Wikipedia niawiki https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Olayama MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.15 first-letter Media Spesial Huhuo Sangoguna Huhuo zangoguna Wikipedia Huhuo Wikipedia Berkas Huhuo berkas MediaWiki Huhuo MediaWiki Templat Huhuo templat Fanolo Huhuo wanolo Kategori Huhuo kategori Portal Huhuo portal TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul Acara Huhuo Acara 0 438 27618 27084 2026-08-14T18:26:52Z InternetArchiveBot 504 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260814sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 27618 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person <!---- Note: Please do not expand this infobox. See the FAQ on the talk page. ----->| name = Yesu | image = Spas vsederzhitel sinay.jpg | caption = {{longitem |Gambara '''Yesu Samatörö Hadia Ia Fefu''' (''Pantocrator'') nifazökhi me ngaotu ndröfia si-6, si so iada'a ba biara Santa Katarina ba Hili Sina'i, Mesir}} | birth_date = ambö töra 6–4 föna Keriso | birth_place = <!--Note: No scholarly consensus for any more precise a location than Judea:-->Amatöröŵa Herodes, Amatöröŵa Roma{{sfn|Brown|1977|p=513}} | death_date = 30 ma 33 (33 ma 38 fakhe) | death_place = [[Yerusalema]], [[Yudaia]],<br/>Amatöröŵa Roma | known_for = Hunö wamati Niha Keriso<br>Sama'ele'ö Sebua bakha ba Islam | death_cause = <!---Note: No (further) comments required here; the scholarly consensus that the cause of Jesus' death was crucifixion is given in the article text:--->Famoröfa<!-- -->{{efn|[[James Dunn (theologian)|James Dunn]] writes that the baptism and crucifixion of Jesus "command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=339}} <!-- -->[[Bart Ehrman]] states that the crucifixion of Jesus on the orders of Pontius Pilate is the most certain element about him.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|p=101}} <!-- -->[[John Dominic Crossan]] and Richard G. Watts state that the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historical fact can be.{{sfn|Crossan|Watts|1999|p=96}} <!-- -->Paul R. Eddy and [[Greg Boyd (theologian)|Gregory A. Boyd]] say that non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus is now "firmly established".{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|p=173}} <!-- -->}} <!---- Note: Please do not expand this infobox. See the FAQ on the talk page. ----->| parents = <!--{{hlist}}, as footnote applies to -both- parents:-->{{hlist |[[Maria ina Yesu|Maria]] |[[Yosefo Ni'amoni'ö|Yosefo]]{{efn|Traditionally, Christians believe that Mary conceived her son miraculously by the agency of the Holy Spirit. Muslims believe that she conceived her son miraculously by the command of God. Joseph was from these perspectives and according to the canonical gospels the acting adoptive father of Jesus.}}}} }} <!---- The following paragraph was created by consensus after considerable discussion by a variety of editors. Out of courtesy for this process, please discuss any proposed changes on the talk page before editing it. -----> '''Yesu''' (★ ambö töra 6–4 föna Keriso, <!-- "By collating the gospel accounts with historical data and using various other methods, most scholars arrive at a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC for Jesus, though scholarly arguments for a date of birth between 7 and 2 BC have been made" in 'Chronology' section -->† 30/33), asese göi latötöi ia '''Yesu Keriso''' ma '''Yesu moroi ba Nazareta''', ba oya döi tanöbö'ö, no samösa niha [[Yahudi]] sangombakha ba sondrönia'ö ba agama, sauri ba ngaotu ndröfia sisara.{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} Ya'ia zi tobali tuho agama [[Niha Keriso]], agama fondrege ebua ba gulidanö. Ato [[Niha Keriso]] si faduhu tödö wa Yesu andrö [[Lowalangi]] si no tobali niha<ref>Bakha ba [[teologi]] lafotöi wa'atobali niha Lowalangi andre ''inkarnasi''</ref> ba [[mesia]], si no tefabu'u bakha ba [[Amabu'ulali Siföföna|Gamabu'ulali Siföföna]].<!---- The following paragraph was created by consensus after considerable discussion by a variety of editors. Out of courtesy for this process, please discuss any proposed changes on the talk page before editing it. ----><!-- PLEASE READ THIS FIRST. The following references are WP:RS sources that are used per WP:RS/AC guideline. The issue has been discussed on the talk page at length See the "talk page FAQ" about it; it may answer your question. The main source says "scholars of antiquity", other sources say "scholars", "biblical scholars and classical historians" and "historians". Sources do not say "X scholars" or "Christian scholars", so do not modify it as such, for that will make it deviate from what the sources state. The source says "virtually all", so do NOT change it to "most", "several", "many", etc. Thank you. ----> Arakhagö fefu gere wangosili ma'ökhö, sangosili ngawalö zura si otarai ba ginötö föna, fao dödöra wa no irai auri Yesu.{{efn |name=exist|Me ifurugö fefu mbua wangosili ba ndröfi 2011, isura Bart Ehrman, "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees."{{sfn|Ehrman|2011|p=[https://archive.org/details/forged_ehrm_2011_000_10544376/page/n298 285]}} Iŵa'ö Richard A. Burridge: "Sö wösa zanguma'ö wa ha so Yesu andrö bakha ba wangera-ngera Gereja, wa sindruhunia lö irai auri niha sotöi Yesu. Bahiza lötolalö'ö umane, wa lö ni'ilagu samösa gere wangosili sindruhu sanguma'ö simanö da'ö sa'ae."<ref>{{cite book|title=Jesus Now and Then|first1=Richard A.|last1=Burridge|first2=Graham|last2=Gould|year=2004|isbn=978-0-8028-0977-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusnowthen0000burr/page/34 34]|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusnowthen0000burr/page/34}}</ref> Lö faduhu dödö Robert M. Price wa no irai auri Yesu, bahiza fao dödönia wa fabali toyo da'a ba wangi'ila arakhagö fefu gere wangosili.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first= Robert M.|last= Price|title= Jesus at the Vanishing Point|encyclopedia= The Historical Jesus: Five Views|editor-last1= Beilby|editor-last2= Eddy|year= 2009|publisher= InterVarsity|isbn= 978-0-8308-7853-6|editor-first= James K.|pages= 55, 61|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O33P7xrFnLQC&pg=PA55|editor2-first= Paul R.|access-date= 14 August 2015|archive-date= 7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907112540/https://books.google.com/books?id=O33P7xrFnLQC&pg=PA55|url-status= live}}</ref> Iŵa'ö [[teologo]] James D. G. Dunn wa teori sanguma'ö lö irai so Yesu no sambua söndra si no mate.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Paul's understanding of the death of Jesus|encyclopedia=Sacrifice and Redemption|first= Stephen W.|last= Sykes |year=2007| publisher= Cambridge University Press| isbn= 978-0-521-04460-8|pages=35–36}}</ref> Isura Michael Grant (samösa gere sangosili ngawalö zura föna) me 1977, "Ha'uga fakhe ba gafuriata andre, 'lö samösa gere wangosili sindruhu sanohugö teori wa lö sauri Yesu' ba na so atö ira, lö khöra börö sabölö aro."<ref name=Grant1977>{{cite book|first=Michael|last=Grant|title=Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels|publisher=Scribner's|year=1977|isbn=978-0-684-14889-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/jesushistoriansr00gran/page/200 200]|url=https://archive.org/details/jesushistoriansr00gran/page/200}}</ref> Ifa'ele'ö Robert E. Van Voorst wa molo'ö ndra ere [[Sura Ni'amoni'ö|Zura Ni'amoni'ö]] awö gere sangosili ngawalö zura föna, teori wa lö irai so Yesu no si lö balö.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=16}} Bakha ba zinurara ba ''The Daily Beast'', laŵa'ö ira Candida Moss awö Joel Baden wa "so wahasara dödö ba gotalua ndra ere [[Sura Ni'amoni'ö|Zura Ni'amoni'ö]] — silö'ö-lö'önia ira ere sindruhu — wa sindruhu no irai auri Yesu."<ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.thedailybeast.com/so-called-biblical-scholar-says-jesus-a-made-up-myth|title = So-Called 'Biblical Scholar' Says Jesus a Made-Up Myth|newspaper = The Daily Beast|date = 5 October 2014|last1 = Baden|first1 = Candida Moss|access-date = 14 July 2021|archive-date = 5 December 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211205210029/https://www.thedailybeast.com/so-called-biblical-scholar-says-jesus-a-made-up-myth|url-status = live}}</ref>}} So tesöndra waö-waö wa'auri Yesu bakha ba zura [[Turia Somuso Dödö]], töra-töra sura nifotöi [[Injil]] si so bakha ba mbuku [[Amabu'ulali Sibohou|Gamabu'ulali Sibohou]]. No oya mufalua wangosili sanandrösa ba hadia ahatö khö Yesu sauri duria nisura bakha ba [[Injil]].{{sfn|Powell|1998|pp=168–73}}{{efn|Ehrman writes: "The notion that the Gospel accounts are not completely accurate but still important for the religious truths they try to convey is widely shared in the scholarly world, even though it's not so widely known or believed outside of it."<ref>Bart D. Ehrman. [http://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/historical-jesus.html Historical Jesus. 'Prophet of the New Millennium']. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190123155853/https://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/historical-jesus.html |date=23 January 2019 }} Course handbook, p. 10 (Lecture Three. V. B.) The Teaching Company, 2000, Lecture 24</ref><br />Sanders writes: "The earliest Christians did not write a narrative of Jesus' life, but rather made use of, and thus preserved, individual units—short passages about his words and deeds. These units were later moved and arranged by authors and editors. ... Some material has been revised and some created by early Christians."{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=57}}}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Jesus, Skepticism & The Problem of History: Criteria and Context in the Study of Christian Origins |date=2019 |publisher=Zondervan Academic |isbn=9780310534761 |editor1-last=Komoszewski |editor1-first=J. Ed |pages=22–23 |quote=...a considerable number of specific facts about Jesus are so well supported historically as to be widely acknowledged by most scholars, whether Christian (of any stripe) or not:...(lists 18 points)...Nevertheless, what can be known about Jesus with a high degree of confidence, apart from theological or ideological agendas, is perhaps surprisingly robust. |editor2-last=Bock |editor2-first=Darrell}}</ref><ref>Craig Evans, "Life-of-Jesus Research and the Eclipse of Mythology," Theological Studies 54 (1993) pp. 13–14 "First, the New Testament Gospels are now viewed as useful, if not essentially reliable, historical sources. Gone is the extreme skepticism that for so many years dominated gospel research. Representative of many is the position of E. P. Sanders and Marcus Borg, who have concluded that it is possible to recover a fairly reliable picture of the historical Jesus."</ref> Laboto Yesu me 8 ngaluo ndröfinia, itema wanasa moroi khö [[Yohane Same'e Fanasa]] me awuyu-wuyu ia nasa, ba aefa itörö [[fuasö|wuasö]] awö [[famoni]] si 40 ngaluo wa'ara ba danö simate, ibörötaigö halöŵö fa'alowalangi. I'anöröi mbanu-banua misa ba wanuriagö turia fa'alowalangi, ba andrö asese lakaoni khönia guru (''rabbi'').<ref name="ISBEO">{{cite web |year=1939 |editor=Orr |editor-first=James |title=International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Online |url=http://www.internationalstandardbible.com/R/rabbi.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817024703/http://www.internationalstandardbible.com/R/rabbi.html |archive-date=17 August 2016 |access-date=30 July 2016 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company}}</ref> Asese göi fabu'a li Yesu khö ndra niha [[Yahudi]] sanandrösa ba hadia zabölö fagöna ba wolo'ö khö Lowalangi, ifadöhö wökhö, ifahaö niha faoma [[amaedola]], i'owuloi niha solo'ö khönia, ba gotaluara ira nifahaö si-12. Lara'u ia ba [[Yerusalema]] ba lafareso ia ira sondrönia'ö khö niha [[Yahudi]],{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}} latou'ö ia khö wamatörö [[Roma]] samatörö tanö me luo da'ö, ba laforöfa ia molo'ö gangetula [[Fondrio Filato]], si tobali gubernur provinsi Yudea me luo da'ö. Aefa wa'amatenia, faduhu dödö ndra solo'ö khönia wa no maoso ia moroi ba gotalua zimate, ba aefa manahae ia ba zorugo, tobali ndra solohi khönia andre angowuloa ndra [[Niha Keriso]] si föföna, si muzawili ba zi sagörö ulidanö.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=11, 14}} Lafa'ema waö-waö wa'aurinia ba nga'ötöra mitou faoma nidunö-dunö (nifotöi ''tradisi oral''), si tobali dania dane-dane ni'oguna'ö ba wanura [[Injil]].<ref name="Dunn2013">{{cite book |last=Dunn |first=James D. G. |title=The Oral Gospel Tradition |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=2013 |pages=290–291 |language=en}}</ref> Fao ba [[teologi]] [[Niha Keriso]] wamati wa te'adonogö Yesu moroi khö [[Eheha Ni'amoni'ö|Geheha Ni'amoni'ö]], ni'adonogö [[Maria]] me lö nasa faruka ia ba ndramatua, wa ifazökhi dandra sahöli-höli tödö Yesu, wa ya'ia zamasindro [[Gereja]] [[Niha Keriso]], wa mate ia ba [[röfa]] tobali fangöhöli horö, wa maoso ia moroi ba gotalua zimate ba manahae ia ba zorugo, heza mangawuli ia dania. To'ölö faduhu dödö ndra [[Niha Keriso]] wa no ifolala Yesu, irege tola mangatulö niha khö [[Lowalangi]]. Ifaduhu'ö [[Tuho Wamati]] nifa'anö ba Nikea wa edöna ihuku niha Yesu, he sauri ba he simate, föna ma zui aefa wanusugi boto, salua ba ginötö mangawuli Yesiu dania simane nifakhoi bakha ba [[teologi]] afuriata danö (to'ölö latötöi ia bakha ba [[teologi]] ''eskatologia'').<ref>Lafotöi ''eskatologia'' sambua waosatö bakha ba [[teologi]] samagölö fefu hadia zalua, ma abölö faudu, fefu hadia zi tola latötöna alua khöra ira [[Niha Keriso]] ba zi so föna ba gafuriata danö na tohare mangawuli [[Zo'aya]] ba wanguhuku niha sauri awö zi no mate.</ref> Arakhagö fefu [[Niha Keriso]], lasuno Yesu, [[Lowalangi]] si no tobali niha ba lafotöi Ono Lowalangi, samösa moroi ba Lowalangi si tölu (''trinitas'').{{efn|A small minority of Christian denominations reject trinitarianism, wholly or partly, as non-scriptural.}} Ero röfi la'owasaini wa'atumbu Yesu, sito'ölönia ba 25 Desember,{{efn|So ösa ba gotalua [[Gereja Timur]] zangowasaini fa'atumbu Yesu ba 25 Desember bakha ba kalender Yulian, sifaudu ba 7 Januari ba kalender Gregorian ni'o'öda ba Indonesia. Oya negara sangowasaini fa'atumbu Yesu ba 24 Desember.}} nifotöi [[luo Natal]]. Latörö-tödö wamoröfania ba Luo Zumaha Ni'amoni'ö ba femaosonia moroi ba gotalua zimate ba Luo Paska. [[Surambaŵa]] fondrege oya te'oguna'ö ba zi sagörö ulidanö iada'a, ya'ia na taŵaö döfi {{CURRENTYEAR}}, no lafotöi ia [[surambaŵa]] Keriso (li Indonesia: ''{{li|id|Masehi}}'', li Inggris: {{li|en|CE (Common Era)}}), börö me te'erai ia moroi ba ginötö wa'atumbu Yesu Keriso, ambö töra.<ref name="AD">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2003 |title=anno Domini |encyclopedia=Merriam Webster Online Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-Webster |url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/Anno%20Domini |access-date=3 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222112520/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/anno%20domini |archive-date=22 December 2007 |quote=Etymology: Medieval Latin, in the year of our Lord |url-status=live}}.</ref> Lafolakhömi göi Yesu bakha ba agama [[Islam]], Baha'i, ba ba agama Druze. Latötöi Yesus bakha ba agama [[Islam]] molo'ö töinia bakha ba zura [[Alquran]] ya'ia da'ö Isa, heza tetema'ö wa Yesu samösa no [[sama'ele'ö]] ba [[mesia]], sedöna mangawuli dania fatua lö alua wanguhuku. Faduhu dödö ndra niha [[Islam]] wa tumbu Yesu moroi khö Maria, me lö nasa faruka Maria ba ndramatua (li Indonesia: ''{{li|id|perawan}}''), bahiza lö latema wa Yesu andrö no [[Lowalangi]] ma zui [[Ono Lowalangi]]. Lö göi faduhu dödö arakhagö fefu niha [[Islam]] wa no mate Yesu ba röfa, bahiza wa no i'ohe Yesu ba zorugo [[Lowalangi]] fatua auri Yesu nasa.{{efn|Ba ngahönö ndröfia so ösa niha [[Islam]] si faduhu tödö wa no teforöfa Yesu, simanö göi ndra niha [[Islam]] si tefaböbö ba sekte Ahmadiyah}} Fabö'ö göi molo'ö ndra niha [[Yahudi]]. Lö faduhu dödöra wa Yesu andrö [[mesia]], börö me lö nifönuinia zura ndra sama'ele'ö, lö nibayoini ia molo'ö hada ndra niha [[Yahudi]], lö simaoso ia moroi ba gotalua zimate, ba tenga [[Lowalangi]] ia. == Töi == [[File:JesusYeshua2.svg|thumb|Moroi ba sagi yaŵa tanö ba gambölö simane wofanö tandra-luo: Töi Yesu ba li [[Ibrani]], li [[Aram]], li [[Yunani]], li [[Latin]] ba li [[Inggris]]|upright=1.2]] === Fame'e töi si fao tödö ato niha === Ba ginötö Yesu ha sambua döi samösa niha [[Yahudi]], heŵa'ae itaria lafaogö göi döi simane "ono [töi namania]" ma zui töi mbanuania.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303091/Jesus-Christ | title=Jesus Christ | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica | access-date=10 June 2015 | first1=E.&nbsp;P. | last1=Sanders | first2=Jaroslav J. | last2=Pelikan | archive-date=3 May 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503100711/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303091/Jesus-Christ | url-status=live }}</ref> Börö da'ö to'ölö lakaoni Yesu bakha ba [[Amabu'ulali Sibohou|Gamabu'ulali Sibohou]] "Yesu moroi ba Nazareta". Lakaoni Yesu ira si faola omo khönia "tuka geu, ono Maria ba talifusö Yakobo awö Yose ba Yuda ba Simoni", "ono tuka geu" ma "ono Yosefo"; bakha ba Injil [[Yohane]] ikaoni ia Filifo "Yesu ono Yosefo moroi ba Nazareta". === Etimologi === Ba li Niha tefo'eluaha döi ''Yesu'' moroi ba li Yunani ''{{li|grc|Iēsous}}'', nifo'eluaha göi moroi ba döi ''Yosua'' (li [[Ibrani]] ''Yehoshua'', furi hö ''Yeshua''), sambua töi sasese tebe'e ba töi niha ba danö [[Yudaia]] ba ginötö Yesu. Ato niha samo'eluaha döi ''Yehoshua'' ba ''Yeshua'' faoma "mangorifi" ba "fangorifi".{{sfn|Hare|1993|p=11}} Iŵa'ö Injil [[Mataio]] wa oroma mala'ika khö [[Yosefo]] sanguma'ö khönia ena'ö "ibe'e töinia Yesu, börö me i'orifi dania mbanuania moroi ba horöra".<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|1:21}}.</ref> === Yesu Keriso === I'otarai götö si föföna [[Niha Keriso]], to'ölö latötöi Yesu ira [[Niha Keriso]] faoma "Yesu Keriso".{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p=212}} ''Keriso'' no tenga töi nifatörö zatua ndraono bahiza sambua töi sebua (nifotöi ''gelar'' ba li Indonesia).{{sfn|Pannenberg|1968|pp=30–31}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Theology of the New Testament| first=Rudolf K.|last= Bultmann |year=2007 |isbn= 978-1-932792-93-5 |page= 80 |publisher=Baylor University Press}}</ref> Lahalö ia moroi ba li Yunani {{lang|grc|[[wikt:Χριστός|Χριστός]]}} (''Christos''),<ref name="CE name">{{CathEncy |wstitle= Origin of the Name of Jesus Christ |first= Anthony J. |last= Maas}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Heil |first=John P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4u42_PsPNsC&pg=PA66 |title=Philippians: Let Us Rejoice in Being Conformed to Christ |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-58983-482-8 |page=66 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907173832/https://books.google.com/books?id=i4u42_PsPNsC&pg=PA66 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> nifo'eluaha moroi ba li [[Ibrani]] ''mashiakh'' ({{lang|he|משיח}}) eluahania "nibayoini", ba ba Zura Ni'amoni'ö ba li Niha "mesia".{{sfn|Vine|1940|pp=274–75}} Bakha ba Zura Ni'amoni'ö, te'oguna'ö wanikha ni'amoni'ö ba wombayoini niha ma zui gama-gama si fahöna fa'alowalangi si no tobali föfö ngawalö halöŵö ba agama khöra.<ref>Faigi MozIII 8:10–12 ba MozII 30:29.</ref> Ba ginötö da'ö lafotöi Yesu "Keriso" ira [[Niha Keriso]] börö me faduhu dödöra wa ''mesia'' ia, fe'asonia no tefabu'u bakha ba zura [[Amabu'ulali Siföföna|Gamabu'ulali Siföföna]]. Furi hö töi ''Keriso'' awö töi "Yesu" tobali sambua "Yesu Keriso". Lakaoni [[Niha Keriso]] niha solohi khönia i'otarai ngaotu ndröfia sisara.{{sfn|Mills|Bullard|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA142 142]}} == Fa'auri ba famahaönia == === Molo'ö Injil kanonik === [[File:P. Chester Beatty I, folio 13-14, recto.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Sura Luka nisura yaŵa ba garate nifotöi papirus, ngaotu ndröfia si-3|alt=Öfa nga'örö zura nisura yaŵa ba papirus si no awai agasika]] Injil kanonik<ref>Lafotöi ''Injil kanonik'' zi öfa mbuku Injil si so bakha ba zura [[Amabu'ulali Sibohou|Gamabu'ulali Sibohou]]. So ösa injil tanöbö'ö simane injil Tomas, bahiza lö itema'ö ia Gereja tobali Injil resmi nifaogö bakha ba [[Sura Ni'amoni'ö|Zura Ni'amoni'ö]].</ref> si öfa ngawua ([[Mataio]], [[Mareko]], [[Luka]] ba [[Yohane]]) no tuho gumbu heza tehalö waö-waö wa'auri ba fangombakha Yesu.<ref name="Britannica" /> Bahiza so göi nahia bö'ö bakha ba zura [[Amabu'ulali Sibohou|Gamabu'ulali Sibohou]] sanutunö moroi ba wa'aurinia, simane [[Femanga Safuria]] bakha ba {{SN|KorI|11|23|26}}.<ref>KorI 11:23–26</ref>{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=441–42}}<ref name="Fahlbusch52" />{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=465–77}} Itutunö göi [[Halöŵö Zinenge]] bakha ba {{SN|HalZin|10|37|38|hafaza=1}} ba ba {{SN|HalZin|19|4|hafaza=1}} zanandrösa ba halöŵö si föföna Yesu ba [[Yohane Same'e Fanasa]] sombalo-baloi halöŵö andrö.<ref name="Bruce1988">{{cite book|title=The Book of the Acts|first=Frederick F.|last= Bruce|year= 1988 |isbn= 978-0-8028-2505-6 |page= 362 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing}}</ref>{{sfn|Rausch|2003|p=77}}{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} Itutunö {{SN|HalZin|1|1|11}} (inönö göi ba {{SN|TimI|3|16}}) zanandrösa ba wanahae Yesu töra moroi ba nitutunö [[Injil]] si öfa.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=521–30}} Bakha ba ngawalö zura [[Faulo|Waulo]], nisura föna wanura [[Injil]], tesöndra mato ha'uga wehede ma fanuturu [[Yesu]].<ref>{{SN|KorI|7|10|11}}, {{SN|KorI|9|14}}, {{SN|KorI|11|23|25}}, {{SN|KorII|12|9}}.</ref>{{efn|Isura Powell: "Ba zi ha'uga nahia, sindruhu isura tou ha'uga wehede ba fanuturu Yesu [[Faulo]],<ref>{{SN|KorI|7|10|11}}; {{SN|KorI|9|14|hafaza}}; {{SN|KorI|11|23|25|hafaza}}; {{SN|KorII|12|9}}; faigi göi {{SN|HalZin|20}35}}</ref> bahiza oroma wa lö ibe'e-tödönia Waulo wanura ''rincian'' wa'auri ba fohalöŵö Yesu ba gulidanö."<ref>{{cite book |last= Powell |first= Mark A. |title= Introducing the New Testament |url=https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00powe |url-access= limited |date= 2009 |publisher= Baker Academic |page= [https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00powe/page/248 248]|isbn= 978-0-8010-2868-7 }}</ref>}} Khö ndra mato ha'uga gangowuloa [[Niha Keriso]] siföföna so nidunö-dunö sanandrösa ba wa'auri ba famahaö Yesu si lö tesöndra bakha ba zura [[Amabu'ulali Sibohou|Gamabu'ulali Sibohou]]. Fao ba da'ö nifotöi injil Toma, injil Wetero, sura nibini'ö Yakobo, ba sura nibini'ö tanöbö'ö. Molo'ö ndra sangosili sato ngawalö zura andre tesura ara aefa ginötö ndra nifahaö Yesu ba nitutunö bakha khönia ambö faduhu dödöda moroi ba nitutunö Injil si öfa.{{sfn|Brown|1997|pp=835–40}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=C. A. |title=Exploring the Origins of the Bible |date=2008 |publisher=Baker Academic |page=154 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Keener|2009|p=56}} Awena irugi da'a wo'ali ba li Niha. Höndrögö '''Bulö'ö kode''' ba wamaigi teks asli ba li Inggris. Tolo Wikipedia ba wanohugö wo'ali ya'ia na so ginötöu. ==== Sanura, inötö tesura ba hadia tola faduhu dödöda ia ==== ==== Fama'oli ba ösi ==== === Nga'ötö ba fa'atumbu === === Fa'a'iraono, ösi nomo ba halöŵö === === Fanasa ba fanandraigö === === Fa'a'enoni ba zato === ==== Nifahaö ba solohi ==== ==== Famahaö ba tandra sahöli-höli dödö ==== ==== Fangombakha wa Keriso ba famolakhömi ba hili ==== === Migu ni'amoni'ö === ==== Nilau ba Yerusalema ==== ==== Femanga Safuria ==== ==== Fa'ata'u ba kabu, femanga mböli ba fondra'u ==== ==== Fanguhuku ndra ere, Herode ba Filato ==== ==== Famoröfa ba fogo'o ==== === Femaoso ba fanahae === == Götö Niha Keriso siföföna == == Sinöndra molo'ö sejarah == === Yudaia ba Galilaia ba ngaotu ndröfia sisara === === Umbu === === Salua molo'ö angolifa ginötö === === Hadia sindruhu alua === ==== Ösi nomo ==== ==== Fanasa ==== ==== Fe'amöi enoni ba Galilaia ==== ==== Halöŵö (''peran'') ==== ==== Fasa ba famoröfa ba Yerusalema ==== ==== Aefa wamoröfa ==== === Fogambambaraini Yesu === === Li, soi ba khala-khala === === Teori mitos Keriso === == Söndra moroi ba agama == === Niha Keriso === === Yahudi === === Manikeis === === Islam === ==== Ahmadiyah ==== === Druze === === Baha'i === === Tanöbö'ö === == Fangoroma'ö ba gambara == == Föfö gamatela == <!-- ==== Sanura, inötö tesura ba hadia tola faduhu dödöda ia ==== The canonical gospels are four accounts, each by a different author. The authors of the Gospels are pseudonymous, attributed by tradition to the [[four evangelists]], each with close ties to Jesus:{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} Mark by [[John Mark]], an associate of [[Saint Peter|Peter]];<ref name="May Metzger Mark" /> [[Matthew the Apostle|Matthew]] by one of Jesus' disciples;{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]] by a companion of [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]] mentioned in a few epistles;{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} and John by another of Jesus' disciples,{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} the "[[beloved disciple]]".{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=John, St.}} According to the [[Marcan priority]], the first to be written was the Gospel of Mark (written AD 60–75), followed by the Gospel of Matthew (AD 65–85), the Gospel of Luke (AD 65–95), and the Gospel of John (AD 75–100).<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l2sloGWzzV8C&pg=PA58 | title=Can We Trust the Gospels?: Investigating the Reliability of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John | publisher=Crossway | year=2007 | page=58 | isbn=978-1-4335-1978-9 | first=Mark D. | last=Roberts | access-date=14 August 2015 | archive-date=7 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907174109/https://books.google.com/books?id=l2sloGWzzV8C&pg=PA58 | url-status=live }}</ref> Most scholars agree that the authors of Matthew and Luke used Mark as a source for their gospels. Since Matthew and Luke also share some content not found in Mark, many scholars assume that they used another source (commonly called the "[[Q source]]") in addition to Mark.{{sfn|Licona|2010|pp=210–21}} One important aspect of the study of the Gospels is the [[literary genre]] under which they fall. Genre "is a key convention guiding both the composition and the interpretation of writings".<ref>Burridge, R. A. (2006). Gospels. In J. W. Rogerson & Judith M. Lieu (Eds.) ''The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 433.</ref> Whether the gospel authors set out to write novels, myths, histories, or biographies has a tremendous impact on how they ought to be interpreted. Some recent studies suggest that the genre of the Gospels ought to be situated within the realm of ancient biography.<ref>Talbert, C. H. (1977). ''What is a Gospel? The Genre of the Canonical Gospels''. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Fortress Press.</ref><ref>Wills, L. M. (1997). ''The Quest of the Historical Gospel: Mark, John and the Origins of the Gospel Genre''. London, England: Routledge. p. 10.</ref><ref>Burridge, R. A. (2004). ''What are the Gospels? A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography''. revised updated edn. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans.</ref> Although not without critics,<ref>e.g. Vines, M. E. (2002). ''The Problem of the Markan Genre: The Gospel of Mark and the Jewish Novel''. Atlanta, Georgia: Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 161–162.</ref> the position that the Gospels are a type of ancient biography is the consensus among scholars today.<ref>{{cite book |author=Stanton |first=Graham N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A7wNGMrAiD0C |title=Jesus and Gospel |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-00802-0 |page=192 |language=en |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226005236/https://books.google.com/books?id=A7wNGMrAiD0C |archive-date=26 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rogerson |first1=J. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eKZYMifS1fAC |title=The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies |last2=Lieu |first2=Judith M. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-925425-5 |page=437 |language=en |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225204746/https://books.google.com/books?id=eKZYMifS1fAC |archive-date=25 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Concerning the accuracy of the accounts, viewpoints run the gamut from considering them [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrant]] descriptions of Jesus' life,{{sfn|Grudem|1994|pp=90–91}} to doubting whether they are historically reliable on a number of points,{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}} to considering them to provide very little historical information about his life beyond the basics.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=117–25}}{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=22–23}} According to a broad scholarly consensus, the [[Synoptic Gospels]] (the first three—Matthew, Mark, and Luke) are the most reliable sources of information about Jesus.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=71}}{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}}<ref name="Britannica" /> ====Comparative structure and content==== {{Christianity sidebar}} Matthew, Mark, and Luke are known as the [[Synoptic Gospels]], from the Greek σύν (''syn'' "together") and ὄψις (''opsis'' "view"),<ref name="Synoptic" /><ref name="Synoptic2" /><ref>{{OED|synoptic}}</ref> because they are similar in content, narrative arrangement, language and paragraph structure, and one can easily set them next to each other and synoptically compare what is in them.<ref name="Synoptic">{{cite book|title=New Testament Theology|first=Paul |last=Haffner|year=2008 |isbn= 978-88-902268-0-9 |page= 135|publisher=Gracewing }}</ref><ref name="Synoptic2">{{cite book|title=A Guide to the Gospels|first=W. Graham|last= Scroggie |year=1995 |isbn= 978-0-8254-9571-7 |page= 128 |publisher=[[Kregel Publications]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Synoptic Gospels {{!}} Definition & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Synoptic-Gospels|access-date=26 October 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=30 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030013859/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Synoptic-Gospels|url-status=live}}</ref> Scholars generally agree that it is impossible to find any direct literary relationship between the Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John.<ref name="Moloney3">{{cite book|title=The Gospel of John|first1=Francis J.|last1=Moloney|first2=Daniel J.|last2=Harrington|year=1998|isbn=978-0-8146-5806-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/gospelofjohn0004molo/page/3 3]|publisher=Liturgical Press|url=https://archive.org/details/gospelofjohn0004molo/page/3}}</ref> While the flow of many events (e.g., Jesus' baptism, [[Transfiguration of Jesus|transfiguration]], crucifixion and interactions with his [[Apostles in the New Testament|apostles]]) are shared among the Synoptic Gospels, incidents such as the transfiguration and Jesus' exorcising demons{{sfn|Witherington|1997|p=113}} do not appear in John, which also differs on other matters, such as the [[Cleansing of the Temple]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Ladd|first=George E.|title=A Theology of the New Testament|year=1993|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-0680-2|page=251|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eIdkM00EdlAC&pg=PA251|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907103156/https://books.google.com/books?id=eIdkM00EdlAC&pg=PA251|url-status=live}}</ref> The Synoptics emphasize different aspects of Jesus. In Mark, Jesus is the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]] whose mighty works demonstrate the presence of [[God's Kingdom]].<ref name="May Metzger Mark" /> He is a tireless wonder worker, the servant of both God and man.<ref name="ThompsonPortraits">Thompson, Frank Charles. The Thompson Chain-Reference Bible. Kirk bride Bible Company & Zondervan Bible Publishers. 1983. pp. 1563–1564.</ref> This short gospel records few of Jesus' words or teachings.<ref name="May Metzger Mark" /> The Gospel of Matthew emphasizes that Jesus is the fulfilment of God's will as revealed in the Old Testament, and the Lord of the Church.<ref name="May Metzger Matthew">May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. "Matthew" pp. 1171–1212.</ref> He is the "[[Davidic line|Son of David]]", a "king", and the messiah.<ref name="ThompsonPortraits" />{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=4–6}} Luke presents Jesus as the divine-human saviour who shows compassion to the needy.<ref name="May Metzger Luke">May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. "Luke" pp. 1240–1285.</ref> He is the friend of sinners and outcasts, come to seek and save the lost.<ref name="ThompsonPortraits" /> This gospel includes well-known parables, such as the [[Parable of the Good Samaritan|Good Samaritan]] and the [[Parable of the Prodigal Son|Prodigal Son]].<ref name="May Metzger Luke" /> The [[John 1:1|prologue to the Gospel of John]] identifies Jesus as an incarnation of the divine Word ([[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]]).<ref name="MayMetzgerJohn">May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. "John" pp. 1286–1318.</ref> As the Word, Jesus was eternally present with God, active in all creation, and the source of humanity's moral and spiritual nature.<ref name="MayMetzgerJohn" /> Jesus is not only greater than any past human prophet but greater than any prophet could be. He not only speaks God's Word; he is God's Word.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–10}} In the Gospel of John, Jesus reveals his divine role publicly. Here he is the [[Bread of Life]], the [[Light of the World]], the [[True Vine]] and more.<ref name="ThompsonPortraits" /> In general, the authors of the New Testament showed little interest in an absolute [[chronology of Jesus]] or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age.{{sfn|Rahner|2004|pp=730–31}} As stated in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#21:25|John 21:25]], the Gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in Jesus' life.<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Collins |first=Gerald |title=Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-955787-5 |location=Oxford, England |pages=1–3 |language=en-uk}}</ref> The accounts were primarily written as theological documents in the context of [[early Christianity]], with timelines as a secondary consideration.<ref name="Wiarda75">{{cite book|title=Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and Theology|first=Timothy |last=Wiarda |year=2010 |isbn= 978-0-8054-4843-6 |pages= 75–78 |publisher= B&H Publishing Group}}</ref> In this respect, it is noteworthy that the Gospels devote about one third of their text to the last week of Jesus' life in [[Jerusalem]], referred to as [[Passion (Christianity)|the Passion]].<ref name="Turner613">{{cite book|title=Matthew|first=David L. |last=Turner|year= 2008| isbn= 978-0-8010-2684-3 |page= 613 |publisher= Baker Academic}}</ref> The Gospels do not provide enough details to satisfy the demands of modern historians regarding exact dates, but it is possible to draw from them a general picture of Jesus' life story.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}}{{sfn|Rahner|2004|pp=730–31}}<ref name="Wiarda75" /> ===Genealogy and nativity=== {{Main|Genealogy of Jesus|Nativity of Jesus}} Jesus was Jewish,{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} born to [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]], wife of [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]].<ref>[[Matthew 1]]; [[Luke 2]].</ref> The Gospels of Matthew and Luke offer two accounts of his [[genealogy]]. Matthew traces Jesus' ancestry to [[Abraham]] through [[David]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|1:1–16}}.</ref>{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=80–91}} Luke traces Jesus' ancestry through [[Adam]] to God.<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|3:23–38}}.</ref>{{sfn|Brown|1978|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ML1mnUBwmhcC&pg=PA163 163]}} The lists are identical between Abraham and David but differ radically from that point. Matthew has 27 generations from David to Joseph, whereas Luke has 42, with almost no overlap between the names on the two lists.{{efn|Compare {{bibleref2|Matthew|1:6–16|NIV}} with {{bibleref2|Luke|3:23–31|NIV}}. See also {{section link|Genealogy of Jesus|Comparison of the two genealogies}}.}}<ref>{{cite book |last=France |first=R. T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ttTgacXnLV8C&pg=PA72 |title=The Gospel According to Matthew: An Introduction and Commentary |publisher=Eerdmans |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-8028-0063-3 |page=72 |language=en |author-link=R. T. France |access-date=15 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229004519/https://books.google.com/books?id=ttTgacXnLV8C&pg=PA72 |archive-date=29 February 2020 |url-status=live}} "From David the two lists diverge, as Matthew follows the line of succession to the throne of Judah from Solomon, whereas Luke's list goes through Nathan, ... and converges with Matthew's only for the two names of Shealtiel and Zerubabbel until Joseph is reached."</ref> Various theories have been put forward to explain why the two genealogies are so different.{{efn|For an overview of such theories, see {{section link|Genealogy of Jesus|Explanations for divergence}}.}} [[File:Gerard van Honthorst - Adoration of the Shepherds (1622).jpg|thumb|left|''Adoration of the Shepherds'' by [[Gerard van Honthorst]], 1622|alt=A Nativity scene; men and animals surround Mary and newborn Jesus, who are covered in light]] Matthew and Luke each describe Jesus' birth, especially that Jesus was born to a virgin named Mary in [[Bethlehem]] in fulfilment of [[prophecy]]. Luke's account emphasizes events before the [[Nativity of Jesus|birth of Jesus]] and centers on Mary, while Matthew's mostly covers those after the birth and centers on Joseph.{{sfn|Mills|Bullard|1998|p=556}}<ref name="marsh37">{{cite book |title=Jesus and the Gospels |last=Marsh |first=Clive |author2=Moyise, Steve |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-567-04073-2 |page=37 |publisher=Clark International |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ecHpPzDLkhcC&pg=PA37 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907095218/https://books.google.com/books?id=ecHpPzDLkhcC&pg=PA37 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Morris|1992|page=26}} Both accounts state that Jesus was born to [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]] and Mary, his [[betrothed]], in Bethlehem, and both support the doctrine of the [[virgin birth of Jesus]], according to which Jesus was miraculously conceived by the [[Holy Spirit]] in Mary's womb when she was still a virgin.<ref name="Jeffrey">{{cite book |last=Jeffrey |first=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7R0IGTSvIVIC |title=A Dictionary of biblical tradition in English literature |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-85244-224-1 |pages=538–540 |language=en |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221946/https://books.google.com/books?id=7R0IGTSvIVIC |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=30–37}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Who's Who in the New Testament |last=Brownrigg |first= Ronald |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-26036-7 |pages=96–100 |publisher=Taylor & Francis}}</ref> At the same time, there is evidence, at least in the Lukan [[Acts of the Apostles]], that Jesus was thought to have had, like many figures in antiquity, a dual paternity, since there it is stated he descended from the seed or loins of David.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lincoln |first=Andrew T. |date=2013 |title=Luke and Jesus' Conception: A Case of Double Paternity? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23487891 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=132 |issue=3 |pages=639–658 |doi=10.2307/23487891 |jstor=23487891 |issn=0021-9231 |access-date=21 July 2018 |archive-date=20 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720232133/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23487891 |url-status=live }}</ref> By [[Adoption in Judaism|taking him as his own]], Joseph will give him the necessary Davidic descent.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thesevernforum.org.uk/palette/lecture_lincoln_2015.pdf |title=Lincoln, Andrew T., "Conceiving Jesus: re-examining Jesus' conception in canon, Christology, and creed", Th Severn Forum, 5 March 2015, p. 4 |access-date=2 July 2019 |archive-date=10 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510100248/http://www.thesevernforum.org.uk/palette/lecture_lincoln_2015.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Some scholars suggest that Jesus had [[Levite]] heritage from Mary, based on her blood relationship with [[Elizabeth (biblical figure)|Elizabeth]]. <ref>For example, {{citation |title=Carmen 18}}</ref> [[File:Bellini-circumcision-NG1455-fm.jpg|thumb|alt=74.9 x 102.2&nbsp;cm|''The Circumcision'' by [[Giovanni Bellini]], {{Circa|1500}}. The work depicts the [[circumcision of Jesus]].]] In Matthew, Joseph is troubled because Mary, his betrothed, is pregnant,<ref>[[Matthew 1:19]]–[[Matthew 1:20|20]].</ref> but in the first of [[St. Joseph's dream|Joseph's four dreams]] an angel assures him not to be afraid to take Mary as his wife, because her child was conceived by the Holy Spirit.<ref name="Talbert">{{cite book |title=Matthew |first=Charles H. |last=Talbert |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8010-3192-2 |publisher=Baker Academic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbmoR2j0-sgC |pages=29–30 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221946/https://books.google.com/books?id=tbmoR2j0-sgC |url-status=live }}</ref> In [[Matthew 2:1]]–[[Matthew 2:12|12]], [[Biblical Magi|wise men]] or [[Magi]] from the East bring gifts to the young Jesus as the [[Jesus, King of the Jews|King of the Jews]]. They find him in a house in Bethlehem. [[Herod the Great]] hears of Jesus' birth and, wanting him killed, [[Massacre of the Innocents|orders the murders of male infants]] in Bethlehem and its surroundings. But an angel warns Joseph in his second dream, and the family [[Flight to Egypt|flees to Egypt]]—later to return and settle in [[Nazareth]].<ref name="Talbert" />{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=272–85}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Schnackenburg |first=Rudolf |title=The Gospel of Matthew |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8028-4438-5 |publisher=Wm.B. Eerdmans Publishing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pvR39Z9O01kC&pg=PA9 |pages=9–11 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907052207/https://books.google.com/books?id=pvR39Z9O01kC&pg=PA9 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Luke 1:31–38, Mary learns from the angel [[Gabriel]] that she will conceive and bear a child called Jesus through the action of the Holy Spirit.