l-istudju tal-mard fit-tessuti tas-sistema nervuża, normalment fil-forma ta' bijopsiji kirurġiċi jew xi kultant imħuħ sħaħ fil-każ ta' awtopsija. In-newropatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika, tan-newroloġija u tan-newrokirurġija. F'bosta pajjiżi, in-newropatoloġija titqies bħala sottoqasam tal-patoloġija anatomika. Tabib li jispeċjalizza fin-newropatoloġija, normalment wara li jlesti apprendistat fil-patoloġija anatomika jew ġenerali, jissejjaħ newropatologu. Fil-prattika klinika ta' kuljum, newropatologu jiġġenera d-dijanjożi għall-pazjenti. Jekk ikun hemm suspett ta' mard fis-sistema nervuża, u d-dijanjożi ma tkunx tista' ssir b'metodi inqas invażivi, issir bijopsija tat-tessuti nervużi mill-moħħ jew jiġi estratt fluwidu ċerebrospinali mis-sinsla biex jgħin fid-dijanjożi. Bijopsija normalment tintalab wara li tinstab massa bl-immaġnijiet mediċi. Bl-awtopsji, ix-xogħol prinċipali tan-newropatologu hu li jgħin fid-dijanjożi ''post mortem'' ta' diversi kundizzjonijiet li jaffettwaw is-sistema nervuża ċentrali. Il-bijopsiji jistgħu jikkonsistu wkoll mill-ġilda. L-ittestjar tad-densità tal-fibri nervużi epidermali (ENFD) huwa test tan-newropatoloġija li ġie żviluppat iktar reċentement fejn issir bijopsija biex jiġu identifikati newropatiji tal-fibri nervużi żgħar bl-analiżi tal-fibri nervużi tal-ġilda. Dan it-test qed isir disponibbli f'għadd ta' laboratorji kif ukoll f'bosta universitajiet; jissostitwixxi t-test tal-bijopsija nervuża tradizzjonali peress li huwa inqas invażiv. ==== Patoloġija pulmonari ==== Il-patoloġija pulmonari hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika (u speċjalment kirurġika) li tittratta d-dijanjożi u l-karatterizzazzjoni tal-mard neoplastiku u mhux neoplastiku tal-[[Pulmun|pulmuni]] u tal-plewra toraċika. L-eżemplari dijanjostiċi spiss jinklisbu permezz ta' bijopsija transbronkjali bronkoskopika, bijopsija perkutanja ggwidata b'CT scan jew kirurġija toraċika assistita bil-filmati. Dawn it-testijiet jaf ikunu meħtieġa għal dijanjożi bejn infezzjoni, infjammazzjoni jew kundizzjonijiet fibrotiċi. ==== Patoloġija renali ==== Il-patoloġija renali hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika li tittratta d-dijanjożi u l-karatterizzazzjoni tal-mard tal-kliewi. F'ambjent mediku, il-patologi renali jaħdmu mill-qrib man-nefrologi u mal-kirurgi tat-trapjanti, li tipikament jiksbu eżemplari dijanjostiċi permezz ta' bijopsija renali perkutanja. Il-patologu renali jrid jissintetizza s-sejbiet mill-istoloġija mikroskopika tradizzjonali, mill-mikroskopija bl-elettroni u bl-immunofluworexxenza biex jikseb dijanjożi definittiva. Il-mard renali mediku jista' jaffettwa l-glomerulu, it-tubuli u l-interstizju, il-vażi jew taħlita ta' dawn il-kompartimenti. ==== Patoloġija kirurġika ==== Il-patoloġija kirurġika hija waħda mill-oqsma primarji tal-prattika tal-biċċa l-kbira tal-patologi anatomiċi. Il-patoloġija kirurġika tinvolvi l-eżaminazzjoni grossa u mikroskopika tal-eżemplari kirurġiċi, kif ukoll bijopsiji li jsiru minn kirurgi u persunal mhux kirurġiku bħal internisti ġenerali, sottospeċjalisti mediċi, dermatologi u radjologi intervenzjonali. Spiss il-qtugħ ta' kampjun ta' tessut huwa l-aqwa evidenza u l-iktar waħda definittiva ta' marda (jew ta' nuqqas tagħha) f'każijiet fejn it-tessuti jitneħħew b'mod kirurġiku minn pazjent. Dawn id-determinazzjonijiet normalment jitwettqu permezz ta' taħlita ta' eżaminazzjonijiet grossi (jiġifieri makroskopiċi) u istoloġiċi (jiġifieri mikroskopiċi) tat-tessuti, u jistgħu jinvolvu evalwazzjonijiet tal-proprjetajiet molekolari tat-tessuti bl-immunoistokimika jew b'testijiet oħra tal-laboratorju. Hemm żewġ tipi ewlenin ta' eżemplari li jitressqu għal analiżi tal-patoloġija kirurġika: il-bijopsiji u l-intersezzjoni kirurġika. Bijopsija hija t-tneħħija ta' biċċa żgħira ta' tessut primarjament għal analiżi tal-patoloġija kirurġika, spiss sabiex twassal għal dijanjożi definittiva. Fost it-tipi ta' bijopsiji hemm il-bijopsiji bil-labar, li jinkisbu bl-użu ta' labar kbar, xi kultant bil-gwida ta' tekniki radjoloġiċi bħall-ultrasound, CT scan, jew immaġnijiet ta' risonanza manjetika. Il-bijopsiji b'inċiżjoni jinkisbu permezz ta' proċeduri kirurġiċi dijanjostiċi fejn titneħħa parti minn leżjoni suspettuża, filwaqt li fil-bijopsiji bil-qtugħ titneħħa leżjoni sħiħa, u jkunu simili għal intersezzjonijiet kirurġiċi terapewtiċi. Il-bijopsiji intersezzjonali tal-leżjonijiet tal-ġilda u tal-polipi gastrointestinali huma komuni ħafna. L-interpretazzjoni tal-patologu rigward bijopsija hija kritika biex tiġi stabbilita dijanjożi ta' tumur benevoli jew malinn, u tista' tiddistingwi bejn it-tipi u l-livelli differenti ta' kanċer, kif ukoll tiddetermina l-attività ta' mogħdijiet molekolari speċifiċi fit-tumur. L-eżemplari tal-intersezzjonijiet kirurġiċi jinkisbu bit-tneħħija kirurġika terapewtika ta' żona marida sħiħa jew organu sħiħ (u okkażjonalment ta' diversi organi). Dawn il-proċeduri spiss huma maħsuba bħala trattament kirurġiku definittiv ta' marda fejn id-dijanjożi tkun ġa magħrufa jew suspettata sew, iżda l-analiżi patoloġika ta' dawn l-eżemplari tibqa' importanti biex tiġi kkonfermata d-dijanjożi preċedenti. === Patoloġija klinika === Il-patoloġija klinika hija speċjalizzazzjoni medika marbuta mad-dijanjożi tal-mard abbażi tal-analiżi fil-laboratorju tal-fluwidi tal-ġisem bħad-[[demm]] u l-awrina, kif ukoll tat-tessuti, bl-użu tal-għodda tal-kimika, tal-mikrobijoloġija klinika, tal-ematoloġija u tal-patoloġija molekolari. Il-patologi kliniċi jaħdmu b'kollaborazzjoni mill-qrib mat-teknoloġisti mediċi, mal-amministrazzjonijiet tal-isptarijiet u mat-tobba speċjalizzati. Il-patologi kliniċi jitgħallmu jagħmlu għadd ta' testijiet viżivi u mikroskopiċi, kif ukoll għadd tassew kbir ta' testijiet tal-proprjetajiet bijofiżiċi tal-kampjuni tat-tessuti li jinvolvu l-analizzaturi u l-kulturi awtomatizzati. Xi kultant jintuża t-terminu "speċjalist mediku tal-laboratorju" biex jirreferi għal min jaħdem fil-patoloġija klinika, fosthom it-tobba mediċi, l-ispeċjalisti bid-dottorati u dawk b'dottorati fil-farmakoloġija. L-immunopatoloġija, l-istudju tar-rispons immunoloġiku ta' organiżmu għal infezzjoni, xi kultant titqies li tagħmel parti mid-dominju tal-patoloġija klinika. ==== Ematopatoloġija ==== L-ematopatoloġija hija l-istudju tal-mard taċ-ċelloli tad-demm (inkluż il-kostitwenti bħaċ-ċelloli tad-demm bojod, iċ-ċelloli tad-demm ħomor u l-pjastrini) u tat-tessuti, kif ukoll tal-organi li jagħmlu parti mis-sistema ematopojetika. Dan it-terminu tal-aħħar jirreferi għat-tessuti u għall-organi li jipproduċu u/jew primarjament jospitaw iċ-ċelloli ematopojetiċi u jinkludi l-mudullun tal-għadam, in-nodi linfatiċi, it-timus, il-milsa u tessuti linfojdi oħra. Fl-Istati Uniti, l-ematopatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni ċċertifikata minn bord (liċenzjata skont il-Bord Amerikan tal-Patoloġija) li tiġi pprattikata minn dawk it-tobba li jkunu lestew l-istudji tal-patoloġija ġenerali (anatomika, klinika jew it-tnejn) u sena addizzjonali ta' apprendistat fl-ematoloġija. L-ematopatologu jirrieżamina l-bijopsiji tan-nodi linfatiċi, tal-mudullun tal-għadam u ta' tessuti oħra involuti b'infiltrazzjoni ta' ċelloli tas-sistema ematopojetika. Barra minn hekk, l-ematopatologu jaf ikun inkarigat li jwettaq studji ċitometriċi tal-fluss u/jew tal-ematopatoloġija molekolari. === Patoloġija molekolari === Il-patoloġija molekolari hija ffukata fuq l-istudju u d-dijanjożi tal-mard permezz tal-eżaminazzjoni tal-molekoli fi ħdan l-organi, it-tessuti jew il-fluwidi tal-ġisem. Il-patoloġija molekolari hija multidixxiplinari min-natura tagħha u tikkondividi xi aspetti tal-prattika mal-patoloġija anatomika, mal-patoloġija klinika, mal-bijoloġija molekolari, mal-bijokimika, mal-proteomika u mal-ġenetika. Spiss tiġi applikata f'kuntest li jkun xjentifiku u mediku, u tinvolvi l-iżvilupp ta' approċċi molekolari u ġenetiċi għad-dijanjożi u għall-klassifikazzjoni tal-mard tal-bniedem, għad-disinn u għall-validazzjoni ta' bijomarkaturi ta' previżjoni għar-rispons għat-trattamenti u għall-progressjoni tal-mard, u għas-suxxettibbiltà tal-individwi ta' kostituzzjoni ġenetika differenti għal diżordnijiet partikolari. It-trikkib bejn il-patoloġija molekolari u l-epidemjoloġija huwa rrappreżentat b'qasam relatat, jiġifieri l-"epidemjoloġija patoloġika molekolari". Il-patoloġija molekolari spiss tintuża fid-dijanjożi tal-kanċer u ta' mard infettiv. Il-patoloġija molekolari tintuża primarjament għad-detezzjoni tal-kanċer, bħall-melanoma, glijoma fiz-zokk enċefaliku, tumuri fil-moħħ kif ukoll bosta tipi oħra ta' kanċer u ta' mard infettiv. Hemm bosta tekniki li jinkludu r-reazzjoni katina kwantitattiva bil-polimerażi (qPCR), reazzjoni katina multiplex bil-polimerażi, mikrosekwenza tad-[[DNA]], ibridizzazzjoni fil-post, sekwenzar tad-DNA, assaġġi tat-tessuti bl-immunofluworexxenza bbażati fuq l-antikorpi, profili molekolari tal-patoġeni, u analiżi tal-ġeni batterjali għar-reżistenza antimikrobika. It-tekniki li jintużaw huma bbażati fuq l-analiżi tal-kampjuni tad-DNA u tal-RNA. Il-patoloġija tintuża b'mod wiesa' għat-terapija tal-ġeni u għad-dijanjożi tal-mard. === Patoloġija orali u maksillofaċċali === Il-patoloġija orali u maksillofaċċali hija waħda mid-disa' speċjalizzazzjoni dentali rikonoxxuti mill-Assoċjazzjoni Dentali Amerikana, u xi kultant titqies bħala speċjalizzazzjoni kemm tad-dentistrija kif ukoll tal-patoloġija. Il-patologi orali jridu jlestu 3 snin ta' taħriġ wara d-dottorat bi programm akkreditat u sussegwentement jiksbu status ta' lawrja mill-Bord Amerikan tal-Patoloġija Orali u Maksillofaċċali. Din l-ispeċjalizzazzjoni tiffoka fuq id-dijanjożi, il-ġestjoni klinika u l-investigazzjoni tal-mard li jaffettwa l-kavità orali u l-istrutturi maksillofaċċali tal-madwar, inkluż iżda mhux limitat għal patoloġiji odontoġeniċi, infettivi, epiteljali, tal-glandola salivarja, tal-għadam u tat-tessuti rotob. Hemm trikkib sinifikanti wkoll mal-qasam tal-patoloġija dentali. Għalkemm hija marbuta ma' firxa wiesgħa ta' mardiet tal-kavità orali, il-patologi orali u maksillofaċċali għandhom rwoli distinti minn tal-otorinolarinġologi (speċjalisti tal-"widnejn, tal-imnieħer u tal-griżmejn"), u tal-patologi tat-taħdit. Dawn tal-aħħar jgħinu fid-dijanjożi ta' bosta kundizzjonijiet newroloġiċi jew newromuskolari li huma rilevanti għall-fonoloġija tat-taħdit jew il-bligħ. Minħabba d-disponibbiltà tal-kavità orali għall-eżaminazzjoni mhux invażiva, bosta kundizzjonijiet fl-istudju tal-mard orali jistgħu jiġu dijanjostikati, jew mill-inqas suspettati, mill-eżaminazzjoni grossa, iżda l-bijopsija, smears ċellolari, u analiżi ta' tessuti oħra jibqgħu għodod dijanjostiċi importanti fil-patoloġija orali. == Taħriġ mediku u akkreditazzjoni == Sabiex wieħed isir patologu ġeneralment ikun jeħtieġ taħriġ speċjalizzat wara l-[[edukazzjoni]] medika, iżda n-nazzjonijiet individwali jvarjaw kemxejn fil-liċenzjar mediku meħtieġ tal-patologi. Fl-Istati Uniti, il-patologi jkunu tobba (D.O. jew M.D.) li jkunu temmew l-ewwel lawrja ta' 4 snin, 4 snin ta' taħriġ mediku, u bejn 3 sa 4 snin ta' taħriġ ta' wara l-lawrja fil-patoloġija. It-taħriġ jista' jkun f'żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet primarji, kif rikonoxxut mill-Bord Amerikan tal-Patoloġija: il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika, u kull waħda teħtieġ ċertifikazzjoni separata mill-bord. Il-Bord Osteopatiku Amerikan tal-Patoloġija jirrikonoxxi wkoll erba' speċjalizzazzjonijiet primarji: il-patoloġija anatomika, id-dermatopatoloġija, il-patoloġija forensika u l-mediċina fil-laboratorju. Il-patologi jistgħu jagħmlu apprendistat speċjalizzat f'sottospeċjalizzazzjoni jew f'oħra tal-patoloġija anatomika jew tal-patoloġija klinika. Uħud minn dawn is-sottospeċjalizzazzjonijiet iwasslu għal ċertifikazzjoni addizzjonali mill-bord, filwaqt li oħrajn ma jwasslux għal ċertifikazzjoni addizzjonali. Fir-Renju Unit, il-patologi jkunu tobba liċenzjati mill-Kunsill Mediku Ġenerali tar-Renju Unit. It-taħriġ biex wieħed isir patologu huwa ssorveljat mill-Kulleġġ Irjali tal-Patologi. Wara 4 sa 6 snin ta' lawrja fl-istudju mediku, it-taħriġ ikompli b'programm ta' sentejn oħra. It-taħriġ full-time fl-istopatoloġija attwalment idum bejn 5 snin u 5 snin u nofs, u jinvolvi t-taħriġ speċjalizzat fil-patoloġija kirurġika, fiċ-ċitopatoloġija u fil-patoloġija tal-awtopsji. Huwa