<ref name="marsh37" /><ref name="Jeffrey" /> When Mary is due to give birth, she and Joseph travel from Nazareth to Joseph's ancestral home in Bethlehem to register in the census ordered by [[Augustus|Caesar Augustus]]. While there Mary gives birth to Jesus, and as they have found no room in the inn, she places the newborn in a [[manger]].<ref>{{bibleref2|Luke|2:1–7}}.</ref> An [[Annunciation to the shepherds|angel announces the birth to a group of shepherds]], who go to Bethlehem to see Jesus, and subsequently spread the news abroad.<ref>{{bibleref2|Luke|2:8–20}}.</ref> Luke 2:21 tells how Joseph and Mary [[circumcision of Jesus|have their baby circumcised on the eighth day after birth]], and name him Jesus, as Gabriel had commanded Mary.<ref>{{bibleref2|Luke|2:21}}.</ref> After the [[presentation of Jesus at the Temple]], Joseph, Mary and Jesus return to Nazareth.<ref name="marsh37" /><ref name="Jeffrey" /> ===Early life, family, and profession=== {{Main|Christ Child}} {{See also|Return of the family of Jesus to Nazareth|Unknown years of Jesus|Brothers of Jesus}} [[File:William Holman Hunt - The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''[[The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple]]'', by [[William Holman Hunt]], 1860|alt=Mary and Joseph find Jesus in the Temple]] Jesus' childhood home is identified in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew as the town of Nazareth in [[Galilee]], where he lived with his family. Although Joseph appears in descriptions of Jesus' childhood, no mention is made of him thereafter.<ref>{{cite book |last=Perrotta |first=Louise B. |title=Saint Joseph: His Life and His Role in the Church Today |publisher=Our Sunday Visitor Publishing |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-87973-573-9 |pages=21, 110–112 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Reverend Archdeacon Kinane|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EmUhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT138|title=Saint Joseph: His Life, His Virtues, His Privileges, His Power|page=138|chapter=Section VI – The perpetual virginity os St. Joseph|publisher=Aeterna Press|oclc=972347083|access-date=7 June 2021|archive-date=9 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309230526/https://books.google.com/books?id=EmUhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT138#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> His other family members—his mother, Mary, [[Brothers of Jesus|his brothers]] [[James, brother of Jesus|James]], [[Joses, brother of Jesus|Joses (or Joseph)]], [[Jude, brother of Jesus|Judas]] and [[Simon, brother of Jesus|Simon]] and his unnamed sisters—are mentioned in the Gospels and other sources.<ref name="Aslan2013">{{cite book|title= Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth|last= Aslan|first= Reza|author-link= Reza Aslan|year= 2013|publisher= Random House|page= [https://archive.org/details/zealotlifetimeso00reza/page/756 36]|isbn= 978-1-4000-6922-4|url=https://archive.org/details/zealotlifetimeso00reza/page/756}}</ref> Jesus' maternal grandparents are named [[Joachim]] and [[Saint Anne|Anne]] in the [[Gospel of James]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Brownrigg|first=Ronald|title=Who's Who in the New Testament|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JXqBAgAAQBAJ&q=joachim|page=194|year=2003|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=978-1-134-50949-2|access-date=31 March 2023|archive-date=9 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309230540/https://books.google.com/books?id=JXqBAgAAQBAJ&q=joachim#v=snippet&q=joachim&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> The Gospel of Luke records that Mary was a relative of [[Elizabeth (biblical figure)|Elizabeth]], the mother of John the Baptist.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Luke|1:5, 36|KJV}}.</ref> Extra-biblical contemporary sources consider Jesus and John the Baptist to be second cousins through the belief that Elizabeth was the daughter of [[Sobe (sister of Saint Anne)|Sobe]], the sister of Anne.<ref>[[Patrologia Graeca|PG]] 97.1325.</ref><ref>[[Patrologia Graeca|PG]] 120.189.</ref><ref>[[Patrologia Graeca|PG]] 145.760 ([[Nicephorus Callistus Xanthopoulos|Nicephorus Callistus]], ''Historia ecclesiastica'', 2.3).</ref> The Gospel of Mark reports that at the beginning of [[Ministry of Jesus|his ministry]], Jesus comes into conflict with his neighbours and family.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–72}} Jesus' mother and brothers come to get him<ref>{{bibleref2|Mark|3:31–35}}.</ref> because people are saying that [[Mental health of Jesus|he is crazy]].<ref>{{bibleref2|Mark|3:21}}.</ref> Jesus responds that his followers are his true family. In the Gospel of John, Jesus and his mother attend a [[wedding at Cana]], where he performs his first miracle at her request.<ref>{{bibleref2|John|3:1–11}}.</ref> Later, she follows him to his crucifixion, and he expresses concern over her well-being.<ref>{{bibleref2|John|19:25–27}}.</ref> Jesus is called a τέκτων (''[[tektōn]]'') in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#6:3|Mark 6:3]], a term traditionally understood as carpenter but could also refer to makers of objects in various materials, including builders.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Liddell|first1=Henry G.|last2=Scott|first2=Robert|title=An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon: The Seventh Edition of Liddell and Scott's Greek–English Lexicon |publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1889|page=797}}</ref>{{sfn|Dickson|2008| pp= 68–69}} The Gospels indicate that Jesus could read, paraphrase, and debate scripture, but this does not necessarily mean that he received formal scribal training.<ref name="literacy">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |title=Context, family and formation |encyclopedia=Cambridge companion to Jesus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA14 |access-date=14 August 2015 |last=Evans |first=Craig A. |editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first=Markus N. A. |pages=14, 21 |isbn=978-0-521-79678-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907175830/https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA14 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Gospel of Luke reports two journeys of Jesus and his parents in [[Jerusalem]] during his childhood. They come to the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] for the [[presentation of Jesus]] as a baby in accordance with Jewish Law, where a man named [[Simeon (Gospel of Luke)|Simeon]] prophesies about Jesus and Mary.<ref>{{bibleref2|Luke|2:22–35}}.</ref> When Jesus, at the age of twelve, goes missing on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem for [[Passover]], his parents [[Finding in the Temple|find him in the temple]] sitting among the teachers, listening to them and asking questions, and the people are amazed at his understanding and answers. Mary scolds Jesus for going missing, to which Jesus replies that he must "be in his father's house".<ref>{{bibleref2|Luke|2:41–52}}.</ref> ===Baptism and temptation=== {{Main|Baptism of Jesus|Temptation of Christ}} [[File:El bautismo de Jesús, por José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.75|''[[Baptism of Jesus|The Baptism of Christ]] by [[John the Baptist]]'', by [[José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior]], 1895|alt=Jesus is baptised by John. The Holy Spirit in the form of a dove is overhead.]] The [[synoptic gospels]] describe [[Baptism of Jesus|Jesus' baptism]] in the [[Jordan River]] and [[Temptation of Christ|the temptations he received]] while spending forty days in the [[Judaean Desert]], as a preparation for his [[ministry of Jesus|public ministry]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Sheen|first=Fulton J.|title=Life of Christ|year=2008|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0-385-52699-9|page=65|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KyqQKohpVR4C&pg=PA65|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=10 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910165309/https://books.google.com/books?id=KyqQKohpVR4C&pg=PA65|url-status=live}}</ref> The accounts of Jesus' baptism are all preceded by information about [[John the Baptist]].{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=224–29}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=141–43}}{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=16–22}} They show John preaching penance and repentance for the remission of sins and encouraging the giving of [[alms]] to the poor<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke||3:11}}.</ref> as he baptizes people in the area of the Jordan River around [[Perea]] and foretells the arrival of someone "more powerful" than he.<ref>{{bibleref2|Luke|3:16}}.</ref><ref name="EerRoger">{{cite book|title=Eerdmans commentary on the Bible|first1=James D. G.|last1= Dunn|first2= John W. |last2=Rogerson|year= 2003 |isbn= 978-0-8028-3711-0 |page= 1010 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing}}</ref> [[File:Ary_Scheffer_-_The_Temptation_of_Christ_(1854).jpg|left|thumb|Jesus and the devil depicted in ''The Temptation of Christ'', by [[Ary Scheffer]], 1854|upright=.75]] In the Gospel of Mark, John the Baptist baptizes Jesus, and as he comes out of the water he sees the [[Holy Spirit]] descending to him like a dove and a voice comes from heaven declaring him to be God's Son.<ref>{{bibleref2|Mark|1:9–11}}.</ref> This is one of two events described in the Gospels where a voice from Heaven calls Jesus "Son", the other being the [[Transfiguration of Jesus|Transfiguration]].{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}}<ref name="Nobbs" /> The spirit then drives him into the wilderness where he is tempted by [[Satan]].<ref>{{bibleref2|Mark|1:12–13}}.</ref> Jesus then begins his ministry in [[Galilee]] after John's arrest.<ref>{{bibleref2|Mark|1:14}}.</ref> In the Gospel of Matthew, as Jesus comes to him to be baptized, John protests, saying, "I need to be baptized by you."<ref>{{bibleref2|Matthew|3:14}}.</ref> Jesus instructs him to carry on with the baptism "to fulfill all righteousness".<ref>{{bibleref2|Matthew|3:15}}.</ref> Matthew details three temptations that Satan offers Jesus in the wilderness.<ref>{{bibleref2|Matthew|4:3–11}}.</ref> In the Gospel of Luke, the Holy Spirit descends as a dove after everyone has been baptized and Jesus is [[Prayers of Jesus|praying]].<ref>{{bibleref2|Luke|3:21–22}}.</ref> Later John implicitly recognizes Jesus (possibly from prison{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}) after sending his followers to ask about him.<ref>{{bibleref2|Luke|7:18–23}}.</ref> Luke also describes three temptations received by Jesus in the wilderness, before starting his ministry in Galilee.<ref>{{bibleref2|Luke|4:1–14}}.</ref> The Gospel of John leaves out Jesus' baptism and temptation.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}} Here, John the Baptist testifies that he saw the Spirit descend on Jesus.<ref>{{bibleref2|John|1:32}}.</ref>{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N0tLXRIiIe0C&pg=PA292 292]}} John publicly proclaims Jesus as the sacrificial [[Lamb of God]], and some of John's followers become disciples of Jesus.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}} Before John is imprisoned, Jesus leads his followers to baptize disciples as well,<ref>{{bibleref2|John|3:22–24}}.</ref> and they baptize more people than John.<ref>{{bibleref2|John|4:1}}.</ref> === Public ministry === [[File:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''Sermon on the Mount'', by [[Carl Bloch]], 1877, depicts [[Sermon on the Mount|Jesus' important discourse]].|alt=Jesus sits atop a mount, preaching to a crowd]] The Synoptics depict two distinct geographical settings in Jesus' ministry. The first takes place north of [[Judea]], in [[Galilee]], where Jesus conducts a successful ministry, and the second shows Jesus rejected and killed when he travels to [[Jerusalem]].<ref name="ISBEO" /> Often referred to as "[[rabbi]]",<ref name="ISBEO" /> Jesus preaches his message orally.<ref name="Dunn2013" /> Notably, Jesus forbids those who recognize him as the messiah to speak of it, including people he heals and demons he exorcises (see [[Messianic Secret]]).{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=285–96}} John depicts Jesus' ministry as largely taking place in and around Jerusalem, rather than in Galilee; and Jesus' divine identity is openly proclaimed and immediately recognized.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–10}} Scholars divide the ministry of Jesus into several stages. The Galilean ministry begins when Jesus returns to Galilee from the [[Judaean Desert]] after rebuffing the temptation of [[Satan]]. Jesus preaches around Galilee, and in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#4:18|Matthew 4:18–20]], [[first disciples of Jesus|his first disciples]], who will eventually form the core of the early Church, encounter him and begin to travel with him.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=16–22}}{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=117–30}} This period includes the [[Sermon on the Mount]], one of Jesus' major discourses,{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=117–30}}<ref>{{cite book|title=The Sermon on the mount: a theological investigation|first=Carl G.|last= Vaught|year=2001 |publisher=Baylor University Press |isbn =978-0-918954-76-3 |pages= xi–xiv}}</ref> as well as the [[calming the storm|calming of the storm]], the [[feeding the multitude|feeding of the 5,000]], [[Jesus walking on water|walking on water]] and a number of other miracles and [[parables of Jesus|parables]].{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=143–60}} It ends with the [[Confession of Peter]] and the Transfiguration.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Transfiguration, The | encyclopedia=The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Thought: Son of Man-Tremellius V11 | isbn=978-1-4286-3189-2 | publisher=Funk & Wagnalls Company | year=1909 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=js5-eDk13TcC&pg=PA493 | page=493 | last=Nash | first=Henry S. | editor-first=Samuel M. | editor-last=Jackson | access-date=14 August 2015 | archive-date=7 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907052036/https://books.google.com/books?id=js5-eDk13TcC&pg=PA493 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Barton132">{{cite book |last=Barton |first=Stephen C. |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00bart_994 |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Gospels |date=23 November 2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80766-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00bart_994/page/n138 132]–133 |url-access=limited}}</ref> As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in the [[Perea]]n ministry, he returns to the area where he was baptized, about a third of the way down from the [[Sea of Galilee]] along the [[Jordan River]].<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#10:40|John 10:40–42]].</ref>{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|p=137}}{{sfn|Redford|2007| pp= 211–29}} The [[Ministry of Jesus#Final ministry in Jerusalem|final ministry in Jerusalem]] begins with Jesus' [[triumphal entry into Jerusalem|triumphal entry]] into the city on [[Palm Sunday]].{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–70}} In the Synoptic Gospels, during that week Jesus [[Cleansing of the Temple|drives the money changers]] from the [[Second Temple]] and [[Bargain of Judas|Judas bargains to betray]] him. This period culminates in the [[Last Supper]] and the [[Farewell Discourse]].{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=224–29}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–70}}{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=257–74}} ====Disciples and followers==== {{Main|Apostles in the New Testament|Commissioning of the Twelve Apostles}} [[File:Brooklyn Museum - The Exhortation to the Apostles (Recommandation aux apôtres) - James Tissot.jpg|thumb|right|''The Exhortation to the Apostles'', by [[James Tissot]], portrays Jesus talking to his 12 disciples.]] Near the beginning of his ministry, Jesus [[Commissioning of the Twelve Apostles|appoints twelve apostles]]. In Matthew and Mark, despite Jesus only briefly requesting that they join him, Jesus' first four apostles, who were fishermen, are described as immediately consenting, and abandoning their nets and boats to do so.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#4:18|Matthew 4:18–22]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#1:16|Mark 1:16–20]].</ref> In John, Jesus' first two apostles were disciples of John the Baptist. The Baptist sees Jesus and calls him the [[Lamb of God]]; the two hear this and follow Jesus.{{sfn|Brown|1988|pp= 25–27}}{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|pages= 292–93}} In addition to the Twelve Apostles, the opening of the passage of the [[Sermon on the Plain]] identifies a much larger group of people as disciples.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#6:17|Luke 6:17]].</ref> Also, in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#10:1|Luke 10:1–16]] Jesus sends [[Seventy disciples|70 or 72 of his followers]] in pairs to prepare towns for his prospective visit. They are instructed to accept hospitality, heal the sick, and spread the word that the [[Kingship and kingdom of God|Kingdom of God]] is coming.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=The Gospel According to Luke | encyclopedia=New Collegeville Bible Commentary: New Testament | publisher=Liturgical Press | year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sdooTRyPMCwC&pg=PA255 | page=255 | first=Michael F. | last=Patella | editor-first=Daniel | editor-last=Durken | isbn=978-0-8146-3260-4 | access-date=14 August 2015 | archive-date=10 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910044704/https://books.google.com/books?id=sdooTRyPMCwC&pg=PA255 | url-status=live }}</ref> In Mark, the disciples are notably obtuse. They fail to understand Jesus' miracles,<ref>{{bibleref2|Mark|4:35–41}}, {{bibleref2|Mark|6:52}}.</ref> his parables,<ref>{{bibleref2|Mark|4:13}}.</ref> or what "rising from the dead" means.<ref>{{bibleref2|Mark|9:9–10}}.</ref> When Jesus is later arrested, they desert him.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=285–96}} ===={{anchor|Teachings and preachings}} Teachings and miracles==== {{Main|Sermon on the Mount|Parables of Jesus|Miracles of Jesus}} {{See also|Sermon on the Plain|Five Discourses of Matthew|Farewell Discourse|Olivet Discourse|Bread of Life Discourse}} [[File:Hoffman-ChristAndTheRichYoungRuler.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''[[Jesus and the rich young man]]'' by [[Heinrich Hofmann (painter)|Heinrich Hofmann]], 1889]] In the Synoptics, Jesus teaches extensively, often in [[parable]]s,{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=316–46}} about the Kingdom of God (or, in Matthew, the [[Kingdom of Heaven (Gospel of Matthew)|Kingdom of Heaven]]). The Kingdom is described as both imminent<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#1:15|Mark 1:15]].</ref> and already present in the ministry of Jesus.<ref>{{bibleref2|Luke|17:21}}.</ref> Jesus promises inclusion in the Kingdom for those who accept his message.<ref>{{bibleref2|Mark|10:13–27}}.</ref> He talks of the "[[Son of man]]", an [[Apocalypse|apocalyptic]] figure who will come to gather the chosen.<ref name="Britannica" /> Jesus calls people to repent their sins and to devote themselves completely to God.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303091/Jesus-Christ | title=Jesus Christ | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica | access-date=10 June 2015 | first1=E.&nbsp;P. | last1=Sanders | first2=Jaroslav J. | last2=Pelikan | archive-date=3 May 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503100711/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303091/Jesus-Christ | url-status=live }}</ref> He tells his followers to adhere to [[Jewish law]], although he is perceived by some to have broken the law himself, for example regarding the [[Sabbath]].<ref name="Britannica" /> When asked what the greatest commandment is, Jesus replies: "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind ... And a second is like it: 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself.{{'"}}<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#22:37|Matthew 22:37–39]].</ref> Other ethical teachings of Jesus include [[Matthew 5:44|loving your enemies]], refraining from hatred and lust, [[turning the other cheek]], and forgiving people who have sinned against you.<ref>[[Sermon on the Mount|Matthew 5–7]].</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Stassen |first1=Glen H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LlMVrmA-b-4C |title=Kingdom Ethics: Following Jesus in Contemporary Context |last2=Gushee |first2=David P. |publisher=InterVarsity Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8308-2668-1 |pages=102–103, 138–140, 197–198, 295–298 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226062140/https://books.google.com/books?id=LlMVrmA-b-4C |archive-date=26 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> John's Gospel presents the teachings of Jesus not merely as his own preaching, but as divine [[revelation]]. John the Baptist, for example, states in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#3:34|John 3:34]]: "He whom God has sent speaks the words of God, for he gives the Spirit without measure." In [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#7:16|John 7:16]] Jesus says, "My teaching is not mine but his who sent me." He asserts the same thing in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#14:10|John 14:10]]: "Do you not believe that I am in the Father and the Father is in me? The words that I say to you I do not speak on my own; but the Father who dwells in me does his works."<ref name="autogenerated98" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Köstenberger |first=Andreas J. |title=The missions of Jesus and the disciples according to the Fourth Gospel |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8028-4255-8 |pages=108–109 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Pompeo Batoni 003.jpg|left|upright=.75|thumb|''[[Parable of the Prodigal Son|The Return of the Prodigal Son]]'' by [[Pompeo Batoni]], 1773]] Approximately 30 parables form about one-third of Jesus' recorded teachings.<ref name="autogenerated98">{{cite book|first=Eric F.|last= Osborn|year= 1993 |title=The emergence of Christian theology|url=https://archive.org/details/emergencechristi00osbo|url-access=limited| isbn= 978-0-521-43078-4 |page= [https://archive.org/details/emergencechristi00osbo/page/n115 98] |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=J. Dwight|last= Pentecost|year= 1998 |title=The parables of Jesus: lessons in life from the Master Teacher| isbn= 978-0-8254-9715-5 |page= 10 |publisher=Kregel Publications}}</ref> The parables appear within longer sermons and at other places in the narrative.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Sermons of Jesus the Messiah|first= E. Keith|last= Howick|year= 2003 |publisher= WindRiver Publishing |isbn= 978-1-886249-02-8| pages= 7–9}}</ref> They often contain symbolism, and usually relate the physical world to the [[Spirituality|spiritual]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Friedrich G. |last= Lisco |year=1850 |title=The Parables of Jesus |publisher= Daniels and Smith Publishers| pages= [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_OoIuAAAAYAAJ/page/n12 9]–11 |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_OoIuAAAAYAAJ }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Ashton |last=Oxenden|year= 1864 |title=The parables of our Lord? |publisher=William Macintosh Publishers| page= [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5bUCAAAAQAAJ/page/n15 6] |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5bUCAAAAQAAJ }}</ref> Common themes in these tales include the kindness and generosity of God and the perils of transgression.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dPdANFaNgagC&pg=448 |title=Interpreting the Parables |publisher=InterVarsity Press |year=2012 |page=448 |isbn=978-0-8308-3967-4 |first=Craig L. |last=Blomberg |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910175429/https://books.google.com/books?id=dPdANFaNgagC&pg=448 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some of his parables, such as the [[Parable of the Prodigal Son|Prodigal Son]],<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#15:11|Luke 15:11–32]].</ref> are relatively simple, while others, such as the [[Parable of the Growing Seed|Growing Seed]],<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#4:26|Mark 4:26–29]].</ref> are sophisticated, profound and abstruse.<ref>{{cite web | first=Madeleine I. | last=Boucher |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/jesus/parables.html | title=The Parables | publisher=BBC | access-date=3 June 2013 | archive-date=10 August 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810144100/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/jesus/parables.html | url-status=live }}</ref> When asked by his disciples why he speaks in parables to the people, Jesus replies that the chosen disciples have been given to "know the secrets of the kingdom of heaven", unlike the rest of their people, "For the one who has will be given more and he will have in abundance. But the one who does not have will be deprived even more", going on to say that the majority of their generation have grown "dull hearts" and thus are unable to understand.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#13:10|Matthew 13:10–17]].</ref> [[File:Christ cleans leper man.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|[[Jesus cleansing a leper]], medieval [[mosaic]] from the [[Monreale Cathedral]], late 12th to mid-13th centuries|alt=Jesus, his head surrounded by a halo, puts his hands on a leper, thereby healing him]] In the gospel accounts, Jesus devotes a large portion of his ministry to performing [[miracle]]s, especially healings.{{sfn|Green|McKnight |Marshall|1992|p=299}} The miracles can be classified into two main categories: healing miracles and nature miracles.{{sfn|Twelftree|1999|p=350}}{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Charlesworth |first1=James H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YTIGy5t45WgC&pg=PT113 |title=The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide |date=2008 |publisher=Abingdon Press |isbn=978-1-4267-2475-6 |page=113 |access-date=29 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221947/https://books.google.com/books?id=YTIGy5t45WgC&pg=PT113 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The healing miracles include cures for physical ailments, [[exorcism]]s,{{sfn|Witherington|1997|p=113}}{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=298}} and [[Miracles of Jesus#Resurrection of the dead|resurrections of the dead]].{{sfn|Green|McKnight|Marshall|1992|p=300}}<ref name="Oxford Companion" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Tabor |first=James |date=22 March 2013 |title=What the Bible Says About Death, Afterlife, and the Future |url=https://clas-pages.uncc.edu/james-tabor/ancient-judaism/death-afterlife-future/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160823115040/https://clas-pages.uncc.edu/james-tabor/ancient-judaism/death-afterlife-future/ |archive-date=23 August 2016 |access-date=13 June 2015 |publisher=UNCC}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hoekema |first=Anthony A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c2yT_7xw35sC |title=The Bible and the Future |publisher=Eerdmans Publishing |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-85364-624-2 |pages=88–89 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221946/https://books.google.com/books?id=c2yT_7xw35sC |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The nature miracles show Jesus' power over nature, and include [[turning water into wine]], walking on water, and calming a storm, among others. Jesus states that his miracles are from a divine source. When his opponents suddenly accuse him of performing exorcisms by the power of [[Beelzebul]], the prince of demons, Jesus counters that he performs them by the "Spirit of God" ([[s:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#12:28|Matthew 12:28]]) or "finger of God", arguing that all logic suggests that Satan would not let his demons assist the Children of God because it would divide Satan's house and bring his kingdom to desolation; furthermore, he asks his opponents that if he exorcises by [[Beelzebub]], "by whom do your sons cast them out?"<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#11:20|Luke 11:20]].</ref><ref name="Britannica2">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Jesus Christ|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303091/Jesus-Christ|access-date=10 June 2015|first1=E.&nbsp;P.|last1=Sanders|first2=Jaroslav J.|last2=Pelikan|archive-date=3 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503100711/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303091/Jesus-Christ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Js9nFESO0VAC&pg=PA100|title=Zondervan King James Version Commentary: New Testament|last2=Mitchell|first2=Daniel R.|publisher=Zondervan|year=2010|isbn=978-0-310-25150-7|page=100|first1=Edward E.|last1=Hindson|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=10 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910171333/https://books.google.com/books?id=Js9nFESO0VAC&pg=PA100|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#12:28|Matthew 12:31–32]], he goes on to say that while all manner of sin, "even insults against God" or "insults against the son of man", shall be forgiven, whoever insults goodness (or "The [[Holy Spirit]]") shall never be forgiven; they carry the guilt of their sin forever. In John, Jesus' miracles are described as "signs", performed to prove his mission and divinity.<ref name="Sign" />{{sfn|Ehrman|2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusinterrupted00ehrm_0/page/84 84]}} In the Synoptics, when asked by some teachers of the Law and some Pharisees to give miraculous signs to prove his authority, Jesus refuses,<ref name="Sign">{{cite book|title=Introducing the New Testament: Its Literature and Theology|year=2001|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-3717-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00paul/page/198 198] |url=https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00paul/page/198|first1=Paul J.|last1=Achtemeier|first2=Joel B.|last2=Green|first3=Marianne M.|last3=Thompson}}</ref> saying that no sign shall come to corrupt and evil people except the sign of the prophet [[Jonah]]. Also, in the Synoptic Gospels, the crowds regularly respond to Jesus' miracles with awe and press on him to heal their sick. In John's Gospel, Jesus is presented as unpressured by the crowds, who often respond to his miracles with trust and faith.{{sfn|Twelftree|1999|p=236}} One characteristic shared among all miracles of Jesus in the gospel accounts is that he performed them freely and never requested or accepted any form of payment.<ref>{{cite book |last=van der Loos |first=Hendrik |title=The Miracles Of Jesus |year=1965 |publisher=Brill |page=197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n4geAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA197 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910165838/https://books.google.com/books?id=n4geAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA197 |url-status=live }}</ref> The gospel episodes that include descriptions of the miracles of Jesus also often include teachings, and the miracles themselves involve an element of teaching.<ref name="WPent212">{{cite book |title=The words and works of Jesus Christ |first=J. Dwight |last=Pentecost |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-310-30940-6 |page=212 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bh3M_AfgXZAC&pg=PA212 |publisher=Zondervan |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910063513/https://books.google.com/books?id=bh3M_AfgXZAC&pg=PA212 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Twelftree|1999 |p=95}} Many of the miracles teach the importance of faith. In the [[Cleansing ten lepers|cleansing of ten lepers]] and the [[Daughter of Jairus|raising of Jairus's daughter]], for instance, the beneficiaries are told that their healing was due to their faith.{{sfn|Donahue|Harrington |2002|p=182}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Lockyer|first= Herbert|year= 1988 |title=All the Miracles of the Bible| isbn= 978-0-310-28101-6 |page= 235 |publisher=Zondervan}}</ref> ====Proclamation as Christ and Transfiguration==== {{Main|Confession of Peter|Transfiguration of Jesus}} [[File:Transfigurationbloch.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|right|The [[Transfiguration of Jesus]], depicted by [[Carl Bloch]], 19th century]] At about the middle of each of the three Synoptic Gospels are two significant events: the Confession of [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and the Transfiguration of Jesus.<ref name="Barton132" /><ref name="KingsburyMark">{{cite book|title=The Christology of Mark's Gospel|url=https://archive.org/details/christologyofmar0000king|url-access=limited|first= Jack D. |last= Kingsbury |year=1983 |isbn= 978-1-4514-1007-5 |publisher= Fortress Press|pages= [https://archive.org/details/christologyofmar0000king/page/91 91]–95}}</ref>{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}}<ref name="Nobbs" /> These two events are not mentioned in the Gospel of John.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=John, Gospel of}} In his Confession, [[Saint Peter|Peter]] tells Jesus, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God."<ref name="Karris">{{cite book |last=Karris |first=Robert J. |title=The Collegeville Bible Commentary: New Testament |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-8146-2211-7 |pages=885–886 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology|first1=Jack D.|last1= Kingsbury| first2=Mark A.|last2= Powell|first3= David R. |last3=Bauer |year=1999 |isbn= 978-0-664-25752-1 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |page= xvi}}</ref>{{sfn|Donahue|Harrington|2002|p= 336}} Jesus affirms that Peter's confession is divinely revealed truth.<ref name="OneTeacher">{{cite book |last=Yieh |first=John Y. H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g0-NaraCrAoC |title=One teacher: Jesus' teaching role in Matthew's gospel |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2004 |isbn=978-3-11-018151-7 |pages=240–241 |language=en |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221947/https://books.google.com/books?id=g0-NaraCrAoC |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Pannenberg|1968|pp=53–54}} After the confession, Jesus tells his disciples about his upcoming death and resurrection.<ref>Matthew 16:21, Mark 8:31, and Luke 9:22.</ref> In the Transfiguration,<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#17:1|Matthew 17:1–9]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#9:2|Mark 9:2–8]], and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#9:28|Luke 9:28–36]].</ref>{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}}<ref name="Nobbs">{{cite book |last1=Harding |first1=Mark |title=The Content and the Setting of the Gospel Tradition |last2=Nobbs |first2=Alanna |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8028-3318-1 |pages=281–282 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Barton132" /> Jesus takes Peter and two other apostles up an unnamed mountain, where "he was transfigured before them, and his face shone like the sun, and his clothes became dazzling white".{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=72–76}} A bright cloud appears around them, and a voice from the cloud says, "This is my Son, the Beloved; with him I am well pleased; listen to him."<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#17:1|Matthew 17:1–9]].</ref>{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}} ===Passion Week=== The description of the last week of the life of Jesus (often called [[Passion Week]]) occupies about one-third of the narrative in the canonical gospels,<ref name="Turner613" /> starting with Jesus' [[triumphal entry into Jerusalem]] and ending with his Crucifixion.{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=224–29}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–70}} ====Activities in Jerusalem==== {{Main|Triumphal entry into Jerusalem|Cleansing of the Temple|Bargain of Judas}} [[File:Gérôme - L'entrée du Christ à Jérusalem - cadre.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A painting of Jesus' [[Triumphal entry into Jerusalem|final entry into Jerusalem]], by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]], 1897|alt=Jesus, riding a donkey colt, rides towards Jerusalem. A large crowd greets him outside the walls.]] In the Synoptics, the last week in Jerusalem is the conclusion of the journey through Perea and [[Judea]] that Jesus began in Galilee.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–70}} Jesus rides a young donkey into Jerusalem, reflecting the tale of [[the Messiah's Donkey]], an oracle from the [[Book of Zechariah]] in which the Jews' humble king enters Jerusalem this way.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Zechariah|9:9|HE}}.</ref><ref name="May Metzger Mark">May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. "Mark" pp. 1213–1239.</ref> People along the way lay cloaks and small branches of trees (known as [[Palm branch|palm fronds]]) in front of him and sing part of Psalms 118:25–26.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Psalms|118:25–26|HE}}.</ref>{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|pages=256–58}}{{sfn|Majerník|Ponessa|Manhardt|2005|pp=133–34}}{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=381–95}} Jesus next expels the money changers from the [[Second Temple]], accusing them of turning it into a den of thieves through their commercial activities. He then prophesies about the coming destruction, including false prophets, wars, earthquakes, celestial disorders, persecution of the faithful, the appearance of an "abomination of desolation", and unendurable tribulations.<ref>{{bibleref2|Mark|13:1–23}}.</ref> The mysterious "Son of Man", he says, will dispatch angels to gather the faithful from all parts of the earth.<ref>{{bibleref2|Mark|13:24–27}}.</ref> Jesus warns that these wonders will occur in the lifetimes of the hearers.<ref>{{bibleref2|Mark|13:28–32}}.</ref>{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=285–96}} In John, the Cleansing of the Temple occurs at the beginning of Jesus' ministry instead of at the end.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|John 2:13–16]].</ref>{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–10}} Jesus comes into conflict with the Jewish elders, such as when they [[Authority of Jesus questioned|question his authority]] and when he [[Woes of the Pharisees|criticizes them and calls them hypocrites]].{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|pages=256–58}}{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=381–95}} [[Judas Iscariot]], one of the [[twelve apostles]], secretly strikes a bargain with the Jewish elders, agreeing to betray Jesus to them for [[Thirty pieces of silver|30 silver coins]].<ref name="Lockyer106">{{cite book |last=Lockyer |first=Herbert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Q7l-_UFHmYC |title=All the Apostles of the Bible |publisher=Zondervan |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-310-28011-8 |pages=106–111 |language=en |access-date=11 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229044027/https://books.google.com/books?id=-Q7l-_UFHmYC |archive-date=29 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Acts|first=Doremus A. |last= Hayes |year=2009 |isbn= 978-1-313-53490-1 |page= 88 |publisher=HardPress}}</ref> The Gospel of John recounts two other feasts in which Jesus taught in Jerusalem before the Passion Week.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#7:1|John 7:1–10:42]].</ref>{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–72}} In [[Bethany (biblical village)|Bethany]], a village near Jerusalem, Jesus [[Raising of Lazarus|raises Lazarus from the dead]]. This potent sign{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–10}} increases the tension with authorities,{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–70}} who conspire to kill him.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#11:1|John 11]].</ref>{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–72}} [[Mary of Bethany]] anoints Jesus' feet, foreshadowing his entombment.{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|pp=401–70}} Jesus then makes his messianic entry into Jerusalem.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–72}} The cheering crowds greeting Jesus as he enters Jerusalem add to the animosity between him and the establishment.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–70}} In John, Jesus has already cleansed the Second Temple during an earlier Passover visit to Jerusalem. John next recounts Jesus' Last Supper with his disciples.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–72}} ====Last Supper==== {{Main|Last Supper}} {{See also|Jesus predicts his betrayal|Denial of Peter|Last Supper in Christian art}} [[File:Última Cena - Juan de Juanes.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Last Supper]], depicted by [[Juan de Juanes]], {{circa|1562}}|alt=A depiction of the Last Supper. Jesus sits in the center, his apostles gathered around on either side of him.]] The Last Supper is the final meal that Jesus shares with his twelve apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is mentioned in all four canonical gospels; Paul's [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]]<ref>1 Corinthians [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#11:23|11:23–26]].</ref> also refers to it.<ref name="Fahlbusch52">{{cite book|title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity|volume=4|first=Erwin|last=Fahlbusch|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5|pages=53–56|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PA53|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907101720/https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PA53|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=465–77}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=180–91}} During the meal, [[Jesus predicts his betrayal|Jesus predicts]] that one of his apostles will betray him.