possibbli wkoll li wieħed jikseb diploma tal-Kulleġġ Irjali tal-Patologi fil-patoloġija forensika, fid-dermatopatoloġija jew fiċ-ċitopatoloġija, li tirrikonoxxi t-taħroġ speċjalizzat u l-esperjenza addizzjonali, u li jikseb akkreditazzjoni speċjalizzata fil-patoloġija forensika, fil-patoloġija pedjatrika u fin-newropatoloġija. Il-Kunsill Mediku Ġenerali tar-Renju Unit jissorvelja t-taħriġ u l-edukazzjoni mediċi kollha ta' wara l-ewwel lawrja. Fi [[Franza]], il-patoloġija hija sseparata f'żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet distinti: il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika. It-taħriġ għat-tnejn li huma jdum 4 snin. It-taħriġ fil-patoloġija anatomika fl-isptarijiet huwa miftuħ għat-tobba biss, filwaqt li t-taħriġ fil-patoloġija klinika huwa miftuħ kemm għat-tobba kif ukoll għall-ispiżjara. Fl-aħħar tat-tieni sena tat-taħriġ fil-patoloġija klinik, l-istudenti jistgħu jagħżlu bejn il-patoloġija klinika ġenerali u speċjalizzazzjoni f'waħda mid-dixxiplini, iżda ma jistgħux jipprattikaw il-patoloġija anatomika, u dawk li jagħżlu t-taħriġ fil-patoloġija anatomika ma jistgħu jipprattikaw il-patoloġija klinika. == Trikkib ma' mediċina dijanjostika oħra == Għalkemm hemm oqsma separati f'termini tal-prattika medika, għadd ta' oqsma ta' taħriġ fil-mediċina u fix-xjenza medika jirkbu fuq xulxin ferm mal-patoloġija ġenerali, jaħdmu id f'id magħha, jew jikkontribwixxu b'mod sinifikanti għall-fehim tal-patoloġija ta' marda partikolari jew l-imxija tagħha f'individwu. Peress li parti sinifikanti tal-prattika tal-patoloġija ġenerali jkollha x'taqsam mal-kanċer, il-prattika tal-onkoloġija tagħmel użu estensiv kemm tal-patoloġija anatomika kif ukoll tal-patoloġija klinika fid-dijanjożi u fit-trattament. B'mod partikolari, il-bijopsija, l-intersezzjoni u t-testijiet tad-demm huma kollha eżempji ta' xogħol tal-patoloġija li huma essenzjali għad-dijanjożi ta' bosta tipi ta' kanċer u għas-sejbien tal-istadji differenti tal-mases tal-kanċer. B'mod simili, it-tekniki tal-analiżi tat-tessuti u tad-demm tal-patoloġija ġenerali huma ta' importanza ċentrali għall-investigazzjoni ta' mard infettiv serju u b'hekk iserrħu ferm fuq l-oqsma tal-epidemjoloġija, tal-etjoloġija, tal-immunoloġija u tal-parassitoloġija. Il-metodi tal-patoloġija ġenerali huma ta' importanza kbira għar-riċerka bijomedika dwar il-mard, tant li xi kultant jissejħu patoloġija "sperimentali" jew "investigattiva". It-teħid tal-immaġnijiet mediċi jiġġenera rappreżentazzjonijiet viżivi tal-ġisem minn ġewwa għall-analiżi klinika u għall-interventi mediċi. L-immaġnijiet mediċi jiżvelaw dettalji dwar il-fiżjoloġija interna li jgħinu lill-professjonisti mediċi jippjanaw trattamenti xierqa għall-infezzjonijiet fit-tessuti u għal trawmi. L-immaġnijiet mediċi huma ċentrali wkoll għall-forniment tad-data bijometrika meħtieġa biex jiġu stabbiliti l-karatteristiċi referenzjarji bażi tal-anatomija u tal-fiżjoloġija sabiex tiżdied l-akkuratezza li biha jiġu individwati l-abnormalitajiet bikrin jew b'dettall fin. Dawn it-tekniki dijanjostiċi spiss isiru flimkien ma' proċeduri tal-patoloġija ġenerali u huma stess spiss ikunu essenzjali għall-iżvilupp ta' fehim ġdid tal-patoġenesi ta' marda partikolari u għat-traċċar tal-progress tal-marda f'każijiet mediċi speċifiċi. Eżempji ta' suddiviżjonijiet importanti fit-teħid tal-immaġnijiet mediċi jinkludu r-radjoloġija (li tuża t-teknoloġiji tat-teħid tal-immaġnijiet tar-radjografija bir-raġġi X), it-teħid tal-immaġnijiet b'risonanza manjetika, l-ultrasonografija medika (jew l-ultrasound), l-endoskopija, l-elastografija, it-teħid tal-immaġnijiet tattili, it-termografija, il-fotografija medika, il-mediċina nukleari u t-tekniki tat-teħid tal-immaġnijiet funzjonali bħat-tomografija bl-emissjoni tal-pożitroni. Għalkemm strettament ma jwasslu għal immaġnijiet, il-qari minn testijiet dijanjostiċi li jinvolvu l-elettroenċefalografija, il-manjetoenċefalografija u l-elettrokardjografija spiss jagħtu ħjiel dwar l-istat u l-funzjoni ta' ċerti tessuti fil-moħħ u fil-[[qalb]] rispettivament. == Informatika fil-patoloġija == L-informatika fil-patoloġija hija sottoqasam tal-informatika tas-saħħa. Din hija l-użu tat-teknoloġija tal-informatika fil-patoloġija. Tinkorpora l-operazzjonijiet tal-patoloġija fil-laboratorju, l-analiżi tad-data u l-interpretazzjoni tal-informazzjoni relatata mal-patoloġija. L-aspetti ewlenin tal-informatika fil-patoloġija jinkludu: * Sistemi ta' ġestjoni tal-informazzjoni fil-laboratorju (LIMS): l-implimentazzjoni u l-ġestjoni tas-sistemi tal-[[Kompjuter|kompjuters]] maħsuba speċifikament għad-dipartimenti tal-patoloġija. Dawn is-sistemi jgħinu fit-traċċar u fil-ġestjoni tal-eżemplari, tar-riżultati u ta' data patoloġika oħra tal-pazjenti. * Patoloġija diġitali: tinvolvi l-użu tat-teknoloġija diġitali għall-ħolqien, għall-ġestjoni u għall-analiżi tal-immaġnijiet tal-patoloġija. Din tinkludi l-iskennjar laterali u l-analiżi awtomatizzata tal-immaġnijiet. * Telepatoloġija: l-użu tat-teknoloġija biex tiffaċilita l-konsultazzjoni u l-kollaborazzjoni mill-bogħod fil-patoloġija. * Aċċertament tal-kwalità u rapportar: l-implimentazzjoni ta' soluzzjonijiet tal-informatika biex jiġu żgurati l-kwalità u l-akkuratezza tal-proċessi tal-patoloġija. == Psikopatoloġija == Psychopathology is the study of mental illness, particularly of severe disorders. Informed heavily by both psychology and neurology, its purpose is to classify mental illness, elucidate its underlying causes, and guide clinical psychiatric treatment accordingly. Although diagnosis and classification of mental norms and disorders is largely the purview of psychiatry—the results of which are guidelines such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which attempt to classify mental disease mostly on behavioural evidence, though not without controversy—the field is also heavily, and increasingly, informed upon by neuroscience and other of the biological cognitive sciences. Mental or social disorders or behaviours seen as generally unhealthy or excessive in a given individual, to the point where they cause harm or severe disruption to the person's lifestyle, are often called "pathological" (e.g., pathological gambling or pathological liar). == Mhux umani == Although the vast majority of lab work and research in pathology concerns the development of disease in humans, pathology is of significance throughout the biological sciences. Two main catch-all fields exist to represent most complex organisms capable of serving as host to a pathogen or other form of disease: veterinary pathology (concerned with all non-human species of kingdom of Animalia) and phytopathology, which studies disease in plants. === Patoloġija veterinarja === Veterinary pathology covers a vast array of species, but with a significantly smaller number of practitioners, so understanding of disease in non-human animals, especially as regards veterinary practice, varies considerably by species. Nevertheless, significant amounts of pathology research are conducted on animals, for two primary reasons: 1) The origins of diseases are typically zoonotic in nature, and many infectious pathogens have animal vectors and, as such, understanding the mechanisms of action for these pathogens in non-human hosts is essential to the understanding and application of epidemiology and 2) those animals that share physiological and genetic traits with humans can be used as surrogates for the study of the disease and potential treatments as well as the effects of various synthetic products. For this reason, as well as their roles as livestock and companion animals, mammals generally have the largest body of research in veterinary pathology. Animal testing remains a controversial practice, even in cases where it is used to research treatment for human disease. As in human medical pathology, the practice of veterinary pathology is customarily divided into the two main fields of anatomical and clinical pathology. === Patoloġija tal-[[Pjanta|pjanti]] === Although the pathogens and their mechanics differ greatly from those of animals, plants are subject to a wide variety of diseases, including those caused by fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants. Damage caused by insects, mites, vertebrate, and other small herbivores is not considered a part of the domain of plant pathology. The field is connected to plant disease epidemiology and especially concerned with the horticulture of species that are of high importance to the human diet or other human utility. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Mediċina]] [[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]] 01yag6m5cw3503zx6b45pom6zdafn9u 329980 329979 2026-05-15T08:12:10Z Trigcly 17859 /* Psikopatoloġija */ 329980 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Pathologists looking into microscopes (1).jpg|daqsminuri|Patologu jeżamina sezzjoni ta' tessuti għal evidenza ta' ċelloli kanċerużi waqt li [[kirurgu]] qed josserva.]] Il-'''patoloġija''' hija l-istudju tal-[[mard]]. Il-[[kelma]] ''patoloġija'' tirreferi wkoll għall-istudju tal-mard inġenerali, u tinkorpora firxa wiesgħa ta' oqsma tar-riċerka [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġika]] u ta' prattiċi [[Mediċina|mediċi]]. Madankollu, meta jintuża fil-kuntest tat-trattament mediku modern, it-terminu spiss jintuża b'mod idjaq biex jirreferi għall-proċessi u għat-testijiet marbuta mal-qasam mediku kontemporanju tal-"patoloġija ġenerali", qasam li jinkludi għadd ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet mediċi distinti iżda interrelatati li jiddijanjostikaw il-mard, l-iktar permezz tal-analiżi tal-kampjuni tat-tessuti u taċ-ċelloli [[Bniedem|umani]]. Il-patoloġija huwa qasam sinifikanti fid-dijanjożi medika moderna u fir-riċerka medika. [[Tabib]] li jipprattika l-patoloġija jissejjaħ patologu.<ref>Herausgeber., Cross, Simon S., Herausgeber. Underwood, James C. E. 1942- (30 April 2018). ''Underwood's pathology : a clinical approach''. Elsevier – Health Sciences Division. ISBN <bdi>978-0-7020-7212-3</bdi>. OCLC 1043350646.</ref> Bħala qasam tal-inkjesti u tar-riċerka ġenerali, il-patoloġija tindirizza l-komponenti tal-mard: il-kawża, il-mekkaniżmi tal-iżvilupp (patoġenesi), l-alterazzjonijiet strutturali taċ-ċelloli (bidliet morfoloġiċi), u l-konsegwenzi tal-bidliet (manifestazzjonijiet kliniċi).<ref>Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; Aster, Jon C. (2010). ''Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease'' (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN <bdi>978-1-4160-3121-5</bdi>.</ref> Fil-prattika medika komuni, il-patoloġija ġenerali tittratta l-iktar l-analiżi tal-abnormalitajiet kliniċi magħrufa li huma markaturi jew prekursuri kemm tal-mard infettiv kif ukoll tal-mard mhux infettiv, u ssir minn esperti f'waħda miż-żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet ewlenin, il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://freida.ama-assn.org/|titlu=FREIDA™ Pathology-Anatomic and Clinical Specialty Details|sit=FREIDA Residency Program Database {{!}} Medical Fellowship Database {{!}} AMA|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> Diviżjonijiet ulterjuri fl-ispeċjalizzazzjonijiet jeżistu abbażi tat-tipi tal-kampjuni involuti bħal fiċ-ċitopatoloġija, fl-ematopatoloġija u fl-istopatoloġija), tal-organi (bħal fil-patoloġija renali) u tas-sistemi fiżjoloġiċi (il-patoloġija orali), kif ukoll abbażi tal-enfasi tal-eżaminazzjoni (bħal fil-patoloġija forensika). Idjomatikament, "patoloġija" jaf tirreferi wkoll għall-progressjoni prevista jew effettiva ta' mard partikolari (bħal fl-istqarrija "il-forom differenti tal-[[kanċer]] ikollhom diversità ta' patoloġiji", fejn kelma iktar preċiża jaf tkun "patofiżjoloġiji"). Is-suffiss ''-patija'' xi kultant jintuża biex jiġi indikat stat tal-mard f'każijiet ta' mard fiżiku (bħal fil-kardjomijopatija) u ta' kundizzjonijiet psikoloġiċi (bħal fil-psikopatija).<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/138811|titlu=-pathy, comb. form : Oxford English Dictionary|sit=oed.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> == [[Etimoloġija]] == It-terminu [[Lingwa Latina|Latin]] ''pathologia'' oriġina mill-għerq [[Lingwa Griega antika|Grieg Antik]] ''pathos'' (πάθος), li tfisser "esperjenza" jew "tbatija", u ''-logia'' (-λογία), li tfisser "studju ta'". It-terminu għandu oriġini li tmur lura għall-bidu tas-seklu 16, u kulma jmur sar iktar popolarizzat wara s-snin 30 tas-seklu 16.