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|p=182}} Despite each Apostle's assertion that he would not betray him, Jesus reiterates that the betrayer would be one of those present. Matthew 26:23–25 and John 13:26–27 specifically identify Judas as the traitor.<ref name="Fahlbusch52" />{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=465–77}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|p=182}} In the Synoptics, Jesus takes bread, breaks it, and gives it to the disciples, saying, "This is my body, which is given for you". He then has them all drink from a cup, saying, "This cup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood."<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#22:19|Luke 22:19–20]].</ref><ref name="Fahlbusch52" />{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Eucharist}} The Christian [[sacrament]] or [[Ordinance (Christian)|ordinance]] of the [[Eucharist]] is based on these events.<ref>{{CathEncy| wstitle=The Blessed Eucharist as a Sacrament |first=Joseph |last=Pohle}}</ref> Although the Gospel of John does not include a description of the bread-and-wine ritual during the Last Supper, most scholars agree that John 6:22–59 (the [[Bread of Life Discourse]]) has a eucharistic character and resonates with the [[Origin of the Eucharist#Institution narratives|institution narratives]] in the Synoptic Gospels and in the Pauline writings on the Last Supper.{{sfn|Freedman|2000|p=792}} In all four gospels, Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowledge of him three times before the [[rooster]] crows the next morning.<ref name="Denial">{{cite book|title=Peter: apostle for the whole church|first= Pheme |last=Perkins |publisher=Fortress Press |year=2000 |isbn= 978-1-4514-1598-8 |page= 85}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Gospel according to Matthew, Volume 1|first= Johann P.|last= Lange|year= 1865| publisher= Charles Scribner Co| page= 499}}</ref> In Luke and John, the prediction is made during the Supper.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#22:33|Luke 22:34]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#22:33|John 22:34]].</ref> In Matthew and Mark, the prediction is made after the Supper; Jesus also predicts that all his disciples will desert him.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#26:31|Matthew 26:31–34]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#14:27|Mark 14:27–30]].</ref>{{sfn|Walvoord|Zuck|1983|pp=83–85}} The Gospel of John provides the only account of [[Maundy (foot washing)|Jesus washing his disciples' feet]] after the meal.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=272–85}} John also includes a long sermon by Jesus, preparing his disciples (now without Judas) for his departure. Chapters 14–17 of the Gospel of John are known as the [[Farewell Discourse]] and are a significant source of [[Christology|Christological]] content.<ref name="Gail142">{{cite book |last1=O'Day |first1=Gail R. |title=John |last2=Hylen |first2=Susan |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-664-25260-1 |pages=142–168 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref name="Herman546">{{cite book |last=Ridderbos |first=Herman |title=The Gospel according to John |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8028-0453-2 |pages=546–576 |language=en}}</ref> ====Agony in the Garden, betrayal, and arrest==== {{Main|Agony in the Garden|Kiss of Judas|Arrest of Jesus}} [[File:The Taking of Christ-Caravaggio (c.1602).jpg|thumb|A depiction of the [[kiss of Judas]] and [[arrest of Jesus]], by [[Caravaggio]], {{circa|1602}}|alt=Judas kisses Jesus, and soldiers rush to seize the latter.]] In the Synoptics, Jesus and his disciples go to the garden [[Gethsemane]], where Jesus prays to be spared his coming ordeal. Then Judas comes with an armed mob, sent by the chief priests, [[Scribe#Judaism|scribe]]s and elders. He [[Kiss of Judas|kisses Jesus]] to identify him to the crowd, which then [[arrest of Jesus|arrests Jesus]]. In an attempt to stop them, an unnamed disciple of Jesus uses a sword to cut off the ear [[Malchus|of a man]] in the crowd. After Jesus' arrest, his disciples go into hiding, and Peter, when questioned, thrice [[Denial of Peter|denies]] knowing Jesus. After the third denial, Peter hears the rooster crow and recalls Jesus' prediction about his denial. Peter then weeps bitterly.{{sfn|Walvoord|Zuck|1983|pp=83–85}}{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=285–96}}<ref name="Denial" /> In John 18:1–11, Jesus does not pray to be spared his crucifixion, as the gospel portrays him as scarcely touched by such human weakness.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus}} The people who arrest him are [[Imperial Roman army|Roman soldiers]] and Temple guards.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Michaels|first1=J. Ramsey|title=John (Understanding the Bible Commentary Series)|date=2011|publisher=Baker Books|page=187|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGr-amBm4PUC&pg=PT187|isbn=978-1-4412-3659-3|access-date=7 September 2017|archive-date=26 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226071102/https://books.google.com/books?id=zGr-amBm4PUC&pg=PT187|url-status=live}}</ref> Instead of being betrayed by a kiss, Jesus proclaims his identity, and when he does, the soldiers and officers fall to the ground. The gospel identifies Peter as the disciple who used the sword, and Jesus rebukes him for it. ====Trials by the Sanhedrin, Herod, and Pilate==== {{Main|Sanhedrin trial of Jesus|Pilate's Court|Jesus at Herod's Court}} {{See also|Jesus, King of the Jews|John 18:38|Ecce homo}} After his arrest, Jesus is taken late at night to the private residence of the high priest, [[Caiaphas]], who had been installed by Pilate's predecessor, the Roman procurator [[Valerius Gratus]].<ref>[[Josephus]] Antiquities 18.2.2.</ref> The [[Sanhedrin]] was a Jewish judicial body.{{sfn|Brown|1997|p= 146}} The gospel accounts differ on the [[Sanhedrin trial of Jesus|details of the trials]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Bromiley |first=Geoffrey W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA1050 |title=International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E–J |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-8028-3782-0 |pages=1050–1052 |language=en |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907182833/https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA1050 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> In Matthew 26:57, Mark 14:53 and Luke 22:54, Jesus is taken to the house of the high priest, [[Caiaphas]], where he is [[Mocking of Jesus|mocked]] and beaten that night. Early the next morning, the chief priests and scribes lead Jesus away into their council.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–400}}<ref name="Holman608">{{cite book |title=Holman Concise Bible Dictionary |publisher=B&H Publishing Group |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8054-9548-5 |pages=608–609 |language=en}}</ref> John 18:12–14 states that Jesus is first taken to [[Annas]], Caiaphas's father-in-law, and then to the high priest.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–400}}<ref name="Holman608" /> [[File:Ecce homo by Antonio Ciseri (1).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''Ecce homo!'' [[Antonio Ciseri]]'s 1871 depiction of [[Pontius Pilate]] presenting Jesus to the public|alt=A depiction of Jesus' public trial]] During the trials Jesus speaks very little, mounts no defence, and gives very infrequent and indirect answers to the priests' questions, prompting an officer to slap him. In Matthew 26:62, Jesus' unresponsiveness leads Caiaphas to ask him, "Have you no answer?"{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–400}}<ref name="Holman608" /> In Mark 14:61 the high priest then asks Jesus, "Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?" Jesus replies, "I am", and then predicts the coming of the [[Son of man (Christianity)|Son of Man]].<ref name="Britannica" /> This provokes Caiaphas to tear his own robe in anger and to accuse Jesus of blasphemy. In Matthew and Luke, Jesus' answer is more ambiguous:<ref name="Britannica" />{{sfn|Evans|2003|p=495}} in Matthew 26:64 he responds, "You have said so", and in Luke 22:70 he says, "You say that I am".{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–98}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Luke's presentation of Jesus: a christology|first=Robert F.|last= O'Toole|year= 2004| isbn= 978-88-7653-625-0|page= 166 |publisher=Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblico}}</ref> The Jewish elders take Jesus to [[Pilate's Court]] and ask the Roman governor, [[Pontius Pilate]], to judge and condemn Jesus for various allegations: subverting the nation, opposing the payment of tribute, claiming to be Christ, a King, and claiming to be the son of God.<ref>Matthew: "claiming to be king of the Jews". Mark: "king of the Jews". Luke: "subverting nation, opposing payment of taxes to Caesar, claiming to be Christ, a king" John: "breaking Jewish law, claiming to be the son of God".</ref><ref name="Holman608" /> The use of the word "king" is central to the discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In John 18:36 Jesus states, "My kingdom is not from this world", but he does not unequivocally deny being the King of the Jews.<ref>{{cite book|publisher=Twenty-Third Publications|title=The Names of Jesus|first= Stephen J.|last= Binz |year=2004 |isbn= 978-1-58595-315-8| pages= 81–82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ironside |first=H. A. |title=John |publisher=Kregel Academic |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8254-9619-6 |page=454 |language=en}}</ref> In Luke 23:7–15, Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean, and thus comes under the jurisdiction of [[Herod Antipas]], the [[Herodian Tetrarchy|Tetrarch]] of Galilee and Perea.{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|p=172}}{{sfn|Majerník|Ponessa|Manhardt|2005|p=181}} Pilate sends Jesus to Herod to be tried,{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=120–21}} but Jesus says almost nothing in response to Herod's questions. Herod and his soldiers mock Jesus, put an expensive robe on him to make him look like a king, and return him to Pilate,{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|p=172}} who then calls together the Jewish elders and announces that he has "not found this man guilty".{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=120–21}} Observing a [[Passover]] custom of the time, Pilate allows one prisoner chosen by the crowd to be released. He gives the people a choice between Jesus and a murderer called [[Barabbas]] ({{lang|he| [[wikt:בר-אבא|בר-אבא]]}} or ''Bar-abbâ'', "son of the father", from the common given name ''[[Abba (given name)|Abba]]'': 'father').{{sfn|Evans|2012b|p=453}} Persuaded by the elders,<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#27:20|Matthew 27:20]].</ref> the mob chooses to release Barabbas and crucify Jesus.{{sfn|Blomberg|2009| pp=400–01}} Pilate writes a sign in Hebrew, Latin, and Greek that reads "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews" (abbreviated as [[INRI]] in depictions) to be affixed to Jesus' cross,<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#19:19|John 19:19–20]].</ref>{{sfn|Brown|1988|p=93}} then [[Flagellation of Christ|scourges Jesus]] and sends him to be crucified. The soldiers place a [[crown of thorns]] on Jesus' head and ridicule him as the King of the Jews. They beat and taunt him before taking him to [[Calvary]],<ref name="Senior">{{cite book|title=The Passion of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew|first= Donald |last=Senior |year=1985| isbn= 978-0-8146-5460-6 |publisher=Liturgical Press |page= 124}}</ref> also called Golgotha, for crucifixion.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}<ref name="Holman608" />{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|p=402}} ====Crucifixion and entombment==== {{Main|Crucifixion of Jesus|Burial of Jesus}} {{See also|Sayings of Jesus on the cross|Crucifixion darkness}} [[File:Pietro Perugino 040.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Pietro Perugino]]'s depiction of the [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Crucifixion]] as ''[[Stabat Mater (art)|Stabat Mater]]'', 1482|alt=A depiction of Jesus on the cross]] Jesus' crucifixion is described in all four canonical gospels. After the trials, Jesus is led to Calvary [[Christ Carrying the Cross|carrying his cross]]; the route traditionally thought to have been taken is known as the [[Via Dolorosa]]. The three Synoptic Gospels indicate that [[Simon of Cyrene]] assists him, having been compelled by the Romans to do so.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–20}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=211–14}} In Luke 23:27–28, Jesus tells the women in the multitude of people following him not to weep for him but for themselves and their children.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–20}} At [[Calvary]], Jesus is offered a sponge soaked in a concoction usually offered as a [[Analgesic|painkiller]]. According to Matthew and Mark, he refuses it.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–20}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=211–14}} The soldiers then crucify Jesus and [[Sortes (ancient Rome)|cast lots]] for his clothes. Above Jesus' head on the cross is Pilate's inscription, "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews". Soldiers and passersby [[Mocking of Jesus|mock]] him about it. Two convicted thieves are crucified along with Jesus. In Matthew and Mark, both thieves mock Jesus. In Luke, [[Impenitent thief|one of them]] rebukes Jesus, while [[Penitent thief|the other]] defends him.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–20}}{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p=271}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusinterrupted00ehrm_0/page/82 82]}} Jesus tells the latter: "today you will be with me in Paradise".<ref>Luke 23:43.</ref> The four gospels mention the presence of [[Women at the crucifixion|a group of female disciples of Jesus]] at the crucifixion. In John, Jesus sees his mother [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] and the [[beloved disciple]] and tells him to take care of her.<ref>John 19:26–27.</ref> In John 19:33–34, Roman soldiers break the two thieves' legs to hasten their death, but not those of Jesus, as he is already dead. Instead, [[Longinus|one soldier]] pierces Jesus' side with a [[Holy Lance|lance]], and [[Five Holy Wounds|blood and water]] flow out.{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p= 271}} The Synoptics report a [[Crucifixion darkness|period of darkness]], and the heavy curtain in the Temple is torn when Jesus dies. In Matthew 27:51–54, an earthquake breaks open tombs. In Matthew and Mark, terrified by the events, a Roman [[centurion]] states that Jesus was the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]].{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–20}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=213–14}} On the same day, [[Joseph of Arimathea]], with Pilate's permission and with [[Nicodemus]]'s help, [[Descent from the Cross|removes Jesus' body from the cross]], wraps him in a clean cloth, and buries him in his new [[Sepulchre|rock-hewn tomb]].{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–20}} In Matthew 27:62–66, on the following day the chief Jewish priests ask Pilate for the tomb to be secured, and with Pilate's permission the priests place seals on the large stone covering the entrance.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–20}}{{sfn|Morris|1992|page=727}} ===Resurrection and ascension=== {{Main|Resurrection of Jesus|Empty tomb|Ascension of Jesus}} {{Further|Overview of resurrection appearances in the Gospels and Paul}} {{See also|Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art|Ascension of Jesus in Christian art}} [[File:Alexander Ivanov - Christ's Appearance to Mary Magdalene after the Resurrection - Google Art Project.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Jesus appearing to Mary Magdalene after his [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection from the dead]], depicted by [[Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov]].|''Appearance of Jesus Christ to Maria Magdalena'' by [[Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov]], 1835]] The Gospels do not describe the moment of the [[resurrection of Jesus]]. They describe the discovery of his [[empty tomb]] and several appearances of Jesus, with distinct differences in each narrative.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vermes |first=Geza |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1PYcnn9WxVcC |title=The Resurrection |publisher=Penguin |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-14-191263-9 |place=London, England |page=141 |language=en-uk |access-date=30 March 2023 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309231513/https://books.google.com/books?id=1PYcnn9WxVcC |url-status=live }}</ref> In the four Gospels, [[Mary Magdalene]] goes to the tomb on Sunday morning, alone or with one or several [[Myrrhbearers|other women]].{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp= 308–09}} The tomb is empty, with the stone rolled away, and there are one or two angels, depending on the accounts. In the Synoptics, the women are told that Jesus is not here and that he is risen.<ref>{{bibleref2|Mark|16:5–6}}, {{bibleref2|Matthew|28:5–6}}, and {{bibleref2|Luke|24:4–6}}.</ref> In Mark and Matthew, the angel also instructs them to tell the disciples to meet Jesus in Galilee.<ref>{{bibleref2|Mark|16:7}}, {{bibleref2|Matthew|28:7}}.</ref> In Luke, [[Saint Peter|Peter]] visits the tomb after he is told it is empty.<ref>{{bibleref2|Luke|24:12}}.</ref> In John, he goes there with the [[beloved disciple]].<ref>{{bibleref2|John|20:2–8}}.</ref> Matthew mentions Roman guards at the tomb,<ref>{{bibleref2|Matthew|28:7}}.</ref> who report to the priests of Jerusalem what happened. The priests bribe them to say that the disciples [[Stolen body hypothesis|stole Jesus' body]] during the night.<ref>{{bibleref2|Matthew|28:11–15}}.</ref> The four Gospels then describe various appearances of Jesus in his resurrected body. Jesus first reveals himself to Mary Magdalene in Mark 16:9 and John 20:14–17,<ref>{{bibleref2|Mark|16:9}}, {{bibleref2|John|20:14–17}}.</ref> along with "the other Mary" in Matthew 28:9,<ref>{{bibleref2|Matthew|28:9–10}}.</ref> while in Luke the first reported appearance is to [[Road to Emmaus appearance|two disciples]] heading to [[Emmaus]].<ref>{{bibleref2|Luke|24:13–31}}.</ref> Jesus then reveals himself to the eleven disciples, in Jerusalem or in Galilee.<ref>{{bibleref2|Mark|16:14}}, {{bibleref2|Matthew|28:16–17}}, and {{bibleref2|John|20:19–23}}.</ref> In Luke 24:36–43, he eats and shows them his [[Five Holy Wounds|tangible wounds]] to prove that he is not a spirit.<ref>{{bibleref2|Luke|24:36–43}}.</ref> He also shows them to [[Thomas the Apostle|Thomas]] to end [[doubting Thomas|his doubts]], in John 20:24–29.<ref>{{bibleref2|John|20:24–29}}.</ref> In the Synoptics, Jesus [[Great Commission|commissions the disciples]] to spread the gospel message to all nations,{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=272–85}}{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=297–301}} while in [[John 21]], he [[Restoration of Peter|tells Peter]] to take care of his sheep.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=521–30}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=216–26}} Jesus' [[Entering Heaven alive|ascension into Heaven]] is described in Luke 24:50–53, Acts 1:1–11 and mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16. In the [[Acts of the Apostles]], forty days after the Resurrection, as the disciples look on, "he was lifted up, and a cloud took him out of their sight". 1 Peter 3:22 states that Jesus has "gone into heaven and is at the right hand of God".{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=521–30}} The Acts of the Apostles describes several appearances of Jesus after his Ascension. In Acts 7:55, [[Saint Stephen|Stephen]] gazes into heaven and sees "Jesus standing at the right hand of God" just before his death.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bruce |first=Frederick F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2lN0ibbLOHEC&pg=PA210 |title=The Acts of the Apostles |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-8028-0966-7 |page=210 |language=en |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222000/https://books.google.com/books?id=2lN0ibbLOHEC&pg=PA210 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> On the road to [[Damascus]], the Apostle [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle|Paul is converted]] to Christianity after seeing a blinding light and hearing a voice saying, "I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting."<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#9:5|Acts 9:5]].</ref> In Acts 9:10–18, Jesus instructs [[Ananias of Damascus]] in a vision to heal Paul.<ref name="HarringtonActs">{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Luke T. |title=The Acts of the Apostles |last2=Harrington |first2=Daniel J. |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-8146-5807-9 |pages=164–167 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Book of Revelation]] includes a revelation from Jesus concerning the [[Christian eschatology|last days of Earth]].<ref>{{CathEncy |wstitle=Apocalypse |last=Van den Biesen |first= Christian}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Early Christianity== {{Main|Early Christianity}} [[File:Good shepherd 02b close.jpg|thumb|A 3rd-century depiction of Jesus as the [[Good Shepherd]]|upright=.8]] After Jesus' life, his followers, as described in the first chapters of the [[Acts of the Apostles]], were all Jews either by birth or [[conversion to Judaism|conversion]], for which the biblical term "[[proselyte]]" is used,<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12481c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Proselyte] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170610204154/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12481c.htm |date=10 June 2017 }}: "The English term 'proselyte' occurs only in the New Testament where it signifies a convert to the Jewish religion ({{bibleverse||Matthew|23:15|NAB}}; {{bibleverse||Acts|2:11|NAB}}; {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|6:5|NAB}}; etc.), though the same Greek word is commonly used in the [[Septuagint]] to designate a foreigner living in Palestine. Thus the term seems to have passed from an original local and chiefly political sense, in which it was used as early as 300 BC, to a technical and religious meaning in the Judaism of the [[Apostolic Age|New Testament epoch]]."</ref> and referred to by historians as [[Jewish Christian]]s. The early Gospel message was spread [[oral gospel traditions|orally]], probably in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]],{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|pp=87–90}} but almost immediately also in [[Koine Greek|Greek]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jaeger |first1=Werner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kYfAUnFMhPMC&pg=PA108 |title=Early Christianity and Greek Paideia |date=1961 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-22052-2 |pages=6, 108–109 |language=en |access-date=26 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217042345/https://books.google.com/books?id=kYfAUnFMhPMC&pg=PA108 |archive-date=17 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[New Testament]]'s Acts of the Apostles and [[Epistle to the Galatians]] record that the first Christian community was [[First Christian church|centered in Jerusalem]] and its leaders included [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[James (brother of Jesus)|James, the brother of Jesus]], and [[John the Apostle]].<ref>{{bibleverse||Galatians|2:9|NIV}}, {{bibleverse||Acts|1:13|NIV}}; See [[Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles]] for details.</ref> After [[conversion of Paul the Apostle|his conversion]], [[Paul the Apostle]] spread the teachings of Jesus to various [[Gentiles|non-Jewish]] communities throughout the eastern Mediterranean region. Paul's influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than that of any other [[authorship of the New Testament|New Testament author]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford dictionary of the Christian Church |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3 |editor1-last=Cross |editor1-first=F. L. |edition=3rd rev. |location=Oxford, England |language=en |chapter=Paul}}</ref> By the end of the [[Christianity in the 1st century|1st century]], Christianity began to be recognized internally and externally as a [[split of early Christianity and Judaism|separate religion from Judaism]] which itself was refined and developed further in the centuries after the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destruction]] of the [[Second Temple]].<ref>Cohen, Shaye J.D. (1988). ''From the Maccabees to the Mishnah,'' {{ISBN|978-0-664-25017-1}}, pp. 224–225.</ref> Numerous quotations in the New Testament and other Christian writings of the first centuries, indicate that early Christians generally used and revered the [[Hebrew Bible]] (the [[Tanakh]]) as [[religious text]], mostly in the Greek ([[Septuagint]]) or Aramaic ([[Targum]]) translations.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fee|first1=Gordon|author-link1=Gordon Fee|last2=Stuart|first2=Douglas|author-link2=Douglas Stuart (biblical scholar)|title=How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth: Fourth Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGBtAgAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Zondervan|isbn=978-0-310-51783-2|access-date=1 May 2018|archive-date=26 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626225710/https://books.google.com/books?id=sGBtAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Early Christians wrote many religious works, including the ones included in the [[canon of the New Testament]]. The canonical texts, which have become the main sources used by historians to try to understand the historical Jesus and sacred texts within Christianity, were probably written between 50 and 120 AD.<ref name="Ehrman120ce">{{cite book |author=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-19-508481-8 |page=8 |quote=The New Testament contains twenty-seven books, written in Greek, by fifteen or sixteen different authors, who were addressing other Christian individuals or communities between the years 50 and 120 C.E. (see box 1.4). As we will see, it is difficult to know whether any of these books was written by Jesus' own disciples. |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416082406/https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |archive-date=16 April 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> ==Historical views== {{Main|Historical Jesus|Quest for the historical Jesus|Scholarly interpretation of Gospel elements}} {{See also|Biblical criticism}} Prior to the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], the Gospels were usually regarded as accurate historical accounts, but since then scholars have emerged who question the reliability of the Gospels and draw a distinction between the Jesus described in the Gospels and the Jesus of history.{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=5}} Since the 18th century, three separate scholarly quests for the historical Jesus have taken place, each with distinct characteristics and based on different research criteria, which were often developed during the quest that applied them.{{sfn|Witherington|1997|p=113}}{{sfn|Powell|1998|pp=19–23}} While there is widespread scholarly agreement on the existence of Jesus,{{efn|name=exist}} and a basic consensus on the general outline of his life,{{efn|[[Amy-Jill Levine]] writes: "There is a consensus of sorts on a basic outline of Jesus' life. Most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by John, debated with fellow Jews on how best to live according to God's will, engaged in healings and exorcisms, taught in parables, gathered male and female followers in Galilee, went to Jerusalem, and was crucified by Roman soldiers during the governorship of Pontius Pilate"<ref>[[Amy-Jill Levine]] in ''The Historical Jesus in Context'' edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. Princeton University Press {{ISBN|978-0-691-00992-6}} p. 4</ref>}} the portraits of Jesus constructed by various scholars often differ from each other, and from the image portrayed in the gospel accounts.{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|p=5}}<ref>James H. Charlesworth, Petr Pokomy (15 September 2009)''. Jesus Research: An International Perspective (Princeton-Prague Symposia Series on the Historical Jesus),'' {{ISBN|978-0-8028-6353-9}}, pp. 1–2.</ref> Approaches to the historical reconstruction of the life of Jesus have varied from the "maximalist" approaches of the 19th century, in which the gospel accounts were accepted as reliable evidence wherever it is possible, to the "minimalist" approaches of the early 20th century, where hardly anything about Jesus was accepted as historical.{{sfn|Keener|2012|p=163}} In the 1950s, as the second quest for the historical Jesus gathered pace, the minimalist approaches faded away, and in the 21st century, minimalists such as [[Robert M. Price|Price]] are a small minority.{{sfn|Chilton|Evans|1998|p= 27}}{{sfn|Evans|2012a|pp=4–5}} Although a belief in the [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrancy]] of the Gospels cannot be supported historically, many scholars since the 1980s have held that, beyond the few facts considered to be historically certain, certain other elements of Jesus' life are "historically probable".{{sfn|Chilton|Evans|1998|p= 27}}<ref>{{cite book|title= Jesus in Contemporary Scholarship|first= Marcus J.|last= Borg|year= 1994|isbn= 978-1-56338-094-5|publisher= Continuum|pages= [https://archive.org/details/jesusincontempor00borg/page/4 4–6]|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusincontempor00borg/page/4}}</ref>{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|pp=142–143}} Modern scholarly research on the historical Jesus thus focuses on identifying the most probable elements.<ref>{{cite book|title= John, Jesus, and History, Volume 1: Critical Appraisals of Critical Views|first1= Paul N.|last1= Anderson|first2= Felix|last2= Just|first3= Tom|last3= Thatcher|year= 2007|isbn= 978-1-58983-293-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC|publisher= Society of Biblical Lit|page= 131|access-date= 14 August 2015|archive-date= 18 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418011840/https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC|url-status= live}}</ref>{{sfn|Meier|2006|p=124}} ===Judea and Galilee in the 1st century=== [[File:The Ministry of Jesus.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Judea]], [[Galilee]] and neighbouring areas at the time of Jesus|alt=Topographical map of Palestine in the First Century highlighting places mentioned in the canonical gospels.]] In AD 6, [[Judea]], [[Edom|Idumea]], and [[Samaria]] were transformed from a [[Herodian dynasty|Herodian]] client kingdom of the [[Roman Empire]] into an imperial province, also called [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]]. A Roman [[prefect]], rather than a client king, ruled the land. The prefect ruled from [[Caesarea Maritima]], leaving [[Jerusalem]] to be run by the [[List of High Priests of Israel|High Priest of Israel]]. As an exception, the prefect came to Jerusalem during religious festivals, when religious and patriotic enthusiasm sometimes inspired unrest or uprisings. Gentile lands surrounded the Jewish territories of Judea and [[Galilee]], but Roman law and practice allowed Jews to remain separate legally and culturally. Galilee was evidently prosperous, and poverty was limited enough that it did not threaten the social order.<ref name="Britannica" /> This was the era of [[Hellenistic Judaism]], which combined [[Judaism|Jewish religious tradition]] with elements of [[Hellenistic]] Greek culture. Until the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]] and the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]] of the Eastern Mediterranean, the main centers of Hellenistic Judaism were [[Alexandria]] (Egypt) and [[Antioch]] (now Southern Turkey), the two main [[Greek colonies|Greek urban settlements]] of the [[MENA|Middle East and North Africa]] area, both founded at the end of the 4th century BC in the wake of the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]]. Hellenistic Judaism also existed in [[Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period]], where there was conflict between [[Hellenizers]] and traditionalists (sometimes called [[Judaizers]]). The [[Hebrew Bible]] was translated from [[Biblical Hebrew]] and [[Biblical Aramaic]] into [[Jewish Koine Greek]]; the [[Targum]] translations into Aramaic were also generated during this era, both due to the decline of knowledge of Hebrew.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barr |first1=James |title=The Cambridge history of Judaism. Volume 2: The Hellenistic Age |date=1989 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-05512-3 |editor1-last=Davies |editor1-first=W. D. |edition=1. publ. |location=Cambridge |pages=79–114 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 3 – Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek in the Hellenistic age |editor2-last=Finkelstein |editor2-first=Louis}}</ref> Jews based their faith and religious practice on the [[Torah]], five books said to have been given by God to [[Moses]]. The three prominent religious parties were the [[Pharisees]], the [[Essenes]], and the [[Sadducees]]. Together these parties represented only a small fraction of the population. Most Jews looked forward to a time that God would deliver them from their pagan rulers, possibly through war against the Romans.<ref name="Britannica" /> ===Sources=== {{Main|Sources for the historicity of Jesus}} {{See also|Josephus on Jesus|Tacitus on Christ}} [[File:WorksJosephus1640TP.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A 1640 edition of the works of Josephus, a 1st-century [[Roman Jews|Roman-Jewish]] historian who referred to Jesus{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=431–36}}]] New Testament scholars face a formidable challenge when they analyse the canonical Gospels.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}} The Gospels are not biographies in the modern sense, and the authors explain Jesus' theological significance and recount his public ministry while omitting many details of his life.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}} The reports of supernatural events associated with Jesus' death and resurrection make the challenge even more difficult.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}} Scholars regard the Gospels as compromised sources of information because the writers were trying to glorify Jesus.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}} Even so, the sources for Jesus' life are better than sources scholars have for the life of [[Alexander the Great]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}} Scholars use a number of criteria, such as the [[criterion of multiple attestation|criterion of independent attestation]], the [[Biblical criticism#Coherence|criterion of coherence]], and the [[criterion of discontinuity]] to judge the historicity of events.{{sfn|Rausch|2003|pp=36–37}} The historicity of an event also depends on the reliability of the source; indeed, the Gospels are not independent nor consistent records of Jesus' life. Mark, which is most likely the earliest written gospel, has been considered for many decades the most historically accurate.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Paul N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |title=John, Jesus, and History |last2=Just |first2=Felix |last3=Thatcher |first3=Tom |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-58983-293-0 |volume=2 |page=291 |language=en |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910170334/https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> John, the latest written gospel, differs considerably from the Synoptic Gospels, and thus is generally considered less reliable, although more and more scholars now also recognize that it may contain a core of older material as historically valuable as the Synoptic tradition or even more so.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Paul N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |title=John, Jesus, and History |last2=Just |first2=Felix |last3=Thatcher |first3=Tom |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-58983-293-0 |volume=2 |page=292 |language=en |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910170334/https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Some scholars (most notably the [[Jesus Seminar]]) believe that the non-canonical [[Gospel of Thomas]] might be an independent witness to many of Jesus' parables and aphorisms. For example, Thomas confirms that Jesus blessed the poor and that this saying circulated independently before being combined with similar sayings in the [[Q source]].{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|pp=471–532}} However, the majority of scholars are sceptical about this text and believe it should be dated to the 2nd century AD.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Casey|first=Maurice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC|title=Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching|date=30 December 2010|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-567-64517-3|language=en|access-date=18 May 2021|archive-date=9 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232056/https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ|title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings|date=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-508481-8|language=en|access-date=1 May 2018|archive-date=9 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309231638/https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Other select non-canonical Christian texts may also have value for historical Jesus research.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}} Early non-Christian sources that attest to the historical existence of Jesus include the works of the historians [[Josephus]] and [[Tacitus]].{{efn|Tuckett writes: "All this does at least render highly implausible any far-fetched theories that even Jesus' very existence was a Christian invention. The fact that Jesus existed, that he was crucified under Pontius Pilate (for whatever reason) and that he had a band of followers who continued to support his cause, seems to be part of the bedrock of historical tradition. If nothing else, the non-Christian evidence can provide us with certainty on that score."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first= Markus N.A. |title=Sources and methods |first=Christopher |last=Tuckett |year=2001|encyclopedia= Cambridge Companion to Jesus|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-79678-1|pages=123–24}}</ref>}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=431–36}}{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|pp=39–53}} Josephus scholar [[Louis Feldman]] has stated that "few have doubted the genuineness" of Josephus's reference to Jesus in [[s:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX#Chapter 9|book 20]] of the ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', and it is disputed only by a small number of scholars.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000| p= 83}}<ref>{{cite book|last= Maier|first= Paul L.|year= 1995|title= Josephus, the essential works: a condensation of Jewish antiquities and The Jewish war|isbn= 978-0-8254-3260-6|page= 285|publisher= Kregel Academic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c2Tu1Yp3n0EC&pg=PA285|access-date= 14 August 2015|archive-date= 7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907111405/https://books.google.com/books?id=c2Tu1Yp3n0EC&pg=PA285|url-status= live}}</ref> Tacitus referred to Christ and his execution by Pilate in [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|book 15]] of his work ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]''. Scholars generally consider Tacitus's reference to the execution of Jesus to be both authentic and of historical value as an independent Roman source.<ref>{{cite book|title=Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies|first=Craig A.|last=Evans|year=2001|isbn=978-0-391-04118-9|page=42|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DRcQ2bkLxc8C&pg=PA42|publisher=Brill|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=10 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910175221/https://books.google.com/books?id=DRcQ2bkLxc8C&pg=PA42|url-status=live}}</ref> Non-Christian sources are valuable in two ways. First, they show that even neutral or hostile parties never show any doubt that Jesus actually existed. Second, they present a rough picture of Jesus that is compatible with that found in the Christian sources: that Jesus was a teacher, had a reputation as a miracle worker, had a brother James, and died a violent death.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998}} Archaeology helps scholars better understand Jesus' social world.{{sfn|Reed|2002|p=18}} Recent archaeological work, for example, indicates that [[Capernaum]], a city important in Jesus' ministry, was poor and small, without even a [[Forum (Roman)|forum]] or an [[agora]].<ref name="Gowler">{{cite book |title=What are they saying about the historical Jesus?|first=David B. |last=Gowler |year=2007| isbn= 978-0-8091-4445-7|publisher=Paulist Press| page= 102}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Jesus and archaeology |editor-first=James H. |editor-last=Charlesworth |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8028-4880-2 |page=127 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QoIS7VApH6cC&pg=PA127 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |title=Archived copy |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907182047/https://books.google.com/books?id=QoIS7VApH6cC&pg=PA127 |url-status=live }}</ref> This archaeological discovery resonates well with the scholarly view that Jesus advocated reciprocal sharing among the destitute in that area of Galilee.<ref name="Gowler" /> ===Chronology=== {{Main|Chronology of Jesus}} {{See also|Anno Domini{{!}}''Anno Domini''|Saturnalia#Influence}} {{Jewish Christianity}} Jesus was a Galilean Jew,{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} born around the beginning of the 1st century, who died in 30 or 33 AD in [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]].{{sfn|Humphreys|Waddington|1992|p=340}} The general scholarly consensus is that Jesus was a contemporary of [[John the Baptist]] and was crucified as ordered by the Roman governor [[Pontius Pilate]],{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}} who held office from 26 to 36 AD.{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}} The Gospels offer several indications concerning the year of Jesus' birth. Matthew 2:1 associates the birth of Jesus with the reign of [[Herod the Great]], who died around 4 BC, and Luke 1:5 mentions that Herod was on the throne shortly before the birth of Jesus,{{sfn|Maier|1989|pp=115–18}}{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=121–22}} although this gospel also associates the birth with the [[Census of Quirinius]] which took place ten years later.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=137–38}}{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=122–24}} Luke 3:23 states that Jesus was "about thirty years old" at the start of his [[ministry of Jesus|ministry]], which according to Acts 10:37–38 was preceded by John the Baptist's ministry, which was recorded in Luke 3:1–2 to have begun in the 15th year of [[Tiberius]]'s reign (28 or 29 AD).{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=121–22}}<ref name="Vermes2006">{{cite book | first = Géza | last = Vermes | title = The Nativity: History and Legend | publisher = Random House Digital | year = 2010 | pages = 81–82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9EiEU_Yz_kC&pg=PA81 | isbn = 978-0-307-49918-9 | access-date = 25 January 2016 | archive-date = 3 May 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503100006/https://books.google.com/books?id=a9EiEU_Yz_kC&pg=PA81 | url-status = live }}</ref> By collating the gospel accounts with historical data and using various other methods, most scholars arrive at a date of birth for Jesus between 6 and 4 BC,<ref name="Vermes2006" />{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=324}} but some propose estimates that include a wider range.{{efn|For example, John P. Meier states that Jesus' birth year is ''c.'' 7/6 BC,{{sfn|Meier|1991|p=407}} while Finegan favours ''c.'' 3/2 BC.<ref name=Finegan>{{harvnb|Finegan|1998|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookbiblical00fine/page/n350 319]}}</ref>}} The date range for Jesus' ministry has been estimated using several different approaches.{{sfn|Köstenberger |Kellum|Quarles|2009|p=140}}{{sfn|Freedman|2000|p=249}} One of these applies the reference in Luke 3:1–2, Acts 10:37–38, and the dates of Tiberius's reign, which are well known, to give a date of around 28–29 AD for the start of Jesus' ministry.{{sfn|Maier|1989|pp=120–21}} Another approach estimates a date around 27–29 AD by using the statement about the temple in John 2:13–20, which asserts that the [[Second Temple|temple in Jerusalem]] was in its 46th year of construction at the start of Jesus' ministry, together with Josephus's statement<ref>{{Citation |last=Josephus |title=Book XV |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XV |work=The Antiquities of the Jews |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724214731/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XV |url-status=live }}.</ref> that the temple's reconstruction was started by Herod the Great in the 18th year of his reign.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|p=140}}{{sfn|Maier|1989|p=123}} A further method uses the date of the [[Beheading of St. John the Baptist|death of John the Baptist]] and the marriage of [[Herod Antipas]] to [[Herodias]], based on the writings of Josephus, and correlates it with Matthew 14:4 and Mark 6:18.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=Josephus on John the Baptist |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Context |publisher=Princeton University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMbEyeDSQQgC&pg=PA55 |access-date=25 January 2016 |last=Evans |first=Craig |editor-last1=Levine |editor-first=Amy-Jill |publication-place=Princeton, New Jersey, USA |pages=55–58 |isbn=978-0-691-00992-6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503120729/https://books.google.com/books?id=wMbEyeDSQQgC&pg=PA55 |archive-date=3 May 2016 |editor-last2=Allison |editor-first3=John D. |editor-last3=Crossan |editor2-first=Dale C. |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Herodias: at home in that fox's den|first= Florence M.|last= Gillman |year=2003| isbn= 978-0-8146-5108-7| pages=25–30 |publisher= Liturgical Press}}</ref> Given that most scholars date the marriage of Herod and Herodias as AD 28–35, this yields a date about 28–29 AD.{{sfn|Freedman|2000|p=249}} A number of approaches have been used to estimate the year of the crucifixion of Jesus. Most scholars agree that he died in 30 or 33 AD.{{sfn|Humphreys|Waddington |1992|p=340}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles |2009|p=398}} The Gospels state that the event occurred during the prefecture of Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea from 26 to 36 AD.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=81–83}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Green |first=Joel B. |title=The gospel of Luke: New International Commentary on the New Testament Series |year=1997 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-2315-1 |page=168 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wzRVN2S8cVgC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=25 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425204312/https://books.google.com/books?id=wzRVN2S8cVgC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=44–45}} The date for the [[conversion of Paul]] (estimated to be 33–36 AD) acts as an upper bound for the date of Crucifixion. The dates for Paul's conversion and ministry can be determined by analysing the [[Pauline epistles]] and the [[Acts of the Apostles]].{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum |Quarles |2009|pp=398–400}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Paul|last=Barnett|title=Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8308-2699-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC&pg=PA21|publisher=InterVarsity Press|page=21|access-date=25 January 2016|archive-date=3 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503144441/https://books.google.com/books?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC&pg=PA21|url-status=live}}</ref> Astronomers have tried to estimate the precise date of the Crucifixion by analysing lunar motion and calculating historic dates of [[Passover]], a festival based on the lunisolar [[Hebrew calendar]]. The most widely accepted dates derived from this method are 7 April 30 AD, and 3 April 33 AD (both [[Julian calendar|Julian]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pratt |first=J. P. |year=1991 |title=Newton's Date for the Crucifixion |url=http://www.johnpratt.com/items/docs/newton.html |url-status=live |journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=32 |pages=301–304 |bibcode=1991QJRAS..32..301P |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116085454/http://johnpratt.com/items/docs/newton.html |archive-date=16 January 2010 |access-date=17 May 2013}}</ref> ===Historicity of events=== {{Main|Historicity of Jesus}} {{See also|Cultural and historical background of Jesus|History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Historical criticism|Textual criticism|Historical reliability of the Gospels}} {{multiple image | footer = Roman senator and historian [[Tacitus]] (pictured left) mentioned the execution of "Christus" (Jesus) by Pilate in a passage describing the [[Great Fire of Rome]] and [[Nero]]'s persecution of Christians in the ''[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|Annals]]'', a history of the Roman Empire during the 1st&nbsp;century. | align = right | image1 = Wien- Parlament-Tacitus.jpg | width1 = 150 | caption1 = | alt1=A white statue of a man | image2 = MII.png | width2 = 152 | caption2 = | alt2=An apparently old document }} Nearly all historians (both modern and historical) agree that Jesus was a real person who historically existed.{{efn|name=exist}} Scholars have reached a limited consensus on the basics of Jesus' life.<ref name="White">{{cite book |title=Scripting Jesus: The Gospels in Rewrite |first=L. Michael |last=White |year=2010 |publisher=HarperOne}}</ref> ====Family==== {{See also|Brothers of Jesus}} Many scholars agree that Joseph, Jesus' father, died before Jesus began his ministry. Joseph is not mentioned in the Gospels during Jesus' ministry. Joseph's death would explain why in Mark 6:3, Jesus' neighbours refer to Jesus as the "son of Mary" (sons were usually identified by their fathers).{{sfn|Brown|1978|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ML1mnUBwmhcC&pg=PA64 64]}} According to Theissen and Merz, it is common for extraordinary [[Charismatic authority|charismatic leaders]], such as Jesus, to come into conflict with their ordinary families.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=194}} In Mark, Jesus' family comes to get him, fearing that he is mad (Mark 3:20–34), and this account is thought to be historical because early Christians would likely not have invented it.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Robert W. Funk |last=Funk |first=Robert W. |author2-link=Jesus Seminar |author2=The Jesus Seminar |title=The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=1998 |chapter=Mark |pages=51–161}}</ref> After Jesus' death, many members of his family joined the Christian movement.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=194}} Jesus' brother [[James, brother of Jesus|James]] became a leader of the Jerusalem Church.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=James, St.}} [[Géza Vermes]] says that the doctrine of the [[virgin birth of Jesus]] arose from theological development rather than from historical events.{{sfn|Vermes|1981|p=283}} Despite the widely held view that the authors of the Synoptic Gospels drew upon each other (the so-called [[synoptic problem]]), other scholars take it as significant that the virgin birth is [[criterion of multiple attestation|attested]] by two separate gospels, Matthew and Luke.<ref>Bromiley, Geoffrey (1995) ''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'', Eerdmans Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3784-4}}, p. 991.</ref>{{sfn|Keener|2009b|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8C2Y_HaL5W0C&pg=PA83 83]}}<ref>Donald A. Hagner, ''Matthew 1–13'' (Paternoster Press 1993 {{ISBN|978-0-8499-0232-1}}), pp. 14–15, cited in the preceding.</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0PbBz6-XcssC&pg=PA761 |page=761 |title=Christian Theology |isbn=978-1-4412-0010-5 |last1=Erickson |first1=Millard J. |date=August 1998 |publisher=Baker Publishing |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913031951/https://books.google.com/books?id=0PbBz6-XcssC&pg=PA761 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Christmas – Philosophy for Everyone: Better Than a Lump of Coal |first=Scott C. |last=Lowe |publisher=Wiley |date=20 September 2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hYEngEACAAJ |page=28 |isbn=978-1-4443-3090-8 |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913014940/https://books.google.com/books?id=2hYEngEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bruner |first=Frederick Dale |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jZlfg1yxIEC&pg=PA41 |title=Matthew a Commentary: The Christbook, Matthew 1–12, Volume 1 |date=30 April 2004 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-1118-9 |page=41 |language=en |author-link=F. Dale Bruner |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913024157/https://books.google.com/books?id=5jZlfg1yxIEC&pg=PA41 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[E. P. Sanders]], the [[Nativity of Jesus|birth narratives]] in the [[Gospel of Matthew]] and the [[Gospel of Luke]] are the clearest case of invention in the Gospel narratives of Jesus' life. Both accounts have Jesus born in [[Bethlehem]], in accordance with Jewish salvation history, and both have him growing up in Nazareth. But Sanders points out that the two Gospels report completely different and irreconcilable explanations for how that happened. Luke's account of a census in which everyone returned to their ancestral cities is not plausible. Matthew's account is more plausible, but the story reads as though it was invented to identify Jesus as like a new [[Moses]], and the historian [[Josephus]] reports Herod the Great's brutality without ever mentioning that [[Massacre of the Innocents|he massacred little boys]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=85–88}} The contradictions between the two Gospels were probably apparent to the early Christians already, since attempts to harmonize the two narratives are already present in the earlier apocryphal [[infancy gospels]] (the [[Infancy Gospel of Thomas]] and the [[Gospel of James]]), which are dated to the 2nd century AD.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cousland|first=J. R. C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMw6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3|title=Holy Terror: Jesus in the Infancy Gospel of Thomas|date=16 November 2017|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-0-567-66817-2|language=en|access-date=17 May 2021|archive-date=9 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232719/https://books.google.com/books?id=rMw6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Gambero|first=Luigi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dsZzsAtggnUC&q=L.+Gambero,+Mary+and+the+Fathers+of+the+Church|title=Mary and the Fathers of the Church: The Blessed Virgin Mary in Patristic Thought|date=1999|publisher=Ignatius Press|isbn=978-0-89870-686-4|language=en|access-date=17 May 2021|archive-date=9 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232541/https://books.google.com/books?id=dsZzsAtggnUC&q=L.+Gambero,+Mary+and+the+Fathers+of+the+Church#v=snippet&q=L.%20Gambero%2C%20Mary%20and%20the%20Fathers%20of%20the%20Church&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Sanders says that the genealogies of Jesus are based not on historical information but on the authors' desire to show that Jesus was the universal Jewish saviour.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=80–91}} In any event, once the doctrine of the virgin birth of Jesus became established, that tradition superseded the earlier tradition that he was descended from [[David]] through Joseph.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=196}} The [[Gospel of Luke]] reports that Jesus was a [[Consanguinity|blood relative]] of [[John the Baptist]], but scholars generally consider this connection to be invented.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=80–91}}<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Robert W. Funk |last=Funk |first=Robert W. |author2-link=Jesus Seminar |author2=The Jesus Seminar |title=The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=1998 |chapter=Birth & Infancy Stories |pages=497–526}}</ref> ====Baptism==== [[File:ဗတ္တိဇံ.jpg|thumb|Baptism in the [[Jordan River]], the river where Jesus was baptized]] Most modern scholars consider Jesus' baptism to be a definite historical fact, along with his crucifixion.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=339}} Theologian [[James Dunn (theologian)|James D. G. Dunn]] states that they "command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=339}} Scholars adduce the [[criterion of embarrassment]], saying that early Christians would not have invented a baptism that might imply that Jesus committed [[sin]]s and wanted to [[Repentance|repent]].{{sfn|Powell|1998|p=47}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Murphy|first=Catherine|title=John the Baptist: Prophet of Purity for a New Age|year=2003|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-5933-5|pages=29–30|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=so_G78SBXAoC&pg=PA29|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907065554/https://books.google.com/books?id=so_G78SBXAoC&pg=PA29|url-status=live}}</ref> According to Theissen and Merz, Jesus was inspired by [[John the Baptist]] and took over from him many elements of his teaching.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=235}} ====Ministry in Galilee==== Most scholars hold that Jesus lived in [[Galilee]] and [[Judea]] and did not preach or study elsewhere.<ref name="Dunn303">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=The Spirit-Filled Experience of Jesus |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Recent Research |publisher=Eisenbrauns |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC&pg=PA303 |access-date=14 August 2015 |last=Borg |first=Marcus J. |editor-last1=Dunn |editor-first=James D. G. |page=303 |isbn=978-1-57506-100-9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910073549/https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC&pg=PA303 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |editor2-last=McKnight |editor2-first=Scot |url-status=live}}</ref> They agree that Jesus debated with Jewish authorities on the subject of God, performed some healings, taught in [[parable]]s and gathered followers.{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}} Jesus' Jewish critics considered his ministry to be scandalous because he feasted with sinners, fraternized with women, and allowed his followers to pluck grain on the Sabbath.{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} According to Sanders, it is not plausible that disagreements over how to interpret the Law of Moses and the Sabbath would have led Jewish authorities to want Jesus killed.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=205–23}} According to Ehrman, Jesus taught that a coming kingdom was everyone's proper focus, not anything in this life.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=167–70}} He taught about the Jewish Law, seeking its true meaning, sometimes in opposition to traditions.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=164–67}} Jesus put love at the center of the Law, and following that Law was an apocalyptic necessity.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=164–67}} His ethical teachings called for forgiveness, not judging others, loving enemies, and caring for the poor.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=171–76}} Funk and Hoover note that typical of Jesus were [[paradox]]ical or surprising turns of phrase, such as advising one, when struck on the cheek, [[Turning the other cheek|to offer the other cheek]] to be struck as well.<ref>Luke 6:29.</ref>{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=294}} The Gospels portray Jesus teaching in well-defined sessions, such as the [[Sermon on the Mount]] in the Gospel of Matthew or the parallel [[Sermon on the Plain]] in Luke. According to Gerd Theissen and Annette Merz, these teaching sessions include authentic teachings of Jesus, but the scenes were invented by the respective evangelists to frame these teachings, which had originally been recorded without context.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}} While Jesus' [[miracle]]s fit within the social context of [[Ancient history|antiquity]], he defined them differently. First, he attributed them to the faith of those healed. Second, he connected them to [[Eschatology|end times]] prophecy.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=310}} Jesus chose [[Apostles in the New Testament|twelve disciples]] (the "Twelve"),{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=10}} evidently as an [[Apocalypticism|apocalyptic]] message.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=186–87}} All three Synoptics mention the Twelve, although the names on Luke's list vary from those in Mark and Matthew, suggesting that Christians were not certain who all the disciples were.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=186–87}} The twelve disciples might have represented the twelve original [[Twelve Tribes of Israel|tribes of Israel]], which would be restored once God's rule was instituted.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=186–87}} The disciples were reportedly meant to be the rulers of the tribes in the coming Kingdom.<ref>Matthew 19:28, Luke 22:30.</ref>{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=186–87}} According to Bart Ehrman, Jesus' promise that the Twelve would rule is historical, because the Twelve included [[Judas Iscariot]]. In Ehrman's view, no Christians would have invented a line from Jesus, promising rulership to the disciple who betrayed him.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=186–87}} In Mark, the disciples play hardly any role other than a negative one. While others sometimes respond to Jesus with complete faith, his disciples are puzzled and doubtful.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=123–24}} They serve as a [[Foil (literature)|foil]] to Jesus and to other characters.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=123–24}} The failings of the disciples are probably exaggerated in Mark, and the disciples make a better showing in Matthew and Luke.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=123–24}} Sanders says that Jesus' mission was not about [[repentance]], although he acknowledges that this opinion is unpopular. He argues that repentance appears as a strong theme only in Luke, that repentance was [[John the Baptist]]'s message, and that Jesus' ministry would not have been scandalous if the sinners he ate with had been repentant.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=230–36}} According to Theissen and Merz, Jesus taught that God was generously giving people an opportunity to repent.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=336}} ====Role==== Jesus taught that an apocalyptic figure, the "[[Son of man (Christianity)|Son of Man]]", would soon come on clouds of glory to gather the elect, or chosen ones.<ref>Mark 13:24–27, Matthew 24:29–31, and Luke 21:25–28.</ref> He referred to himself as a "[[son of man]]" in the colloquial sense of "a person", but scholars do not know whether he also meant himself when he referred to the heavenly "Son of Man". [[Paul the Apostle]] and other early Christians interpreted the "Son of Man" as the risen Jesus.<ref name="Britannica" /> The Gospels refer to Jesus not only as a messiah but in the absolute form as "the Messiah" or, equivalently, "the Christ". In early Judaism, this absolute form of the title is not found, but only phrases such as "his messiah". The tradition is ambiguous enough to leave room for debate as to whether Jesus defined his [[Eschatology|eschatological]] role as that of the messiah.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Messiah}} The Jewish messianic tradition included many different forms, some of them focused on a messiah figure and others not.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=533–40}} Based on the Christian tradition, [[Gerd Theissen]] advances the hypothesis that Jesus saw himself in messianic terms but did not claim the title "Messiah".{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=533–40}} Bart Ehrman argues that Jesus did consider himself to be the messiah, albeit in the sense that he would be the king of the new political order that God would usher in,<ref>{{cite web|last=Ehrman|first=Bart|url=http://ehrmanblog.org/judas-and-the-messianic-secret/|title=Judas and the Messianic Secret|website=The Bart Ehrman Blog|date=1 December 2015|access-date=15 February 2016|archive-date=23 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223091403/http://ehrmanblog.org/judas-and-the-messianic-secret/|url-status=live}}</ref> not in the sense that most people today think of the term.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ehrman|first=Bart|url=http://ehrmanblog.org/jesus-claim-to-be-the-messiah/|title=Jesus' Claim to be the Messiah|website=The Bart Ehrman Blog|date=1 December 2015|access-date=15 February 2016|archive-date=23 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223082758/http://ehrmanblog.org/jesus-claim-to-be-the-messiah/|url-status=live}}</ref> ====Passover and crucifixion in Jerusalem==== Around AD 30, Jesus and his followers travelled from [[Galilee]] to [[Jerusalem]] to observe [[Passover]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=10}} Jesus caused a disturbance in the [[Second Temple]],{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}} which was the center of Jewish religious and civil authority. Sanders associates it with Jesus' prophecy that the Temple would be totally demolished.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=254–62}} Jesus held a last meal with his disciples, which is the origin of the [[Eucharist|Sacrament of the Holy Eucharist]]. His words as recorded in the Synoptic gospels and Paul's [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|First Letter to the Corinthians]] do not entirely agree, but this meal appears to have pointed to Jesus' place in the coming Kingdom of God when very probably Jesus knew he was about to be killed, although he may have still hoped that God might yet intervene.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=263–64}} The Gospels say that Jesus was betrayed to the authorities by a disciple, and many scholars consider this report to be highly reliable.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}} He was executed on the orders of [[Pontius Pilate]], the Roman [[prefect]] of [[Judea (Roman province)|Judaea]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}} Pilate most likely saw Jesus' reference to the Kingdom of God as a threat to Roman authority and worked with the Temple elites to have Jesus executed.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=465–66}} The Sadducean high-priestly leaders of the Temple more plausibly had Jesus executed for political reasons than for his teaching.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}} They may have regarded him as a threat to stability, especially after he caused a disturbance at the Second Temple.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}}<ref name="JE1906">{{cite web |last1=Jacobs |first1=Joseph |last2=Kohler |first2=Kaufmann |last3=Gottheil |first3=Richard |last4=Krauss |first4=Samuel |title=Jesus of Nazareth |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8616-jesus-of-nazareth |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160226102548/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8616-jesus-of-nazareth |archive-date=26 February 2016 |website=Jewish Encyclopedia}} See ''Avodah Zarah 17a:1'', ''Sanhedrin 43a:20'', ''Gittin 57a:3–4'', and ''Sotah 47a:6''.</ref> Other factors, such as Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem, may have contributed to this decision.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=269–73}} Most scholars consider Jesus' crucifixion to be factual, because early Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=339}}{{sfn|Meier|2006|pp=126–28}} ====After crucifixion==== [[File:The Resurrection Beaufort arms in border (f. 131) Cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The Resurrection of Christ from a 16th-century manuscript of ''La Passion de Nostre Seigneur'']] After Jesus' death, his followers said he was restored to life, although exact details of their experiences are unclear. The gospel reports contradict each other, possibly suggesting competition among those claiming to have seen him first rather than deliberate fraud.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=276–81}} On the other hand, [[L. Michael White]] suggests that inconsistencies in the Gospels reflect differences in the agendas of their unknown authors.<ref name="White" /> The followers of Jesus formed a community to wait for his return and the founding of his kingdom.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}} ===Portraits of Jesus=== {{Main|Historical Jesus|Quest for the historical Jesus}} Modern research on the historical Jesus has not led to a unified picture of the historical figure, partly because of the variety of academic traditions represented by the scholars.{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|pp=4–5}} Given the scarcity of historical sources, it is generally difficult for any scholar to construct a portrait of Jesus that can be considered historically valid beyond the basic elements of his life.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=117–25}}{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=22–23}} The portraits of Jesus constructed in these quests often differ from each other, and from the image portrayed in the Gospels.{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|p=5}}{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Historical Jesus, Quest of the}} Jesus is seen as the founder of, in the words of Sanders, a "renewal movement within Judaism". One of the criteria used to discern historical details in the "third quest" is the criterion of plausibility, relative to Jesus' Jewish context and to his influence on Christianity. A disagreement in contemporary research is whether Jesus was [[Apocalypticism|apocalyptic]]. Most scholars conclude that he was an apocalyptic preacher, like [[John the Baptist]] and [[Paul the Apostle]]. In contrast, certain prominent North American scholars, such as [[Burton Mack]] and John Dominic Crossan, advocate for a non-[[Eschatology|eschatological]] Jesus, one who is more of a Cynic [[Sage (philosophy)|sage]] than an apocalyptic preacher.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=1–15}} In addition to portraying Jesus as an apocalyptic prophet, a charismatic healer or a [[Cynicism (philosophy)|cynic philosopher]], some scholars portray him as the true messiah or an [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]] prophet of [[social change]].<ref name="CambHist23">{{cite book|title=The Cambridge History of Christianity|volume=1|first1=Margaret M.|last1=Mitchell|first2=Frances M.|last2=Young|year=2006|isbn=978-0-521-81239-9|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=23|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6UTfmw_zStsC&pg=PA23|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907180601/https://books.google.com/books?id=6UTfmw_zStsC&pg=PA23|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=124–25}} However, the attributes described in the portraits sometimes overlap, and scholars who differ on some attributes sometimes agree on others.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Why Study the Historical Jesus? | encyclopedia=Handbook for the Study of the Historical Jesus | publisher=Brill | year=2011 | first=Colin | last=Brown | page=1416 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LuKMmVu0tpMC&pg=PA1416 | isbn=978-90-04-16372-0 | editor1-first=Tom | editor1-last=Holmen | editor2-first=Stanley E. | editor2-last=Porter | access-date=14 August 2015 | archive-date=10 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910170524/https://books.google.com/books?id=LuKMmVu0tpMC&pg=PA1416 | url-status=live }}</ref> Since the 18th century, scholars have occasionally put forth that Jesus was a political national messiah, but the evidence for this portrait is negligible. Likewise, the proposal that Jesus was a [[Zealots (Judea)|Zealot]] does not fit with the earliest strata of the Synoptic tradition.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}} ===Language, ethnicity, and appearance=== {{further|Language of Jesus|Race and appearance of Jesus}} [[File:CompositeJesus.JPG|thumb|The ethnicity of Jesus in art has been influenced by cultural settings.{{sfn|Houlden|2006|pp=63–99}}<ref name="Erricker44" />|alt=Twelve depictions of Jesus from around the world]] Jesus grew up in Galilee and much of his ministry took place there.{{sfn|Green|McKnight|Marshall|1992|p=442}} The languages spoken in Galilee and Judea during the 1st century AD include [[Jewish Palestinian Aramaic]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and [[Koine Greek|Greek]], with Aramaic being predominant.<ref name="BarrLang">{{cite journal|first=James|last=Barr|title=Which language did Jesus speak|journal=Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester|year=1970|volume=53|issue=1|pages=9–29|url=https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2973|doi=10.7227/BJRL.53.1.2|access-date=27 July 2011|archive-date=3 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203184449/https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2973|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Porter110">{{cite book |last=Porter |first=Stanley E. |url=https://archive.org/details/handbooktoexeges00port |title=Handbook to exegesis of the New Testament |publisher=Brill |year=1997 |isbn=978-90-04-09921-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbooktoexeges00port/page/n124 110]–112 |language=en |url-access=limited}}</ref> There is substantial consensus that Jesus gave most of his teachings in Aramaic{{sfn|Dunn|2003|pp=313–15}} in the [[Galilean dialect]].<ref name="Allen C. Myers">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1987 |title=Aramaic |encyclopedia=The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary |publisher=William B. Eerdmans |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |url=https://archive.org/details/eerdmansbibledic00myer/page/72 |editor=Myers |editor-first=Allen C. |page=[https://archive.org/details/eerdmansbibledic00myer/page/72 72] |isbn=978-0-8028-2402-8 |quote=It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Israel in the first century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73).}}</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32043/Aramaic-language |title=Aramaic language |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=27 June 2019 |archive-date=27 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427072726/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32043/Aramaic-language |url-status=live }}</ref> Other than Aramaic and Hebrew, it is likely that he was also able to speak in [[Koine Greek]].<ref>{{Cite book | last=Porter | first=Stanley E. | author-link=Stanley E. Porter | title=Handbook to exegesis of the New Testament | publisher=Brill | year=1997 | isbn=90-04-09921-2 | pages=110–112 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last=Hoffmann | first=R. Joseph | title=Jesus in history and myth | publisher=Prometheus Books | year=1986 | isbn=0-87975-332-3 | page=98 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Interpretation of Scripture in Early Judaism and Christianity: Studies in Language and Tradition|first=Craig A.|last=Evans|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1841270760|date=1 June 2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WbbUAwAAQBAJ&dq=G.R.+Selby,+Jesus,+Aramaic+and+Greek&pg=PA244|access-date=13 August 2023|archive-date=6 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906220012/https://books.google.com/books?id=WbbUAwAAQBAJ&dq=G.R.+Selby,+Jesus,+Aramaic+and+Greek&pg=PA244|url-status=live}}</ref> Modern scholars agree that Jesus was a Jew of 1st-century [[Judea]].{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|p= 96}} ''[[Ioudaios]]'' in New Testament Greek{{efn|In the New Testament, Jesus is described as Jewish / Judean (''[[Ioudaios]]'' as written in Koine Greek) on three occasions: by the Magi in [[Matthew 2]], who referred to Jesus as "King of the Jews" (''basileus ton ioudaion''); by both the [[Samaritan woman at the well]] and by Jesus himself in [[John 4]]; and (in all four gospels) during the Passion, by the Romans, who also used the phrase "King of the Jews".<ref>{{cite journal|first=John |last=Elliott|journal= Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus |year=2007|volume= 5|issue= 119|title=Jesus the Israelite Was Neither a 'Jew' nor a 'Christian': On Correcting Misleading Nomenclature|page=119|doi=10.1177/1476869007079741|doi-access=free}}</ref>}} is a term which in the contemporary context may refer to religion ([[Second Temple Judaism]]), ethnicity (of Judea), or both.<ref>{{cite book |last=Garroway |first=Rabbi Joshua |url=https://archive.org/details/jewishannotatedn0000unse/page/524 |title=The Jewish Annotated New Testament |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-529770-6 |editor=Levine |editor-first=Amy-Jill |pages=[https://archive.org/details/jewishannotatedn0000unse/page/524 524–526] |chapter=Ioudaios |editor2=Brettler |editor-first2=Marc Z. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DZRJ5zXUI2QC&pg=PA524}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=David M.|last=Miller|title=The Meaning of ''Ioudaios'' and its Relationship to Other Group Labels in Ancient 'Judaism'|journal=Currents in Biblical Research|volume=9|issue=1|date=2010|pages=98–126|doi=10.1177/1476993X09360724|s2cid=144383064}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Steve |last=Mason |title=Jews, Judaeans, Judaizing, Judaism: Problems of Categorization in Ancient History |journal=Journal for the Study of Judaism |volume=38 |issue=4 |date=2007 |pages=457–512 |url=http://www.stevemason.eu/resources/SMason-JSJ-2007-Jews-Judaism.pdf |doi=10.1163/156851507X193108 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325062826/http://www.stevemason.eu/resources/SMason-JSJ-2007-Jews-Judaism.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2015}}</ref> In a review of the state of modern scholarship, [[Amy-Jill Levine]] writes that the entire question of ethnicity is "fraught with difficulty", and that "beyond recognizing that 'Jesus was Jewish', rarely does the scholarship address what being 'Jewish' means".{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=10}} The New Testament gives no description of the physical appearance of Jesus before his death—it is generally indifferent to racial appearances and does not refer to the features of the people it mentions.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Robin M. |last=Jensen |title=Jesus in Christian art|encyclopedia=The Blackwell Companion to Jesus|editor-first=Delbert|editor-last= Burkett|year= 2010 |isbn= 978-1-4443-5175-0 |pages= 477–502 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref><ref name="Perkinson30">{{cite book |last=Perkinson |first=Stephen |title=The likeness of the king: a prehistory of portraiture in late medieval France |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-226-65879-7 |location=Chicago, Illinois, USA |page=30 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref name="Kidd48">{{cite book|title=The forging of races: race and scripture in the Protestant Atlantic world|url=https://archive.org/details/forgingracesrace00kidd|url-access=limited|first= Colin|last= Kidd|year= 2006| isbn =978-1-139-45753-8 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages= [https://archive.org/details/forgingracesrace00kidd/page/n57 48]–51}}</ref> Jesus probably looked like a typical Jewish man of his time and place; standing around {{convert|166|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} tall with a thin but fit build, [[Olive skin|olive-brown skin]], brown eyes and short, dark hair. He also likely had a beard that was not particularly long or heavy.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Joan E. |title=What did Jesus look like? |date=2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc |location=London |page=168|isbn=978-0-567-67150-9 |edition=1st |url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/what-did-jesus-look-like-9780567671509/ |access-date=20 May 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222012/https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/what-did-jesus-look-like-9780567671509/ |url-status=live }}</ref> His clothing may have suggested poverty, consisting of a mantle (shawl) with tassels, a knee-length basic tunic and sandals.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Taylor |first1=Joan |title=What Did Jesus Wear? |url=https://getpocket.com/explore/item/what-did-jesus-wear |website=Pocket |publisher=Mozilla |access-date=20 May 2020 |archive-date=20 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520060147/https://getpocket.com/explore/item/what-did-jesus-wear |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Christ myth theory=== {{Main|Christ myth theory}} The Christ myth theory is the hypothesis that Jesus of Nazareth never existed; or if he did, that he had virtually nothing to do with the founding of Christianity and the accounts in the [[gospels]].{{efn|Ehrman writes: "In simpler terms, the historical Jesus did not exist. Or if he did, he had virtually nothing to do with the founding of Christianity." Further quoting as authoritative the fuller definition provided by [[Earl Doherty]] in ''Jesus: Neither God Nor Man''. Age of Reason, 2009, pp. vii–viii: it is "the theory that no historical Jesus worthy of the name existed, that Christianity began with a belief in a spiritual, mythical figure, that the Gospels are essentially allegory and fiction, and that no single identifiable person lay at the root of the Galilean preaching tradition."{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|p=12}}}} Stories of Jesus' birth, along with other key events, have so many mythic elements that some scholars have suggested that Jesus himself was a myth.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=113–15}} [[Bruno Bauer]] (1809–1882) taught that the first Gospel was a work of literature that produced history rather than described it.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=90}} According to [[Albert Kalthoff]] (1850–1906), a social movement produced Jesus when it encountered Jewish messianic expectations.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=90}} [[Arthur Drews]] (1865–1935) saw Jesus as the concrete form of a myth that predated Christianity.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=90}} Despite arguments put forward by authors who have questioned the existence of a [[historical Jesus]], virtually all scholars of antiquity accept that Jesus was a historical figure and consider Christ myth theory fringe.<ref>[[Bart Ehrman]]: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees, based on certain and clear evidence." B. Ehrman, 2011 ''Forged: writing in the name of God,'' {{ISBN|978-0-06-207863-6}}. pp. 256–257.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Gullotta |first=Daniel N.|title=On Richard Carrier's Doubts: A Response to Richard Carrier's On the Historicity of Jesus: Why We Might Have Reason for Doubt|journal=Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus|year=2017|volume=15|issue=2–3|pages=312|quote=[Per Jesus mythicism] Given the fringe status of these theories, the vast majority have remained unnoticed and unaddressed within scholarly circles.|doi=10.1163/17455197-01502009}}</ref><ref name="DunnPaul35">[[James D.G. Dunn|James D. G. Dunn]] "Paul's understanding of the death of Jesus" in ''Sacrifice and Redemption'' edited by S. W. Sykes (3 December 2007) Cambridge University Press {{ISBN|978-0-521-04460-8}} pp. 35–36.</ref><ref name="Then' 2004 page 34">Richard A. Burridge and Graham Gould (1 April 2004)''. Jesus Now and Then,'' {{ISBN|978-0-8028-0977-3}} p. 34.</ref><ref name="Jesus' page 200">Michael Grant (2004)''. Jesus'' {{ISBN|978-1-898799-88-7}} p. 200.</ref><ref name="Jesus' page 145">[[Graham Stanton]] (1989), ''The Gospels and Jesus''. {{ISBN|978-0-19-213241-3}} Oxford University Press, p. 145.</ref><ref name="voorst16">[[Robert E. Van Voorst]]. ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence.'' Eerdmans Publishing, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-8028-4368-5}} p. 16.</ref> ==Religious perspectives== {{Main|Religious perspectives on Jesus}} Jesus' teachings and the retelling of his life story have significantly influenced the course of [[human history]], and have directly or indirectly affected the lives of billions of people, even non-Christians.<ref>''The Cambridge companion to Jesus'' edited by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl 2001 {{ISBN|0-521-79678-4}} pp. 156–157.</ref><ref>C. Stephen Evans (1996)''. The historical Christ and the Jesus of faith'', Oxford University Press {{ISBN|0-19-826397-X}} p. v.</ref> He is considered by many people to be the most influential figure to have ever lived, finding a significant place in numerous cultural contexts.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bauckham|first1=Richard|title=Jesus: A Very Short Introduction|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=United States|isbn=978-0199575275|pages=1–2}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first1=Steven |last1=Skiena |first2=Charles B. |last2=Ward |date=10 January 2014 |title=Who's the most significant historical figure? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/jan/30/whos-most-significant-historical-figure |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=10 August 2023 |archive-date=4 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204180532/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/jan/30/whos-most-significant-historical-figure |url-status=live }}</ref> Apart from his own disciples and followers,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Jewish believers in Jesus: the early centuries |last1=Skarsaune |first1=Oskar |publisher=Hendrickson Publishers |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-56563-763-4 |page=55 |last2=Hvalvik |first2=Reidar |url=https://archive.org/details/jewishbelieversi0000unse/page/55}}</ref> the Jews of Jesus' day generally [[Rejection of Jesus|rejected him as the messiah]],{{sfn|Levine|2007|p=61}} as does Judaism today.{{sfn|Levine|2007|p=17}} Christian theologians, [[ecumenical council]]s, reformers and others have written extensively about Jesus over the centuries. [[Christian denomination]]s have often been defined or characterized by their descriptions of Jesus. Meanwhile, [[Manichaeism|Manichaeans]], [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]], [[Muslims]], [[Druze]]s,<ref name=Hitti>{{cite book|title=The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings| first= Philip K.|last= Hitti|year= 1928| isbn= 978-1-4655-4662-3| page =37 |publisher=Library of Alexandria}}</ref> the [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼís]], and others, have found prominent places for Jesus in their religions.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |title=The quest for the real Jesus |encyclopedia=Cambridge companion to Jesus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA156 |access-date=14 August 2015 |last=Watson |first=Francis |editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first=Markus N. A. |pages=156–157 |isbn=978-0-521-79678-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910064807/https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA156 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The historical Christ and the Jesus of faith|first= C. Stephen|last= Evans |year=1996|publisher= Oxford University Press| isbn= 978-0-19-152042-6 |page= v}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Blackwell Companion to Jesus|last= Delbert|first= Burkett|year= 2010| isbn= 978-1-4443-5175-0 |page= 1 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref> ===Christianity=== {{Main|Jesus in Christianity|Christ (title)|Christology}} [[File:Shield-Trinity-Scutum-Fidei-English.svg|thumb|right|The [[Trinity]] is the belief in Christianity that God is one God in three persons: [[God the Father]], [[God the Son]] ([[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]]), and [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|God the Holy Spirit]].]] [[File:Christ with beard.jpg|thumb|right|Jesus is depicted with the [[Alpha and Omega]] letters in the [[Catacombs of Rome]] from the 4th&nbsp;century.]] Jesus is the central figure of Christianity.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=4–6}} Although Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to summarize the key beliefs shared among major [[Christian denomination|denominations]], as stated in their [[catechism|catechetical]] or [[Confessionalism (religion)|confessional]] texts.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jackson|first= Gregory L. |title= Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: a doctrinal comparison|year= 1993 |isbn= 978-0-615-16635-3| pages= 11–17 |publisher=Christian News}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Orthodox Church: An Introduction to Its History, Doctrine|first= John A.|last= McGuckin |year=2010| pages= 6–7 |isbn=978-1-4443-9383-5 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Basic Christian doctrine|last=Leith|first=John H.|year= 1993 |isbn= 978-0-664-25192-5 |pages= 1–2 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}}</ref> Christian views of Jesus are derived from the texts of the [[New Testament]], including the [[canonical gospels]] and letters such as the [[Pauline epistles]] and the [[Johannine writings]]. These documents outline the key beliefs held by Christians about Jesus, including his divinity, humanity, and earthly life, and that he is the Christ and the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Schreiner|first=Thomas R.|title=New Testament Theology: Magnifying God in Christ|year=2008|publisher=Baker Academic|isbn=978-0-8010-2680-5|pages=23–37|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=elw8xkVeTTUC&pg=PA23|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=10 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910052649/https://books.google.com/books?id=elw8xkVeTTUC&pg=PA23|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite their many shared beliefs, not all Christian denominations agree on all doctrines, and both [[East–West Schism|major and minor differences]] on teachings and beliefs have persisted throughout Christianity for centuries.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Great Schism}} The New Testament states that the [[resurrection of Jesus]] is the foundation of the Christian faith.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#15:12|1 Corinthians 15:12–20]].</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/137622/The-Letter-of-Paul-to-the-Corinthians | title=The Letter of Paul to the Corinthians | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica | access-date=26 June 2013 | archive-date=12 May 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512045839/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/137622/The-Letter-of-Paul-to-the-Corinthians | url-status=live }}</ref> Christians believe that through his sacrificial death and resurrection, humans can be [[reconciliation (theology)|reconciled with God]] and are thereby offered [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] and the promise of [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]].<ref name="Oxford Companion">{{cite book|title=Oxford Companion to the Bible|first1=Bruce M.|last1= Metzger|first2= Michael D.|last2= Coogan| page= [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195046458/page/649 649]| publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195046458 |url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-19-974391-9|year=1993}}</ref> Recalling the words of [[John the Baptist]] in the [[gospel of John]], these doctrines sometimes refer to Jesus as the [[Lamb of God]], who was crucified to fulfill his role as the servant of God.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Christology of the New Testament|first= Oscar |last=Cullmann |year=1959 |isbn= 978-0-664-24351-7| page= 79 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Christology of Anselm of Canterbury|first= Dániel|last= Deme|year= 2004| isbn= 978-0-7546-3779-0 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |pages= 199–200}}</ref> Jesus is thus seen as the [[new Adam|new and last Adam]], whose obedience contrasts with [[Fall of man|Adam's disobedience]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Systematic Theology| volume= 2|first= Wolfhart |last=Pannenberg |author-link=Wolfhart Pannenberg |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-567-08466-8 |pages= 297–303 |publisher=Continuum}}</ref> Christians view Jesus as a role model, whose God-focused life believers are encouraged to imitate.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=4–6}} At present, most Christians believe that Jesus is both human and the Son of God.{{sfn|Ehrman|2014}} While there has been [[Christological controversies|theological debate]] over his nature,{{efn|Following the [[Apostolic Age]], there was fierce and often politicized debate in the [[Early centers of Christianity|early church]] on many interrelated issues. [[Christology]] was a major focus of these debates, and was addressed at every one of the [[first seven ecumenical councils]]. Some early beliefs viewed Jesus as ontologically subordinate to the Father ([[Subordinationism]]), and others considered him an aspect of the Father rather than a separate person ([[Sabellianism]]), both were condemned as heresies by the Catholic Church.<ref name=Britannica />{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Antitrinitarianism}} The Church resolved the issues in ancient councils, which established the Holy Trinity, with Jesus both fully human and fully God.<ref name=Britannica />}} Trinitarian Christians generally believe that Jesus is the Logos, God's incarnation and [[God the Son]], both fully divine and fully human. However, the doctrine of the Trinity is not universally accepted among Christians.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Antitrinitarianism|url=http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/A597.html|last=Friedmann|first=Robert|encyclopedia=Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia|access-date=24 October 2012|archive-date=20 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020232847/http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/A597.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Blessed Trinity|first=George H. |last= Joyce}}</ref> With the [[Reformation]], Christians such as [[Michael Servetus]] and the [[Socinian]]s started questioning the ancient creeds that had established Jesus' two natures.<ref name="Britannica" /> Nontrinitarian Christian groups include [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]],<ref>{{citation |title= Mormonism 101: What is Mormonism |url=http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/mormonism-101 |work= MormonNewsroom.org |publisher= LDS Church |access-date= 21 October 2014 |date= 13 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021175426/http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/mormonism-101 |archive-date= 21 October 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]] and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]].{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005 |loc=Antitrinitarianism}} Christians revere not only Jesus himself, but also [[Name of Jesus|his name]]. Devotions to the [[Holy Name of Jesus]] go back to the earliest days of Christianity.<ref>{{cite book|title=Outlines of dogmatic theology | volume=2 |first= Sylvester |last=Hunter|year= 2010| isbn= 978-1-177-95809-7 |page= 443 |publisher=Nabu Press}}</ref>{{sfn|Houlden|2006|p=426}} These devotions and feasts exist in both [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]] and [[Western Christianity]].{{sfn|Houlden|2006|p=426}} ===Judaism's view=== {{Main|Judaism's view of Jesus}} {{See also|Jesus in the Talmud}} Judaism rejects the idea of Jesus (or any future Jewish messiah) being God,<ref name="JE1906" /> or a mediator to God, or part of a Trinity.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kessler|first=Ed|title=Jesus the Jew|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/thepassion/articles/jesus_the_jew.shtml|publisher=BBC|access-date=18 June 2013|archive-date=7 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121207081354/http://www.bbc.co.uk/thepassion/articles/jesus_the_jew.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> It holds that Jesus is not the messiah, arguing that he neither fulfilled the messianic prophecies in the [[Tanakh]] nor embodied the personal qualifications of the messiah.<ref>{{cite book |first=Asher |last=Norman |title=Twenty-six reasons why Jews don't believe in Jesus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tx5qrKz6dRMC&pg=PA59 |publisher=Feldheim Publishers |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-9771937-0-7 |pages=59–70 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910065007/https://books.google.com/books?id=tx5qrKz6dRMC&pg=PA59 |url-status=live }}</ref> Jews argue that Jesus did not fulfill prophecies to build the [[Third Temple]],<ref>{{Bibleverse|Ezekiel|37:26–28|HE}}.</ref> gather Jews back to Israel,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Isaiah|43:5–6|HE}}.</ref> bring world peace,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Isaiah|2:4|HE}}.</ref> and unite humanity under the God of Israel.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Zechariah|14:9|HE}}.</ref><ref name="simmons">{{Cite web |last=Tzvi |date=9 May 2009 |others=Simmons, Rabbi Shraga |title=Do Jews Believe In Jesus? {{!}} Aish |url=https://aish.com/why-jews-dont-believe-in-jesus/ |access-date=24 July 2023 |website=Aish.com |language=en-US |archive-date=25 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825033652/https://aish.com/why-jews-dont-believe-in-jesus/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Furthermore, according to Jewish tradition, there were no prophets after [[Malachi]],<ref>{{cite web |last= Simmons |first= Shraga |url=http://www.aish.com/jewishissues/jewishsociety/Why_Jews_Dont_Believe_In_Jesus.asp |title= Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus |date= 6 March 2004 |publisher= Aish.com |access-date= 24 February 2006 |archive-date= 16 March 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060316040138/http://www.aish.com/jewishissues/jewishsociety/Why_Jews_Dont_Believe_In_Jesus.asp |url-status= live }}</ref> who delivered his prophecies in the 5th century BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Malachi, Book of | encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia | access-date=3 July 2013 |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10321-malachi-book-of | archive-date=18 May 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518045350/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10321-malachi-book-of | url-status=live }}</ref> Judaic criticism of Jesus is long-standing, and includes a [[Jesus in the Talmud|range of stories]] in the [[Talmud]], written and compiled from the 3rd to the 5th century AD.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Talmud | encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia | access-date=3 July 2013 |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14213-talmud | archive-date=6 September 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906061120/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=32&letter=T | url-status=live }}</ref> In one such story, ''[[Yeshu]] HaNozri'' ("Jesus the Nazarene"), a lewd apostate, is executed by the Jewish high court for spreading idolatry and practising magic.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Jewish-Christian Relations |first1=Edward |last1=Kessler |first2=Neil |last2=Wenborn |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-44750-8 |page=416 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QkI_JNv3rIwC&pg=PA416 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907090106/https://books.google.com/books?id=QkI_JNv3rIwC&pg=PA416 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to some, the form Yeshu is an [[acronym]] which in Hebrew reads: "may his name and memory be blotted out".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Neuhaus |first=David M. |title=How Israeli Jews' Fear of Christianity Turned Into Hatred |language=en |work=Haaretz |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2021-02-06/ty-article/.highlight/how-israeli-jews-fear-of-christianity-turned-into-hatred/0000017f-dbd5-d3ff-a7ff-fbf562150000 |access-date=24 July 2023 |quote=The religious public in Israel is in many cases aware of the traditional interpretation of the term "Yeshu": an acronym in Hebrew for "may his name and memory be blotted out. |archive-date=27 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165613/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2021-02-06/ty-article/.highlight/how-israeli-jews-fear-of-christianity-turned-into-hatred/0000017f-dbd5-d3ff-a7ff-fbf562150000 |url-status=live }}</ref> The majority of contemporary scholars consider that this material provides no information on the historical Jesus.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=74–75}} The ''[[Mishneh Torah]]'', a late 12th-century work of [[Halakha|Jewish law]] written by [[Moses Maimonides]], states that Jesus is a "stumbling block" who makes "the majority of the world to err and serve a god other than the Lord".<ref>{{cite book|last=Jeffrey|first=Grant R.|title=Heaven: The Mystery of Angels|year=2009|publisher=Random House Digital|isbn=978-0-307-50940-6|page=108|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xCW8fjiE-DYC&pg=PA108|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=14 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914213327/https://books.google.com/books?id=xCW8fjiE-DYC&pg=PA108|url-status=live}}</ref> Medieval Hebrew literature contains the anecdotal "Episode of Jesus" (known also as ''[[Toledot Yeshu]]''), in which Jesus is described as being the son of Joseph, the son of [[Tiberius Julius Abdes Pantera|Pandera]] (see: [[s:Translation:Story of Jesus|''Episode of Jesus'']]). The account portrays Jesus as an impostor.<ref name="Sutcliffe2005">{{cite book |author=Sutcliffe |first=Adam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vjilDDXfmqEC&pg=PA141 |title=Judaism and Enlightenment |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-67232-0 |pages=141– |access-date=11 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208000728/https://books.google.com/books?id=vjilDDXfmqEC&pg=PA141 |archive-date=8 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> ===Manichaeism=== {{Main|Jesus in Manichaeism}} [[Manichaeism]] was the first organized religion outside of Christianity to venerate Jesus.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=57nFeeC3GKoC&q=Mani+declared+he+was+an+apostle+of+Jesus&pg=PA315 |title=The Manichean Debate |access-date=18 August 2012|isbn=978-1-56548-247-0|year=2006|author=Augustine of Hippo|publisher=New City Press |author-link=Augustine of Hippo|editor=Ramsey, Boniface |editor-link=Boniface Ramsey}}</ref><ref name="Reeves1996">{{cite book |author=Reeves |first=John C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ewM1xTuRQaoC&pg=PA6 |title=Heralds of That Good Realm: Syro-Mesopotamian Gnosis and Jewish Traditions |publisher=Brill |year=1996 |isbn=978-90-04-10459-4 |pages=6– |access-date=27 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=1930 |title=Manichaeism |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |last=Bevan |first=A. A. |editor-last=Hastings |editor-first=James |volume=8 |isbn=978-0-7661-3666-3}}</ref> He is considered one of the four prophets, along with [[Zoroaster]], [[Gautama Buddha]], and [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gulácsi |first=Zsuzsanna |date=2015 |title=Mani's Pictures: The Didactic Images of the Manichaeans from Sasanian Mesopotamia to Uygur Central Asia and Tang-Ming China |series=Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies |volume=90 |place=Leiden |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-30894-7 |url=https://gnosis.study/library/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B5%20%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE/%D0%9A%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8/ENG/Gul%C3%A1csi%20Z.%20-%20Mani's%20Pictures.pdf}}</ref><ref name="SNC Lieu">{{cite book |title=Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China |first=Samuel N. C. |last=Lieu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmNPz9teHqUC&q=manichaeism+divinity+of+Jesus&pg=PA161 |isbn=978-3-16-145820-0 |date= 1992 |publisher=J.C.B. Mohr }}</ref> ===Islam=== {{Main|Jesus in Islam}} {{Islamic prophets}} [[File:Virgin Mary and Jesus (old Persian miniature).jpg|thumb|upright=.9|[[Persian miniature]] of Mary and Jesus]] A major figure in Islam,<ref name="uscsite">{{cite web|url=http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/004-qmt.php#004.157 |title=Quran 3:46–158 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501064500/http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/004-qmt.php |archive-date=1 May 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Siddiqui">{{cite book |last=Siddiqui |first=Mona |title=Christians, Muslims, and Jesus |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2013 |author-link = Mona Siddiqui |url=https://archive.org/details/christiansmuslim0000sidd |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-300-16970-6 }}</ref><ref name="CEI" /> Jesus (often referred to by his Quranic name {{transliteration|ar|ISO|[[Isa (name)|''ʿĪsā'']]}}) is considered to be a [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|messenger]] of [[God in Islam|God]] and the messiah ([[Masih (title)|{{transliteration|ar|ISO|al-Masīḥ}}]]) who was sent to guide the [[Israelites|Children of Israel]] ({{transliteration|ar|ISO|Banī Isrāʾīl}}) with a new scripture, the Gospel (referred to in Islam as [[Gospel in Islam|{{transliteration|ar|ISO|Injīl}}]]).<ref name="CEI" /><ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam|year=2003|first=John L.|last=Esposito|page=158|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC&pg=PA159|isbn=978-0-19-975726-8|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907105909/https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC&pg=PA159|url-status=live}}</ref> Muslims regard the gospels' accounts in the New Testament as partially authentic, and believe that Jesus' original message was altered ([[tahrif|{{transliteration|ar|ISO|taḥrīf}}]]) and that [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]] came later to revive it.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first=Markus N.A. |title=Quests for the historical Jesus |first=James C. |last=Paget |year=2001 |encyclopedia=Cambridge companion to Jesus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA183 |isbn=978-0-521-79678-1 |page=183 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910045903/https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA183 |url-status=live }}</ref> Belief in Jesus (and all other [[Prophets in Islam|messengers of God]]) is a requirement for being a [[Muslim]].<ref>{{cite AV media | title=The Muslim Jesus | publisher=ITV Productions | date=19 August 2007 | people=Ashraf, Irshad (Director) | medium=Television production}}</ref> The Quran mentions Jesus by name 25 times—more often than Muhammad<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1196|title=Jesus, Son of Mary|publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online|access-date=3 July 2013|archive-date=2 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702042354/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1196|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Aboul-Enein|first=Youssef H.|title=Militant Islamist Ideology: Understanding the Global Threat|year=2010|publisher=Naval Institute Press|isbn=978-1-61251-015-6|page=20|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tX3suVDTJz0C&pg=PA20|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=14 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914213353/https://books.google.com/books?id=tX3suVDTJz0C&pg=PA20|url-status=live}}</ref>—and emphasizes that Jesus was a mortal human who, like all other prophets, had been divinely chosen to spread God's message.<ref name="comparative" /> While the Quran affirms the Virgin birth of Jesus, he is considered to be neither an incarnation nor a [[Son of God (Christianity)|son of God]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Surah Al-Kahf – 4 |url=https://quran.com/al-kahf?locale=en&font=v1&reading=false&translations=20%2C131 |access-date=24 June 2021 |website=quran.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Surah Al-Kahf – 5 |url=https://quran.com/al-kahf?locale=en&font=v1&reading=false&translations=20%2C131 |access-date=24 June 2021 |website=quran.com}}</ref><ref name="Morgan" /> Islamic texts emphasize a strict notion of [[monotheism]] ({{transliteration|ar|ISO|[[tawḥīd]]}}) and forbid the association of partners with God, which would be [[Shirk (Islam)|idolatry]].<ref>{{cite book|last=George|first=Timothy|title=Is the Father of Jesus the God of Muhammad?: Understanding the Differences Between Christianity and Islam|year=2002|publisher=Zondervan|isbn=978-0-310-24748-7|pages=150–51|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A5uVfN5xT3YC&pg=PA150|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907174156/https://books.google.com/books?id=A5uVfN5xT3YC&pg=PA150|url-status=live}}</ref> The Quran describes the annunciation to Mary ([[Mary in Islam|{{transliteration|ar|ISO|Maryam}}]]) by the Holy Spirit that she is to give birth to Jesus while remaining a virgin. It calls the virgin birth a miracle that occurred by the will of God.<ref name="RobB32" /><ref name="Peters23" /> The Quran ({{qref|21|91}} and {{qref|66|12}}) states that God breathed [[Holy Spirit (Islam)|his spirit]] into Mary while she was chaste.<ref name="RobB32" /><ref name="Peters23">{{cite book|title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians |first=F. E. |last=Peters |year=2003 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-11553-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe/page/23 23] |url=https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe/page/23 }}</ref> Jesus is called a "spirit from God" because he was born through the action of the Spirit,<ref name="RobB32">{{cite book|title= Christianity, Islam, and the West|first= Robert A.|last= Burns|year= 2011|isbn= 978-0-7618-5560-6|page= 32|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=akWUGyN7fwEC&pg=PA32|publisher= University Press of America|access-date= 14 August 2015|archive-date= 10 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910174421/https://books.google.com/books?id=akWUGyN7fwEC&pg=PA32|url-status= live}}</ref> but that belief does not imply [[Pre-existence of Christ|his pre-existence]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cooper|first1=Anne|first2=Elsie A.|last2=Maxwell|title=Ishmael My Brother: A Christian Introduction To Islam|year=2003|publisher=Monarch Books|isbn=978-0-8254-6223-8|page=59|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X4J-p1E1OkwC&pg=PA59|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907085409/https://books.google.com/books?id=X4J-p1E1OkwC&pg=PA59|url-status=live}}</ref> To aid in his ministry to the Jewish people, Jesus was given the ability to perform [[miracle]]s, by permission of God rather than by his own power.<ref name="Morgan">{{cite book|last=Morgan|first=Diane|title=Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-36025-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/essentialislamco0000morg/page/45 45]–46|url=https://archive.org/details/essentialislamco0000morg|url-access=registration}}</ref> Through his ministry, Jesus is seen as a [[precursor (religion)|precursor]] to Muhammad.<ref name="comparative">{{cite book |last1=Fasching |first1=Darrell J. |url=https://archive.org/details/comparativerelig0000fasc/page/241 |title=Comparative Religious Ethics: A Narrative Approach |last2=deChant |first2=Dell |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-631-20125-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/comparativerelig0000fasc/page/241 241, 274–275] |language=en}}</ref> In the Quran ({{qref|4|157–159}}) it is said that Jesus was not killed but was merely made to appear that way to unbelievers,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://corpus.quran.com/translation.jsp?chapter=3&verse=54 |title=The Quranic Arabic Corpus – Translation |publisher=Corpus.quran.com |access-date=20 May 2016 |archive-date=18 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418170132/http://corpus.quran.com/translation.jsp?chapter=3&verse=54 |url-status=live }}</ref> and that he was raised into the heavens while still alive by God.<ref>{{qref|4|157|b=y}}: "''and for boasting, "We killed the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, the messenger of Allah." But they neither killed nor crucified him—it was only made to appear so. Even those who argue for this ˹crucifixion˺ are in doubt. They have no knowledge whatsoever—only making assumptions. They certainly did not kill him.''"</ref> According to most classic [[Sunni]] and [[Twelver Shi'ite]] interpretations of these verses, the likeness of Jesus was cast upon a [[Substitution hypothesis|substitute]] (most often one of the apostles), who was crucified in Jesus' stead.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|2005}}; {{harvnb|Lawson|2009}}. The substitution theory was criticized and rejected by the Sunni Quran commentator [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]] (1150–1210); see {{harvnb|Lawson|2009|pp=156–162}}. According to [[Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi]] (d. 1037), the substitution theory was also applied to the death of [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] by the semi-legendary 7th-century figure [[Abdullah ibn Saba'|Abdallah ibn Saba']]; see {{harvnb|De Smet|2016|pp=98–99}}.</ref> However, some medieval Muslims (among others, the [[ghulat|{{transliteration|ar|ISO|ghulāt}}]] writing under the name of [[al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi]], the [[Brethren of Purity]], various [[Isma'ili]] philosophers, and the Sunni mystic [[al-Ghazali]]) affirmed the historicity of Jesus' crucifixion. These thinkers held the [[docetic]] view that, although Jesus' human form (his body) had died on the cross, his true divine nature (his spirit) had survived and ascended into heaven, so that his death was only an appearance.<ref>On the writings attributed to al‐Mufaddal ibn Umar al‐Ju'fi, see {{harvnb|De Smet|2016|p=93}}. On the Brethren of Purity, see {{harvnb|Robinson|1991|pp=55–57}}, {{harvnb|Lawson|2009|pp=129–133}} and especially {{harvnb|De Smet|2016|pp=100–101}}. On the Isma'ili philosophers (who include [[Abu Hatim Ahmad ibn Hamdan al-Razi|Abu Hatim al-Razi]], Abu Tammam, [[Ja'far ibn Mansur al-Yaman]], [[Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani]] and [[Ibrahim ibn al-Husayn al-Hamidi|Ibrahim al-Hamidi]]), see {{harvnb|Lawson|2009|pp=123–129}} and especially {{harvnb|De Smet|2016|pp=101–107}}. On al-Ghazali, see {{harvnb|Lawson|2009|pp=117–118}}. This type of interpretation of Quran 4:157–159 was specifically rejected by the Sunni Quran commentator al-[[Qadi Baydawi|Baydawi]] (d. 1319); see {{harvnb|Lawson|2009|p=155}}.</ref> Nevertheless, to Muslims it is the ''[[Ascension of Jesus|ascension]]'' rather than the ''[[Crucifixion of Jesus|crucifixion]]'' that constitutes a major event in the life of Jesus.<ref name="Khalidi">{{Cite book| publisher = Harvard University Press| isbn = 978-0-674-00477-1| last = Khalidi| first = Tarif| title = The Muslim Jesus: Sayings and Stories in Islamic Literature| year = 2001| page = [https://archive.org/details/muslimjesussayin00/page/12 12]|url=https://archive.org/details/muslimjesussayin00/page/12}}</ref> There is no mention of his resurrection on the third day, and his death plays no special role in [[Soteriology#Islam|Islamic theories of salvation]].<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|2005}}.</ref> However, Jesus is a central figure in [[Islamic eschatology]]: Muslims believe that [[Second Coming#Islam|he will return to Earth]] at the [[Eschatology|end of time]] and defeat the [[Antichrist]] (''[[Masih ad-Dajjal|ad-Dajjal]]'') by killing him.<ref name="CEI">{{cite book |last=Glassé |first=Cyril |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7tu12gt4JYC&pg=PA270 |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7425-6296-7 |pages=270–271 |language=en |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907070905/https://books.google.com/books?id=D7tu12gt4JYC&pg=PA270 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Garrett |first=James L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZEhBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA766 |title=Systematic Theology, Volume 2, Second Edition: Biblical, Historical, and Evangelical |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-62564-852-5 |page=766 |access-date=5 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125164743/https://books.google.com/books?id=WZEhBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA766 |archive-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Grudem|1994|pp=568–603}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=The Nicene Creed |encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia |publisher=Robert Appleton Company |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11049a.htm |access-date=11 April 2016 |last=Wilhelm |first=Joseph |date=1911 |volume=11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417055109/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11049a.htm |archive-date=17 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to the Quran, the coming of [[Muhammad]] (also called "Ahmad") was predicted by Jesus: {{blockquote|And ˹remember˺ when Jesus, son of Mary, said, "O children of Israel! I am truly Allah's messenger to you, confirming the Torah which came before me, and giving good news of a messenger after me whose name will be Aḥmad." Yet when the Prophet came to them with clear proofs, they said, "This is pure magic."|{{qref|61|6|c=y}}}} Through this verse, early Arab Muslims claimed legitimacy for their new faith in the existing religious traditions and the alleged predictions of Jesus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Virani|first=Shafique N.|title=Taqiyya and Identity in a South Asian Community|url=https://www.academia.edu/36996009|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|year=2011|volume=70|issue=1|pages=99–139|doi=10.1017/S0021911810002974|s2cid=143431047|issn=0021-9118}} p. 128.</ref> ====Ahmadiyya Islam==== {{Main|Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam}} The [[Ahmadiyya]] Muslim Community has several [[Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam|distinct teachings]] about Jesus.<ref>{{harvnb|Friedmann|1989|pp=111–118}}.</ref> Ahmadis believe that he was a mortal man who survived his crucifixion and died a natural death at the age of 120 in [[Kashmir]], India, and is buried at [[Roza Bal]].<ref>{{harvnb|Friedmann|1989|p=114}}; {{harvnb|Melton|2010|p=55}}.</ref> ===Druze Faith=== {{Main|Jesus in Druze faith}} In the [[Druze|Druze Faith]],<ref name="Hitti" /> Jesus is considered and revered as one of the seven spokesmen or prophets (''natiq''), defined as messengers or intermediaries between God and mankind, along with [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Muhammad]] and [[Muhammad ibn Isma'il]], each of them sent in a different period of history to preach the message of God.<ref name=Hitti/><ref name="Dana47">{{cite book|title=The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status| first= Nissim |last= Dana|year= 2008| isbn= 978-1-903900-36-9| page =47 |publisher=Michigan University press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Druse, a Religious Community in Transition| first= Nissim |last= Dana|year= 1980| isbn=978-965-200-028-6| page =11|publisher=Turtledove}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Betts |first=Robert Brenton |title=The Druze |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-300-04810-0 |location=New Haven, Connecticut, USA |page=21 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The A to Z of the Druzes| first= Samy |last=Swayd|year= 2019| isbn=978-0-8108-7002-4| page =xxxviii |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield}}</ref> ===Baháʼí Faith=== In the [[Baháʼí Faith]], Jesus is considered one of the [[Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)|Manifestations of God]],<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2014 |title=Who is Christ to Baha'is? |url=https://bahaiteachings.org/who-is-christ-to-bahais/}}</ref> defined as divine messengers or prophets sent by God to guide humanity, along with other religious figures such as [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Krishna]], [[Zarathushtra]], [[Buddha]], [[Muhammad]] and [[Baháʼu'lláh]]. Baháʼís believe that these religious founders or leaders have contributed to the [[Progressive revelation (Baháʼí)|progressive revelation]] by bringing spiritual and moral values to humanity in their own time and place.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Baha'i Faith |last=Hartz |first=Paula |publisher=Chelsea House Publishers |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60413-104-8 |location=New York |pages=14–15 |url=https://archive.org/details/bahaifaith0000hart/page/14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=William McElwee |url=https://archive.org/details/bahaifaithitshis0000mill/page/355 |title=The Baha'i faith: its history and teachings |publisher=William Carey Library |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-87808-137-0 |location=South Pasadena, California, USA |pages=355 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title = Jesus Christ in the Baháʼí Writings | first = Robert | last = Stockman | journal = [[Baháʼí Studies Review]] | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | year = 1992 |url=http://bahai-library.com/stockman_jesus_bahai_writings | access-date = 4 July 2010 | archive-date = 7 June 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607061448/http://bahai-library.com/stockman_jesus_bahai_writings | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | first = Juan | last = Cole | title = The Concept of Manifestation in the Bahaʼi Writings | year = 1982 | journal = [[Baháʼí studies#Journals|Études Baháʼí Studies]] | volume = 9 | pages = 1–38 |url=http://bahai-library.com/cole_concept_manifestation | access-date = 4 July 2012 | archive-date = 17 May 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517105145/http://bahai-library.com/cole_concept_manifestation | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last = Smith |first = Peter |year = 2008 |title = An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith |publisher = Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z7zdDFTzNr0C&pg=PA107|isbn = 978-0-521-86251-6 |page = 107}}</ref> As a Manifestation of God, Jesus is believed to reflect God's qualities and attributes, but is not considered the only saviour of humanity nor the incarnation of God.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Adamson |first=Hugh C. |url=https://archive.org/details/atozofbahaifaith0000adam/page/188 |title=The A to Z of the Baháʼí Faith |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8108-6853-3 |location=Lanham, Maryland, USA |pages=188 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Beckwith |first=Francis |url=https://archive.org/details/bahai0000beck/page/14 |title=Bahaʼi |publisher=Bethany House |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-87123-848-1 |location=Minneapolis, Minnesota |pages=13–15 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Garlington |first=William |url=https://archive.org/details/bahaifaithinamer0000garl_r5j0/page/175 |title=The Baha'i Faith in America |publisher=Praeger Publishers |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-6234-9 |location=Westport, Connecticut, USA |page=175 |language=en-us}}</ref> Baháʼís believe in the virgin birth,<ref>{{cite book | title = In the Glory of the Father: The Baháʼí Faith and Christianity | first = Brian D. | last = Lepard | year = 2008 | publisher = Baháʼí Publishing Trust | isbn = 978-1-931847-34-6 | page = 118 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2ob2Tw2k3MC&pg=PA118 | access-date = 14 August 2015 | archive-date = 10 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910050221/https://books.google.com/books?id=v2ob2Tw2k3MC&pg=PA118 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="Cole">{{cite journal|last=Cole|first=Juan R. I.|title=Behold the Man: Baha'u'llah on the Life of Jesus|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-academy-of-religion-journal_spring-1997_65_1/page/51|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion |year=1997|volume=65|issue=1|pages=51, 56, 60}}</ref> but see the resurrection and the miracles of Jesus as symbolic.<ref name="Smith-jesus">{{cite encyclopedia |last= Smith |first= Peter |encyclopedia= A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |title= peace |year= 2000 |publisher= Oneworld Publications |isbn= 978-1-85168-184-6 |page= [https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/214 214] |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/214 }}</ref><ref name="Cole" /> ===Other=== {{See also|Criticism of Jesus}} [[File:The_Liberator_masthead,_1861_Jan_11.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Jesus depicted as the liberator of Black slaves, on the masthead of the [[abolitionism in the United States|abolitionist]] paper ''[[The Liberator (newspaper)|The Liberator]]'']] [[File:Jesus Image on a Manichaean Temple Banner.jpg|thumb|Enthroned Jesus image on a [[Manichaeism|Manichaean]] temple banner from {{circa|10th-century}} [[Qocho]]]] In [[Gnosticism|Christian Gnosticism]] (now a largely extinct religious movement),<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhpKxQT8n74C&pg=PA27 | title=The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001 | page=27 | isbn=978-0-19-285439-1 | first=John | last=McManners | access-date=14 August 2015 | archive-date=7 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907102122/https://books.google.com/books?id=DhpKxQT8n74C&pg=PA27 | url-status=live }}</ref> Jesus was sent from the divine realm and provided the secret knowledge ([[gnosis]]) necessary for salvation. Most Gnostics believed that Jesus was a human who became possessed by the spirit of "the Christ" at his baptism. This spirit left Jesus' body during the crucifixion but was rejoined to him when he was raised from the dead. Some Gnostics, however, were [[docetism|docetics]], believing that Jesus did not have a physical body, but only appeared to possess one.