<ref>Janssen, Diederik F. (April 2022). "From Pathognomicha and Passiologia to Pathologia: concise history of a neologism (1486-1598)". ''Pathologica''. '''114''' (2) 10: 185–188. doi:10.32074/1591-951X-261. ISSN 1591-951X. PMC 9248257. <nowiki>PMID 35481571</nowiki>.</ref> == [[Storja]] == L-istudju tal-patoloġija, inkluż l-eżaminazzjoni dettaljata tal-ġisem, id-dissezzjoni u l-inkjesti rigward mard speċifiku, imur lura għal żmien il-qedem. Il-fehim rudimentali ta' bosta kundizzjonijiet kien preżenti fil-biċċa l-kbira tas-soċjetajiet bikrin u ġie rreġistrat fir-rekords tal-iżjed soċjetajiet storiċi bikrin, fosthom dawk tal-Lvant Nofsani, tal-[[Indja]] u taċ-[[Ċina]].<ref>Long, Esmond (1965). ''History of Pathology''. New York: Dover. pp. 1+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-486-61342-0</bdi>.</ref> Sal-perjodu Elleniku tal-[[Greċja antika|Greċja Antika]], sar studju kawżali maqbul tal-mard, u bosta tobba notevoli bikrin (bħal [[Ippokrate]], li għalih jissemma l-ġurament Ippokratiku modern) żviluppaw metodi ta' dijanjożi u ta' pronjożi għal għadd ta' mardiet. Il-prattiċi mediċi tar-[[Imperu Ruman|Rumani]] u dawk tal-[[Biżantini]] komplew minn dawn l-għeruq [[Greċja|Griegi]], iżda bħal f'bosta oqsma tal-inkjesti [[Xjenza|xjentifiċi]], it-tkabbir fil-fehim tal-mediċina staġna kemxejn wara l-Era Klassika, iżda baqa' jiżviluppa bil-mod fost bosta [[Kultura|kulturi]]. B'mod partikolari, saru bosta avvanzi fl-era [[Medjuevu|Medjevali]] tal-[[Iżlam]], u matul dan iż-żmien ġew żviluppati bosta testi ta' patoloġiji kumplessi, ibbażati wkoll fuq it-tradizzjoni Griega. Minkejja dan, it-tkabbir fil-fehim kumpless tal-mard fil-biċċa l-kbira waqaf sa ma l-għarfien u l-isperimentazzjoni reġgħu bdew jiżdiedu fir-[[Rinaxximent]], fl-[[Illuminiżmu]] u fil-[[Barokk]], wara li reġa' feġġ il-metodu empiriku f'ċentri ġodda tal-istudju. Sas-[[seklu 17]], l-istudju tal-mikroskopija rudimentali u l-eżaminazzjoni tat-tessuti wasslu biex il-membru tas-Soċjetà Rjali [[Renju Unit|Brittanika]] [[Robert Hooke]] joħroġ bil-kelma "ċellola", u b'hekk witta t-triq għat-teorija suċċessiva tal-ġermi. Il-patoloġija moderna bdiet tiżviluppa bħala qasam distint ta' stħarriġ matul is-seklu 19 permezz tal-filosfi naturali u tat-tobba li studjaw il-mard u l-istudju informali tal-hekk imsejħa "[[anatomija]] patoloġika" jew "anatomija tal-mard". Madankollu, il-patoloġija bħala qasam formali speċjalizzat ma ġietx żviluppata għalkollox qabel l-aħħar tas-seklu 19 u l-bidu tas-seklu 20, bil-wasla tal-istudju dettaljat tal-mikrobijoloġija. Fis-seklu 19, it-tobba bdew jifhmu li jeżistu l-patoġeni li jikkawżaw il-mard, jew il-"ġermi" (terminu kumplessiv għall-mikrobi "patoġeniċi" jew li jikkawżaw il-mard, bħall-batterji, [[Virus|viruses]], fungi, amibi, mofof, protisti u prijoni) u li kienu kapaċi jirriproduċu u jimmultiplikaw. Dan il-fehim ħa post it-twemmin iktar bikri fl-umuri jew saħansitra fl-aġenti spiritwali, li kien iddomina fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-1,500 sena ta' qabel fil-mediċina Ewropea. Bil-fehim il-ġdid tal-aġenti kawżattivi, it-tobba bdew iqabblu l-karatteristiċi tas-sintomi tal-ġermi skont kif żviluppaw f'xi individwu affettwat u mqabbla mal-karatteristiċi u tal-ġermi u s-sintomi. Dan l-approċċ wassal għall-fehim fundamentali li l-mard kapaċi jirreplika ruħu, u li jista' jkollu bosta effetti profondi u varjati fuq l-ospitant uman. Sabiex jiġu ddeterminati l-kawżi tal-mardiet, l-esperti mediċi wżaw l-iżjed suppożizzjonijiet jew sintomi komuni u aċċettati b'mod wiesa' ta' żminijiethom, li huwa prinċipju ġenerali tal-approċċ li għadu jippersisti fil-mediċina moderna.<ref>King, Lester (1991). ''Transformations in American Medicine: From Benjamin Rush to William Osler''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP. pp. 27+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-8018-4057-9</bdi>.</ref><ref>Machevsky, Alberto; Wick, MR (2004). "Evidence-based Medicine, Medical Decision Analysis, and Pathology". ''Human Pathology''. '''35''' (10): 1179–88. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2004.06.004. <nowiki>PMID 15492984</nowiki>.</ref> Il-mediċina moderna avvanzat b'mod partikolari bl-iżviluppi ulterjuri tal-[[mikroskopju]] għall-analiżi tat-tessuti, bil-kontribut sinifikanti ta' [[Rudolf Virchow]], li wassal għal bosta żviluppi fir-riċerka. Sal-aħħar tas-snin 20 u l-bidu tas-snin 30 tas-seklu 20, il-patoloġija kienet meqjusa bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika.<ref>Rothstein, William G. (1979). "Pathology: The Evolution of a Specialty in American Medicine". ''Medical Care''. '''17''' (10): 975–988. doi:10.1097/00005650-197910000-00001. JSTOR 3763869. <nowiki>PMID 386008</nowiki>. S2CID 23045808.</ref> Flimkien mal-iżviluppi fil-fehim tal-fiżjoloġija ġenerali, sal-bidu tas-seklu 20, l-istudju tal-patoloġija beda jinqasam f'għadd ta' oqsma distinti, li wassal għall-iżvilupp ta' għadd kbir ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet moderni fi ħdan il-patoloġija u dixxiplini relatati tal-mediċina dijanjostika.<ref>Race, George J.; Tillery, G. Weldon; Dysert, Peter A. (Jannar 2004). "A history of pathology and laboratory medicine at Baylor University Medical Center". ''Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center)''. '''17''' (1): 42–55. doi:10.1080/08998280.2004.11927956. ISSN 0899-8280. PMC 1200640. <nowiki>PMID 16200088</nowiki>.</ref> == Patoloġija ġenerali == Il-prattika moderna tal-patoloġija hija maqsuma f'għadd ta' sottodixxiplini fi ħdan l-għanijiet distinti iżda ferm interkonnessi tar-riċerka bijoloġika u l-prattika medika. Ir-riċerka bijomedika dwar il-mard tinkorpora x-xogħol ta' varjetà vasta ta' speċjalisti tax-[[xjenza]] tal-[[ħajja]], billi, fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-partijiet tad-dinja, sabiex wieħed ikun liċenzjat biex jipprattika l-patoloġija bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika, wieħed irid ikun temm l-iskola medika u kiseb liċenzja biex jipprattika l-mediċina. Strutturalment, l-istudju tal-mard huwa maqsum f'bosta oqsma differenti li jistudjaw jew jiddijanjostikaw il-markaturi għall-mard bl-użu ta' metodi u teknoloġiċi partikolari għal tipi speċifiċi ta' skali, organi u tessuti. === Patoloġija anatomika === Il-patoloġija anatomika (fil-[[Commonwealth tan-Nazzjonijiet|Commonwealth]] jew fl-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]]) hija speċjalizzazzjoni medika li għandha x'taqsam mad-dijanjożi tal-mard abbażi tal-eżaminazzjoni grossa, mikroskopika, [[kimika]], immunoloġika u molekolari tal-organi, tat-tessuti u tal-iġsma sħaħ (bħal fl-eżaminazzjoni ġenerali jew fl-awtopsja). Il-patoloġija anatomika fiha nnifisha hija maqsuma f'sottooqsma, fosthom il-patoloġija kirurġika, iċ-ċitopatoloġija u l-patoloġija forensika. Il-patoloġija anatomika hija waħda miż-żewġ oqsma prinċipali tal-prattika medika tal-patoloġija, u l-oħra hija l-patoloġija klinika, id-dijanjożi tal-mard permezz tal-analiżi fil-laboratorju tal-fluwidi u tat-tessuti tal-ġisem. Xi kultant, il-patologi jipprattikaw kemm il-patoloġija anatomika kif ukoll dik klinika, kombinament magħruf bħala patoloġija ġenerali. ==== Ċitopatoloġija ==== Iċ-ċitopatoloġija (xi kultant magħrufa bħala ċ-"ċitoloġija") hija l-fergħa tal-patoloġija li tistudja u tiddijanjostika l-mard fuq il-livell ċellolari. Normalment tintuża biex tgħin fid-dijanjożi tal-kanċer, iżda tgħin ukoll fid-dijanjożi ta' ċertu mard infettiv u kundizzjonijiet infjammatorji oħra, kif ukoll leżjonijiet tat-tirojde, mard li jinvolvi l-kavitajiet sterili tal-ġisem (peritoneali, plewrali u ċerebrospinali), u firxa wiesgħa ta' siti oħra tal-ġisem. Iċ-ċitopatoloġija ġeneralment tintuża fuq kampanji ta' ċelloli liberi jew frammenti tat-tessuti (b'kuntrast mal-istopatoloġija, li tistudja t-tessuti sħaħ) u testijiet ċitopatoloġiċi li jistgħu jingħaddu fuq slide tal-[[ħġieġ]] tal-mikroskopju għal tebgħat u eżaminazzjoni mikroskopiku sussegwenti. Madankollu, il-kampjuni ċitoloġiċi jistgħu jitħejjew b'modi oħra, inkluż b'ċitoċentrifugazzjoni. ==== Dermatopatoloġija ==== Id-dermatopatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika li tiffoka fuq il-ġilda u l-bqija tas-sistema integumentarja bħala organu. Hija unika, peress li hemm żewġ modi kif tabib jista' jikseb speċjalizzazzjoni. Il-patologi ġenerali u d-dermatologi ġenerali kollha jitħarrġu fil-patoloġija tal-ġilda, għaldaqstant it-terminu dermatopatologu jirreferi għalihom it-tnejn skont ċertu livell ta' akkreditazzjoni u esperjenza; fl-Istati Uniti, patologu ġenerali jew dermatologu jistgħu jagħmlu apprendistat ta' sena sa sentejn fil-qasam tad-dermatopatoloġija. It-tlestija ta' dan l-apprendistat twassal għall-possibbiltà li wieħed jagħmel eżami quddiem bord ta' sottospeċjalizzazzjoni biex isir dermatopatologu ċċertifikat mill-bord. Id-dermatologi kapaċi jagħrfu l-biċċa l-kbira tal-mardiet tal-ġilda abbażi tad-dehra, id-distribuzzjonijiet anatomiċi u l-imġiba. Madankollu, xi kultant dawk il-kriterji ma jwasslux għal dijanjożi konklużiva, u ssir bijopsija tal-ġilda biex tiġi eżaminata taħt il-mikroskopju bl-użu ta' testijiet istoloġiċi tas-soltu. F'xi każijiet, ikun meħtieġ li jsir ittestjar speċjalizzat fuq il-bijopsiji, fosthom l-immunofluworexxenza, l-immunoistokimika, il-mikroskopija bl-elettroni, iċ-ċitometrija bil-fluss u l-analiżi patoloġika molekolari. Waħda mill-ikbar sfidi tad-dermatopatoloġija hija l-kobor tagħha. Jeżistu iktar minn 1,500 diżordni differenti tal-ġilda, inkluż raxx tal-ġilda u neoplażmi. Għaldaqstant, id-dermatopatologi jrid ikollhom bażi wiesgħa ta' għarfien fid-dermatoloġija klinika, u jkunu midħla ta' diversi oqsma oħra ta' speċjalizzazzjoni fil-mediċina. ==== Patoloġija forensika ==== Il-patoloġija forensika tiffoka fuq li tiġi ddeterminata l-kawża tal-[[mewt]] b'eżaminazzjoni ''post mortem'' tal-katavru jew ta' fdalijiet parzjali. Tipikament issir awtopsja minn eżaminatur mediku, spiss waqt l-investigazzjonijiet kriminali; f'dan ir-rwol, l-eżaminaturi mediċi sikwit jiġu mistoqsija jikkonfirmaw l-identità ta' katavru. Ir-rekwiżiti biex wieħed isir prattikant liċenzjat tal-patoloġija forensika jvarjaw minn pajjiż għal ieħor (u saħansitra fl-istess nazzjon xi kultant) iżda tipikament rekwiżit minimu huwa dottorat mediku bi speċjalizzazzjoni fil-patoloġija ġenerali jew anatomika bi studju sussegwenti fil-mediċina forensika. Il-metodi li jużaw ix-xjenzati forensiċi biex jiddeterminaw il-mewt jinkludu l-eżaminazzjoni tal-eżemplari tat-tessuti sabiex tiġi identifikata l-preżenza jew l-assenza ta' mard naturali u sejbiet mikroskopiċi oħra, l-interpretazzjonijiet tat-tossikoloġija fuq it-tessuti u l-fluwidi tal-ġisem biex tiġi ddeterminata l-kawża kimika ta' dożi eċċessivi, avvelenamenti jew każijiet oħra li jinvolvu aġenti tossiċi, u eżaminazzjonijiet ta' trawmi fiżiċi. Il-patoloġija forensika hija komponent ewlieni fil-qasam transdixxiplinari tax-xjenza forensika. ==== Istopatoloġija ==== L-istopatoloġija tirreferi għall-eżaminazzjoni mikroskopika ta' diversi forom ta' tessuti umani. B'mod speċifiku, fil-mediċina klinika, l-istopatoloġija tirreferi għall-eżaminazzjoni ta' bijopsija jew eżemplar kirurġiku minn patologu, wara li l-eżemplar ikun ġie pproċessat u s-sezzjonijiet istoloġiċi jkunu tpoġġew fuq slides tal-ħġieġ. Dan jikkuntrasta mal-metodi taċ-ċitopatoloġija, li tuża ċ-ċelloli liberi jew il-frammenti tat-tessuti. L-eżaminazzjoni istopatoloġika tat-tessuti tibda b'operazzjoni, b'bijopsija jew b'awtopsija. It-tessuti jitneħħew mill-ġisem ta' organiżmu u mbagħad jitpoġġew f'fissativ li jistabbilizza t-tessuti biex jiġi evitat id-deterjorament. L-iżjed fissativ komuni huwa l-formalin, għalkemm l-iffissar ta' sezzjoni ffriżata huwa komuni wkoll. Sabiex wieħed jara t-tessuti b'mikroskopju, is-sezzjonijiet jittebbgħu b'pigment wieħed jew iktar. L-għan ta' dan hu li jiġu żvelati l-komponenti ċellolari; il-kontrotebgħat jintużaw biex jipprovdu kuntrast. L-istokimika tirreferi għax-xjenza tal-użu tar-reazzjonijiet kimiċi bejn is-sustanzi kimiċi tal-laboratorju u l-komponenti fi ħdan it-tessuti. Is-slides istoloġiċi mbagħad jiġu interpretati b'mod dijanjostiku u r-rapport patoloġiku li jirriżulta jiddeskrivi s-sejbiet istoloġiċi u l-opinjoni tal-patologu. Fil-każ tal-kanċer, dan jirrappreżenta