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URdACxKubDIC&pg=PA124 |title=Lost Christianities: The Battles For Scripture And The Faiths We Never Knew |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-518249-1 |pages=124–125 |language=en |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222010/https://books.google.com/books?id=URdACxKubDIC&pg=PA124 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Some [[Hinduism|Hindus]] consider Jesus to be an [[avatar]] or a [[sadhu]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/beliefs/jesus_1.shtml | title=Jesus in Hinduism | publisher=BBC | date=24 March 2009 | first=Shaunaka | last=Rishi Das | access-date=4 June 2013 | archive-date=25 November 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125233747/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/beliefs/jesus_1.shtml | url-status=live }}</ref> [[Paramahansa Yogananda]], an Indian [[guru]], taught that Jesus was the reincarnation of [[Elisha]] and a student of [[John the Baptist]], the reincarnation of [[Elijah]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Paramahansa |last=Yogananda |title=Autobiography of a Yogi |publisher=Diamond Pocket Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-902562-0-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xsIi4ePN4hYC&pg=PA319 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910173606/https://books.google.com/books?id=xsIi4ePN4hYC&pg=PA319 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some [[Buddhist]]s, including [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama]], regard Jesus as a [[bodhisattva]] who dedicated his life to the welfare of people.<ref>{{cite web|last=Beverley|first=James A.|url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/june11/15.64.html?paging=off|title=Hollywood's Idol|publisher=Christianity Today|date=11 June 2011|access-date=15 May 2013|archive-date=29 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329222548/https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/june11/15.64.html?paging=off|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[New Age]] movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus.<ref name="other views">{{cite book | last =Hutson | first =Steven | title =What They Never Taught You in Sunday School: A Fresh Look at Following Jesus | publisher =City Boy Enterprises | year =2006 | page =57 | isbn =978-1-59886-300-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sVnT_hSpSBAC&pg=PA57 | access-date =14 August 2015 | archive-date =7 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907100719/https://books.google.com/books?id=sVnT_hSpSBAC&pg=PA57 | url-status =live }}</ref> [[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|Theosophists]], from whom many New Age teachings originated,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/newageneopaganre00pike/page/56 | title=New Age and neopagan religions in America | publisher=Columbia University Press | year=2004 | page=[https://archive.org/details/newageneopaganre00pike/page/56 56] | isbn=978-0-231-12402-7 | first=Sarah M. | last=Pike }}</ref> refer to Jesus as the [[Master Jesus]], a spiritual reformer, and they believe that Christ, after [[reincarnation|various incarnations]], occupied the body of Jesus.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Treatise on Cosmic Fire|first1=Alice|last1=Bailey|first2=Djwhal|last2=Khul|isbn=978-0-85330-117-2|publisher=Lucis Publishing Company|pages=678, 1150, 1193|year=2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3FAZi674omIC|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222027/https://books.google.com/books?id=3FAZi674omIC|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[The Urantia Book]]'' teaches Jesus is one of more than 700,000 heavenly sons of God.<ref>{{cite book |last=House |first=Wayne |title=Charts of Cults, Sects and Religious Movements |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rRbKQwAACAAJ |publisher=[[Zondervan]] |year=2000 |page=262 |isbn=978-0-310-38551-6 |access-date=12 May 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222014/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Charts_of_Cults_Sects_Religious_Movement/rRbKQwAACAAJ?hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Antony Theodore]] in the book ''Jesus Christ in Love'' writes that there is an underlying oneness of Jesus' teachings with the messages contained in [[Quran]], [[Vedas]], [[Upanishads]], [[Talmud]] and [[Avesta]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Theodore |first=Antony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-cwcEAAAQBAJ&q=jesus+christ+in+love+antony |title=Jesus Christ in Love |publisher=Kohinoor Books |year=2019 |isbn=978-8-194-28353-9 |location=New Delhi, India |translator-last=Pradhan |translator-first=Tapan Kumar |access-date=13 June 2021}}</ref> [[Atheist]]s reject Jesus' divinity, but have different views about him – from challenging [[Mental health of Jesus|his mental health]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Schweitzer |first=Albert |url=https://archive.org/details/psychiatricstudy00schw |title=The Psychiatric Study of Jesus: Exposition and Criticism |publisher=Beacon Press |year=1948 |location=Boston, Massachusetts |language=en-us |translator-last=Joy |translator-first=Charles R. |lccn=48006488 |oclc=614572512 |ol=6030284M |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bundy |first=Walter E. |title=The Psychic Health of Jesus |publisher=The Macmillan Company |location=New York |year=1922 |lccn=22005555 |oclc = 644667928 |ol=OL25583375M |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/psychichealthofj00bund }}</ref> to emphasizing his "moral superiority" ([[Richard Dawkins]]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Dawkins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yq1xDpicghkC&pg=PA284 |title=The God Delusion |page=284 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |access-date=13 December 2014 |isbn=978-0-547-34866-7 |date=2008 |archive-date=27 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327215018/http://books.google.com/books?id=yq1xDpicghkC |url-status=live }}</ref> ==Artistic depictions== {{Main|Depiction of Jesus}} [[File:Christ Healing the Paralytic - Dura-Europos circa 232.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Jesus healing a paralytic in one of the first known images of Jesus from [[Dura-Europos church|Dura Europos]] in the 3rd&nbsp;century<ref>{{cite web|title=Dura-Europos: Excavating Antiquity {{!}} Yale University Art Gallery|url=http://media.artgallery.yale.edu/duraeuropos/dura.html|website=media.artgallery.yale.edu|access-date=3 March 2017|archive-date=5 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170505112511/http://media.artgallery.yale.edu/duraeuropos/dura.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>|alt=An ancient wall painting depicting Jesus|left]] Some of the earliest depictions of Jesus at the [[Dura-Europos church]] are firmly dated to before 256.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=1992 |title=Early Christian and Jewish Art |encyclopedia=Eusebius, Christianity, and Judaism |publisher=Wayne State University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVyzbHAJ_hAC&pg=PA283 |access-date=14 August 2015 |last=Gutmann |first=Joseph |editor-last1=Attridge |editor-first=Harold W. |pages=283–284 |language=en-us |isbn=978-0-8143-2361-8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910060007/https://books.google.com/books?id=jVyzbHAJ_hAC&pg=PA283 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |editor-first2=Gohei |editor-last2=Hata |url-status=live}}</ref> Thereafter, despite the lack of biblical references or historical records, a wide range of depictions of Jesus appeared during the last two millennia, often influenced by cultural settings, political circumstances and theological contexts.{{sfn|Houlden|2006|pp=63–99}}<ref name="Erricker44">{{cite book|title=Teaching Christianity: a world religions approach|first= Clive|last= Erricker|year= 1987 |isbn= 978-0-7188-2634-5 |page= 44 |publisher=James Clarke & Co}}</ref><ref name="Perkinson30" /> As in other [[Early Christian art]], the earliest depictions date to the late 2nd or early 3rd century, and surviving images are found especially in the [[Catacombs of Rome]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History|first= Robert |last=Benedetto|year= 2006| isbn= 978-0-664-22416-5 |pages= 51–53 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}}</ref> The depiction of Christ in pictorial form was highly [[Aniconism in Christianity|controversial]] in the early Church.<ref name="phschaff">{{cite book | last= Schaff | first= Phillip | title= History of the Christian Church,8 volumes, 3rd edition | publisher= Hendrickson Publishers | location= Massachusetts | date= 1 July 2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NV8sAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA381 | isbn= 978-1-56563-196-0 | access-date= 14 August 2015 | archive-date= 10 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910074209/https://books.google.com/books?id=NV8sAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA381 | url-status= live }}</ref>{{efn|Philip Schaff commenting on Irenaeus, wrote, 'This censure of images as a Gnostic peculiarity, and as a heathenish corruption, should be noted'. Footnote 300 on Contr. Her. .I.XXV.6. ANF}}<ref name="Elvira36">[[Synod of Elvira]], 'Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration', AD 306, Canon 36.</ref> From the 5th century onward, flat painted [[icon]]s became popular in the Eastern Church.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Icons}} The [[Byzantine Iconoclasm]] acted as a barrier to developments in the East, but by the 9th century, art was permitted again.{{sfn|Houlden|2006|pp=63–99}} The [[Protestant Reformation]] brought renewed [[aniconism in Christianity|resistance to imagery]], but total prohibition was atypical, and Protestant objections to images have tended to reduce since the 16th century. Although large images are generally avoided, few Protestants now object to book illustrations depicting Jesus.<ref>{{cite book|title=Reformation and the Visual Arts|first= Sergiusz|last= Michalski |year= 1993| isbn= 978-1-134-92102-7 |publisher=Routledge |page= 195}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Payton |first=James R. |title=Light from the Christian East: An Introduction to the Orthodox Tradition |publisher=InterVarsity Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8308-2594-3 |pages=178–179 |language=en-us}}</ref> The use of depictions of Jesus is advocated by the leaders of denominations such as [[Anglicans]] and [[Catholics]]<ref name="RWilliams83">{{cite book|title=The Dwelling of the Light: Praying with Icons of Christ |last=Williams|first=Rowan|year= 2003 |isbn= 978-0-8028-2778-4|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing| page= 83}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Karol J.|last=Wojtyła|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1997/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_29101997_en.html|publisher=Vatican Publishing House|title=General audience 29 October 1997|access-date=20 April 2013|archive-date=3 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303020028/http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1997/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_29101997_en.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/audiences/2009/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20090506_en.html|publisher= Vatican Publishing House|title= General audience 6 May 2009|access-date= 20 April 2013|first= Joseph A.|last= Ratzinger|archive-date= 3 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303064734/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/audiences/2009/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20090506_en.html|url-status= live}}</ref> and is a key element of the [[Eastern Orthodox]] tradition.{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p=231}}<ref>{{cite book|title=The Orthodox Christian World|first= Augustine|last= Casiday|year= 2012 |isbn= 978-0-415-45516-9| page= 447 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> In Eastern Christian art, the [[Transfiguration of Jesus in Christian art|Transfiguration]] was a major theme, and every Eastern Orthodox monk who had trained in [[icon]] painting had to prove his craft by painting an icon depicting it.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bigham |first=Steven |title=The image of God the Father in Orthodox theology and iconography |publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-879038-15-8 |pages=226–227}}</ref> Icons receive the external marks of veneration, such as kisses and prostration, and they are thought to be powerful channels of divine grace.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Icons}} In Western Europe, the [[Renaissance]] brought forth a number of artists who focused on depictions of Jesus; [[Fra Angelico]] and others followed [[Giotto]] in the systematic development of uncluttered images.{{sfn|Houlden|2006|pp=63–99}} Before the Protestant Reformation, the [[crucifix]] was common in Western Christianity. It is a model of the cross with Jesus crucified on it. The crucifix became the central ornament of the altar in the 13th century, a use that has been nearly universal in Roman Catholic churches since then.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005 |loc=Crucifix}} ==Associated relics== {{Main|Relics associated with Jesus}} [[File:Shroud of Turin 001.jpg|thumb|The [[Shroud of Turin]], Italy, is the best-known claimed relic of Jesus and one of the most studied artefacts in human history<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ball |first=P. |title=Material witness: Shrouded in mystery |doi=10.1038/nmat2170 |journal=Nature Materials |volume=7 |issue=5 |page=349 |year=2008 |pmid=18432204 |bibcode=2008NatMa...7..349B |doi-access=free }}</ref>]] The total destruction that ensued with the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|siege of Jerusalem]] by the Romans in AD 70 made the survival of items from 1st-century Judea very rare and almost no direct records survive about the history of Judaism from the last part of the 1st century through the 2nd century.{{sfn|Levine|2006|pp=24–25}}<ref name="Koester382">[[Helmut Koester]] ''Introduction to the New Testament'', Vol. 1: History, Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age. Berlin, Germany: [[de Gruyter Press]], 1995, p. 382.</ref>{{efn|[[Flavius Josephus]] writing (about 5 years later, c. AD 75) in ''[[The Jewish War]]'' (Book VII 1.1) stated that Jerusalem had been flattened to the point that "there was left nothing to make those that came thither believe it had ever been inhabited".<ref>Flavius Josephus, ''The Jewish War'' Book VII, section 1.1"</ref> And once what was left of the ruins of Jerusalem had been turned into the Roman settlement of [[Aelia Capitolina]], no Jews were allowed to set foot in it.<ref name=Koester382 />}} [[Margaret M. Mitchell]] writes that although [[Eusebius]] reports (''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]]'' III 5.3) that the early Christians left Jerusalem for [[Pella, Jordan|Pella]] just before Jerusalem was subjected to the final lockdown, we must accept that no first-hand Christian items from the early Jerusalem Church have reached us.<ref>[[Margaret M. Mitchell]] "The Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume 1: Origins to Constantine" Cambridge University Press 2006, p. 298.</ref> [[Joe Nickell]] writes, "as investigation after investigation has shown, not a single, reliably authenticated relic of Jesus exists".<ref>{{cite book|last=Nickell|first=Joe|title=Relics of the Christ|year=2007|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|isbn=978-0-8131-3731-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/relicsofchrist00joen/page/191 191]|url=https://archive.org/details/relicsofchrist00joen|url-access=registration}}</ref>{{efn|Polarized conclusions regarding the Shroud of Turin remain.<ref>Habermas, Gary R. "Shroud of Turin". ''The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization'' (2011). {{doi|10.1002/9780470670606.wbecc1257}}</ref> According to former ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' editor [[Philip Ball]], "it's fair to say that, despite the seemingly definitive tests in 1988, the status of the Shroud of Turin is murkier than ever. Not least, the nature of the image and how it was fixed on the cloth remain deeply puzzling".<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Ball | first1 = P. | title = Material witness: Shrouded in mystery | doi = 10.1038/nmat2170 | journal = Nature Materials | volume = 7 | issue = 5 | page = 349 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18432204 | bibcode = 2008NatMa...7..349B | doi-access = free }}</ref>}} However, throughout the history of Christianity, a number of [[relic]]s attributed to Jesus have been claimed, although doubt has been cast on them. The 16th-century Catholic theologian [[Erasmus]] wrote sarcastically about the proliferation of relics and the number of buildings that could have been constructed from the wood claimed to be from the [[True Cross|cross used in the Crucifixion]].{{sfn|Dillenberger|1999|p=5}} Similarly, while experts debate whether Jesus was crucified with three nails or with four, at least thirty [[holy nail]]s continue to be venerated as relics across Europe.<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle =Holy Nails|title=Holy Nails|first= Herbert|last=Thurston}}</ref> Some relics, such as purported remnants of the [[crown of thorns]] placed on the head of Jesus, receive only a modest number of [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrims]], while the [[Shroud of Turin]] (which is associated with an approved [[Catholic devotion]] to the [[Holy Face of Jesus]]), has received millions,<ref>{{cite news|last=Delaney|first=Sarah|title=Shroud exposition closes with more than 2 million visits|url=http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/1002157.htm|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100608223917/http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/1002157.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 June 2010|agency=Catholic News Service |date=24 May 2010}}</ref> including popes [[John Paul II]] and [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Wojtyła|first=Karol J.|title=Pope John Paul II's address in Turin Cathedral|url=https://w2.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/travels/1998/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone.html|publisher=Vatican Publishing House|date=24 May 1998|access-date=18 February 2017|archive-date=19 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219114758/https://w2.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/travels/1998/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Squires|first=Nick|title=Pope Benedict says Shroud of Turin authentic burial robe of Jesus|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2010/0503/Pope-Benedict-says-Shroud-of-Turin-authentic-burial-robe-of-Jesus|newspaper=Christian Science Monitor|date=3 May 2010|access-date=19 June 2013|archive-date=1 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130401072455/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2010/0503/Pope-Benedict-says-Shroud-of-Turin-authentic-burial-robe-of-Jesus|url-status=live}}</ref> == Faigi göi == {{div col|colwidth=25em}} * [[Outline of Jesus]] * [[Jesuism]] * [[Jesus in comparative mythology]] * [[Jesus in the Talmud]] * [[Language of Jesus]] * [[Last Adam]] – title of Jesus * [[Liminal deity]] – deity who is a crosser of boundaries * [[List of books about Jesus]] * [[List of founders of religious traditions]] * [[List of messiah claimants]] * [[List of people claimed to be Jesus]] * [[List of people who have been considered deities]] * [[List of statues of Jesus]] * [[Sexuality of Jesus]] * [[Tiberius Julius Abdes Pantera]] – Roman soldier, hypothesized to be connected to Jesus {{div col end}}--> == Famatokhi == {{notelist}} {{notelist|30em}} == Umbu == === Taroma wehede === {{reflist|18em}} === Sinura === {{refbegin|18em}} * {{cite book |first=Douglas |last=Hare |title=Matthew |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-664-23433-1 }} * {{cite book|first=Craig L.|last=Blomberg|author-link=Craig Blomberg|title=Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8054-4482-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U5rIPC1UgsgC|publisher=B&H Publishing Group|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222031/https://books.google.com/books?id=U5rIPC1UgsgC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|title=The People's New Testament Commentary|first1=M. Eugene|last1=Boring|first2=Fred B.|last2=Craddock|author-link2=Fred Craddock|year=2004|isbn=978-0-664-22754-8|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N0tLXRIiIe0C|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=4 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104165219/http://books.google.com/books?id=N0tLXRIiIe0C|url-status=live}} * {{cite book |first=Raymond E. |last=Brown |title=The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-385-05907-7 |publisher=Doubleday}} * {{cite book|title=Mary in the New Testament|first=Raymond E.|last=Brown|year=1978|isbn=978-0-8091-2168-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ML1mnUBwmhcC|publisher=Paulist Press|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=17 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140917011141/http://books.google.com/books?id=ML1mnUBwmhcC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The Gospel and Epistles of John: A Concise Commentary |first=Raymond E. |last=Brown |author-link=Raymond E. Brown |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-8146-1283-5 |publisher=Liturgical Press |url=https://archive.org/details/gospelepistleso00brow }} * {{cite book|last=Brown|first=Raymond E.|title=An Introduction to the New Testament|publisher=Doubleday|year=1997|isbn=978-0-385-24767-2|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontone00brow_0}} * {{cite book|last=Carter|first=Warren|author-link=Warren Carter|title=Pontius Pilate: Portraits of a Roman Governor|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8146-5113-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mvhHcXKK0UEC|publisher=Liturgical Press|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222031/https://books.google.com/books?id=mvhHcXKK0UEC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research |first1=Bruce |last1=Chilton |author-link1=Bruce Chilton |first2=Craig A. |last2=Evans |author-link2=Craig A. Evans |year=1998 |isbn=978-90-04-11142-4 |publisher=Brill |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJM9grxOjjMC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=4 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004084608/https://books.google.com/books?id=AJM9grxOjjMC |url-status=live }} * {{cite book|first1=Steven L.|last1=Cox|first2=Kendell H|last2=Easley|year=2007|title=Harmony of the Gospels|isbn=978-0-8054-9444-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjmwuFUksOQC|publisher=B&H Publishing Group|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222032/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjmwuFUksOQC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|editor-first1=Frank L.|editor-last1=Cross|editor-first2=E.A.|editor-last2=Livingstone|title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0-19-280290-3|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=15 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515065637/https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|first1=John D.|last1=Crossan|author-link1=John Dominic Crossan|first2=Richard G.|last2=Watts|title=Who Is Jesus?: Answers to Your Questions About the Historical Jesus|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-664-25842-9|url=https://archive.org/details/whoisjesusanswer00cros}} * {{cite book|last=De Smet|first=Daniel|year=2016|chapter=Les racines docétistes de l'imamologie shi'ite|lang=fr|editor1-last=Amir-Moezzi|editor1-first=Mohammad Ali|editor2-last=De Cillis|editor2-first=Maria|editor3-last=De Smet|editor3-first=Daniel|editor4-last=Mir-Kasimov|editor4-first=Orkhan|title=L'Ésotérisme shi'ite, ses racines et ses prolongements – Shi'i Esotericism: Its Roots and Developments|series=Bibliothèque de l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes, Sciences Religieuses|volume=177|location=Turnhout|publisher=Brepols|pages=87–112|doi=10.1484/M.BEHE-EB.4.01163|isbn=978-2-503-56874-4}} * {{cite book|last=Dickson|first= John |author-link= John Dickson (author) |title=Jesus: A Short Life|publisher= Kregel Publications|year= 2008| isbn= 978-0-8254-7802-4}} * {{cite book|last=Dillenberger|first=John|author-link=John Dillenberger|title=Images and Relics: Theological Perceptions and Visual Images in Sixteenth-Century Europe|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-19-976146-3}} * {{cite book|first1= John R.|last1= Donahue|first2= Daniel J.|last2= Harrington|author-link2= Daniel J. Harrington|title= The Gospel of Mark|publisher= Liturgical Press|year= 2002|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xZAIsUZOwSQC|isbn= 978-0-8146-5804-8|access-date= 8 October 2020|archive-date= 3 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103010742/http://books.google.com/books?id=xZAIsUZOwSQC|url-status= live}} * {{cite book|last=Doninger|first=Wendy|year=1999|title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions|publisher=Merriam-Webster|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440|isbn=978-0-87779-044-0}} * {{cite book|first=James D.G.|last=Dunn|author-link=James Dunn (theologian)|title=Jesus Remembered|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8028-3931-2|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G4qpnvoautgC}} * {{cite book|last1=Eddy|first1=Paul R.|last2=Boyd|first2=Gregory A.|author-link2=Greg Boyd (theologian)|year=2007|title=The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus tradition|publisher=Baker Academic|isbn=978-0-8010-3114-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U26_85NmwPUC|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222033/https://books.google.com/books?id=U26_85NmwPUC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|title=Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium|first=Bart|last=Ehrman|author-link=Bart D. Ehrman|year=1999|isbn=978-0-19-983943-8|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusapocalyptic00ehrm|url-access=registration}} * {{cite book|title=Jesus, Interrupted: Revealing the Hidden Contradictions in the Bible (and Why We Don't Know About Them)|last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|year=2009|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusinterrupted00ehrm_0/|publisher=HarperOne|isbn=978-0-06-117393-6}} * {{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |title=How Jesus Became God|publisher=HarperCollins |year=2014|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dmspAgAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0-06225-219-7}} * {{cite book|first=Bart|last=Ehrman|year=2011|title=Forged: Writing in the Name of God – Why the Bible's Authors Are Not Who We Think They Are|isbn=978-0-06-207863-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/forged_ehrm_2011_000_10544376 |url-access=registration|publisher=HarperCollins}} * {{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |title=Did Jesus Exist?: The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth |year=2012 |publisher=HarperOne |isbn=978-0-06-208994-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hf5Rj8EtsPkC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803200020/https://books.google.com/books?id=hf5Rj8EtsPkC |url-status=live }} * {{cite book|last=Evans|first=Craig A.|author-link=Craig A. Evans|year=2003|title=The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew–Luke|isbn=978-0-7814-3868-1|publisher=David C. Cook|url=https://archive.org/details/bibleknowledgeba00crai}} * {{cite book|first=Craig A.|last=Evans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87x8TqW6MJQC|title=Jesus and His World: The Archaeological Evidence|year=2012a|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-23413-3|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222033/https://books.google.com/books?id=87x8TqW6MJQC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last=Evans|first=Craig A.|title=Matthew (New Cambridge Bible Commentary)|date=2012b|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-01106-8}} * {{cite book |last=Finegan |first=Jack |title=Handbook of Biblical Chronology |year=1998 |publisher=Hendrickson Publishers |isbn=978-1-56563-143-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookbiblical00fine |url-access=limited }} * {{cite book|first=David N.|last=Freedman|author-link=David Noel Freedman|title=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible|year=2000|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|isbn=978-0-8028-2400-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P9sYIRXZZ2MC|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803133406/https://books.google.com/books?id=P9sYIRXZZ2MC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last=Friedmann|first=Yohanan|year=1989|title=Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and Its Medieval Background|location=Berkeley|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05772-2}} * {{cite book|first1=Robert W.| last1= Funk |first2= Roy W.|last2= Hoover |author3= The Jesus Seminar |author-link3=Jesus Seminar |title = The Five Gospels |publisher= Scribner |year= 1993 |isbn=978-0-0254-1949-0 |oclc=819666252}} * {{cite book |first1=Joel B. |last1=Green |first2=Scot |last2=McKnight |first3=I. Howard |last3=Marshall |author-link1=Joel B. Green |author-link2=Scot McKnight |author-link3=I. Howard Marshall |title=Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ntwNm-tOogC |publisher=InterVarsity Press |year=1992 |page=442 |isbn=978-0-8308-1777-1 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222034/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ntwNm-tOogC |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |title= Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine |last= Grudem |first= Wayne |author-link= Wayne Grudem |year= 1994 |publisher= Zondervan |location= Grand Rapids, MI |isbn= 978-0-310-28670-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/systematictheolo00grud_0 }} * {{cite book|first=Stephen L.|last= Harris |title= Understanding the Bible | publisher= Mayfield |year= 1985}} * {{cite book|last=Houlden|first=J. Leslie|title=Jesus: The Complete Guide|year=2006|isbn=978-0-8264-8011-8|publisher=Continuum|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey8mZKV_jfkC|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222034/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey8mZKV_jfkC|url-status=live}} * {{cite journal |last1=Humphreys |first1=Colin J. |last2=Waddington |first2=W. G. |date=1992 |url=https://legacy.tyndalehouse.com/tynbul/Library/TynBull_1992_43_2_06_Humphreys_DateChristsCrucifixion.pdf |title=The Jewish Calendar, a Lunar Eclipse and the Date of Christ's Crucifixion |journal=Tyndale Bulletin |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=331–51 |doi=10.53751/001c.30487 |s2cid=189519018 |access-date=21 April 2019 |archive-date=21 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421091510/https://legacy.tyndalehouse.com/tynbul/Library/TynBull_1992_43_2_06_Humphreys_DateChristsCrucifixion.pdf |url-status=live }} * {{cite book|last=Keener|first=Craig S.|title=The Gospel of Matthew: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary |date=2009b |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-6498-7}} * {{cite book|last=Keener|first=Craig S.|title=The Historical Jesus of the Gospels |date=2009 |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing}} * {{cite book|last=Keener|first=Craig S.|title=The Historical Jesus of the Gospels |year=2012 |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn= 978-0-8028-6292-1}} * {{cite book|first1=Andreas J.|last1=Köstenberger|first2=L. Scott|last2=Kellum|first3=Charles L|last3=Quarles|title=The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8054-4365-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g-MG9sFLAz0C|publisher=B&H Publishing Group|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=27 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727131059/https://books.google.com/books?id=g-MG9sFLAz0C|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last=Lawson|first=Todd|year=2009|title=The Crucifixion and the Qur'an: A Study in the History of Muslim Thought|location=Oxford|publisher=Oneworld|isbn=978-1-85168-635-3}} * {{cite book |title=Transfiguration |first=Dorothy A. |last=Lee |author-link=Dorothy Lee (theologian) |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8264-7595-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cYWwEefwCegC |publisher=Continuum |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222034/https://books.google.com/books?id=cYWwEefwCegC |url-status=live }} * {{cite encyclopedia|title=Introduction|first=Amy-Jill|last=Levine|author-link=Amy-Jill Levine|encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Context|editor-last1=Levine|editor-last2=Allison|editor-first3=John D.|editor-last3=Crossan|publisher=Princeton Univ Press|isbn=978-0-691-00992-6|year=2006|editor1-first=Amy-Jill|editor2-first=Dale C.|editor2-link=Dale Allison|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HIp_0N3uPPcC|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=10 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410102712/http://books.google.com/books?id=HIp_0N3uPPcC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The Misunderstood Jew: The Church and the Scandal of the Jewish Jesus|first=Amy-Jill|last=Levine|author-link=Amy-Jill Levine|year=2007 |isbn=978-0-06-174811-0|url=https://archive.org/details/TheMisunderstoodJewTheChurchAndTheScandalOfTheJewishJesus|publisher=Harper-Collins}} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rv8xNoRBtxMC | title=The Resurrection of Jesus: A New Historiographical Approach | publisher=InterVarsity Press | year=2010 | isbn=978-0-8308-2719-0 | first=Michael R. | last=Licona | access-date=29 July 2015 | archive-date=18 February 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218101307/https://books.google.com/books?id=rv8xNoRBtxMC | url-status=live }} * {{cite encyclopedia|first=Paul L.|last=Maier|author-link=Paul L. Maier|title=The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus|encyclopedia=''Chronos'', ''Kairos'', ''Christos'': Nativity and Chronological Studies|editor-last1=Finegan|editor-first2=Jerry|editor-last2=Vardaman|editor-first3=Edwin M.|editor-last3=Yamauchi|year=1989|isbn=978-0-931464-50-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCBBY_O88uYC&pg=PA113|publisher=Eisenbrauns|editor-first=Jack|editor1-link=Jack Finegan|editor3-link=Edwin M. Yamauchi|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907110057/https://books.google.com/books?id=UCBBY_O88uYC&pg=PA113|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|title= The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke|first1= Ján|last1= Majerník|first2= Joseph|last2= Ponessa|first3= Laurie W.|last3= Manhardt|year= 2005|isbn= 978-1-931018-31-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cqP5xHXGYPQC|publisher= Emmaus Road Publishing|access-date= 8 October 2020|archive-date= 19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819025434/https://books.google.com/books?id=cqP5xHXGYPQC|url-status= live}} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v26doW8jIyYC&pg=PA4 | title=Christianity: An Introduction | publisher=John Wiley & Sons | last=McGrath | first=Alister E. | author-link=Alister McGrath | year=2006 | pages=4–6 | isbn=978-1-4051-0899-7 | access-date=14 August 2015 | archive-date=10 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910073956/https://books.google.com/books?id=v26doW8jIyYC&pg=PA4 | url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last=Meier |first=John P. |author-link=John P. Meier |title=A Marginal Jew: The Roots of the Problem and the Person |year=1991 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-14018-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Meier|first=John P.|title=How do we decide what comes from Jesus|encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Recent Research|editor-last1=Dunn|editor-last2=McKnight|year=2006|isbn=978-1-57506-100-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC|editor1-first=James D.G.|publisher=Eisenbrauns|editor2-first=Scot|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222035/https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last1=Melton|first1=J. Gordon|year=2010|chapter=Ahmad, Mirza Ghulam Hazrat|editor1-last=Melton|editor1-first=J. Gordon|editor2-last=Baumann|editor2-first=Martin|title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices|volume=1|pages=54–56|edition=2nd|isbn=978-1-59884-203-6|location=Santa Barbara|publisher=ABC-CLIO|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA55|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=21 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021175959/https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA55|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last1=Mills|first1=Watson E.|last2=Bullard|first2=Roger A.|year=1998|title=Mercer Dictionary of the Bible|publisher=Mercer University Press|isbn=978-0-86554-373-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=18 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018095243/https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last=Morris|first=Leon|author-link=Leon Morris|year=1992|title=The Gospel According to Matthew|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-85111-338-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-pwaSKcHyEEC|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=2 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802002134/https://books.google.com/books?id=-pwaSKcHyEEC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last=Niswonger|first=Richard L.|title=New Testament History|year=1992|isbn=978-0-310-31201-7|publisher=Zondervan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uyAXaNnz9sUC}} * {{cite book|last=Pannenberg|first=Wolfhart|author-link=Wolfhart Pannenberg|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zWfvlpURwiIC|title=Jesus: God and Man|year=1968|isbn=978-0-334-00783-8|publisher=S.C.M. Press|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222035/https://books.google.com/books?id=zWfvlpURwiIC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Powell |first=Mark A. |author-link=Mark Allan Powell |title=Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-664-25703-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusasfigureinh0000powe |url-access=registration |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press }} * {{cite book|last=Rahner|first=Karl|author-link=Karl Rahner|title=Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise ''Sacramentum Mundi''|year=2004|isbn=978-0-86012-006-3|publisher=Continuum|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WtnR-6_PlJAC|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=27 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727115653/https://books.google.com/books?id=WtnR-6_PlJAC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|title=Who Is Jesus? An Introduction to Christology|first=Thomas P.|last=Rausch|author-link=Thomas Rausch|year=2003|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-5078-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OJCa6euw5gC|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222036/https://books.google.com/books?id=8OJCa6euw5gC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last=Redford|first=Douglas|title=The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7847-1900-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dDMQz5BVFbEC|publisher=Standard Publishing|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222036/https://books.google.com/books?id=dDMQz5BVFbEC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|title=Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: A Re-examination of the Evidence|first=Jonathan L.|last=Reed|year=2002|isbn=978-1-56338-394-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xrav1ge-A_sC|publisher=Continuum|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=4 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504050031/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xrav1ge-A_sC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last=Robinson|first=Neal|year=1991|title=Christ in Islam and Christianity|location=Albany|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-0559-8}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Robinson|first=Neal|year=2005|title=Jesus|editor1-last=McAuliffe|editor1-first=Jane Dammen|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān|publisher=Brill|doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00099}} * {{cite book|last=Sanders|first=E.&nbsp;P.|author-link=E. P. Sanders|title=The Historical Figure of Jesus|publisher=Allen Lane Penguin Press|year=1993|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkbTL36ZgPIC|isbn=978-0-14-192822-7|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=18 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418040039/https://books.google.com/books?id=lkbTL36ZgPIC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last1=Theissen|first1=Gerd|author-link1=Gerd Theissen|last2=Merz|first2=Annette|author-link2=Annette Merz|year=1998|title=The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide|isbn=978-1-4514-0863-8|publisher=Fortress Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZU97DQMH6UC|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=5 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805091805/https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZU97DQMH6UC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|title=The Quest for the Plausible Jesus: The Question of Criteria |first1=Gerd|last1=Theissen|first2=Dagmar|last2=Winter|year=2002|isbn=978-0-664-22537-7|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qB5ulgKx4OUC|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222036/https://books.google.com/books?id=qB5ulgKx4OUC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book |first=Graham H. |last=Twelftree |author-link=Graham Twelftree |title=Jesus the Miracle Worker: A Historical & Theological Study |isbn=978-0-8308-1596-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusmiraclework00grah/page/95 |year=1999 |publisher=InterVarsity Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusmiraclework00grah/page/95 95] }} * {{cite book|last=Van Voorst|first=Robert E|year=2000|title=Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence|publisher=Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-4368-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwzliMSRGGkC|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819143206/https://books.google.com/books?id=lwzliMSRGGkC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|title=Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words|last= Vine | first= William E. | author-link= William Edwy Vine |year= 1940|publisher= Fleming H. Revell Company|isbn= 978-0-916441-31-9}} * {{cite book|title= Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels|last= Vermes|first= Geza|author-link1= Geza Vermes|year= 1981|publisher= First Fortress|location= Philadelphia|isbn= 978-0-8006-1443-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RvSEK2HALnwC|access-date= 8 October 2020|archive-date= 8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222037/https://books.google.com/books?id=RvSEK2HALnwC|url-status= live}} * {{cite book|title=The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament|first1=John F.