d-dijanjożi tat-tessuti meħtieġa għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-protokolli tat-trattamenti. ==== Newropatoloġija ==== In-newropatoloġija hija l-istudju tal-mard fit-tessuti tas-sistema nervuża, normalment fil-forma ta' bijopsiji kirurġiċi jew xi kultant imħuħ sħaħ fil-każ ta' awtopsija. In-newropatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika, tan-newroloġija u tan-newrokirurġija. F'bosta pajjiżi, in-newropatoloġija titqies bħala sottoqasam tal-patoloġija anatomika. Tabib li jispeċjalizza fin-newropatoloġija, normalment wara li jlesti apprendistat fil-patoloġija anatomika jew ġenerali, jissejjaħ newropatologu. Fil-prattika klinika ta' kuljum, newropatologu jiġġenera d-dijanjożi għall-pazjenti. Jekk ikun hemm suspett ta' mard fis-sistema nervuża, u d-dijanjożi ma tkunx tista' ssir b'metodi inqas invażivi, issir bijopsija tat-tessuti nervużi mill-moħħ jew jiġi estratt fluwidu ċerebrospinali mis-sinsla biex jgħin fid-dijanjożi. Bijopsija normalment tintalab wara li tinstab massa bl-immaġnijiet mediċi. Bl-awtopsji, ix-xogħol prinċipali tan-newropatologu hu li jgħin fid-dijanjożi ''post mortem'' ta' diversi kundizzjonijiet li jaffettwaw is-sistema nervuża ċentrali. Il-bijopsiji jistgħu jikkonsistu wkoll mill-ġilda. L-ittestjar tad-densità tal-fibri nervużi epidermali (ENFD) huwa test tan-newropatoloġija li ġie żviluppat iktar reċentement fejn issir bijopsija biex jiġu identifikati newropatiji tal-fibri nervużi żgħar bl-analiżi tal-fibri nervużi tal-ġilda. Dan it-test qed isir disponibbli f'għadd ta' laboratorji kif ukoll f'bosta universitajiet; jissostitwixxi t-test tal-bijopsija nervuża tradizzjonali peress li huwa inqas invażiv. ==== Patoloġija pulmonari ==== Il-patoloġija pulmonari hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika (u speċjalment kirurġika) li tittratta d-dijanjożi u l-karatterizzazzjoni tal-mard neoplastiku u mhux neoplastiku tal-[[Pulmun|pulmuni]] u tal-plewra toraċika. L-eżemplari dijanjostiċi spiss jinklisbu permezz ta' bijopsija transbronkjali bronkoskopika, bijopsija perkutanja ggwidata b'CT scan jew kirurġija toraċika assistita bil-filmati. Dawn it-testijiet jaf ikunu meħtieġa għal dijanjożi bejn infezzjoni, infjammazzjoni jew kundizzjonijiet fibrotiċi. ==== Patoloġija renali ==== Il-patoloġija renali hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika li tittratta d-dijanjożi u l-karatterizzazzjoni tal-mard tal-kliewi. F'ambjent mediku, il-patologi renali jaħdmu mill-qrib man-nefrologi u mal-kirurgi tat-trapjanti, li tipikament jiksbu eżemplari dijanjostiċi permezz ta' bijopsija renali perkutanja. Il-patologu renali jrid jissintetizza s-sejbiet mill-istoloġija mikroskopika tradizzjonali, mill-mikroskopija bl-elettroni u bl-immunofluworexxenza biex jikseb dijanjożi definittiva. Il-mard renali mediku jista' jaffettwa l-glomerulu, it-tubuli u l-interstizju, il-vażi jew taħlita ta' dawn il-kompartimenti. ==== Patoloġija kirurġika ==== Il-patoloġija kirurġika hija waħda mill-oqsma primarji tal-prattika tal-biċċa l-kbira tal-patologi anatomiċi. Il-patoloġija kirurġika tinvolvi l-eżaminazzjoni grossa u mikroskopika tal-eżemplari kirurġiċi, kif ukoll bijopsiji li jsiru minn kirurgi u persunal mhux kirurġiku bħal internisti ġenerali, sottospeċjalisti mediċi, dermatologi u radjologi intervenzjonali. Spiss il-qtugħ ta' kampjun ta' tessut huwa l-aqwa evidenza u l-iktar waħda definittiva ta' marda (jew ta' nuqqas tagħha) f'każijiet fejn it-tessuti jitneħħew b'mod kirurġiku minn pazjent. Dawn id-determinazzjonijiet normalment jitwettqu permezz ta' taħlita ta' eżaminazzjonijiet grossi (jiġifieri makroskopiċi) u istoloġiċi (jiġifieri mikroskopiċi) tat-tessuti, u jistgħu jinvolvu evalwazzjonijiet tal-proprjetajiet molekolari tat-tessuti bl-immunoistokimika jew b'testijiet oħra tal-laboratorju. Hemm żewġ tipi ewlenin ta' eżemplari li jitressqu għal analiżi tal-patoloġija kirurġika: il-bijopsiji u l-intersezzjoni kirurġika. Bijopsija hija t-tneħħija ta' biċċa żgħira ta' tessut primarjament għal analiżi tal-patoloġija kirurġika, spiss sabiex twassal għal dijanjożi definittiva. Fost it-tipi ta' bijopsiji hemm il-bijopsiji bil-labar, li jinkisbu bl-użu ta' labar kbar, xi kultant bil-gwida ta' tekniki radjoloġiċi bħall-ultrasound, CT scan, jew immaġnijiet ta' risonanza manjetika. Il-bijopsiji b'inċiżjoni jinkisbu permezz ta' proċeduri kirurġiċi dijanjostiċi fejn titneħħa parti minn leżjoni suspettuża, filwaqt li fil-bijopsiji bil-qtugħ titneħħa leżjoni sħiħa, u jkunu simili għal intersezzjonijiet kirurġiċi terapewtiċi. Il-bijopsiji intersezzjonali tal-leżjonijiet tal-ġilda u tal-polipi gastrointestinali huma komuni ħafna. L-interpretazzjoni tal-patologu rigward bijopsija hija kritika biex tiġi stabbilita dijanjożi ta' tumur benevoli jew malinn, u tista' tiddistingwi bejn it-tipi u l-livelli differenti ta' kanċer, kif ukoll tiddetermina l-attività ta' mogħdijiet molekolari speċifiċi fit-tumur. L-eżemplari tal-intersezzjonijiet kirurġiċi jinkisbu bit-tneħħija kirurġika terapewtika ta' żona marida sħiħa jew organu sħiħ (u okkażjonalment ta' diversi organi). Dawn il-proċeduri spiss huma maħsuba bħala trattament kirurġiku definittiv ta' marda fejn id-dijanjożi tkun ġa magħrufa jew suspettata sew, iżda l-analiżi patoloġika ta' dawn l-eżemplari tibqa' importanti biex tiġi kkonfermata d-dijanjożi preċedenti. === Patoloġija klinika === Il-patoloġija klinika hija speċjalizzazzjoni medika marbuta mad-dijanjożi tal-mard abbażi tal-analiżi fil-laboratorju tal-fluwidi tal-ġisem bħad-[[demm]] u l-awrina, kif ukoll tat-tessuti, bl-użu tal-għodda tal-kimika, tal-mikrobijoloġija klinika, tal-ematoloġija u tal-patoloġija molekolari. Il-patologi kliniċi jaħdmu b'kollaborazzjoni mill-qrib mat-teknoloġisti mediċi, mal-amministrazzjonijiet tal-isptarijiet u mat-tobba speċjalizzati. Il-patologi kliniċi jitgħallmu jagħmlu għadd ta' testijiet viżivi u mikroskopiċi, kif ukoll għadd tassew kbir ta' testijiet tal-proprjetajiet bijofiżiċi tal-kampjuni tat-tessuti li jinvolvu l-analizzaturi u l-kulturi awtomatizzati. Xi kultant jintuża t-terminu "speċjalist mediku tal-laboratorju" biex jirreferi għal min jaħdem fil-patoloġija klinika, fosthom it-tobba mediċi, l-ispeċjalisti bid-dottorati u dawk b'dottorati fil-farmakoloġija. L-immunopatoloġija, l-istudju tar-rispons immunoloġiku ta' organiżmu għal infezzjoni, xi kultant titqies li tagħmel parti mid-dominju tal-patoloġija klinika. ==== Ematopatoloġija ==== L-ematopatoloġija hija l-istudju tal-mard taċ-ċelloli tad-demm (inkluż il-kostitwenti bħaċ-ċelloli tad-demm bojod, iċ-ċelloli tad-demm ħomor u l-pjastrini) u tat-tessuti, kif ukoll tal-organi li jagħmlu parti mis-sistema ematopojetika. Dan it-terminu tal-aħħar jirreferi għat-tessuti u għall-organi li jipproduċu u/jew primarjament jospitaw iċ-ċelloli ematopojetiċi u jinkludi l-mudullun tal-għadam, in-nodi linfatiċi, it-timus, il-milsa u tessuti linfojdi oħra. Fl-Istati Uniti, l-ematopatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni ċċertifikata minn bord (liċenzjata skont il-Bord Amerikan tal-Patoloġija) li tiġi pprattikata minn dawk it-tobba li jkunu lestew l-istudji tal-patoloġija ġenerali (anatomika, klinika jew it-tnejn) u sena addizzjonali ta' apprendistat fl-ematoloġija. L-ematopatologu jirrieżamina l-bijopsiji tan-nodi linfatiċi, tal-mudullun tal-għadam u ta' tessuti oħra involuti b'infiltrazzjoni ta' ċelloli tas-sistema ematopojetika. Barra minn hekk, l-ematopatologu jaf ikun inkarigat li jwettaq studji ċitometriċi tal-fluss u/jew tal-ematopatoloġija molekolari. === Patoloġija molekolari === Il-patoloġija molekolari hija ffukata fuq l-istudju u d-dijanjożi tal-mard permezz tal-eżaminazzjoni tal-molekoli fi ħdan l-organi, it-tessuti jew il-fluwidi tal-ġisem. Il-patoloġija molekolari hija multidixxiplinari min-natura tagħha u tikkondividi xi aspetti tal-prattika mal-patoloġija anatomika, mal-patoloġija klinika, mal-bijoloġija molekolari, mal-bijokimika, mal-proteomika u mal-ġenetika. Spiss tiġi applikata f'kuntest li jkun xjentifiku u mediku, u tinvolvi l-iżvilupp ta' approċċi molekolari u ġenetiċi għad-dijanjożi u għall-klassifikazzjoni tal-mard tal-bniedem, għad-disinn u għall-validazzjoni ta' bijomarkaturi ta' previżjoni għar-rispons għat-trattamenti u għall-progressjoni tal-mard, u għas-suxxettibbiltà tal-individwi ta' kostituzzjoni ġenetika differenti għal diżordnijiet partikolari. It-trikkib bejn il-patoloġija molekolari u l-epidemjoloġija huwa rrappreżentat b'qasam relatat, jiġifieri l-"epidemjoloġija patoloġika molekolari". Il-patoloġija molekolari spiss tintuża fid-dijanjożi tal-kanċer u ta' mard infettiv. Il-patoloġija molekolari tintuża primarjament għad-detezzjoni tal-kanċer, bħall-melanoma, glijoma fiz-zokk enċefaliku, tumuri fil-moħħ kif ukoll bosta tipi oħra ta' kanċer u ta' mard infettiv. Hemm bosta tekniki li jinkludu r-reazzjoni katina kwantitattiva bil-polimerażi (qPCR), reazzjoni katina multiplex bil-polimerażi, mikrosekwenza tad-[[DNA]], ibridizzazzjoni fil-post, sekwenzar tad-DNA, assaġġi tat-tessuti bl-immunofluworexxenza bbażati fuq l-antikorpi, profili molekolari tal-patoġeni, u analiżi tal-ġeni batterjali għar-reżistenza antimikrobika. It-tekniki li jintużaw huma bbażati fuq l-analiżi tal-kampjuni tad-DNA u tal-RNA. Il-patoloġija tintuża b'mod wiesa' għat-terapija tal-ġeni u għad-dijanjożi tal-mard. === Patoloġija orali u maksillofaċċali === Il-patoloġija orali u maksillofaċċali hija waħda mid-disa' speċjalizzazzjoni dentali rikonoxxuti mill-Assoċjazzjoni Dentali Amerikana, u xi kultant titqies bħala speċjalizzazzjoni kemm tad-dentistrija kif ukoll tal-patoloġija. Il-patologi orali jridu jlestu 3 snin ta' taħriġ wara d-dottorat bi programm akkreditat u sussegwentement jiksbu status ta' lawrja mill-Bord Amerikan tal-Patoloġija Orali u Maksillofaċċali. Din l-ispeċjalizzazzjoni tiffoka fuq id-dijanjożi, il-ġestjoni klinika u l-investigazzjoni tal-mard li jaffettwa l-kavità orali u l-istrutturi maksillofaċċali tal-madwar, inkluż iżda mhux limitat għal patoloġiji odontoġeniċi, infettivi, epiteljali, tal-glandola salivarja, tal-għadam u tat-tessuti rotob. Hemm trikkib sinifikanti wkoll mal-qasam tal-patoloġija dentali. Għalkemm hija marbuta ma' firxa wiesgħa ta' mardiet tal-kavità orali, il-patologi orali u maksillofaċċali għandhom rwoli distinti minn tal-otorinolarinġologi (speċjalisti tal-"widnejn, tal-imnieħer u tal-griżmejn"), u tal-patologi tat-taħdit. Dawn tal-aħħar jgħinu fid-dijanjożi ta' bosta kundizzjonijiet newroloġiċi jew newromuskolari li huma rilevanti għall-fonoloġija tat-taħdit jew il-bligħ. Minħabba d-disponibbiltà tal-kavità orali għall-eżaminazzjoni mhux invażiva, bosta kundizzjonijiet fl-istudju tal-mard orali jistgħu jiġu dijanjostikati, jew mill-inqas suspettati, mill-eżaminazzjoni grossa, iżda l-bijopsija, smears ċellolari, u analiżi ta' tessuti oħra jibqgħu għodod dijanjostiċi importanti fil-patoloġija orali. == Taħriġ mediku u akkreditazzjoni == Sabiex wieħed isir patologu ġeneralment ikun jeħtieġ taħriġ speċjalizzat wara l-[[edukazzjoni]] medika, iżda n-nazzjonijiet individwali jvarjaw kemxejn fil-liċenzjar mediku meħtieġ tal-patologi. Fl-Istati Uniti, il-patologi jkunu tobba (D.O. jew M.D.) li jkunu temmew l-ewwel lawrja ta' 4 snin, 4 snin ta' taħriġ mediku, u bejn 3 sa 4 snin ta' taħriġ ta' wara l-lawrja fil-patoloġija. It-taħriġ jista' jkun f'żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet primarji, kif rikonoxxut mill-Bord Amerikan tal-Patoloġija: il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika, u kull waħda teħtieġ ċertifikazzjoni separata mill-bord. Il-Bord Osteopatiku Amerikan tal-Patoloġija jirrikonoxxi wkoll erba' speċjalizzazzjonijiet primarji: il-patoloġija anatomika, id-dermatopatoloġija, il-patoloġija forensika u l-mediċina fil-laboratorju. Il-patologi jistgħu jagħmlu apprendistat speċjalizzat f'sottospeċjalizzazzjoni jew f'oħra tal-patoloġija anatomika jew tal-patoloġija klinika. Uħud minn dawn is-sottospeċjalizzazzjonijiet iwasslu għal ċertifikazzjoni addizzjonali mill-bord, filwaqt li oħrajn ma jwasslux għal ċertifikazzjoni addizzjonali. Fir-Renju Unit, il-patologi jkunu tobba liċenzjati mill-Kunsill Mediku Ġenerali tar-Renju Unit. It-taħriġ biex wieħed isir patologu huwa ssorveljat mill-Kulleġġ Irjali tal-Patologi. Wara 4 sa 6 snin ta' lawrja fl-istudju mediku, it-taħriġ ikompli b'programm ta' sentejn oħra. It-taħriġ full-time fl-istopatoloġija