|last1=Walvoord|author-link1=John Walvoord|first2=Roy B.|last2=Zuck|year=1983|isbn=978-0-88207-812-0|publisher=David C. Cook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DP4UiA4gQNMC|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222037/https://books.google.com/books?id=DP4UiA4gQNMC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|title=The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth|first=Ben|last=Witherington|author-link=Ben Witherington III|year=1997|isbn=978-0-8308-1544-9|publisher=InterVarsity Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IE_T3Xh2fyUC|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222039/https://books.google.com/books?id=IE_T3Xh2fyUC|url-status=live}} {{refend}} == Khai-khai baero == * ''LatinVulgate.com'', [http://www.latinvulgate.com/christverse.aspx The Complete Sayings of Jesus Christ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180406022804/http://www.latinvulgate.com/christverse.aspx |date=2018-04-06 }} nifa'oli ba li Latin faoma li Inggris, ni'osagö Mental Systems, Incorporated [[Kategori:Agama]] [[Kategori:Niha Keriso]] [[Kategori:Niha ni'amoni'ö]] 0fab2zio6022z1iek6z01l7np9bevhw 0 1365 27614 27198 2026-08-14T18:21:28Z InternetArchiveBot 504 Add 14 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260814sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 27614 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus.jpg|jmpl|Famakao nitörö mboto ba wökhö gulo tipe 1]] '''Fӧkhӧ Gulo''' (töi resmi ''Diabetes mellitus'', li Indonesia: ''{{li|id|penyakit kencing manis}}'') no ngawalö wӧkhӧ salua börö me falawu oya [[gulo]] bakha ba ndro.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Diabetes |url=https://www.who.int/health-topics/diabetes |url-status=live |access-date=29 January 2023 |website=[[World Health Organization]] |archive-date=29 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129101252/https://www.who.int/health-topics/diabetes }}</ref><ref name="msd">{{cite web |title=Diabetes Mellitus (DM) - Hormonal and Metabolic Disorders |url=https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-gb/home/hormonal-and-metabolic-disorders/diabetes-mellitus-dm-and-disorders-of-blood-sugar-metabolism/diabetes-mellitus-dm |website=MSD Manual Consumer Version |access-date=1 October 2022 |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001070047/https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-gb/home/hormonal-and-metabolic-disorders/diabetes-mellitus-dm-and-disorders-of-blood-sugar-metabolism/diabetes-mellitus-dm |url-status=live }}</ref> Sohalöŵö bakha ba mboto ena'ö böi töra ba böi göi ambö wa'oya [[gulo]] andre ya'ia da'ö ŵe nifotöi [[insulin]] nifazökhi [[fali'a]]. Na mo'amböta ibe'e tohöna [[insulin]] [[fali'a]], ba tola wa falawu oya [[gulo]] bakha ba mboto. Bahiza tola göi börö me i'osilö'ögö boto halöŵö ŵe andrö.<ref name="Green2011">{{cite book |veditors=Shoback DG, Gardner D |title=Greenspan's basic & clinical endocrinology|year=2011|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|location=New York|isbn=978-0-07-162243-1|chapter=Chapter 17|edition=9th}}</ref> Tandra-tandra si no to'ölö la'ila niha ya'ia da'ö fa'owökhi dödö, fa'asese möi kiö, alö wa'abua mboto ba sautö hörö (baŵainö). Na lö mudalu-daluni, tola tobali mongawalö ia (li Indonesia: ''{{li|id|komplikasi}}'') simane [[fökhö tödö]], [[fökhö hörö]], [[fökhö mbua]] ba fökhö nuo.<ref name="ADA2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Miles JM, Fisher JN |date=July 2009 |title=Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes |url=http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/32/7/1335.full |url-status=live |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=32 |issue=7 |pages=1335–1343 |doi=10.2337/dc09-9032 |pmc=2699725 |pmid=19564476 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625075136/http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/32/7/1335.full |archive-date=2016-06-25}}</ref> Mate mato 1,5 juta niha ero röfi börö me lö mudalu-daluni ia ma zui ambö faudu dalu-dalunia.<ref name=":3" /> So dombua ngawalö wökhö gulo sasese so, heŵa'ae so sa danö bö'ö göi, ya'ia da'ö nifotöi '''tipe 1''' ba '''tipe 2'''. Ladalu-daluni wökhö gulo tipe 1 faoma fame'e [[insulin]] (la'oguna'ö suti). Na fökhö gulo tipe 2 tola ladalu-daluni ia faoma dalu-dalu nifotöi ''metformin'' awö ''semaglutide'' ba faoma famawu'a lala wa'auri si ero ma'ökhö (li Inggris: ''{{li|en|lifestyle adjustments}}''). So göi wökhö gulo si so ba ginötö manabina ndra'alawe, bahiza döhö manö ia na no tumbu nono dania. Ba ndröfi 2021, so mato 537 juta niha ba gulidanö si göna fökhö gulo, töra 10% ba gotaluara niha satua. Ba gotalua ndra sofökhö andre 90% göna ira fökhö gulo tipe 2. Molo'ö fangerai, ba ndröfi 2045 edöna so 783 juta niha satua, eluahania samösa ero daŵalu niha, sofökhö gulo, eluahania 46% töra moroi ba wa'oya zofökhö iada'a.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Facts & figures |url=https://idf.org/about-diabetes/facts-figures/ |access-date=2023-08-10 |website=International Diabetes Federation |language=en-GB |archive-date=2023-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810231724/https://idf.org/about-diabetes/facts-figures/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Itugu ara itugu asese göna niha ia, töra-töra ba negara heza so niha sambö fangalui ma zui ha abönö sibai wangaluira.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = De Silva AP, De Silva SH, Haniffa R, Liyanage IK, Jayasinghe S, Katulanda P, Wijeratne CN, Wijeratne S, Rajapaksa LC | display-authors = 6 | title = Inequalities in the prevalence of diabetes mellitus and its risk factors in Sri Lanka: a lower middle income country | journal = International Journal for Equity in Health | volume = 17 | issue = 1 | pages = 45 | date = April 2018 | pmid = 29665834 | pmc = 5905173 | doi = 10.1186/s12939-018-0759-3 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Fa'oya zofökhö ira matua arakhagö fagölö ira wa'oya zofökhö ira alawe, ba fökhö gulo andre no numero ŵalu fökhö fondrege asese tobali börö wa'amate niha ba zi sagörö ulidanö.<ref name="Vos2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Vos T, Flaxman AD, Naghavi M, Lozano R, Michaud C, Ezzati M, Shibuya K, Salomon JA, Abdalla S, Aboyans V, Abraham J, Ackerman I, Aggarwal R, Ahn SY, Ali MK, Alvarado M, Anderson HR, Anderson LM, Andrews KG, Atkinson C, Baddour LM, Bahalim AN, Barker-Collo S, Barrero LH, Bartels DH, Basáñez MG, Baxter A, Bell ML, Benjamin EJ, Bennett D, Bernabé E, Bhalla K, Bhandari B, Bikbov B, Bin Abdulhak A, Birbeck G, Black JA, Blencowe H, Blore JD, Blyth F, Bolliger I, Bonaventure A, Boufous S, Bourne R, Boussinesq M, Braithwaite T, Brayne C, Bridgett L, Brooker S, Brooks P, Brugha TS, Bryan-Hancock C, Bucello C, Buchbinder R, Buckle G, Budke CM, Burch M, Burney P, Burstein R, Calabria B, Campbell B, Canter CE, Carabin H, Carapetis J, Carmona L, Cella C, Charlson F, Chen H, Cheng AT, Chou D, Chugh SS, Coffeng LE, Colan SD, Colquhoun S, Colson KE, Condon J, Connor MD, Cooper LT, Corriere M, Cortinovis M, de Vaccaro KC, Couser W, Cowie BC, Criqui MH, Cross M, Dabhadkar KC, Dahiya M, Dahodwala N, Damsere-Derry J, Danaei G, Davis A, De Leo D, Degenhardt L, Dellavalle R, Delossantos A, Denenberg J, Derrett S, Des Jarlais DC, Dharmaratne SD, Dherani M, Diaz-Torne C, Dolk H, Dorsey ER, Driscoll T, Duber H, Ebel B, Edmond K, Elbaz A, Ali SE, Erskine H, Erwin PJ, Espindola P, Ewoigbokhan SE, Farzadfar F, Feigin V, Felson DT, Ferrari A, Ferri CP, Fèvre EM, Finucane MM, Flaxman S, Flood L, Foreman K, Forouzanfar MH, Fowkes FG, Franklin R, Fransen M, Freeman MK, Gabbe BJ, Gabriel SE, Gakidou E, Ganatra HA, Garcia B, Gaspari F, Gillum RF, Gmel G, Gosselin R, Grainger R, Groeger J, Guillemin F, Gunnell D, Gupta R, Haagsma J, Hagan H, Halasa YA, Hall W, Haring D, Haro JM, Harrison JE, Havmoeller R, Hay RJ, Higashi H, Hill C, Hoen B, Hoffman H, Hotez PJ, Hoy D, Huang JJ, Ibeanusi SE, Jacobsen KH, James SL, Jarvis D, Jasrasaria R, Jayaraman S, Johns N, Jonas JB, Karthikeyan G, Kassebaum N, Kawakami N, Keren A, Khoo JP, King CH, Knowlton LM, Kobusingye O, Koranteng A, Krishnamurthi R, Lalloo R, Laslett LL, Lathlean T, Leasher JL, Lee YY, Leigh J, Lim SS, Limb E, Lin JK, Lipnick M, Lipshultz SE, Liu W, Loane M, Ohno SL, Lyons R, Ma J, Mabweijano J, MacIntyre MF, Malekzadeh R, Mallinger L, Manivannan S, Marcenes W, March L, Margolis DJ, Marks GB, Marks R, Matsumori A, Matzopoulos R, Mayosi BM, McAnulty JH, McDermott MM, McGill N, McGrath J, Medina-Mora ME, Meltzer M, Mensah GA, Merriman TR, Meyer AC, Miglioli V, Miller M, Miller TR, Mitchell PB, Mocumbi AO, Moffitt TE, Mokdad AA, Monasta L, Montico M, Moradi-Lakeh M, Moran A, Morawska L, Mori R, Murdoch ME, Mwaniki MK, Naidoo K, Nair MN, Naldi L, Narayan KM, Nelson PK, Nelson RG, Nevitt MC, Newton CR, Nolte S, Norman P, Norman R, O'Donnell M, O'Hanlon S, Olives C, Omer SB, Ortblad K, Osborne R, Ozgediz D, Page A, Pahari B, Pandian JD, Rivero AP, Patten SB, Pearce N, Padilla RP, Perez-Ruiz F, Perico N, Pesudovs K, Phillips D, Phillips MR, Pierce K, Pion S, Polanczyk GV, Polinder S, Pope CA, Popova S, Porrini E, Pourmalek F, Prince M, Pullan RL, Ramaiah KD, Ranganathan D, Razavi H, Regan M, Rehm JT, Rein DB, Remuzzi G, Richardson K, Rivara FP, Roberts T, Robinson C, De Leòn FR, Ronfani L, Room R, Rosenfeld LC, Rushton L, Sacco RL, Saha S, Sampson U, Sanchez-Riera L, Sanman E, Schwebel DC, Scott JG, Segui-Gomez M, Shahraz S, Shepard DS, Shin H, Shivakoti R, Singh D, Singh GM, Singh JA, Singleton J, Sleet DA, Sliwa K, Smith E, Smith JL, Stapelberg NJ, Steer A, Steiner T, Stolk WA, Stovner LJ, Sudfeld C, Syed S, Tamburlini G, Tavakkoli M, Taylor HR, Taylor JA, Taylor WJ, Thomas B, Thomson WM, Thurston GD, Tleyjeh IM, Tonelli M, Towbin JA, Truelsen T, Tsilimbaris MK, Ubeda C, Undurraga EA, van der Werf MJ, van Os J, Vavilala MS, Venketasubramanian N, Wang M, Wang W, Watt K, Weatherall DJ, Weinstock MA, Weintraub R, Weisskopf MG, Weissman MM, White RA, Whiteford H, Wiersma ST, Wilkinson JD, Williams HC, Williams SR, Witt E, Wolfe F, Woolf AD, Wulf S, Yeh PH, Zaidi AK, Zheng ZJ, Zonies D, Lopez AD, Murray CJ, AlMazroa MA, Memish ZA | display-authors = 6 | title = Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_december-15-2012-january-4-2013_380_9859/page/2163 | journal = Lancet | volume = 380 | issue = 9859 | pages = 2163–2196 | date = December 2012 | pmid = 23245607 | pmc = 6350784 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61729-2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The top 10 causes of death |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death |website=www.who.int |access-date=18 May 2020 |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924191646/https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death |url-status=live }}</ref> Molo'ö fangerai, la'aekhugö ambö töra 760 triliun dollar Amerika niha ba zi sagörö ulidanö ba wamadöhö fökhö andre ero röfi.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bommer C, Sagalova V, Heesemann E, Manne-Goehler J, Atun R, Bärnighausen T, Davies J, Vollmer S | display-authors = 6 | title = Global Economic Burden of Diabetes in Adults: Projections From 2015 to 2030 | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 41 | issue = 5 | pages = 963–970 | date = May 2018 | pmid = 29475843 | doi = 10.2337/dc17-1962 | s2cid = 3538441 | doi-access = free }}</ref> == Tandra-tandra == [[Berkas:Main symptoms of diabetes.svg|jmpl|upright=1.5|Tandra-tandra wökhö gulo sabölö oya so]] Tandra wökhö gulo sabölö la'ila niha ya'ia da'ö na asese möi kiö, owökhi dödö ba mo'amböta wa'abua mboto.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last1=Feather |first1=Adam |title=Kumar and Clark's Clinical Medicine |last2=Randall |first2=David |last3=Waterhouse |first3=Mona |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-7020-7868-2 |edition=10th |pages=699–741}}</ref> Bahiza so göi tandra-tandra tanöbö'ö, fao ba ba da'ö lö dage, mosautö hörö (baŵainö) ba ali-ali wamatua ma fa'alawe börö me no ilawusi ia landröta i'i.<ref name=":5" /> So mato matonga wa'oya niha si no göna fökhö gulo si lö oroma tandra-tandra khöra.<ref name=":5" /> Si to'ölönia i'anema'ö oroma tandra-tandra na no göna niha fökhö gulo tipe 1, bahiza lö i'anema'ö oroma dandra-tandra wökhö gulo tipe 2, itaria no ha'uga fakhe manö ba lö nasa oroma ia.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Goldman |first1=Lee |title=Goldman-Cecil Medicine |last2=Schafer |first2=Andrew |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-323-53266-2 |edition=26th |pages=1490–1510}}</ref> [[Berkas:Diabetes complications.jpg|jmpl|Fökhö hörö, fökhö mbua ba fökhö nuo no lua-lua na mongawalö wökhö gulo]] Asese so wökhö gulo sabölö-bölö nifotöi ''ketoacidosis'' (langu saisö)<ref>Alua wökhö nifotöi ''ketoadicosis'' na falawu oya zaisö bakha ba mboto. Alua baero zaisö da'a na i'ohalöŵögöigö dawö ate, ena'ö lö aetu modage niha, börö me mo'amböta ''insulin''.</ref> ba tipe 1, heŵa'ae itaria göi alua ia ba tipe 2 na no ara sibai wökhö ma zui na lö mohalöŵö sa'ae sambua [[sel]] nifotöi sel β bakha ba mboto zofökhö.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last1=Penman |first1=Ian |title=Davidson's Principles and Practice of Medicine |last2=Ralston |first2=Stuart |last3=Strachan |first3=Mark |last4=Hobson |first4=Richard |publisher=Elsevier |year=2023 |isbn=978-0-7020-8348-8 |edition=24th |pages=703–753}}</ref> Na falawu oya zaisö andre ba tola oroma ia ba tandra-tandra simane fa'omulö-mulö dödö, famu'uta, fökhö dalu, fa'aböu aisö hanu-hanu, fa'ahori mbadu, ba na irege abölö-bölö ia tobali alidifaö zofökhö andrö.<ref name=":6" /> Fökhö sabölö-bölö bö'ö si tola alua ya'ia da'ö nifotöi HHS (li Inggris: ''Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state'') soroma ba tandra-tandra simane famo'amböta nidanö ba mboto (nifotöi ''dehidrasi''), famo'amböta gulo bakha ba ndro ba tola irege fakuyu wangera-ngera zofökhö ma zui femörö sitebai maoso (nifotöi ''koma'').<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Willix |first1=Clare |last2=Griffiths |first2=Emma |last3=Singleton |first3=Sally |date=May 2019 |title=Hyperglycaemic presentations in type 2 diabetes |url=https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2019/may/hyperglycaemic-presentations-in-type-2-diabetes |journal=Australian Journal of General Practice |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=263–267 |doi=10.31128/AJGP-12-18-4785 |pmid=31129935 |s2cid=167207067 |doi-access=free |access-date=2023-08-10 |archive-date=2023-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810230515/https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2019/may/hyperglycaemic-presentations-in-type-2-diabetes |url-status=live }}</ref> Famo'amböta gulo bakha ba ndro andre no fökhö si no mu'ila ladalu-daluni faoma fame'e [[insulin]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Amiel |first=Stephanie A. |date=2021-05-01 |title=The consequences of hypoglycaemia |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-020-05366-3 |journal=Diabetologia |language=en |volume=64 |issue=5 |pages=963–970 |doi=10.1007/s00125-020-05366-3 |issn=1432-0428 |pmc=8012317 |pmid=33550443}}</ref> Na abölö-bölö ia ba tola oroma tandra-tandra simane oya mböböi, maniri döla, manimba dödö sabölö-bölö, fakuyu gera-era, maniri-niri, koma, ba itaria fa'amate.<ref name=":7" /> Na asese alua da'a, ba tola manö alua wa lö oroma dandra-tandra irege tebörögö fakuyu gera-gera zofökhö.<ref name=":7" /> === Fökhö songawalö na ara wökhö === Fökhö songawalö (li Indonesia: ''{{li|ira|komplikasi}}'') si tola alua börö wökhö gulo ya'ia da'ö fa'atekiko nuo si fakhai ba dödö.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Diabetes - long-term effects |url=http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/diabetes-long-term-effects |access-date=2023-08-12 |website=Better Health Channel |publisher=Department of Health |language=en |publication-place=Victoria |archive-date=2023-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029233716/https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/diabetes-long-term-effects |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sarwar N, Gao P, Seshasai SR, Gobin R, Kaptoge S, Di Angelantonio E, Ingelsson E, Lawlor DA, Selvin E, Stampfer M, Stehouwer CD, Lewington S, Pennells L, Thompson A, Sattar N, White IR, Ray KK, Danesh J | display-authors = 6 | title = Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: a collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies | journal = Lancet | volume = 375 | issue = 9733 | pages = 2215–2222 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20609967 | pmc = 2904878 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60484-9 }}</ref> Eluahania tobali dua kali mosikho fökhö tödö niha si göna fökhö gulo, ba ambö töra 75% niha simate faoma fökhö gulo, mate börö wökhö tödö.<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=O'Gara PT, Kushner FG, Ascheim DD, Casey DE, Chung MK, de Lemos JA, Ettinger SM, Fang JC, Fesmire FM, Franklin BA, Granger CB, Krumholz HM, Linderbaum JA, Morrow DA, Newby LK, Ornato JP, Ou N, Radford MJ, Tamis-Holland JE, Tommaso CL, Tracy CM, Woo YJ, Zhao DX, Anderson JL, Jacobs AK, Halperin JL, Albert NM, Brindis RG, Creager MA, DeMets D, Guyton RA, Hochman JS, Kovacs RJ, Kushner FG, Ohman EM, Stevenson WG, Yancy CW |date=January 2013 |title=2013 ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of ST-elevation myocardial infarction: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines |journal=Circulation |volume=127 |issue=4 |pages=e368 |doi=10.1161/CIR.0b013e3182742cf6 |pmid=23247304 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Fökhö nuo tanöbö'ö ya'ia tekiko nuo samahele ndro ba guto irege mate [[sel]] bakha ba guto (fökhö nifotöi mate-dambai ma ''stroke'') awö wökhö fa'atolazi nuo ba gahe ba ba danga irege lö tola itörö ndro.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Papatheodorou K, Banach M, Bekiari E, Rizzo M, Edmonds M |date=11 March 2018 |title=Complications of Diabetes 2017 |journal=Journal of Diabetes Research |volume=2018 |pages=3086167 |doi=10.1155/2018/3086167 |pmc=5866895 |pmid=29713648 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Fökhö nuo andre tola mo'aekhula ia ba wökhö si fakhai ba hörö, ba mbua ba ba nuo nifotöi ''saraf''.<ref name=":8" /> Fa'atekiko nuo si fakhai ba hörö no börö wa'abösi ma fa'abalunö hörö khö ndra niha sabölö nasa.<ref name=":5" /> Tola göi mo'aekhula ia ba wökhö hörö tanöbö'ö simane fa'abalunö hörö nifotöi ''katarak'' ba ''glaucoma''.<ref name=":5" /> Sökhi na ero döfi möi lafareso höröra khö doto hörö ya'ira sofökhö gulo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Diabetes eye care |url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000078.htm |access-date=2018-03-27 |website=MedlinePlus |publisher=National Library of Medicine |language=en |publication-place=Maryland |archive-date=2018-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328102348/https://medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000078.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Fökhö gulo no fökhö sasese mamobörö [[fökhö mbua]], töra 50% zofökhö bua ba [[Amerika Serikat]].<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last1=Wing |first1=Edward J |title=Cecil Essentials of Medicine |last2=Schiffman |first2=Fred |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-323-72271-1 |edition=10th |location=Pennsylvania |pages=282–297, 662–677}}</ref> Tola göi ifakiko nuo nifotöi ''saraf'' fökhö gulo, duma-dumania na lö raso sa'ae, na alua wökhö nuo, na ombuyu dalu ba tebai auri mba'i ndra matua.<ref name=":5" /> Börö me lö raso sa'ae, mo'aekhula ia ba wökhö simane na abao-ombuyu waha ma ahe, irege obou ba moguna lataba faoma operasi (nifotöi ''amputasi'').<ref name=":5" /> Molo'ö [[data]] si no mu'owuloi, so gamaikhata wökhö gulo tipe 2 faoma wökhö [[awökhu|gawökhu]]. Ya'ira sofökhö gulo abölö mosikho ira göna fökhö [[awökhu|gawökhu]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yuan |first1=Shuai |last2=Gill |first2=Dipender |last3=Giovannucci |first3=Edward L. |last4=Larsson |first4=Susanna C. |date=March 2022 |title=Obesity, Type 2 Diabetes, Lifestyle Factors, and Risk of Gallstone Disease: A Mendelian Randomization Investigation |journal=Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology |language=en |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=e529–e537 |doi=10.1016/j.cgh.2020.12.034|pmid=33418132 |doi-access=free |hdl=10044/1/86461 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Baero da'ö so göi khai-khaira wökhö gulo ba fa'ambö wangera-ngera (li Inggris: ''{{li|en|cognitive deficit}}''). Oroma da'a bakha ba ngawalö wangosili si no mufalua.<ref name="cognitive">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cukierman T, Gerstein HC, Williamson JD |date=December 2005 |title=Cognitive decline and dementia in diabetes--systematic overview of prospective observational studies |journal=Diabetologia |volume=48 |issue=12 |pages=2460–2469 |doi=10.1007/s00125-005-0023-4 |pmid=16283246 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Fökhö andre itaria göi tobali börö wa asese alau niha sibiha, töra-töra niha si no mangai [[insulin]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Yang Y, Hu X, Zhang Q, Zou R |date=November 2016 |title=Diabetes mellitus and risk of falls in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Age and Ageing |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=761–767 |doi=10.1093/ageing/afw140 |pmid=27515679 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Samobörö == {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:10px" |+Fökhö gulo tipe 1 ba tipe 2 (sifagölö ba sifabö'ö)<ref name=Will2011>{{cite book |title=Williams textbook of endocrinology |publisher=Elsevier/Saunders |isbn=978-1-4377-0324-5 |pages=1371–1435 |edition=12th|year=2011 }}</ref> |- ! Omböila !! Tipe 1 !! Tipe 2 |- ! Böröta | I'anema'ö||Ita'i-ta'i |- ! Ndröfi | Arakhagö fefu ba ndraono || Arakhagö fefu ba zatua |- ! Fa'ebua mboto | Afuo ma to'ölö manö<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lambert P, Bingley PJ | title = What is Type 1 Diabetes? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_critical-care-medicine_2002-06_30_6_0/page/1 | journal = Medicine | volume = 30 | pages = 1–5 | year = 2002 | doi = 10.1383/medc.30.1.1.28264 }}</ref> || Asese falawu esolo |- ! Fa'alua langu saisö<ref>Töi resminia ba gotalua ndra doto: ''ketoacidosis''</ref> | Asese || Itaria |- ! Otoantibodi<ref>Lafotöi ''otoantibodi'' zalua na ibörötaigö boto wamakiko botoda samösa. Si to'ölönia na so dungö, langu ma gofu hadia ia zi ta'unö simöi bakha ba mboto, ba i'anema'ö isuwö da'ö fefu boto (lafotöi da'a ''antibodi''). Bahiza itaria ''owöhö'' mbotoda samösa, irege tenga udu moroi baero nisuwönia, bahiza ngawalö zoguna ba mboto samösa. Duma-dumania fökhö nifotöi ''kanker'' alua börö me isuwö mboto botoda samösa.</ref> | Si to'ölönia so || Lö so |- ! Insulin nifazökhi mboto<ref>Lafotöi ''insulin'' sambua ŵe nifatumbu'ö wali'a. Moguna ŵe andre ba wamatörö ena'ö böi falawu töra ba böi göi falawu lö'ö gulo bakha ba ndro.</ref> | Arakhagö lö'ö ma lö'ö || Normal, alö<br /> ma monönö |- ! Fama'ema ba götö mitou | 0.69 irugi 0.88<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Skov J, Eriksson D, Kuja-Halkola R, Höijer J, Gudbjörnsdottir S, Svensson AM, Magnusson PK, Ludvigsson JF, Kämpe O, Bensing S | display-authors = 6 | title = Co-aggregation and heritability of organ-specific autoimmunity: a population-based twin study | journal = European Journal of Endocrinology | volume = 182 | issue = 5 | pages = 473–480 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32229696 | doi = 10.1530/EJE-20-0049 | pmc = 7182094 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hyttinen V, Kaprio J, Kinnunen L, Koskenvuo M, Tuomilehto J | title = Genetic liability of type 1 diabetes and the onset age among 22,650 young Finnish twin pairs: a nationwide follow-up study | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_diabetes_2003-04_52_4/page/1052 | journal = Diabetes | volume = 52 | issue = 4 | pages = 1052–1055 | date = April 2003 | pmid = 12663480 | doi = 10.2337/diabetes.52.4.1052 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Condon J, Shaw JE, Luciano M, Kyvik KO, Martin NG, Duffy DL | title = A study of diabetes mellitus within a large sample of Australian twins | journal = Twin Research and Human Genetics | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 28–40 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 18251672 | doi = 10.1375/twin.11.1.28 | s2cid = 18072879 | url = https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11913813/study_of_diabetes_mellitus_within_a_large_sample_of_Australian_twins.pdf | access-date = 2021-12-27 | archive-date = 2023-07-01 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230701154034/https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11913813/study_of_diabetes_mellitus_within_a_large_sample_of_Australian_twins.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref>|| 0.47 irugi 0.77<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Willemsen G, Ward KJ, Bell CG, Christensen K, Bowden J, Dalgård C, Harris JR, Kaprio J, Lyle R, Magnusson PK, Mather KA, Ordoňana JR, Perez-Riquelme F, Pedersen NL, Pietiläinen KH, Sachdev PS, Boomsma DI, Spector T | display-authors = 6 | title = The Concordance and Heritability of Type 2 Diabetes in 34,166 Twin Pairs From International Twin Registers: The Discordant Twin (DISCOTWIN) Consortium | journal = Twin Research and Human Genetics | volume = 18 | issue = 6 | pages = 762–771 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 26678054 | doi = 10.1017/thg.2015.83 | s2cid = 17854531 | doi-access = free }}</ref> |- ! Fa'asese tesöndra (nifaosatö molo'ö ndröfi) | <2 ero 1,000<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lin X, Xu Y, Pan X, Xu J, Ding Y, Sun X, Song X, Ren Y, Shan PF | display-authors = 6 | title = Global, regional, and national burden and trend of diabetes in 195 countries and territories: an analysis from 1990 to 2025 | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 14790 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 32901098 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-020-71908-9 | pmc = 7478957 | bibcode = 2020NatSR..1014790L }}</ref>|| ~6% (ndramatua), ~5% (ndra'alawe)<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tinajero MG, Malik VS | title = An Update on the Epidemiology of Type 2 Diabetes: A Global Perspective | journal = Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America | volume = 50 | issue = 3 | pages = 337–355 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 34399949 | doi = 10.1016/j.ecl.2021.05.013 }}</ref> |} Molo'ö [[WHO]] (World Health Organization) so 6 faosatö wökhö gulo: fökhö gulo tipe 1, fökhö gulo tipe 2, fökhö gulo si faruka tandra-tandrania (fao ba da'ö wökhö gulo sara manöi ba niha satua awö wökhö gulo tipe 2 si fao langu saisö), fökhö gulo si so ba ndra'alawe sanabina, "fökhö gulo tipe tanöbö'ö" ba "fökhö gulo si lö nasa mufaosatö".<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/rest/bitstreams/1233344/retrieve |title=Classification of diabetes mellitus 2019 |date=2019 |publisher=World Health Organisation |location=Geneva |isbn=978-92-4-151570-2 |access-date=2023-08-15 |archive-date=2023-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306070305/https://apps.who.int/iris/rest/bitstreams/1233344/retrieve |url-status=live }}</ref> Oya ngawalö wökhö gulo töra moroi ba ni'angeragö niha meföna, ba tola manö wa göna samösa niha tenga ha sambua bahiza mato ha'uga ngawalö wökhö gulo andrö.<ref name="Tuomi2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tuomi T, Santoro N, Caprio S, Cai M, Weng J, Groop L |date=March 2014 |title=The many faces of diabetes: a disease with increasing heterogeneity |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_march-22-28-2014_383_9922/page/1084 |journal=Lancet |volume=383 |issue=9922 |pages=1084–1094 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62219-9 |pmid=24315621 |s2cid=12679248}}</ref> === Fökhö gulo tipe 1 === Moroi ba gotalua fefu wökhö gulo, so tipe 1 andre mato 5 irugi 10%. Fondrege tesöndra ia ba wökhö gulo si göna niha sawuyu ndröfi moroi ba zi 20 fakhe;<ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last1=Kumar |first1=V |title=Robbins & Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease |last2=Abbas |first2=A |last3=Aster |first3=J |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-323-60992-0 |edition=10th |location=Pennsylvania |pages=1065–1132}}</ref> bahiza lö te'oguna'ö sa'ae ŵa'öta "fökhö gulo ndraono matua" me tola alua ia göi ba niha satua.<ref name=":9" /> Oroma wa so wökhö andre na mo'amböta nifotöi [[sel]] β ([[sel]] ''beta'') bakha ba wali'a, ba börö da'ö mo'amböta göi [[insulin]], irege tefaböbö ia sa'ae ba wökhö si fakhai ba wa'abölö mboto wolaŵa fökhö nifotöi ''kekebalan tubuh'' ba li Indonesia ma zui ''immune system'' ba li Inggris.<ref name=":10" /> Arakhagö fefu wökhö salua fakhai ia ba zabölö mboto andre, me isuwö mboto botoda samösa (samalua da'a sambua [[sel]] nifotöi T) irege mate oi [[sel]] beta no mege, ba afuriatania falawu mo'amböta [[insulin]].<ref name="Rother">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rother KI | title = Diabetes treatment--bridging the divide | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 356 | issue = 15 | pages = 1499–1501 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17429082 | pmc = 4152979 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMp078030 }}</ref> Asese möi yaŵa möi tou wa'oya gulo bakha ba ndro niha sofökhö, börö wo'amböta [[insulin]] ba börö wo'amböta wa'abölö wolaŵa nifotöi fökhö gulo ''hypoglycaemia''.<ref name="merck1">{{cite web |last=Brutsaert |first=EF |date=September 2022 |title=Diabetes Mellitus (DM) |url=https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/endocrine-and-metabolic-disorders/diabetes-mellitus-and-disorders-of-carbohydrate-metabolism/diabetes-mellitus-dm |access-date=2023-08-15 |website=MSD Manual Professional Version |publisher=[[Merck & Co.|Merck Publishing]] |archive-date=2023-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230815124233/https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/endocrine-and-metabolic-disorders/diabetes-mellitus-and-disorders-of-carbohydrate-metabolism/diabetes-mellitus-dm |url-status=live }}</ref> So ösa wökhö gulo tipe 1 nifa'ema ba götö mitou, heza tesöndra mato ha'uga ngawalö [[gen]] (fao ba da'ö gen HLA) same'e mosikho niha ba wökhö gulo. Na so gen andre ba mboto zi samösa niha, ba tola alua wa göna ia fökhö gulo börö ngawalö hadia ia zi so ba zi fasui (nifotöi ''faktor lingkungan'' ba li Indonesia),<ref name=PetzoldSolimena2015>{{cite journal | vauthors = Petzold A, Solimena M, Knoch KP | title = Mechanisms of Beta Cell Dysfunction Associated With Viral Infection | journal = Current Diabetes Reports | volume = 15 | issue = 10 | pages = 73 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26280364 | pmc = 4539350 | doi = 10.1007/s11892-015-0654-x | type = Review | quote = So far, none of the hypotheses accounting for virus-induced beta cell autoimmunity has been supported by stringent evidence in humans, and the involvement of several mechanisms rather than just one is also plausible. }}</ref> simane na falemba khöra dungö ite (''virus'') ma zui ngawalö gö ni'ara. So mato ha'uga ngawalö virus andrö, bahiza lö nasa abönö ni'ila hörö nibabaya tanga (''bukti'') moroi ba wangosili ndra ere wökhö.<ref name=PetzoldSolimena2015 /><ref name=ButaliaKaplan2016>{{cite journal | vauthors = Butalia S, Kaplan GG, Khokhar B, Rabi DM | title = Environmental Risk Factors and Type 1 Diabetes: Past, Present, and Future | journal = Canadian Journal of Diabetes | volume = 40 | issue = 6 | pages = 586–593 | date = December 2016 | pmid = 27545597 | doi = 10.1016/j.jcjd.2016.05.002 | type = Review }}</ref> Tola göna niha wökhö gulo tipe 1 gofu manö ndröfi, heŵa'ae niha satua abölö asese göna fökhö andre. Töi nibe'e ndra ere wökhö na alua zimane ya'ia LADA (''Latent autoimmune diabetes of adults''), eluahania alua wökhö tipe 1 ba niha satua; no ita'i-ta'i wamanöi ya'ia, tenga simane ba ndraono, salio manöi wökhö andre. Börö da'ö itaria latötöi wökhö ba zatua andre "fökhö gulo tipe 1,5". Asese fasala ''diagnosis'' wökhö andre ba niha satua, lawalinga fökhö gulo tipe 2 ia, börö me lasöndra ia ba niha satua.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Laugesen E, Østergaard JA, Leslie RD | title = Latent autoimmune diabetes of the adult: current knowledge and uncertainty | journal = Diabetic Medicine | volume = 32 | issue = 7 | pages = 843–852 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 25601320 | pmc = 4676295 | doi = 10.1111/dme.12700 }}</ref> Börö LADA tesöndra falawu oya ''insulin'' ba niha satua moroi ba na göna ira wökhö gulo tipe 1, bahiza ambö sökhi gulo nifazökhi insulin andrö.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Is Diabetes? |url=https://www.diabetesdaily.com/learn-about-diabetes/basics/what-is-diabetes/ |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=Diabetes Daily |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004071449/https://www.diabetesdaily.com/learn-about-diabetes/basics/what-is-diabetes/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nolasco-Rosales |first1=Germán Alberto |last2=Ramírez-González |first2=Dania |last3=Rodríguez-Sánchez |first3=Ester |last4=Ávila-Fernandez |first4=Ángela |last5=Villar-Juarez |first5=Guillermo Efrén |last6=González-Castro |first6=Thelma Beatriz |last7=Tovilla-Zárate |first7=Carlos Alfonso |last8=Guzmán-Priego |first8=Crystell Guadalupe |last9=Genis-Mendoza |first9=Alma Delia |last10=Ble-Castillo |first10=Jorge Luis |last11=Marín-Medina |first11=Alejandro |last12=Juárez-Rojop |first12=Isela Esther |date=2023-04-29 |title=Identification and phenotypic characterization of patients with LADA in a population of southeast Mexico |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=7029 |doi=10.1038/s41598-023-34171-2 |issn=2045-2322 |pmid=37120620|pmc=10148806 |bibcode=2023NatSR..13.7029N }}</ref> === Fökhö gulo tipe 2 === [[Berkas:Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.jpg|jmpl|Na mo'amböta wa'oya ma zui wa'abölö ''insulin'' ba tobali monönö wa'oya gulo bakha ba ndro]] Manumbu wökhö gulo tipe 2 na mo'amböta wa'abölö ''insulin'' ninönö na wa mo'amböta wa'oyania.<ref name=Green2011/> The defective responsiveness of body tissues to insulin is believed to involve the [[insulin receptor]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Freeman |first=Andrew M. |title=Insulin Resistance |date=2024 |work=StatPearls |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507839/ |access-date=2024-02-13 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=29939616 |last2=Acevedo |first2=Luis A. |last3=Pennings |first3=Nicholas |archive-date=2024-02-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240207020904/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507839/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Fökhö gulo tipe 2 andre no fökhö fondrege asese so, 95% moroi fefu niha si göna fökhö gulo. Ato niha si göna fökhö gulo tipe 2 samörögö faoma fökhö sangoroma'ö wa edöna göna ira dania fökhö gulo tipe 2.<ref>{{cite journal | author = American Diabetes Association | title = 2. Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 40 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = S11–S24 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 27979889 | doi = 10.2337/dc17-S005 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Tola labatogö ia, ena'ö böi irugi wökhö gulo sindruhu, na la'oguna'ö dalu-dalu same'e ena'ö mofa'abölö ''insulin'' ba mo'amböta wamanumbu gulo.<ref name="pmid30528418">{{cite journal | vauthors = Carris NW, Magness RR, Labovitz AJ | title = Prevention of Diabetes Mellitus in Patients With Prediabetes | journal = The American Journal of Cardiology | volume = 123 | issue = 3 | pages = 507–512 | date = February 2019 | pmid = 30528418 | pmc = 6350898 | doi = 10.1016/j.amjcard.2018.10.032 }}</ref> Awena irugi da'a te'ali mangawuli zura andre moroi ba Wikipedia Inggris. Tolo Wikipedia Nias ba wanohugö wo'ali ya'ia. Oroma teks ba li Inggris ba modus wanura kode <!-- Type 2 diabetes is primarily due to lifestyle factors and genetics.<ref name=Fat2009>{{cite journal | vauthors = Risérus U, Willett WC, Hu FB | title = Dietary fats and prevention of type 2 diabetes | journal = Progress in Lipid Research | volume = 48 | issue = 1 | pages = 44–51 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 19032965 | pmc = 2654180 | doi = 10.1016/j.plipres.2008.10.002 }}</ref> A number of lifestyle factors are known to be important to the development of type 2 diabetes, including [[obesity]] (defined by a [[body mass index]] of greater than 30), lack of [[physical activity]], poor [[Diet (nutrition)|diet]], [[stress (biology)|stress]], and [[urbanization]].<ref name=Will2011/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Barbara |last2=Gulanick |first2=Meg |last3=Lamendola |first3=Cindy |date=January 2002 |title=Risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11800065 |journal=The Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=17–23 |doi=10.1097/00005082-200201000-00003 |issn=0889-4655 |pmid=11800065 |access-date=2023-10-12 |archive-date=2023-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020123710/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11800065/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Excess body fat is associated with 30% of cases in people of Chinese and Japanese descent, 60–80% of cases in those of European and African descent, and 100% of Pima Indians and Pacific Islanders.<ref name=Green2011/> Even those who are not obese may have a high [[waist–hip ratio]].<ref name=Green2011/> Dietary factors such as [[sugar]]-sweetened drinks are associated with an increased risk.<ref name="SSB2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Malik VS, Popkin BM, Bray GA, Després JP, Hu FB | title = Sugar-sweetened beverages, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease risk | journal = Circulation | volume = 121 | issue = 11 | pages = 1356–1364 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 20308626 | pmc = 2862465 | doi = 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.876185 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Malik VS, Popkin BM, Bray GA, Després JP, Willett WC, Hu FB | title = Sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 33 | issue = 11 | pages = 2477–2483 | date = November 2010 | pmid = 20693348 | pmc = 2963518 | doi = 10.2337/dc10-1079 }}</ref> The type of [[fat]]s in the diet is also important, with [[saturated fat]] and [[trans fat]]s increasing the risk and [[polyunsaturated fat|polyunsaturated]] and [[monounsaturated fat]] decreasing the risk.<ref name="Fat2009" /> Eating [[white rice]] excessively may increase the risk of diabetes, especially in Chinese and Japanese people.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hu EA, Pan A, Malik V, Sun Q | title = White rice consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: meta-analysis and systematic review | journal = BMJ | volume = 344 | pages = e1454 | date = March 2012 | pmid = 22422870 | pmc = 3307808 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.e1454 }}</ref> Lack of physical activity may increase the risk of diabetes in some people.<ref name="pmid22818936">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lee IM, Shiroma EJ, Lobelo F, Puska P, Blair SN, Katzmarzyk PT | title = Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy | journal = Lancet | volume = 380 | issue = 9838 | pages = 219–229 | date = July 2012 | pmid = 22818936 | pmc = 3645500 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61031-9 }}</ref> [[Adverse Childhood Experiences Study|Adverse childhood experiences]], including abuse, neglect, and household difficulties, increase the likelihood of type 2 diabetes later in life by 32%, with [[neglect]] having the strongest effect.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Huang H, Yan P, Shan Z, Chen S, Li M, Luo C, Gao H, Hao L, Liu L | display-authors = 6 | title = Adverse childhood experiences and risk of type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Metabolism | volume = 64 | issue = 11 | pages = 1408–1418 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26404480 | doi = 10.1016/j.metabol.2015.08.019 }}</ref> [[Antipsychotic|Antipsychotic medication]] side effects (specifically metabolic abnormalities, [[dyslipidemia]] and weight gain) and unhealthy lifestyles (including poor diet and decreased [[physical activity]]), are potential risk factors.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang Y, Liu Y, Su Y, You Y, Ma Y, Yang G, Song Y, Liu X, Wang M, Zhang L, Kou C | display-authors = 6 | title = The metabolic side effects of 12 antipsychotic drugs used for the treatment of schizophrenia on glucose: a network meta-analysis | journal = BMC Psychiatry | volume = 17 | issue = 1 | pages = 373 | date = November 2017 | pmid = 29162032 | pmc = 5698995 | doi = 10.1186/s12888-017-1539-0 | doi-access = free }}</ref> ===Gestational diabetes=== {{Main|Gestational diabetes}} Gestational diabetes resembles type 2 diabetes in several respects, involving a combination of relatively inadequate insulin secretion and responsiveness. It occurs in about 2–10% of all [[pregnancy|pregnancies]] and may improve or disappear after delivery.<ref name=NDIC_Stats>{{cite web|title=National Diabetes Clearinghouse (NDIC): National Diabetes Statistics 2011|url=http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/statistics/#Gestational|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services|access-date=22 April 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417143052/http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/statistics/#Gestational|archive-date=17 April 2014}}</ref> It is recommended that all pregnant women get tested starting around 24–28 weeks gestation.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal| vauthors = Soldavini J |date=November 2019|title=Krause's Food & The Nutrition Care Process|journal=Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior|volume=51|issue=10|pages=1225|doi=10.1016/j.jneb.2019.06.022|s2cid=209272489|issn=1499-4046}}</ref> It is most often diagnosed in the second or third trimester because of the increase in insulin-antagonist hormone levels that occurs at this time.<ref name=":2" /> However, after pregnancy approximately 5–10% of women with gestational diabetes are found to have another form of diabetes, most commonly type 2.