attwalment idum bejn 5 snin u 5 snin u nofs, u jinvolvi t-taħriġ speċjalizzat fil-patoloġija kirurġika, fiċ-ċitopatoloġija u fil-patoloġija tal-awtopsji. Huwa possibbli wkoll li wieħed jikseb diploma tal-Kulleġġ Irjali tal-Patologi fil-patoloġija forensika, fid-dermatopatoloġija jew fiċ-ċitopatoloġija, li tirrikonoxxi t-taħroġ speċjalizzat u l-esperjenza addizzjonali, u li jikseb akkreditazzjoni speċjalizzata fil-patoloġija forensika, fil-patoloġija pedjatrika u fin-newropatoloġija. Il-Kunsill Mediku Ġenerali tar-Renju Unit jissorvelja t-taħriġ u l-edukazzjoni mediċi kollha ta' wara l-ewwel lawrja. Fi [[Franza]], il-patoloġija hija sseparata f'żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet distinti: il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika. It-taħriġ għat-tnejn li huma jdum 4 snin. It-taħriġ fil-patoloġija anatomika fl-isptarijiet huwa miftuħ għat-tobba biss, filwaqt li t-taħriġ fil-patoloġija klinika huwa miftuħ kemm għat-tobba kif ukoll għall-ispiżjara. Fl-aħħar tat-tieni sena tat-taħriġ fil-patoloġija klinik, l-istudenti jistgħu jagħżlu bejn il-patoloġija klinika ġenerali u speċjalizzazzjoni f'waħda mid-dixxiplini, iżda ma jistgħux jipprattikaw il-patoloġija anatomika, u dawk li jagħżlu t-taħriġ fil-patoloġija anatomika ma jistgħu jipprattikaw il-patoloġija klinika. == Trikkib ma' mediċina dijanjostika oħra == Għalkemm hemm oqsma separati f'termini tal-prattika medika, għadd ta' oqsma ta' taħriġ fil-mediċina u fix-xjenza medika jirkbu fuq xulxin ferm mal-patoloġija ġenerali, jaħdmu id f'id magħha, jew jikkontribwixxu b'mod sinifikanti għall-fehim tal-patoloġija ta' marda partikolari jew l-imxija tagħha f'individwu. Peress li parti sinifikanti tal-prattika tal-patoloġija ġenerali jkollha x'taqsam mal-kanċer, il-prattika tal-onkoloġija tagħmel użu estensiv kemm tal-patoloġija anatomika kif ukoll tal-patoloġija klinika fid-dijanjożi u fit-trattament. B'mod partikolari, il-bijopsija, l-intersezzjoni u t-testijiet tad-demm huma kollha eżempji ta' xogħol tal-patoloġija li huma essenzjali għad-dijanjożi ta' bosta tipi ta' kanċer u għas-sejbien tal-istadji differenti tal-mases tal-kanċer. B'mod simili, it-tekniki tal-analiżi tat-tessuti u tad-demm tal-patoloġija ġenerali huma ta' importanza ċentrali għall-investigazzjoni ta' mard infettiv serju u b'hekk iserrħu ferm fuq l-oqsma tal-epidemjoloġija, tal-etjoloġija, tal-immunoloġija u tal-parassitoloġija. Il-metodi tal-patoloġija ġenerali huma ta' importanza kbira għar-riċerka bijomedika dwar il-mard, tant li xi kultant jissejħu patoloġija "sperimentali" jew "investigattiva". It-teħid tal-immaġnijiet mediċi jiġġenera rappreżentazzjonijiet viżivi tal-ġisem minn ġewwa għall-analiżi klinika u għall-interventi mediċi. L-immaġnijiet mediċi jiżvelaw dettalji dwar il-fiżjoloġija interna li jgħinu lill-professjonisti mediċi jippjanaw trattamenti xierqa għall-infezzjonijiet fit-tessuti u għal trawmi. L-immaġnijiet mediċi huma ċentrali wkoll għall-forniment tad-data bijometrika meħtieġa biex jiġu stabbiliti l-karatteristiċi referenzjarji bażi tal-anatomija u tal-fiżjoloġija sabiex tiżdied l-akkuratezza li biha jiġu individwati l-abnormalitajiet bikrin jew b'dettall fin. Dawn it-tekniki dijanjostiċi spiss isiru flimkien ma' proċeduri tal-patoloġija ġenerali u huma stess spiss ikunu essenzjali għall-iżvilupp ta' fehim ġdid tal-patoġenesi ta' marda partikolari u għat-traċċar tal-progress tal-marda f'każijiet mediċi speċifiċi. Eżempji ta' suddiviżjonijiet importanti fit-teħid tal-immaġnijiet mediċi jinkludu r-radjoloġija (li tuża t-teknoloġiji tat-teħid tal-immaġnijiet tar-radjografija bir-raġġi X), it-teħid tal-immaġnijiet b'risonanza manjetika, l-ultrasonografija medika (jew l-ultrasound), l-endoskopija, l-elastografija, it-teħid tal-immaġnijiet tattili, it-termografija, il-fotografija medika, il-mediċina nukleari u t-tekniki tat-teħid tal-immaġnijiet funzjonali bħat-tomografija bl-emissjoni tal-pożitroni. Għalkemm strettament ma jwasslu għal immaġnijiet, il-qari minn testijiet dijanjostiċi li jinvolvu l-elettroenċefalografija, il-manjetoenċefalografija u l-elettrokardjografija spiss jagħtu ħjiel dwar l-istat u l-funzjoni ta' ċerti tessuti fil-moħħ u fil-[[qalb]] rispettivament. == Informatika fil-patoloġija == L-informatika fil-patoloġija hija sottoqasam tal-informatika tas-saħħa. Din hija l-użu tat-teknoloġija tal-informatika fil-patoloġija. Tinkorpora l-operazzjonijiet tal-patoloġija fil-laboratorju, l-analiżi tad-data u l-interpretazzjoni tal-informazzjoni relatata mal-patoloġija. L-aspetti ewlenin tal-informatika fil-patoloġija jinkludu: * Sistemi ta' ġestjoni tal-informazzjoni fil-laboratorju (LIMS): l-implimentazzjoni u l-ġestjoni tas-sistemi tal-[[Kompjuter|kompjuters]] maħsuba speċifikament għad-dipartimenti tal-patoloġija. Dawn is-sistemi jgħinu fit-traċċar u fil-ġestjoni tal-eżemplari, tar-riżultati u ta' data patoloġika oħra tal-pazjenti. * Patoloġija diġitali: tinvolvi l-użu tat-teknoloġija diġitali għall-ħolqien, għall-ġestjoni u għall-analiżi tal-immaġnijiet tal-patoloġija. Din tinkludi l-iskennjar laterali u l-analiżi awtomatizzata tal-immaġnijiet. * Telepatoloġija: l-użu tat-teknoloġija biex tiffaċilita l-konsultazzjoni u l-kollaborazzjoni mill-bogħod fil-patoloġija. * Aċċertament tal-kwalità u rapportar: l-implimentazzjoni ta' soluzzjonijiet tal-informatika biex jiġu żgurati l-kwalità u l-akkuratezza tal-proċessi tal-patoloġija. == Psikopatoloġija == Il-psikopatoloġija hija l-istudju tal-mard mentali, b'mod partikolari ta' diżordnijiet gravi. Tiġi infurmata ferm kemm mill-[[psikoloġija]] u min-newroloġija, l-iskop tagħha hu li tikklassifika l-mard mentali, tasal għall-kawżi sottostanti, u tiggwida t-trattament psikjatriku kliniku xieraq. Għalkemm id-dijanjożi u l-klassifikazzjoni tan-normi u tad-diżordnijiet mentali huma fil-biċċa l-kbira kompitu tal-psikjatrija — ir-riżultati tagħhom ikunu linji gwida bħall-Manwal Dijanjostiku u Statistiku tad-Diżordnijiet Mentali, li jippruvaw jikklassifikaw il-mard mentali l-iktar abbażi tal-evidenza komportamentali, iżda mhux b'mod mhux kontroversjali — il-qasam jiġi infurmat ferm u kulma jmur bin-newroxjenza u b'xjenzi konjittivi bijoloġiċi oħra. Id-diżordnijiet jew l-imġiba mentali jew soċjali li jitqiesu ġeneralment bħala mhux sani jew eċċessivi f'xi individwu partikolari, tant li jikkawżaw ħsara jew tfixkil gravi fl-istil ta' ħajja tal-persuna, spiss jissejħu "patoloġiċi" (eż. il-logħob tal-azzard patoloġiku jew il-gideb patoloġiku). == Mhux umani == Għalkemm il-maġġoranza l-kbira tax-xogħol u tar-riċerka fil-laboratorju fil-patoloġija jikkonċernaw l-iżvilupp tal-mard fil-bnedmin, il-patoloġija hija importanti fix-xjenzi bijoloġiċi kollha. Jeżistu żewġ oqsma kumplessivi li jirrappreżentaw il-biċċa l-kbira tal-organiżmi kumplessi li kapaċi jservu bħala ospitant għal patoġenu jew forma oħra ta' mard: il-patoloġija veterinarja (li tikkonċerna l-[[Speċi|ispeċijiet]] mhux umani kollha tar-[[Renju (bijoloġija)|renju]] tal-[[Annimal|annimali]]) u l-fitopatoloġija, li tistudja l-mard fil-[[Pjanta|pjanti]]. === Patoloġija veterinarja === Il-patoloġija veterinarja tkopri firxa wiesgħa ta' speċijiet, iżda b'għadd ferm iżgħar ta' prattikanti, għaldaqstant il-fehim tal-mard fl-annimali mhux umani, speċjalment fir-rigward tal-prattika veterinarja, ivarja ferm skont l-ispeċi. Minkejja dan, ammonti sinifikanti ta' riċerki fil-patoloġija jsiru fuq l-annimali, għal żewġ raġunijiet primarji: 1) l-oriġini tal-mard tipikament ikun ta' natura żoonotika, u bosta patoġeni infettivi jkollhom vetturi li jkunu annimali; b'hekk il-fehim tal-mekkaniżmi ta' azzjoni għal dawn il-patoġeni f'ospitanti mhux umani huwa essenzjali għall-fehim u għall-applikazzjoni tal-epidemjoloġija, u 2) dawk l-annimali li jikkondividu tratti fiżjoloġiċi u ġenetiċi mal-bnedmin jistgħu jintużaw bħala surrogati għall-istudju tal-mard u tat-trattamenti potenzjali, kif ukoll tal-effetti ta' diversi prodotti sintetiċi. Għal din ir-raġuni, kif ukoll minħabba r-rwoli tagħhom bħala bhejjem tat-trobbija u annimali ta' akkumpanjament, ġeneralment il-[[Mammiferu|mammiferi]] jkollhom l-ikbar korp ta' riċerka fil-patoloġija veterinarja. L-ittestjar fuq l-annimali għadu prattika kontroversjali, saħansita f'każijiet fejn jintużaw għar-riċerka ta' trattamenti għall-mard tal-bniedem. Bħal fil-patoloġija medika umana, il-prattika tal-patoloġija veterinarja spiss tinqasam fiż-żewġ oqsma prinċipali tal-patoloġija anatomika u tal-patoloġija klinika. === Patoloġija tal-pjanti === Għalkemm il-patoġeni u l-mekkaniżmi tagħhom ivarjaw ferm minn dawk tal-annimali, il-pjanti huma soġġetti għal varjetà wiesgħa ta' mard, inkluż dak ikkawżat mill-fungi, mill-oomiċeti, mill-batterji, mill-viruses, mill-virojdi, minn organiżmi qishom viruses, mill-fitoplażmi, mill-protożoa, min-nematodi u mill-pjanti parassitiċi. Il-ħsara kkawżata mill-insetti, mill-akari, mill-vertebrati u minn [[Erbivoru|erbivori]] żgħar oħra ma titqies bħala parti mid-dominju tal-patoloġija tal-pjanti. Il-qasam huwa marbut mal-epidemjoloġija tal-mard tal-pjanti u speċjalment mal-ortikoltura ta' speċijiet ta' importanza kbira għad-dieta umana jew ta' kwalunkwe utilità oħra għall-bnedmin. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Mediċina]] [[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]] lrkukxaqahiinckwnuk1bdpl1f4zua9 329981 329980 2026-05-15T08:35:57Z Trigcly 17859 żieda stampi 329981 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Stampa:Pathologists looking into microscopes (1).jpg|daqsminuri|Patologu jeżamina sezzjoni ta' tessuti għal evidenza ta' ċelloli kanċerużi waqt li [[kirurgu]] qed josserva.]] Il-'''patoloġija''' hija l-istudju tal-[[mard]]. Il-[[kelma]] ''patoloġija'' tirreferi wkoll għall-istudju tal-mard inġenerali, u tinkorpora firxa wiesgħa ta' oqsma tar-riċerka [[Bijoloġija|bijoloġika]] u ta' prattiċi [[Mediċina|mediċi]]. Madankollu, meta jintuża fil-kuntest tat-trattament mediku modern, it-terminu spiss jintuża b'mod idjaq biex jirreferi għall-proċessi u għat-testijiet marbuta mal-qasam mediku kontemporanju tal-"patoloġija ġenerali", qasam li jinkludi għadd ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet mediċi distinti iżda interrelatati li jiddijanjostikaw il-mard, l-iktar permezz tal-analiżi tal-kampjuni tat-tessuti u taċ-ċelloli [[Bniedem|umani]]. Il-patoloġija huwa qasam sinifikanti fid-dijanjożi medika moderna u fir-riċerka medika. [[Tabib]] li jipprattika l-patoloġija jissejjaħ patologu.<ref>Herausgeber., Cross, Simon S., Herausgeber. Underwood, James C. E. 1942- (30 April 2018). ''Underwood's pathology : a clinical approach''. Elsevier – Health Sciences Division. ISBN <bdi>978-0-7020-7212-3</bdi>. OCLC 1043350646.</ref> Bħala qasam tal-inkjesti u tar-riċerka ġenerali, il-patoloġija tindirizza l-komponenti tal-mard: il-kawża, il-mekkaniżmi tal-iżvilupp (patoġenesi), l-alterazzjonijiet strutturali taċ-ċelloli (bidliet morfoloġiċi), u l-konsegwenzi tal-bidliet (manifestazzjonijiet kliniċi).<ref>Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; Aster, Jon C. (2010). ''Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease'' (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN <bdi>978-1-4160-3121-5</bdi>.</ref> Fil-prattika medika komuni, il-patoloġija ġenerali tittratta l-iktar l-analiżi tal-abnormalitajiet kliniċi magħrufa li huma markaturi jew prekursuri kemm tal-mard infettiv kif ukoll tal-mard mhux infettiv, u ssir minn esperti f'waħda miż-żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet ewlenin, il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika.<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://freida.ama-assn.org/|titlu=FREIDA™ Pathology-Anatomic and Clinical Specialty Details|sit=FREIDA Residency Program Database {{!}} Medical Fellowship Database {{!}} AMA|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> Diviżjonijiet ulterjuri fl-ispeċjalizzazzjonijiet jeżistu abbażi tat-tipi tal-kampjuni involuti bħal fiċ-ċitopatoloġija, fl-ematopatoloġija u fl-istopatoloġija), tal-organi (bħal fil-patoloġija renali) u tas-sistemi fiżjoloġiċi (il-patoloġija orali), kif ukoll abbażi tal-enfasi tal-eżaminazzjoni (bħal fil-patoloġija forensika). Idjomatikament, "patoloġija" jaf tirreferi wkoll għall-progressjoni prevista jew effettiva ta' mard partikolari (bħal fl-istqarrija "il-forom differenti tal-[[kanċer]] ikollhom diversità ta' patoloġiji", fejn kelma iktar preċiża jaf tkun "patofiżjoloġiji"). Is-suffiss ''-patija'' xi kultant jintuża biex jiġi indikat stat tal-mard f'każijiet ta' mard fiżiku (bħal fil-kardjomijopatija) u ta' kundizzjonijiet psikoloġiċi (bħal fil-psikopatija).<ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/138811|titlu=-pathy, comb. form : Oxford English Dictionary|sit=oed.com|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-14}}</ref> == [[Etimoloġija]] == It-terminu [[Lingwa Latina|Latin]] ''pathologia'' oriġina mill-għerq [[Lingwa Griega antika|Grieg Antik]] ''pathos'' (πάθος), li tfisser "esperjenza" jew "tbatija", u ''-logia'' (-λογία), li tfisser "studju ta'". It-terminu għandu oriġini li tmur lura għall-bidu tas-seklu 16, u kulma jmur sar iktar popolarizzat wara s-snin 30 tas-seklu 16.<ref>Janssen, Diederik F. (April 2022). "From Pathognomicha and Passiologia to Pathologia: concise history of a neologism (1486-1598)". ''Pathologica''. '''114''' (2) 10: 185–188. doi:10.32074/1591-951X-261. ISSN 1591-951X. PMC 9248257. <nowiki>PMID 35481571</nowiki>.</ref> == [[Storja]] == [[Stampa:Gorman and Feeley.jpg|daqsminuri|Il-wasla tal-mikroskopju kienet waħda mill-iżviluppi ewlenin fl-istorja tal-patoloġija. Hawnhekk ir-riċerkaturi fiċ-Ċentri għall-Kontroll tal-Mard fl-1978 qed jeżaminaw kulturi bil-''Legionella pneumophila'', il-patoġenu responsabbli għall-mard tal-leġjonella.]] L-istudju tal-patoloġija, inkluż l-eżaminazzjoni dettaljata tal-ġisem, id-dissezzjoni u l-inkjesti rigward mard speċifiku, imur lura għal żmien il-qedem. Il-fehim rudimentali ta' bosta kundizzjonijiet kien preżenti fil-biċċa l-kbira tas-soċjetajiet bikrin u ġie rreġistrat fir-rekords tal-iżjed soċjetajiet storiċi bikrin, fosthom dawk tal-Lvant Nofsani, tal-[[Indja]] u taċ-[[Ċina]].<ref>Long, Esmond (1965). ''History of Pathology''. New York: Dover. pp. 1+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-486-61342-0</bdi>.</ref> Sal-perjodu Elleniku tal-[[Greċja antika|Greċja Antika]], sar studju kawżali maqbul tal-mard, u bosta tobba notevoli bikrin (bħal [[Ippokrate]], li għalih jissemma l-ġurament Ippokratiku modern) żviluppaw metodi ta' dijanjożi u ta' pronjożi għal għadd ta' mardiet. Il-prattiċi mediċi tar-[[Imperu Ruman|Rumani]] u dawk tal-[[Biżantini]] komplew minn dawn l-għeruq [[Greċja|Griegi]], iżda bħal f'bosta oqsma tal-inkjesti [[Xjenza|xjentifiċi]], it-tkabbir fil-fehim tal-mediċina staġna kemxejn wara l-Era Klassika, iżda baqa' jiżviluppa bil-mod fost bosta [[Kultura|kulturi]]. B'mod partikolari, saru bosta avvanzi fl-era [[Medjuevu|Medjevali]] tal-[[Iżlam]], u matul dan iż-żmien ġew żviluppati bosta testi ta' patoloġiji kumplessi, ibbażati wkoll fuq it-tradizzjoni Griega. Minkejja dan, it-tkabbir fil-fehim kumpless tal-mard fil-biċċa l-kbira waqaf sa ma l-għarfien u l-isperimentazzjoni reġgħu bdew jiżdiedu fir-[[Rinaxximent]], fl-[[Illuminiżmu]] u fil-[[Barokk]], wara li reġa' feġġ il-metodu empiriku f'ċentri ġodda tal-istudju. Sas-[[seklu 17]], l-istudju tal-mikroskopija rudimentali u l-eżaminazzjoni tat-tessuti wasslu biex il-membru tas-Soċjetà Rjali [[Renju Unit|Brittanika]] [[Robert Hooke]] joħroġ bil-kelma "ċellola", u b'hekk witta t-triq għat-teorija suċċessiva tal-ġermi. [[Stampa:Pathology Lab.png|daqsminuri|Laboratorju tal-patoloġija modern.]] Il-patoloġija moderna bdiet tiżviluppa bħala qasam distint ta' stħarriġ matul is-seklu 19 permezz tal-filosfi naturali u tat-tobba li studjaw il-mard u l-istudju informali tal-hekk imsejħa "[[anatomija]] patoloġika" jew "anatomija tal-mard". Madankollu, il-patoloġija bħala qasam formali speċjalizzat ma ġietx żviluppata għalkollox qabel l-aħħar tas-seklu 19 u l-bidu tas-seklu 20, bil-wasla tal-istudju dettaljat tal-mikrobijoloġija. Fis-seklu 19, it-tobba bdew jifhmu li jeżistu l-patoġeni li jikkawżaw il-mard, jew il-"ġermi" (terminu kumplessiv għall-mikrobi "patoġeniċi" jew li jikkawżaw il-mard, bħall-batterji, [[Virus|viruses]], fungi, amibi, mofof, protisti u prijoni) u li kienu kapaċi jirriproduċu u jimmultiplikaw. Dan il-fehim ħa post it-twemmin iktar bikri fl-umuri jew saħansitra fl-aġenti spiritwali, li kien iddomina fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-1,500 sena ta' qabel fil-mediċina Ewropea. Bil-fehim il-ġdid tal-aġenti kawżattivi, it-tobba bdew iqabblu l-karatteristiċi tas-sintomi tal-ġermi skont kif żviluppaw f'xi individwu affettwat u mqabbla mal-karatteristiċi u tal-ġermi u s-sintomi. Dan l-approċċ wassal għall-fehim fundamentali li l-mard kapaċi jirreplika ruħu, u li jista' jkollu bosta effetti profondi u varjati fuq l-ospitant uman. Sabiex jiġu ddeterminati l-kawżi tal-mardiet, l-esperti mediċi wżaw l-iżjed suppożizzjonijiet jew sintomi komuni u aċċettati b'mod wiesa' ta' żminijiethom, li huwa prinċipju ġenerali tal-approċċ li għadu jippersisti fil-mediċina moderna.<ref>King, Lester (1991). ''Transformations in American Medicine: From Benjamin Rush to William Osler''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP. pp. 27+. ISBN <bdi>978-0-8018-4057-9</bdi>.</ref><ref>Machevsky, Alberto; Wick, MR (2004). "Evidence-based Medicine, Medical Decision Analysis, and Pathology". ''Human Pathology''. '''35''' (10): 1179–88. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2004.06.004. <nowiki>PMID 15492984</nowiki>.</ref> Il-mediċina moderna avvanzat b'mod partikolari bl-iżviluppi ulterjuri tal-[[mikroskopju]] għall-analiżi tat-tessuti, bil-kontribut sinifikanti ta' [[Rudolf Virchow]], li wassal għal bosta żviluppi fir-riċerka. Sal-aħħar tas-snin 20 u l-bidu tas-snin 30 tas-seklu 20, il-patoloġija kienet meqjusa bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika.<ref>Rothstein, William G. (1979). "Pathology: The Evolution of a Specialty in American Medicine". ''Medical Care''. '''17''' (10): 975–988. doi:10.1097/00005650-197910000-00001. JSTOR 3763869. <nowiki>PMID 386008</nowiki>. S2CID 23045808.</ref> Flimkien mal-iżviluppi fil-fehim tal-fiżjoloġija ġenerali, sal-bidu tas-seklu 20, l-istudju tal-patoloġija beda jinqasam f'għadd ta' oqsma distinti, li wassal għall-iżvilupp ta' għadd kbir ta' speċjalizzazzjonijiet moderni fi ħdan il-patoloġija u dixxiplini relatati tal-mediċina dijanjostika.<ref>Race, George J.; Tillery, G. Weldon; Dysert, Peter A. (Jannar 2004). "A history of pathology and laboratory medicine at Baylor University Medical Center". ''Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center)''. '''17''' (1): 42–55. doi:10.1080/08998280.2004.11927956. ISSN 0899-8280. PMC 1200640. <nowiki>PMID 16200088</nowiki>.</ref> == Patoloġija ġenerali == [[Stampa:AML-M6, multinucleated erythroblast.jpg|daqsminuri|Smear test tal-mudullun tal-għadam minn każ ta' eritrolewċemija. Iċ-ċellola l-kbira fin-nofs tan-naħa ta' fuq hija eritroblast abnormali: hija multinukleata, b'kromatin nukleari megaloblastojdi. Din hija dijanjożi tal-eritrolewċemija.]] Il-prattika moderna tal-patoloġija hija maqsuma f'għadd ta' sottodixxiplini fi ħdan l-għanijiet distinti iżda ferm interkonnessi tar-riċerka bijoloġika u l-prattika medika. Ir-riċerka bijomedika dwar il-mard tinkorpora x-xogħol ta' varjetà vasta ta' speċjalisti tax-[[xjenza]] tal-[[ħajja]], billi, fil-biċċa l-kbira tal-partijiet tad-dinja, sabiex wieħed ikun liċenzjat biex jipprattika l-patoloġija bħala speċjalizzazzjoni medika, wieħed irid ikun temm l-iskola medika u kiseb liċenzja biex jipprattika l-mediċina. Strutturalment, l-istudju tal-mard huwa maqsum f'bosta oqsma differenti li jistudjaw jew jiddijanjostikaw il-markaturi għall-mard bl-użu ta' metodi u teknoloġiċi partikolari għal tipi speċifiċi ta' skali, organi u tessuti. === Patoloġija anatomika === Il-patoloġija anatomika (fil-[[Commonwealth tan-Nazzjonijiet|Commonwealth]] jew fl-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]]) hija speċjalizzazzjoni medika li għandha x'taqsam mad-dijanjożi tal-mard abbażi tal-eżaminazzjoni grossa, mikroskopika, [[kimika]], immunoloġika u molekolari tal-organi, tat-tessuti u tal-iġsma sħaħ (bħal fl-eżaminazzjoni ġenerali jew fl-awtopsja). Il-patoloġija anatomika fiha nnifisha hija maqsuma f'sottooqsma, fosthom il-patoloġija kirurġika, iċ-ċitopatoloġija u l-patoloġija forensika. Il-patoloġija anatomika hija waħda miż-żewġ oqsma prinċipali tal-prattika medika tal-patoloġija, u l-oħra hija l-patoloġija klinika, id-dijanjożi tal-mard permezz tal-analiżi fil-laboratorju tal-fluwidi u tat-tessuti tal-ġisem. Xi kultant, il-patologi jipprattikaw kemm il-patoloġija anatomika kif ukoll dik klinika, kombinament magħruf bħala patoloġija ġenerali. ==== Ċitopatoloġija ==== Iċ-ċitopatoloġija (xi kultant magħrufa bħala ċ-"ċitoloġija") hija l-fergħa tal-patoloġija li tistudja u tiddijanjostika l-mard fuq il-livell ċellolari. Normalment tintuża biex tgħin fid-dijanjożi tal-kanċer, iżda tgħin ukoll fid-dijanjożi ta' ċertu mard infettiv u kundizzjonijiet infjammatorji oħra, kif ukoll leżjonijiet tat-tirojde, mard li jinvolvi l-kavitajiet sterili tal-ġisem (peritoneali, plewrali u ċerebrospinali), u firxa wiesgħa ta' siti oħra tal-ġisem. Iċ-ċitopatoloġija ġeneralment tintuża fuq kampanji ta' ċelloli liberi jew frammenti tat-tessuti (b'kuntrast mal-istopatoloġija, li tistudja t-tessuti sħaħ) u testijiet ċitopatoloġiċi li jistgħu jingħaddu fuq slide tal-[[ħġieġ]] tal-mikroskopju għal tebgħat u eżaminazzjoni mikroskopiku sussegwenti. Madankollu, il-kampjuni ċitoloġiċi jistgħu jitħejjew b'modi oħra, inkluż b'ċitoċentrifugazzjoni. ==== Dermatopatoloġija ==== [[Stampa:Melanoma.jpg|daqsminuri|Melanoma.]] Id-dermatopatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika li tiffoka fuq il-ġilda u l-bqija tas-sistema integumentarja bħala organu. Hija unika, peress li hemm żewġ modi kif tabib jista' jikseb speċjalizzazzjoni. Il-patologi ġenerali u d-dermatologi ġenerali kollha jitħarrġu fil-patoloġija tal-ġilda, għaldaqstant it-terminu dermatopatologu jirreferi għalihom it-tnejn skont ċertu livell ta' akkreditazzjoni u esperjenza; fl-Istati Uniti, patologu ġenerali jew dermatologu jistgħu jagħmlu apprendistat ta' sena sa sentejn fil-qasam tad-dermatopatoloġija. It-tlestija ta' dan l-apprendistat twassal għall-possibbiltà li wieħed jagħmel eżami quddiem bord ta' sottospeċjalizzazzjoni biex isir dermatopatologu ċċertifikat mill-bord. Id-dermatologi kapaċi jagħrfu l-biċċa l-kbira tal-mardiet tal-ġilda abbażi tad-dehra, id-distribuzzjonijiet anatomiċi u l-imġiba. Madankollu, xi kultant dawk il-kriterji ma jwasslux għal dijanjożi konklużiva, u ssir bijopsija tal-ġilda biex tiġi eżaminata taħt il-mikroskopju bl-użu ta' testijiet istoloġiċi tas-soltu. F'xi każijiet, ikun meħtieġ li jsir ittestjar speċjalizzat fuq il-bijopsiji, fosthom l-immunofluworexxenza, l-immunoistokimika, il-mikroskopija bl-elettroni, iċ-ċitometrija bil-fluss u l-analiżi patoloġika molekolari. Waħda mill-ikbar sfidi tad-dermatopatoloġija hija l-kobor tagħha. Jeżistu iktar minn 1,500 diżordni differenti tal-ġilda, inkluż raxx tal-ġilda u neoplażmi. Għaldaqstant, id-dermatopatologi jrid ikollhom bażi wiesgħa ta' għarfien fid-dermatoloġija klinika, u jkunu midħla ta' diversi oqsma oħra ta' speċjalizzazzjoni fil-mediċina. ==== Patoloġija forensika ==== [[Stampa:Human dissection of the abdominal and toraxic organs.jpg|daqsminuri|Dissezzjoni forensika umana.]] Il-patoloġija forensika tiffoka fuq li tiġi ddeterminata l-kawża tal-[[mewt]] b'eżaminazzjoni ''post mortem'' tal-katavru jew ta' fdalijiet parzjali. Tipikament issir awtopsja minn eżaminatur mediku, spiss waqt l-investigazzjonijiet kriminali; f'dan ir-rwol, l-eżaminaturi mediċi sikwit jiġu mistoqsija jikkonfirmaw l-identità ta' katavru. Ir-rekwiżiti biex wieħed isir prattikant liċenzjat tal-patoloġija forensika jvarjaw minn pajjiż għal ieħor (u saħansitra fl-istess nazzjon xi kultant) iżda tipikament rekwiżit minimu huwa dottorat mediku bi speċjalizzazzjoni fil-patoloġija ġenerali jew anatomika bi studju sussegwenti fil-mediċina forensika. Il-metodi li jużaw ix-xjenzati forensiċi biex jiddeterminaw il-mewt jinkludu l-eżaminazzjoni tal-eżemplari tat-tessuti sabiex tiġi identifikata l-preżenza jew l-assenza ta' mard naturali u sejbiet mikroskopiċi oħra, l-interpretazzjonijiet tat-tossikoloġija fuq it-tessuti u l-fluwidi tal-ġisem biex tiġi ddeterminata l-kawża kimika ta' dożi eċċessivi, avvelenamenti jew każijiet oħra li jinvolvu aġenti tossiċi, u eżaminazzjonijiet ta' trawmi fiżiċi. Il-patoloġija forensika hija komponent ewlieni fil-qasam transdixxiplinari tax-xjenza forensika. ==== Istopatoloġija ==== [[Stampa:Cardiac amyloidosis very high mag movat.jpg|daqsminuri|Parti minn dijanjożi permezz tal-istopatoloġija. Din il-mikrografija mkabbra ta' sezzjoni ta' tessuti kardijaċi tiżvela l-amilojdożi kardijaka avvanzata. Dan il-kampjun inkiseb permezz ta' awtopsja.]] L-istopatoloġija tirreferi għall-eżaminazzjoni mikroskopika ta' diversi forom ta' tessuti umani. B'mod speċifiku, fil-mediċina klinika, l-istopatoloġija tirreferi għall-eżaminazzjoni ta' bijopsija jew eżemplar kirurġiku minn patologu, wara li l-eżemplar ikun ġie pproċessat u s-sezzjonijiet istoloġiċi jkunu tpoġġew fuq slides tal-ħġieġ. Dan jikkuntrasta mal-metodi taċ-ċitopatoloġija, li tuża ċ-ċelloli liberi jew il-frammenti tat-tessuti. L-eżaminazzjoni istopatoloġika tat-tessuti tibda b'operazzjoni, b'bijopsija jew b'awtopsija. It-tessuti jitneħħew mill-ġisem ta' organiżmu u mbagħad jitpoġġew f'fissativ li jistabbilizza t-tessuti biex jiġi evitat id-deterjorament. L-iżjed fissativ komuni huwa l-formalin, għalkemm l-iffissar ta' sezzjoni ffriżata huwa komuni wkoll. Sabiex wieħed jara t-tessuti b'mikroskopju, is-sezzjonijiet jittebbgħu b'pigment wieħed jew iktar. L-għan ta' dan hu li jiġu żvelati l-komponenti ċellolari; il-kontrotebgħat jintużaw biex jipprovdu kuntrast. L-istokimika tirreferi għax-xjenza tal-użu tar-reazzjonijiet kimiċi bejn is-sustanzi kimiċi tal-laboratorju u l-komponenti fi ħdan it-tessuti. Is-slides istoloġiċi mbagħad jiġu interpretati b'mod dijanjostiku u r-rapport patoloġiku li jirriżulta jiddeskrivi s-sejbiet istoloġiċi u l-opinjoni tal-patologu. Fil-każ tal-kanċer, dan jirrappreżenta d-dijanjożi tat-tessuti meħtieġa għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-protokolli tat-trattamenti. ==== Newropatoloġija ==== [[Stampa:AVM grossly.jpg|daqsminuri|Din l-immaġni trasversali ta' moħħ tiżvela malformazzjoni arterjovenuża sinifikanti li tokkupa l-biċċa l-kbira tal-lobu parjetali.]] In-newropatoloġija hija l-istudju tal-mard fit-tessuti tas-sistema nervuża, normalment fil-forma ta' bijopsiji kirurġiċi jew xi kultant imħuħ sħaħ fil-każ ta' awtopsija. In-newropatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika, tan-newroloġija u tan-newrokirurġija. F'bosta pajjiżi, in-newropatoloġija titqies bħala sottoqasam tal-patoloġija anatomika. Tabib li jispeċjalizza fin-newropatoloġija, normalment wara li jlesti apprendistat fil-patoloġija anatomika jew ġenerali, jissejjaħ newropatologu. Fil-prattika klinika ta' kuljum, newropatologu jiġġenera d-dijanjożi għall-pazjenti. Jekk ikun hemm suspett ta' mard fis-sistema nervuża, u d-dijanjożi ma tkunx tista' ssir b'metodi inqas invażivi, issir bijopsija tat-tessuti nervużi mill-moħħ jew jiġi estratt fluwidu ċerebrospinali mis-sinsla biex jgħin fid-dijanjożi. Bijopsija normalment tintalab wara li tinstab massa bl-immaġnijiet mediċi. Bl-awtopsji, ix-xogħol prinċipali tan-newropatologu hu li jgħin fid-dijanjożi ''post mortem'' ta' diversi kundizzjonijiet li jaffettwaw is-sistema nervuża ċentrali. Il-bijopsiji jistgħu jikkonsistu wkoll mill-ġilda. L-ittestjar tad-densità tal-fibri nervużi epidermali (ENFD) huwa test tan-newropatoloġija li ġie żviluppat iktar reċentement fejn issir bijopsija biex jiġu identifikati newropatiji tal-fibri nervużi żgħar bl-analiżi tal-fibri nervużi tal-ġilda. Dan it-test qed isir disponibbli f'għadd ta' laboratorji kif ukoll f'bosta universitajiet; jissostitwixxi t-test tal-bijopsija nervuża tradizzjonali peress li huwa inqas invażiv. [[Stampa:Gross pathology of miliary tuberculosis of the lung.jpg|daqsminuri|Patoloġija grossa ta' [[Tuberkulożi|tuberkolożi]] miljari fil-[[pulmun]].]] ==== Patoloġija pulmonari ==== Il-patoloġija pulmonari hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika (u speċjalment kirurġika) li tittratta d-dijanjożi u l-karatterizzazzjoni tal-mard neoplastiku u mhux neoplastiku tal-[[Pulmun|pulmuni]] u tal-plewra toraċika. L-eżemplari dijanjostiċi spiss jinklisbu permezz ta' bijopsija transbronkjali bronkoskopika, bijopsija perkutanja ggwidata b'CT scan jew kirurġija toraċika assistita bil-filmati. Dawn it-testijiet jaf ikunu meħtieġa għal dijanjożi bejn infezzjoni, infjammazzjoni jew kundizzjonijiet fibrotiċi. [[Stampa:Polycystic kidneys, gross pathology 20G0027 lores.jpg|daqsminuri|Din l-immaġni trasversali tat-tessuti turi l-patoloġija grossa tal-kliewi poliċistiċi.]] ==== Patoloġija renali ==== Il-patoloġija renali hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni tal-patoloġija anatomika li tittratta d-dijanjożi u l-karatterizzazzjoni tal-mard tal-kliewi. F'ambjent mediku, il-patologi renali jaħdmu mill-qrib man-nefrologi u mal-kirurgi tat-trapjanti, li tipikament jiksbu eżemplari dijanjostiċi permezz ta' bijopsija renali perkutanja. Il-patologu renali jrid jissintetizza s-sejbiet mill-istoloġija mikroskopika tradizzjonali, mill-mikroskopija bl-elettroni u bl-immunofluworexxenza biex jikseb dijanjożi definittiva. Il-mard renali mediku jista' jaffettwa l-glomerulu, it-tubuli u l-interstizju, il-vażi jew taħlita ta' dawn il-kompartimenti. ==== Patoloġija kirurġika ==== Il-patoloġija kirurġika hija waħda mill-oqsma primarji tal-prattika tal-biċċa l-kbira tal-patologi anatomiċi. Il-patoloġija kirurġika tinvolvi l-eżaminazzjoni grossa u mikroskopika tal-eżemplari kirurġiċi, kif ukoll bijopsiji li jsiru minn kirurgi u persunal mhux kirurġiku bħal internisti ġenerali, sottospeċjalisti mediċi, dermatologi u radjologi intervenzjonali. Spiss il-qtugħ ta' kampjun ta' tessut huwa l-aqwa evidenza u l-iktar waħda definittiva ta' marda (jew ta' nuqqas tagħha) f'każijiet fejn it-tessuti jitneħħew b'mod kirurġiku minn pazjent. Dawn id-determinazzjonijiet normalment jitwettqu permezz ta' taħlita ta' eżaminazzjonijiet grossi (jiġifieri makroskopiċi) u istoloġiċi (jiġifieri mikroskopiċi) tat-tessuti, u jistgħu jinvolvu evalwazzjonijiet tal-proprjetajiet molekolari tat-tessuti bl-immunoistokimika jew b'testijiet oħra tal-laboratorju. [[Stampa:Brain biopsy under stereotaxy.jpg|daqsminuri|Bijopsija tal-moħħ.]] Hemm żewġ tipi ewlenin ta' eżemplari li jitressqu għal analiżi tal-patoloġija kirurġika: il-bijopsiji u l-intersezzjoni kirurġika. Bijopsija hija t-tneħħija ta' biċċa żgħira ta' tessut primarjament għal analiżi tal-patoloġija kirurġika, spiss sabiex twassal għal dijanjożi definittiva. Fost it-tipi ta' bijopsiji hemm il-bijopsiji bil-labar, li jinkisbu bl-użu ta' labar kbar, xi kultant bil-gwida ta' tekniki radjoloġiċi bħall-ultrasound, CT scan, jew immaġnijiet ta' risonanza manjetika. Il-bijopsiji b'inċiżjoni jinkisbu permezz ta' proċeduri kirurġiċi dijanjostiċi fejn titneħħa parti minn leżjoni suspettuża, filwaqt li fil-bijopsiji bil-qtugħ titneħħa leżjoni sħiħa, u jkunu simili għal intersezzjonijiet kirurġiċi terapewtiċi. Il-bijopsiji intersezzjonali tal-leżjonijiet tal-ġilda u tal-polipi gastrointestinali huma komuni ħafna. L-interpretazzjoni tal-patologu rigward bijopsija hija kritika biex tiġi stabbilita dijanjożi ta' tumur benevoli jew malinn, u tista' tiddistingwi bejn it-tipi u l-livelli differenti ta' kanċer, kif ukoll tiddetermina l-attività ta' mogħdijiet molekolari speċifiċi fit-tumur. L-eżemplari tal-intersezzjonijiet kirurġiċi jinkisbu bit-tneħħija kirurġika terapewtika ta' żona marida sħiħa jew organu sħiħ (u okkażjonalment ta' diversi organi). Dawn il-proċeduri spiss huma maħsuba bħala trattament kirurġiku definittiv ta' marda fejn id-dijanjożi tkun ġa magħrufa jew suspettata sew, iżda l-analiżi patoloġika ta' dawn l-eżemplari tibqa' importanti biex tiġi kkonfermata d-dijanjożi preċedenti. === Patoloġija klinika === [[Stampa:Konelab60i.png|daqsminuri|Analizzatur kimiku awtomatizzat tad-demm.]] Il-patoloġija klinika hija speċjalizzazzjoni medika marbuta mad-dijanjożi tal-mard abbażi tal-analiżi fil-laboratorju tal-fluwidi tal-ġisem bħad-[[demm]] u l-awrina, kif ukoll tat-tessuti, bl-użu tal-għodda tal-kimika, tal-mikrobijoloġija klinika, tal-ematoloġija u tal-patoloġija molekolari. Il-patologi kliniċi jaħdmu b'kollaborazzjoni mill-qrib mat-teknoloġisti mediċi, mal-amministrazzjonijiet tal-isptarijiet u mat-tobba speċjalizzati. Il-patologi kliniċi jitgħallmu jagħmlu għadd ta' testijiet viżivi u mikroskopiċi, kif ukoll għadd tassew kbir ta' testijiet tal-proprjetajiet bijofiżiċi tal-kampjuni tat-tessuti li jinvolvu l-analizzaturi u l-kulturi awtomatizzati. Xi kultant jintuża t-terminu "speċjalist mediku tal-laboratorju" biex jirreferi għal min jaħdem fil-patoloġija klinika, fosthom it-tobba mediċi, l-ispeċjalisti bid-dottorati u dawk b'dottorati fil-farmakoloġija. L-immunopatoloġija, l-istudju tar-rispons immunoloġiku ta' organiżmu għal infezzjoni, xi kultant titqies li tagħmel parti mid-dominju tal-patoloġija klinika. ==== Ematopatoloġija ==== L-ematopatoloġija hija l-istudju tal-mard taċ-ċelloli tad-demm (inkluż il-kostitwenti bħaċ-ċelloli tad-demm bojod, iċ-ċelloli tad-demm ħomor u l-pjastrini) u tat-tessuti, kif ukoll tal-organi li jagħmlu parti mis-sistema ematopojetika. Dan it-terminu tal-aħħar jirreferi għat-tessuti u għall-organi li jipproduċu u/jew primarjament jospitaw iċ-ċelloli ematopojetiċi u jinkludi l-mudullun tal-għadam, in-nodi linfatiċi, it-timus, il-milsa u tessuti linfojdi oħra. Fl-Istati Uniti, l-ematopatoloġija hija sottospeċjalizzazzjoni ċċertifikata minn bord (liċenzjata skont il-Bord Amerikan tal-Patoloġija) li tiġi pprattikata minn dawk it-tobba li jkunu lestew l-istudji tal-patoloġija ġenerali (anatomika, klinika jew it-tnejn) u sena addizzjonali ta' apprendistat fl-ematoloġija. L-ematopatologu jirrieżamina l-bijopsiji tan-nodi linfatiċi, tal-mudullun tal-għadam u ta' tessuti oħra involuti b'infiltrazzjoni ta' ċelloli tas-sistema ematopojetika. Barra minn hekk, l-ematopatologu jaf ikun inkarigat li jwettaq studji ċitometriċi tal-fluss u/jew tal-ematopatoloġija molekolari. === Patoloġija molekolari === Il-patoloġija molekolari hija ffukata fuq l-istudju u d-dijanjożi tal-mard permezz tal-eżaminazzjoni tal-molekoli fi ħdan l-organi, it-tessuti jew il-fluwidi tal-ġisem. Il-patoloġija molekolari hija multidixxiplinari min-natura tagħha u tikkondividi xi aspetti tal-prattika mal-patoloġija anatomika, mal-patoloġija klinika, mal-bijoloġija molekolari, mal-bijokimika, mal-proteomika u mal-ġenetika. Spiss tiġi applikata f'kuntest li jkun xjentifiku u mediku, u tinvolvi l-iżvilupp ta' approċċi molekolari u ġenetiċi għad-dijanjożi u għall-klassifikazzjoni tal-mard tal-bniedem, għad-disinn u għall-validazzjoni ta' bijomarkaturi ta' previżjoni għar-rispons għat-trattamenti u għall-progressjoni tal-mard, u għas-suxxettibbiltà tal-individwi ta' kostituzzjoni ġenetika differenti għal diżordnijiet partikolari. It-trikkib bejn il-patoloġija molekolari u l-epidemjoloġija huwa rrappreżentat b'qasam relatat, jiġifieri l-"epidemjoloġija patoloġika molekolari". Il-patoloġija molekolari spiss tintuża fid-dijanjożi tal-kanċer u ta' mard infettiv. Il-patoloġija molekolari tintuża primarjament għad-detezzjoni tal-kanċer, bħall-melanoma, glijoma fiz-zokk enċefaliku, tumuri fil-moħħ kif ukoll bosta tipi oħra ta' kanċer u ta' mard infettiv. Hemm bosta tekniki li jinkludu r-reazzjoni katina kwantitattiva bil-polimerażi (qPCR), reazzjoni katina multiplex bil-polimerażi, mikrosekwenza tad-[[DNA]], ibridizzazzjoni fil-post, sekwenzar tad-DNA, assaġġi tat-tessuti bl-immunofluworexxenza bbażati fuq l-antikorpi, profili molekolari tal-patoġeni, u analiżi tal-ġeni batterjali għar-reżistenza antimikrobika. It-tekniki li jintużaw huma bbażati fuq l-analiżi tal-kampjuni tad-DNA u tal-RNA. Il-patoloġija tintuża b'mod wiesa' għat-terapija tal-ġeni u għad-dijanjożi tal-mard. === Patoloġija orali u maksillofaċċali === [[Stampa:Geographic tongue (cropped).jpg|daqsminuri|Bosta kundizzjonijiet, bħal dan il-każ ta' lsien "ġeografiku", jistgħu jiġu dijanjostikati parzjalment b'eżaminazzjoni grossa, iżda jistgħu jiġu kkonfermati permezz tal-patoloġija tat-tessuti.]] Il-patoloġija orali u maksillofaċċali hija waħda mid-disa' speċjalizzazzjoni dentali rikonoxxuti mill-Assoċjazzjoni Dentali Amerikana, u xi kultant titqies bħala speċjalizzazzjoni kemm tad-dentistrija kif ukoll tal-patoloġija. Il-patologi orali jridu jlestu 3 snin ta' taħriġ wara d-dottorat bi programm akkreditat u sussegwentement jiksbu status ta' lawrja mill-Bord Amerikan tal-Patoloġija Orali u Maksillofaċċali. Din l-ispeċjalizzazzjoni tiffoka fuq id-dijanjożi, il-ġestjoni klinika u l-investigazzjoni tal-mard li jaffettwa l-kavità orali u l-istrutturi maksillofaċċali tal-madwar, inkluż iżda mhux limitat għal patoloġiji odontoġeniċi, infettivi, epiteljali, tal-glandola salivarja, tal-għadam u tat-tessuti rotob. Hemm trikkib sinifikanti wkoll mal-qasam tal-patoloġija dentali. Għalkemm hija marbuta ma' firxa wiesgħa ta' mardiet tal-kavità orali, il-patologi orali u maksillofaċċali għandhom rwoli distinti minn tal-otorinolarinġologi (speċjalisti tal-"widnejn, tal-imnieħer u tal-griżmejn"), u tal-patologi tat-taħdit. Dawn tal-aħħar jgħinu fid-dijanjożi ta' bosta kundizzjonijiet newroloġiċi jew newromuskolari li huma rilevanti għall-fonoloġija tat-taħdit jew il-bligħ. Minħabba d-disponibbiltà tal-kavità orali għall-eżaminazzjoni mhux invażiva, bosta kundizzjonijiet fl-istudju tal-mard orali jistgħu jiġu dijanjostikati, jew mill-inqas suspettati, mill-eżaminazzjoni grossa, iżda l-bijopsija, smears ċellolari, u analiżi ta' tessuti oħra jibqgħu għodod dijanjostiċi importanti fil-patoloġija orali. == Taħriġ mediku u akkreditazzjoni == [[Stampa:UNDmicroscope.jpg|daqsminuri|[[Għalliem]] tal-patoloġija anatomika qed juża mikroskopju b'diversi lentijiet biex jgħallem il-mikroskopija dijanjostika lill-istudenti.]] Sabiex wieħed isir patologu ġeneralment ikun jeħtieġ taħriġ speċjalizzat wara l-[[edukazzjoni]] medika, iżda n-nazzjonijiet individwali jvarjaw kemxejn fil-liċenzjar mediku meħtieġ tal-patologi. Fl-Istati Uniti, il-patologi jkunu tobba (D.O. jew M.D.) li jkunu temmew l-ewwel lawrja ta' 4 snin, 4 snin ta' taħriġ mediku, u bejn 3 sa 4 snin ta' taħriġ ta' wara l-lawrja fil-patoloġija. It-taħriġ jista' jkun f'żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet primarji, kif rikonoxxut mill-Bord Amerikan tal-Patoloġija: il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika, u kull waħda teħtieġ ċertifikazzjoni separata mill-bord. Il-Bord Osteopatiku Amerikan tal-Patoloġija jirrikonoxxi wkoll erba' speċjalizzazzjonijiet primarji: il-patoloġija anatomika, id-dermatopatoloġija, il-patoloġija forensika u l-mediċina fil-laboratorju. Il-patologi jistgħu jagħmlu apprendistat speċjalizzat f'sottospeċjalizzazzjoni jew f'oħra tal-patoloġija anatomika jew tal-patoloġija klinika. Uħud minn dawn is-sottospeċjalizzazzjonijiet iwasslu għal ċertifikazzjoni addizzjonali mill-bord, filwaqt li oħrajn ma jwasslux għal ċertifikazzjoni addizzjonali. Fir-Renju Unit, il-patologi jkunu tobba liċenzjati mill-Kunsill Mediku Ġenerali tar-Renju Unit. It-taħriġ biex wieħed isir patologu huwa ssorveljat mill-Kulleġġ Irjali tal-Patologi. Wara 4 sa 6 snin ta' lawrja fl-istudju mediku, it-taħriġ ikompli b'programm ta' sentejn oħra. It-taħriġ full-time fl-istopatoloġija attwalment idum bejn 5 snin u 5 snin u nofs, u jinvolvi t-taħriġ speċjalizzat fil-patoloġija kirurġika, fiċ-ċitopatoloġija u fil-patoloġija tal-awtopsji. Huwa possibbli wkoll li wieħed jikseb diploma tal-Kulleġġ Irjali tal-Patologi fil-patoloġija forensika, fid-dermatopatoloġija jew fiċ-ċitopatoloġija, li tirrikonoxxi t-taħroġ speċjalizzat u l-esperjenza addizzjonali, u li jikseb akkreditazzjoni speċjalizzata fil-patoloġija forensika, fil-patoloġija pedjatrika u fin-newropatoloġija. Il-Kunsill Mediku Ġenerali tar-Renju Unit jissorvelja t-taħriġ u l-edukazzjoni mediċi kollha ta' wara l-ewwel lawrja. Fi [[Franza]], il-patoloġija hija sseparata f'żewġ speċjalizzazzjonijiet distinti: il-patoloġija anatomika u l-patoloġija klinika. It-taħriġ għat-tnejn li huma jdum 4 snin. It-taħriġ fil-patoloġija anatomika fl-isptarijiet huwa miftuħ għat-tobba biss, filwaqt li t-taħriġ fil-patoloġija klinika huwa miftuħ kemm għat-tobba kif ukoll għall-ispiżjara. Fl-aħħar tat-tieni sena tat-taħriġ fil-patoloġija klinik, l-istudenti jistgħu jagħżlu bejn il-patoloġija klinika ġenerali u speċjalizzazzjoni f'waħda mid-dixxiplini, iżda ma jistgħux jipprattikaw il-patoloġija anatomika, u dawk li jagħżlu t-taħriġ fil-patoloġija anatomika ma jistgħu jipprattikaw il-patoloġija klinika. == Trikkib ma' mediċina dijanjostika oħra == Għalkemm hemm oqsma separati f'termini tal-prattika medika, għadd ta' oqsma ta' taħriġ fil-mediċina u fix-xjenza medika jirkbu fuq xulxin ferm mal-patoloġija ġenerali, jaħdmu id f'id magħha, jew jikkontribwixxu b'mod sinifikanti għall-fehim tal-patoloġija ta' marda partikolari jew l-imxija tagħha f'individwu. Peress li parti sinifikanti tal-prattika tal-patoloġija ġenerali jkollha x'taqsam mal-kanċer, il-prattika tal-onkoloġija tagħmel użu estensiv kemm tal-patoloġija anatomika kif ukoll tal-patoloġija klinika fid-dijanjożi u fit-trattament. B'mod partikolari, il-bijopsija, l-intersezzjoni u t-testijiet tad-demm huma kollha eżempji ta' xogħol tal-patoloġija li huma essenzjali għad-dijanjożi ta' bosta tipi ta' kanċer u għas-sejbien tal-istadji differenti tal-mases tal-kanċer. B'mod simili, it-tekniki tal-analiżi tat-tessuti u tad-demm tal-patoloġija ġenerali huma ta' importanza ċentrali għall-investigazzjoni ta' mard infettiv serju u b'hekk iserrħu ferm fuq l-oqsma tal-epidemjoloġija, tal-etjoloġija, tal-immunoloġija u tal-parassitoloġija. Il-metodi tal-patoloġija ġenerali huma ta' importanza kbira għar-riċerka bijomedika dwar il-mard, tant li xi kultant jissejħu patoloġija "sperimentali" jew "investigattiva". It-teħid tal-immaġnijiet mediċi jiġġenera rappreżentazzjonijiet viżivi tal-ġisem minn ġewwa għall-analiżi klinika u għall-interventi mediċi. L-immaġnijiet mediċi jiżvelaw dettalji dwar il-fiżjoloġija interna li jgħinu lill-professjonisti mediċi jippjanaw trattamenti xierqa għall-infezzjonijiet fit-tessuti u għal trawmi. L-immaġnijiet mediċi huma ċentrali wkoll għall-forniment tad-data bijometrika meħtieġa biex jiġu stabbiliti l-karatteristiċi referenzjarji bażi tal-anatomija u tal-fiżjoloġija sabiex tiżdied l-akkuratezza li biha jiġu individwati l-abnormalitajiet bikrin jew b'dettall fin. Dawn it-tekniki dijanjostiċi spiss isiru flimkien ma' proċeduri tal-patoloġija ġenerali u huma stess spiss ikunu essenzjali għall-iżvilupp ta' fehim ġdid tal-patoġenesi ta' marda partikolari u għat-traċċar tal-progress tal-marda f'każijiet mediċi speċifiċi. Eżempji ta' suddiviżjonijiet importanti fit-teħid tal-immaġnijiet mediċi jinkludu r-radjoloġija (li tuża t-teknoloġiji tat-teħid tal-immaġnijiet tar-radjografija bir-raġġi X), it-teħid tal-immaġnijiet b'risonanza manjetika, l-ultrasonografija medika (jew l-ultrasound), l-endoskopija, l-elastografija, it-teħid tal-immaġnijiet tattili, it-termografija, il-fotografija medika, il-mediċina nukleari u t-tekniki tat-teħid tal-immaġnijiet funzjonali bħat-tomografija bl-emissjoni tal-pożitroni. Għalkemm strettament ma jwasslu għal immaġnijiet, il-qari minn testijiet dijanjostiċi li jinvolvu l-elettroenċefalografija, il-manjetoenċefalografija u l-elettrokardjografija spiss jagħtu ħjiel dwar l-istat u l-funzjoni ta' ċerti tessuti fil-moħħ u fil-[[qalb]] rispettivament. == Informatika fil-patoloġija == [[Stampa:Major topics of pathology informatics.png|daqsminuri|Is-suġġetti ewlenin tal-informatika fil-patoloġija.]] L-informatika fil-patoloġija hija sottoqasam tal-informatika tas-saħħa. Din hija l-użu tat-teknoloġija tal-informatika fil-patoloġija. Tinkorpora l-operazzjonijiet tal-patoloġija fil-laboratorju, l-analiżi tad-data u l-interpretazzjoni tal-informazzjoni relatata mal-patoloġija. L-aspetti ewlenin tal-informatika fil-patoloġija jinkludu: * Sistemi ta' ġestjoni tal-informazzjoni fil-laboratorju (LIMS): l-implimentazzjoni u l-ġestjoni tas-sistemi tal-[[Kompjuter|kompjuters]] maħsuba speċifikament għad-dipartimenti tal-patoloġija. Dawn is-sistemi jgħinu fit-traċċar u fil-ġestjoni tal-eżemplari, tar-riżultati u ta' data patoloġika oħra tal-pazjenti. * Patoloġija diġitali: tinvolvi l-użu tat-teknoloġija diġitali għall-ħolqien, għall-ġestjoni u għall-analiżi tal-immaġnijiet tal-patoloġija. Din tinkludi l-iskennjar laterali u l-analiżi awtomatizzata tal-immaġnijiet. * Telepatoloġija: l-użu tat-teknoloġija biex tiffaċilita l-konsultazzjoni u l-kollaborazzjoni mill-bogħod fil-patoloġija. * Aċċertament tal-kwalità u rapportar: l-implimentazzjoni ta' soluzzjonijiet tal-informatika biex jiġu żgurati l-kwalità u l-akkuratezza tal-proċessi tal-patoloġija. == Psikopatoloġija == Il-psikopatoloġija hija l-istudju tal-mard mentali, b'mod partikolari ta' diżordnijiet gravi. Tiġi infurmata ferm kemm mill-[[psikoloġija]] u min-newroloġija, l-iskop tagħha hu li tikklassifika l-mard mentali, tasal għall-kawżi sottostanti, u tiggwida t-trattament psikjatriku kliniku xieraq. Għalkemm id-dijanjożi u l-klassifikazzjoni tan-normi u tad-diżordnijiet mentali huma fil-biċċa l-kbira kompitu tal-psikjatrija — ir-riżultati tagħhom ikunu linji gwida bħall-Manwal Dijanjostiku u Statistiku tad-Diżordnijiet Mentali, li jippruvaw jikklassifikaw il-mard mentali l-iktar abbażi tal-evidenza komportamentali, iżda mhux b'mod mhux kontroversjali — il-qasam jiġi infurmat ferm u kulma jmur bin-newroxjenza u b'xjenzi konjittivi bijoloġiċi oħra. Id-diżordnijiet jew l-imġiba mentali jew soċjali li jitqiesu ġeneralment bħala mhux sani jew eċċessivi f'xi individwu partikolari, tant li jikkawżaw ħsara jew tfixkil gravi fl-istil ta' ħajja tal-persuna, spiss jissejħu "patoloġiċi" (eż. il-logħob tal-azzard patoloġiku jew il-gideb patoloġiku). [[Stampa:Enzootic pneumonia ewe.jpg|daqsminuri|Din l-analiżi ''post mortem'' ta' [[nagħġa]] żvelat leżjonijiet konsistenti mal-pulmonite emolitika, x'aktarx minħabba l-''Pasteurella haemolytica''.]] == Mhux umani == Għalkemm il-maġġoranza l-kbira tax-xogħol u tar-riċerka fil-laboratorju fil-patoloġija jikkonċernaw l-iżvilupp tal-mard fil-bnedmin, il-patoloġija hija importanti fix-xjenzi bijoloġiċi kollha. Jeżistu żewġ oqsma kumplessivi li jirrappreżentaw il-biċċa l-kbira tal-organiżmi kumplessi li kapaċi jservu bħala ospitant għal patoġenu jew forma oħra ta' mard: il-patoloġija veterinarja (li tikkonċerna l-[[Speċi|ispeċijiet]] mhux umani kollha tar-[[Renju (bijoloġija)|renju]] tal-[[Annimal|annimali]]) u l-fitopatoloġija, li tistudja l-mard fil-[[Pjanta|pjanti]]. === Patoloġija veterinarja === Il-patoloġija veterinarja tkopri firxa wiesgħa ta' speċijiet, iżda b'għadd ferm iżgħar ta' prattikanti, għaldaqstant il-fehim tal-mard fl-annimali mhux umani, speċjalment fir-rigward tal-prattika veterinarja, ivarja ferm skont l-ispeċi. Minkejja dan, ammonti sinifikanti ta' riċerki fil-patoloġija jsiru fuq l-annimali, għal żewġ raġunijiet primarji: 1) l-oriġini tal-mard tipikament ikun ta' natura żoonotika, u bosta patoġeni infettivi jkollhom vetturi li jkunu annimali; b'hekk il-fehim tal-mekkaniżmi ta' azzjoni għal dawn il-patoġeni f'ospitanti mhux umani huwa essenzjali għall-fehim u għall-applikazzjoni tal-epidemjoloġija, u 2) dawk l-annimali li jikkondividu tratti fiżjoloġiċi u ġenetiċi mal-bnedmin jistgħu jintużaw bħala surrogati għall-istudju tal-mard u tat-trattamenti potenzjali, kif ukoll tal-effetti ta' diversi prodotti sintetiċi. Għal din ir-raġuni, kif ukoll minħabba r-rwoli tagħhom bħala bhejjem tat-trobbija u annimali ta' akkumpanjament, ġeneralment il-[[Mammiferu|mammiferi]] jkollhom l-ikbar korp ta' riċerka fil-patoloġija veterinarja. L-ittestjar fuq l-annimali għadu prattika kontroversjali, saħansita f'każijiet fejn jintużaw għar-riċerka ta' trattamenti għall-mard tal-bniedem. Bħal fil-patoloġija medika umana, il-prattika tal-patoloġija veterinarja spiss tinqasam fiż-żewġ oqsma prinċipali tal-patoloġija anatomika u tal-patoloġija klinika. === Patoloġija tal-pjanti === [[Stampa:Tobacco mosaic virus symptoms tobacco.jpg|daqsminuri|Pjanta tat-tabakk infettata bil-virus tal-mużajk tat-tabakk.]] Għalkemm il-patoġeni u l-mekkaniżmi tagħhom ivarjaw ferm minn dawk tal-annimali, il-pjanti huma soġġetti għal varjetà wiesgħa ta' mard, inkluż dak ikkawżat mill-fungi, mill-oomiċeti, mill-batterji, mill-viruses, mill-virojdi, minn organiżmi qishom viruses, mill-fitoplażmi, mill-protożoa, min-nematodi u mill-pjanti parassitiċi. Il-ħsara kkawżata mill-insetti, mill-akari, mill-vertebrati u minn [[Erbivoru|erbivori]] żgħar oħra ma titqies bħala parti mid-dominju tal-patoloġija tal-pjanti. Il-qasam huwa marbut mal-epidemjoloġija tal-mard tal-pjanti u speċjalment mal-ortikoltura ta' speċijiet ta' importanza kbira għad-dieta umana jew ta' kwalunkwe utilità oħra għall-bnedmin. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Mediċina]] [[Kategorija:Bijoloġija]] 7wroe2f1uvgy1zz79fpl5r14wat4ecf