<ref name=NDIC_Stats /> Gestational diabetes is fully treatable, but requires careful medical supervision throughout the pregnancy. Management may include dietary changes, blood glucose monitoring, and in some cases, insulin may be required.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diabetes/overview/what-is-diabetes/gestational/management-treatment|title=Managing & Treating Gestational Diabetes {{!}} NIDDK|website=National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases|language=en-US|access-date=2019-05-06|archive-date=2019-05-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506202142/https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diabetes/overview/what-is-diabetes/gestational/management-treatment|url-status=live}}</ref> Though it may be transient, untreated gestational diabetes can damage the health of the fetus or mother. Risks to the baby include [[macrosomia]] (high birth weight), [[Congenital heart defect|congenital heart]] and [[central nervous system]] abnormalities, and [[skeletal muscle]] malformations. Increased levels of insulin in a fetus's blood may inhibit fetal [[surfactant]] production and cause [[infant respiratory distress syndrome]]. A [[Bilirubin#Hyperbilirubinemia|high blood bilirubin level]] may result from [[hemolysis|red blood cell destruction]]. In severe cases, perinatal death may occur, most commonly as a result of poor placental perfusion due to vascular impairment. [[Labor induction]] may be indicated with decreased placental function. A [[caesarean section]] may be performed if there is marked [[fetal distress]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tarvonen M, Hovi P, Sainio S, Vuorela P, Andersson S, Teramo K | title = Intrapartal cardiotocographic patterns and hypoxia-related perinatal outcomes in pregnancies complicated by gestational diabetes mellitus | journal = Acta Diabetologica | volume = 58 | issue = 11 | pages = 1563–1573 | date = November 2021 | pmid = 34151398 | pmc = 8505288 | doi = 10.1007/s00592-021-01756-0 | s2cid = 235487220 | doi-access = free }}</ref> or an increased risk of injury associated with macrosomia, such as [[shoulder dystocia]].<ref>{{Cite book |author=National Collaborating Centre for Women's and Children's Health |date=February 2015 |chapter=Intrapartum care |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0080685/ |title=Diabetes in Pregnancy: Management of diabetes and its complications from preconception to the postnatal period |publisher=National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (UK) |language=en |access-date=2018-08-21 |archive-date=2021-08-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828061326/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK328350/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Other types=== [[Maturity onset diabetes of the young]] (MODY) is a rare [[Dominance (genetics)|autosomal dominant]] inherited form of diabetes, due to one of several single-gene mutations causing defects in insulin production.<ref>{{cite web|title=Monogenic Forms of Diabetes|url=https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diabetes/overview/what-is-diabetes/monogenic-neonatal-mellitus-mody#3|website=National institute of diabetes and digestive and kidney diseases|publisher=US NIH|access-date=12 March 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312195627/https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diabetes/overview/what-is-diabetes/monogenic-neonatal-mellitus-mody#3|archive-date=12 March 2017}}</ref> It is significantly less common than the three main types, constituting 1–2% of all cases. The name of this disease refers to early hypotheses as to its nature. Being due to a defective gene, this disease varies in age at presentation and in severity according to the specific gene defect; thus, there are at least 13 subtypes of MODY. People with MODY often can control it without using insulin.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Thanabalasingham G, Owen KR | title = Diagnosis and management of maturity onset diabetes of the young (MODY) | journal = BMJ | volume = 343 | issue = oct19 3 | pages = d6044 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 22012810 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.d6044 | s2cid = 44891167 }}</ref> Some cases of diabetes are caused by the body's tissue receptors not responding to insulin (even when insulin levels are normal, which is what separates it from type&nbsp;2 diabetes); this form is very uncommon. Genetic mutations ([[Dominance (genetics)|autosomal]] or [[Mitochondrion|mitochondrial]]) can lead to defects in beta cell function. Abnormal insulin action may also have been genetically determined in some cases. Any disease that causes extensive damage to the pancreas may lead to diabetes (for example, [[chronic pancreatitis]] and [[cystic fibrosis]]). Diseases associated with excessive secretion of [[insulin receptor|insulin-antagonistic]] [[hormone]]s can cause diabetes (which is typically resolved once the hormone excess is removed). Many drugs impair insulin secretion and some toxins damage pancreatic beta cells, whereas others increase [[insulin resistance]] (especially [[glucocorticoid]]s which can provoke "[[steroid diabetes]]"). The [[ICD-10]] (1992) diagnostic entity, ''malnutrition-related diabetes mellitus'' (ICD-10 code E12), was deprecated by the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) when the current taxonomy was introduced in 1999.<ref name="WHO1999-DefDiagClass">{{cite web |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |title=Definition, Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus and its Complications |year=1999 |url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1999/WHO_NCD_NCS_99.2.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030308005119/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1999/WHO_NCD_NCS_99.2.pdf |archive-date=2003-03-08}}</ref> Yet another form of diabetes that people may develop is [[double diabetes]]. This is when a type 1 diabetic becomes insulin resistant, the hallmark for type 2 diabetes or has a family history for type 2 diabetes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cleland SJ, Fisher BM, Colhoun HM, Sattar N, Petrie JR | title = Insulin resistance in type 1 diabetes: what is 'double diabetes' and what are the risks? | journal = Diabetologia | volume = 56 | issue = 7 | pages = 1462–1470 | date = July 2013 | pmid = 23613085 | pmc = 3671104 | doi = 10.1007/s00125-013-2904-2 | publisher = National Library of Medicine }}</ref> It was first discovered in 1990 or 1991. The following is a list of disorders that may increase the risk of diabetes:<ref name=Robbins>Unless otherwise specified, reference is: Table 20-5 in {{Cite book|author1=Mitchell, Richard Sheppard |author2=Kumar, Vinay |author3=Abbas, Abul K. |author4=Fausto, Nelson |title=Robbins Basic Pathology|publisher=Saunders |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-1-4160-2973-1 |edition=8th |year=2007 }}</ref> {{Col-float-begin}} * Genetic defects of β-cell function ** [[Maturity onset diabetes of the young]] ** Mitochondrial DNA mutations * Genetic defects in insulin processing or insulin action ** Defects in [[proinsulin]] conversion ** Insulin gene mutations ** Insulin receptor mutations * Exocrine pancreatic defects (see [[Type 3c diabetes]], i.e. pancreatogenic diabetes) ** [[Chronic pancreatitis]] ** [[Pancreatectomy]] ** [[Pancreatic neoplasia]] ** [[Cystic fibrosis]] ** [[Hemochromatosis]] ** [[Fibrocalculous pancreatopathy]] {{Col-float-break}} * [[Endocrinopathies]] ** Growth hormone excess ([[acromegaly]]) ** [[Cushing syndrome]] ** [[Hyperthyroidism]] ** [[Hypothyroidism]] ** [[Pheochromocytoma]] ** [[Glucagonoma]] * Infections ** [[Cytomegalovirus infection]] ** [[Coxsackie B4 virus|Coxsackievirus B]] * Drugs ** [[Glucocorticoids]] ** [[Thyroid hormone]] ** [[β-adrenergic agonist]]s ** [[Statins]]<ref name="pmid20167359">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sattar N, Preiss D, Murray HM, Welsh P, Buckley BM, de Craen AJ, Seshasai SR, McMurray JJ, Freeman DJ, Jukema JW, Macfarlane PW, Packard CJ, Stott DJ, Westendorp RG, Shepherd J, Davis BR, Pressel SL, Marchioli R, Marfisi RM, Maggioni AP, Tavazzi L, Tognoni G, Kjekshus J, Pedersen TR, Cook TJ, Gotto AM, Clearfield MB, Downs JR, Nakamura H, Ohashi Y, Mizuno K, Ray KK, Ford I | display-authors = 6 | title = Statins and risk of incident diabetes: a collaborative meta-analysis of randomised statin trials | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_february-27-march-5-2010_375_9716/page/735 | journal = Lancet | volume = 375 | issue = 9716 | pages = 735–742 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 20167359 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61965-6 | s2cid = 11544414 }}</ref> {{Col-float-end}} ==Pathophysiology== [[Berkas:Suckale08 fig3 glucose insulin day.png|jmpl|upright=1.4|The fluctuation of [[Blood sugar level|blood sugar]] (red) and the sugar-lowering hormone [[insulin]] (blue) in humans during the course of a day with three meals. One of the effects of a [[sucrose|sugar]]-rich vs a [[starch]]-rich meal is highlighted.]] [[Berkas:Glucose-insulin-release.svg|jmpl|upright=1.4|Mechanism of insulin release in normal pancreatic [[beta cell]]s. Insulin production is more or less constant within the beta cells. Its release is triggered by food, chiefly food containing absorbable glucose.]] [[Insulin]] is the principal hormone that regulates the uptake of [[glucose]] from the blood into most cells of the body, especially liver, adipose tissue and muscle, except smooth muscle, in which insulin acts via the [[IGF-1]].{{citation needed|date=June 2021}} Therefore, deficiency of insulin or the insensitivity of its [[Receptor (biochemistry)|receptors]] play a central role in all forms of diabetes mellitus.<ref>{{cite web |title=Insulin Basics |url=https://diabetes.org/healthy-living/medication-treatments/insulin-other-injectables/insulin-basics |publisher=American Diabetes Association |access-date=25 June 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230621163852/https://diabetes.org/healthy-living/medication-treatments/insulin-other-injectables/insulin-basics |archive-date=21 June 2023}}</ref> The body obtains glucose from three main sources: the intestinal absorption of food; the breakdown of [[glycogen]] ([[glycogenolysis]]), the storage form of glucose found in the liver; and [[gluconeogenesis]], the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate substrates in the body.<ref name=GreenspanEndo>{{cite book |veditors=Shoback DG, Gardner D |title=Greenspan's basic & clinical endocrinology |year=2011 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical |isbn=978-0-07-162243-1|edition=9th}}</ref> Insulin plays a critical role in regulating glucose levels in the body. Insulin can inhibit the breakdown of glycogen or the process of gluconeogenesis, it can stimulate the transport of glucose into fat and muscle cells, and it can stimulate the storage of glucose in the form of glycogen.<ref name=GreenspanEndo /> Insulin is released into the blood by beta cells (β-cells), found in the [[islets of Langerhans]] in the pancreas, in response to rising levels of blood glucose, typically after eating. Insulin is used by about two-thirds of the body's cells to absorb glucose from the blood for use as fuel, for conversion to other needed molecules, or for storage. Lower glucose levels result in decreased insulin release from the beta cells and in the breakdown of glycogen to glucose. This process is mainly controlled by the hormone [[glucagon]], which acts in the opposite manner to insulin.<ref name=GanongsPhys>{{cite book|vauthors=Barrett KE, etal |title=Ganong's review of medical physiology|year=2012 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical |isbn=978-0-07-178003-2 |edition=24th}}</ref> If the amount of insulin available is insufficient, or if cells respond poorly to the effects of insulin ([[insulin resistance]]), or if the insulin itself is defective, then glucose is not absorbed properly by the body cells that require it, and is not stored appropriately in the liver and muscles. The net effect is persistently high levels of blood glucose, poor [[Protein biosynthesis|protein synthesis]], and other metabolic derangements, such as metabolic [[acidosis]] in cases of complete insulin deficiency.<ref name=GreenspanEndo /> When there is too much glucose in the blood for a long time, the [[kidneys]] cannot absorb it all (reach a threshold of [[reabsorption]]) and the extra glucose gets passed out of the body through [[urine]] ([[glycosuria]]).<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Murray RK, etal |title=Harper's illustrated biochemistry |year=2012|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical |isbn=978-0-07-176576-3 |edition=29th}}</ref> This increases the [[osmotic pressure]] of the urine and inhibits reabsorption of water by the kidney, resulting in increased urine production ([[polyuria]]) and increased fluid loss. Lost blood volume is replaced osmotically from water in body cells and other body compartments, causing [[dehydration]] and increased thirst ([[polydipsia]]).<ref name=GreenspanEndo /> In addition, intracellular glucose deficiency stimulates appetite leading to excessive food intake (polyphagia).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Juta's Complete Textbook of Medical Surgical Nursing| vauthors = Mogotlane S |publisher=Juta|year=2013|location=Cape Town|pages=839}}</ref> ==Diagnosis== {{See also|Glycated hemoglobin|Glucose tolerance test}} Diabetes mellitus is diagnosed with a test for the glucose content in the blood, and is diagnosed by demonstrating any one of the following:<ref name="WHO1999-DefDiagClass" /> * [[Fasting glucose|Fasting plasma glucose level]] ≥&nbsp;7.0&nbsp;mmol/L (126&nbsp;mg/dL). For this test, blood is taken after a period of fasting, i.e. in the morning before breakfast, after the patient had sufficient time to fast overnight or at least 8 hours before the test. * [[Plasma glucose]] ≥&nbsp;11.1&nbsp;mmol/L (200&nbsp;mg/dL) two hours after a 75&nbsp;gram oral glucose load as in a [[glucose tolerance test]] (OGTT) * Symptoms of high blood sugar and plasma glucose ≥&nbsp;11.1&nbsp;mmol/L (200&nbsp;mg/dL) either while fasting or not fasting * [[Glycated hemoglobin]] (HbA_1C) ≥&nbsp;48&nbsp;mmol/mol (≥&nbsp;6.5 [[Diabetes control and complications trial|DCCT]] %).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = | title = Summary of revisions for the 2010 Clinical Practice Recommendations | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 33 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = S3 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 20042773 | pmc = 2797388 | doi = 10.2337/dc10-S003 | url = http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/33/Supplement_1/S3.full | access-date = 29 January 2010 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100113212053/http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/33/Supplement_1/S3.full | archive-date = 13 January 2010 }}</ref> {{OGTT}} A positive result, in the absence of unequivocal high blood sugar, should be confirmed by a repeat of any of the above methods on a different day. It is preferable to measure a fasting glucose level because of the ease of measurement and the considerable time commitment of formal glucose tolerance testing, which takes two hours to complete and offers no prognostic advantage over the fasting test.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Saydah SH, Miret M, Sung J, Varas C, Gause D, Brancati FL | title = Postchallenge hyperglycemia and mortality in a national sample of U.S. adults | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_diabetes-care_2001-08_24_8/page/1397 | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 24 | issue = 8 | pages = 1397–1402 | date = August 2001 | pmid = 11473076 | doi = 10.2337/diacare.24.8.1397 | doi-access = free }}</ref> According to the current definition, two fasting glucose measurements at or above 7.0&nbsp;mmol/L (126&nbsp;mg/dL) is considered diagnostic for diabetes mellitus. Per the WHO, people with fasting glucose levels from 6.1 to 6.9&nbsp;mmol/L (110 to 125&nbsp;mg/dL) are considered to have [[impaired fasting glycemia|impaired fasting glucose]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Definition and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and intermediate hyperglycemia: report of a WHO/IDF consultation |url=https://www.who.int/diabetes/publications/Definition%20and%20diagnosis%20of%20diabetes_new.pdf |publisher=World Health Organization |page=21 |year=2006 |isbn=978-92-4-159493-6 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511072821/http://www.who.int/diabetes/publications/Definition%20and%20diagnosis%20of%20diabetes_new.pdf |archive-date=11 May 2012}}</ref> People with plasma glucose at or above 7.8&nbsp;mmol/L (140&nbsp;mg/dL), but not over 11.1&nbsp;mmol/L (200&nbsp;mg/dL), two hours after a 75&nbsp;gram oral glucose load are considered to have [[impaired glucose tolerance]]. Of these two prediabetic states, the latter in particular is a major risk factor for progression to full-blown diabetes mellitus, as well as cardiovascular disease.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Santaguida PL, Balion C, Hunt D, Morrison K, Gerstein H, Raina P, Booker L, Yazdi H | display-authors = 6 | title = Diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glucose | journal = Evidence Report/Technology Assessment | issue = 128 | pages = 1–11 | date = August 2005 | pmid = 16194123 | pmc = 4780988 | url = http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/epcsums/impglusum.htm | access-date = 20 July 2008 | publisher = [[Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]] | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080916030540/http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/epcsums/impglusum.htm | archive-date = 16 September 2008 }}</ref> The [[American Diabetes Association]] (ADA) since 2003 uses a slightly different range for impaired fasting glucose of 5.6 to 6.9&nbsp;mmol/L (100 to 125&nbsp;mg/dL).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bartoli E, Fra GP, Carnevale Schianca GP | title = The oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) revisited | journal = European Journal of Internal Medicine | volume = 22 | issue = 1 | pages = 8–12 | date = February 2011 | pmid = 21238885 | doi = 10.1016/j.ejim.2010.07.008 }}</ref> [[Glycated hemoglobin]] is better than [[fasting glucose]] for determining risks of cardiovascular disease and death from any cause.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Selvin E, Steffes MW, Zhu H, Matsushita K, Wagenknecht L, Pankow J, Coresh J, Brancati FL | display-authors = 6 | title = Glycated hemoglobin, diabetes, and cardiovascular risk in nondiabetic adults | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 362 | issue = 9 | pages = 800–811 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 20200384 | pmc = 2872990 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa0908359 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.589.1658 }}</ref> ==Prevention== {{See also|Prevention of type 2 diabetes}} There is no known [[Preventive healthcare|preventive]] measure for type&nbsp;1 diabetes.<ref name="WHO2022">{{cite web |title=Diabetes |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes |website=www.who.int |access-date=1 October 2022 |archive-date=26 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226173058/https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes |url-status=live}}</ref> However, islet autoimmunity and multiple antibodies can be a strong predictor of the onset of type 1 diabetes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jacobsen |first1=Laura M. |last2=Haller |first2=Michael J. |last3=Schatz |first3=Desmond A. |date=2018-03-06 |title=Understanding Pre-Type 1 Diabetes: The Key to Prevention |journal= Frontiers in Endocrinology|volume=9 |page=70 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2018.00070 |pmid=29559955 |pmc=5845548 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Type&nbsp;2 diabetes—which accounts for 85–90% of all cases worldwide—can often be prevented or delayed<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = | title = Tackling risk factors for type 2 diabetes in adolescents: PRE-STARt study in Euskadi | journal = Anales de Pediatria | volume = 95 | issue = 3 | pages = 186–196 | date = 2020 | pmid = 33388268 | doi = 10.1016/j.anpedi.2020.11.001 | publisher = Anales de Pediatría | doi-access = free }}</ref> by maintaining a [[normal body weight]], engaging in physical activity, and eating a healthy diet.<ref name="WHO2022"/> Higher levels of physical activity (more than 90 minutes per day) reduce the risk of diabetes by 28%.<ref name= BMJ2016>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kyu HH, Bachman VF, Alexander LT, Mumford JE, Afshin A, Estep K, Veerman JL, Delwiche K, Iannarone ML, Moyer ML, Cercy K, Vos T, Murray CJ, Forouzanfar MH | display-authors = 6 | title = Physical activity and risk of breast cancer, colon cancer, diabetes, ischemic heart disease, and ischemic stroke events: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 | journal = BMJ | volume = 354 | pages = i3857 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 27510511 | pmc = 4979358 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.i3857 }}</ref> Dietary changes known to be effective in helping to prevent diabetes include maintaining a diet rich in [[whole grain]]s and [[Dietary fiber|fiber]], and choosing good fats, such as the [[polyunsaturated fat]]s found in nuts, vegetable oils, and fish.<ref name=HarvardNutrition>{{cite web|website=The Nutrition Source|title = Simple Steps to Preventing Diabetes |date = 18 September 2012 |url=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/preventing-diabetes-full-story/#references |publisher= Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425020720/http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/preventing-diabetes-full-story/#references|archive-date=25 April 2014}}</ref> Limiting sugary beverages and eating less red meat and other sources of [[saturated fat]] can also help prevent diabetes.<ref name=HarvardNutrition /> Tobacco smoking is also associated with an increased risk of diabetes and its complications, so [[smoking cessation]] can be an important preventive measure as well.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Willi C, Bodenmann P, Ghali WA, Faris PD, Cornuz J | title = Active smoking and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = JAMA | volume = 298 | issue = 22 | pages = 2654–2664 | date = December 2007 | pmid = 18073361 | doi = 10.1001/jama.298.22.2654 | s2cid = 30550981 }}</ref> The relationship between type 2 diabetes and the main modifiable risk factors (excess weight, unhealthy diet, physical inactivity and tobacco use) is similar in all regions of the world. There is growing evidence that the underlying determinants of diabetes are a reflection of the major forces driving social, economic and cultural change: [[globalization]], urbanization, population aging, and the general [[health policy]] environment.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=World Health Organization |url=https://www.who.int/chp/chronic_disease_report/media/Factsheet1.pdf |title=Chronic diseases and their common risk factors |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017172040/http://www.who.int/chp/chronic_disease_report/media/Factsheet1.pdf |archive-date=2016-10-17 |date=2005 |access-date=30 August 2016}}</ref> ==Management== {{Main|Diabetes management}} Diabetes management concentrates on keeping blood sugar levels close to normal, without causing low blood sugar.<ref name="niddk16">{{cite web |title=Managing diabetes |url=https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diabetes/overview/managing-diabetes |publisher=National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, US National Institutes of Health |access-date=4 February 2023 |date=1 December 2016 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306044924/https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diabetes/overview/managing-diabetes |url-status=live }}</ref> This can usually be accomplished with dietary changes,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Toumpanakis A, Turnbull T, Alba-Barba I | title = Effectiveness of plant-based diets in promoting well-being in the management of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review | journal = BMJ Open Diabetes Research & Care | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = e000534 | date = 2018-10-30 | pmid = 30487971 | pmc = 6235058 | doi = 10.1136/bmjdrc-2018-000534 }}</ref> exercise, weight loss, and use of appropriate medications (insulin, oral medications).<ref name=niddk16/> Learning about the disease and actively participating in the treatment is important, since complications are far less common and less severe in people who have well-managed blood sugar levels.<ref name=niddk16/><ref>{{cite journal|title = The effect of intensive diabetes therapy on the development and progression of neuropathy|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_1995-04-15_122_8/page/n54|author=The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 122 | issue = 8 | pages = 561–568 | date = April 1995 | pmid = 7887548 | doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-122-8-199504150-00001 | s2cid = 24754081 }}</ref> The goal of treatment is an A1C level below 7%.<ref name="niddka1c">{{cite web |title=The A1C test and diabetes |url=https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diagnostic-tests/a1c-test |publisher=National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, US National Institutes of Health |access-date=4 February 2023 |date=1 April 2018 |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204214740/https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diagnostic-tests/a1c-test |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=3| vauthors = Qaseem A, Wilt TJ, Kansagara D, Horwitch C, Barry MJ, Forciea MA, Fitterman N, Balzer K, Boyd C, Humphrey LL, Iorio A, Lin J, Maroto M, McLean R, Mustafa R, Tufte J | title = Hemoglobin A1c Targets for Glycemic Control With Pharmacologic Therapy for Nonpregnant Adults With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Guidance Statement Update From the American College of Physicians | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 168 | issue = 8 | pages = 569–576 | date = April 2018 | pmid = 29507945 | doi = 10.7326/M17-0939 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Attention is also paid to other health problems that may accelerate the negative effects of diabetes. These include [[tobacco smoking|smoking]], [[hypertension|high blood pressure]], [[metabolic syndrome]] [[obesity]], and lack of regular [[exercise]].<ref name=niddk16/><ref name=NICE66>{{NICE|66|Type 2 diabetes|2008}}</ref> [[Diabetic shoe|Specialized footwear]] is widely used to reduce the risk of [[diabetic foot ulcer]]s by relieving the pressure on the foot.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bus SA, van Deursen RW, Armstrong DG, Lewis JE, Caravaggi CF, Cavanagh PR | title = Footwear and offloading interventions to prevent and heal foot ulcers and reduce plantar pressure in patients with diabetes: a systematic review | journal = Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews | volume = 32 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = 99–118 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26342178 | doi = 10.1002/dmrr.2702 | s2cid = 24862853 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Heuch L, Streak Gomersall J | title = Effectiveness of offloading methods in preventing primary diabetic foot ulcers in adults with diabetes: a systematic review | journal = JBI Database of Systematic Reviews and Implementation Reports | volume = 14 | issue = 7 | pages = 236–265 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27532798 | doi = 10.11124/JBISRIR-2016-003013 | s2cid = 12012686 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = van Netten JJ, Raspovic A, Lavery LA, Monteiro-Soares M, Rasmussen A, Sacco IC, Bus SA | title = Prevention of foot ulcers in the at-risk patient with diabetes: a systematic review | journal = Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews | volume = 36 | issue = S1 Suppl 1 | pages = e3270 | date = March 2020 | pmid = 31957213 | doi = 10.1002/dmrr.3270 | s2cid = 210830578 | url = https://eprints.qut.edu.au/220879/1/Van%2BNetten%2Bet%2Bal%2B-%2B2016%2B-%2BPrevention%2Bof%2Bfoot%2Bulcers%2Bsystematic%2Breview.pdf | access-date = 2023-01-23 | archive-date = 2023-02-09 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230209225712/https://eprints.qut.edu.au/220879/1/Van%2BNetten%2Bet%2Bal%2B-%2B2016%2B-%2BPrevention%2Bof%2Bfoot%2Bulcers%2Bsystematic%2Breview.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref> Foot examination for patients living with diabetes should be done annually which includes sensation testing, foot [[biomechanics]], vascular integrity and foot structure.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mayfield JA, Reiber GE, Sanders LJ, Janisse D, Pogach LM | title = Preventive foot care in diabetes | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 27 | issue = suppl_1 | pages = S63–S64 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14693928 | doi = 10.2337/diacare.27.2007.S63 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Concerning those with severe [[Mental disorder|mental illness]], the efficacy of [[type 2 diabetes]] self-management interventions is still poorly explored, with insufficient scientific evidence to show whether these interventions have similar results to those observed in the general population.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McBain H, Mulligan K, Haddad M, Flood C, Jones J, Simpson A | title = Self management interventions for type 2 diabetes in adult people with severe mental illness | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2016 | pages = CD011361 | date = April 2016 | issue = 4 | pmid = 27120555 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD011361.pub2 | collaboration = Cochrane Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders Group | pmc = 10201333 }}</ref> ===Lifestyle=== {{See also|Diet in diabetes}} People with diabetes can benefit from education about the disease and treatment, dietary changes, and exercise, with the goal of keeping both short-term and long-term blood glucose levels [[Diabetes management#Glycemic control|within acceptable bounds]]. In addition, given the associated higher risks of cardiovascular disease, lifestyle modifications are recommended to control blood pressure.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Haw JS, Galaviz KI, Straus AN, Kowalski AJ, Magee MJ, Weber MB, Wei J, Narayan KM, Ali MK | display-authors = 3 | title = Long-term Sustainability of Diabetes Prevention Approaches: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials | journal = JAMA Internal Medicine | volume = 177 | issue = 12 | pages = 1808–1817 | date = December 2017 | pmid = 29114778 | pmc = 5820728 | doi = 10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.6040 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mottalib A, Kasetty M, Mar JY, Elseaidy T, Ashrafzadeh S, Hamdy O | title = Weight Management in Patients with Type 1 Diabetes and Obesity | journal = Current Diabetes Reports | volume = 17 | issue = 10 | pages = 92 | date = August 2017 | pmid = 28836234 | pmc = 5569154 | doi = 10.1007/s11892-017-0918-8 }}</ref> [[Weight loss]] can prevent progression from prediabetes to [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes type 2]], decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease, or result in a partial remission in people with diabetes.<ref name="ADA2019">{{cite journal | title = 5. Lifestyle Management: ''Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2019'' | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 42 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = S46–S60 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30559231 | doi = 10.2337/dc19-S005 | doi-access = free | author1 = American Diabetes Association }}</ref><ref name="ADA2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Evert AB, Dennison M, Gardner CD, Garvey WT, Lau KH, MacLeod J, Mitri J, Pereira RF, Rawlings K, Robinson S, Saslow L, Uelmen S, Urbanski PB, Yancy WS | display-authors = 3 | title = Nutrition Therapy for Adults With Diabetes or Prediabetes: A Consensus Report | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 42 | issue = 5 | pages = 731–754 | date = May 2019 | pmid = 31000505 | pmc = 7011201 | doi = 10.2337/dci19-0014 | type = Professional society guidelines | doi-access = free }}</ref> No single dietary pattern is best for all people with diabetes.<ref name=Em2015/> Healthy dietary patterns, such as the [[Mediterranean diet]], [[low-carbohydrate diet]], or [[DASH diet]], are often recommended, although evidence does not support one over the others.<ref name="ADA2019" /><ref name="ADA2018" /> According to the ADA, "reducing overall carbohydrate intake for individuals with diabetes has demonstrated the most evidence for improving glycemia", and for individuals with type 2 diabetes who cannot meet the glycemic targets or where reducing anti-glycemic medications is a priority, [[low-carbohydrate diet|low or very-low carbohydrate diet]]s are a viable approach.<ref name="ADA2018" /> For overweight people with type 2 diabetes, any diet that achieves weight loss is effective.<ref name=Em2015>{{cite journal | vauthors = Emadian A, Andrews RC, England CY, Wallace V, Thompson JL | title = The effect of macronutrients on glycaemic control: a systematic review of dietary randomised controlled trials in overweight and obese adults with type 2 diabetes in which there was no difference in weight loss between treatment groups | journal = The British Journal of Nutrition | volume = 114 | issue = 10 | pages = 1656–1666 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26411958 | pmc = 4657029 | doi = 10.1017/S0007114515003475 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Grams J, Garvey WT | title = Weight Loss and the Prevention and Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes Using Lifestyle Therapy, Pharmacotherapy, and Bariatric Surgery: Mechanisms of Action | journal = Current Obesity Reports | volume = 4 | issue = 2 | pages = 287–302 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 26627223 | doi = 10.1007/s13679-015-0155-x | s2cid = 207474124 }}</ref> A 2020 Cochrane systematic review compared several non-nutritive sweeteners to sugar, placebo and a nutritive low-calorie sweetener ([[tagatose]]), but the results were unclear for effects on HbA1c, body weight and adverse events.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Lohner |first1=Szimonetta |last2=Kuellenberg de Gaudry |first2=Daniela |last3=Toews |first3=Ingrid |last4=Ferenci |first4=Tamas |last5=Meerpohl |first5=Joerg J |date=2020-05-25 |editor-last=Cochrane Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders Group |title=Non-nutritive sweeteners for diabetes mellitus |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |language=en |volume=2020 |issue=5 |pages=CD012885 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD012885.pub2 |pmc=7387865 |pmid=32449201}}</ref> The studies included were mainly of very low-certainty and did not report on health-related quality of life, diabetes complications, all-cause mortality or socioeconomic effects.<ref name=":4" /> ===Medications=== {{Main|Diabetes medication}} ====Glucose control==== {{see also|Anti-diabetic medication}} Most medications used to treat diabetes act by lowering [[glucose|blood sugar levels]] through different mechanisms. There is broad consensus that when people with diabetes maintain tight glucose control – keeping the glucose levels in their blood within normal ranges – they experience fewer complications, such as [[diabetic nephropathy|kidney problems]] or [[diabetic retinopathy|eye problems]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rosberger DF | title = Diabetic retinopathy: current concepts and emerging therapy | journal = Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America | volume = 42 | issue = 4 | pages = 721–745 | date = December 2013 | pmid = 24286948 | doi = 10.1016/j.ecl.2013.08.001 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = MacIsaac RJ, Jerums G, Ekinci EI | title = Glycemic Control as Primary Prevention for Diabetic Kidney Disease | journal = Advances in Chronic Kidney Disease | volume = 25 | issue = 2 | pages = 141–148 | date = March 2018 | pmid = 29580578 | doi = 10.1053/j.ackd.2017.11.003 }}</ref> There is however debate as to whether this is appropriate and [[cost effective]] for people later in life in whom the risk of hypoglycemia may be more significant.<ref name=Pozzilli2014>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pozzilli P, Strollo R, Bonora E | title = One size does not fit all glycemic targets for type 2 diabetes | journal = Journal of Diabetes Investigation | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 134–141 | date = March 2014 | pmid = 24843750 | pmc = 4023573 | doi = 10.1111/jdi.12206 }}</ref> There are a number of different classes of anti-diabetic medications. Type&nbsp;1 diabetes requires treatment with [[insulin]], ideally using a "basal bolus" regimen that most closely matches normal insulin release: long-acting insulin for the [[basal rate]] and short-acting insulin with meals.<ref name=NICENG17>{{cite web |title=Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management |url=https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng17 |website=www.nice.org.uk |publisher=National Institute for Health and Care Excellence |date=26 August 2015 |access-date=25 December 2020 |archive-date=10 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210211840/https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/NG17 |url-status=live }}</ref> Type 2 diabetes is generally treated with medication that is taken by mouth (e.g. [[metformin]]) although some eventually require injectable treatment with insulin or [[GLP-1 agonist]]s.<ref name=NICENG28>{{cite web |title=Type 2 diabetes in adults: management |url=https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng28 |website=www.nice.org.uk |publisher=National Institute for Health and Care Excellence |date=2 December 2015 |access-date=25 December 2020 |archive-date=22 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201222155551/https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng28 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Metformin]] is generally recommended as a first-line treatment for type&nbsp;2 diabetes, as there is good evidence that it decreases mortality.<ref name=AFP09>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ripsin CM, Kang H, Urban RJ | title = Management of blood glucose in type 2 diabetes mellitus | journal = American Family Physician | volume = 79 | issue = 1 | pages = 29–36 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 19145963 | url = http://www.aafp.org/afp/2009/0101/p29.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130505033552/http://www.aafp.org/afp/2009/0101/p29.pdf | archive-date = 2013-05-05 }}</ref> It works by decreasing the liver's production of glucose, and increasing the amount of glucose stored in peripheral tissue.<ref name=Drugs2005>{{cite journal | vauthors = Krentz AJ, Bailey CJ | title = Oral antidiabetic agents: current role in type 2 diabetes mellitus | journal = Drugs | volume = 65 | issue = 3 | pages = 385–411 | date = 2005 | pmid = 15669880 | doi = 10.2165/00003495-200565030-00005 | s2cid = 29670619 }}</ref> Several other groups of drugs, mainly oral medication, may also decrease blood sugar in type 2 diabetes. These include agents that increase insulin release ([[sulfonylurea]]s), agents that decrease absorption of sugar from the intestines ([[acarbose]]), agents that inhibit the enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) that inactivates incretins such as GLP-1 and GIP ([[sitagliptin]]), agents that make the body more sensitive to insulin ([[thiazolidinedione]]) and agents that increase the excretion of glucose in the urine ([[SGLT2 inhibitor]]s).<ref name=Drugs2005/> When insulin is used in type 2 diabetes, a long-acting formulation is usually added initially, while continuing oral medications.<ref name=AFP09/> Some severe cases of type 2 diabetes may also be treated with insulin, which is increased gradually until glucose targets are reached.<ref name="AFP09" /><ref>{{Citation| author1 = Consumer Reports| author2-link = American College of Physicians| author2 = American College of Physicians| date = April 2012| title = Choosing a type 2 diabetes drug – Why the best first choice is often the oldest drug| publisher = [[Consumer Reports]]| work = High Value Care| url = http://consumerhealthchoices.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/High-Value-Care-Diabetes-ACP.pdf| access-date = August 14, 2012| url-status=live| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140702223552/http://consumerhealthchoices.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/High-Value-Care-Diabetes-ACP.pdf| archive-date = July 2, 2014| author1-link = Consumer Reports}}</ref> ====Blood pressure lowering==== [[Cardiovascular disease]] is a serious complication associated with diabetes, and many international guidelines recommend blood pressure treatment targets that are lower than 140/90&nbsp;mmHg for people with diabetes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mitchell S, Malanda B, Damasceno A, Eckel RH, Gaita D, Kotseva K, Januzzi JL, Mensah G, Plutzky J, Prystupiuk M, Ryden L, Thierer J, Virani SS, Sperling L | display-authors = 3 | title = A Roadmap on the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease Among People Living With Diabetes | journal = Global Heart | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 215–240 | date = September 2019 | pmid = 31451236 | doi = 10.1016/j.gheart.2019.07.009 | doi-access = free }}</ref> However, there is only limited evidence regarding what the lower targets should be. A 2016 systematic review found potential harm to treating to targets lower than 140 mmHg,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brunström M, Carlberg B | title = Effect of antihypertensive treatment at different blood pressure levels in patients with diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analyses | journal = BMJ | volume = 352 | pages = i717 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26920333 | pmc = 4770818 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.i717 }}</ref> and a subsequent systematic review in 2019 found no evidence of additional benefit from blood pressure lowering to between 130 – 140mmHg, although there was an increased risk of adverse events.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brunström M, Carlberg B | title = Benefits and harms of lower blood pressure treatment targets: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised placebo-controlled trials | journal = BMJ Open | volume = 9 | issue = 9 | pages = e026686 | date = September 2019 | pmid = 31575567 | pmc = 6773352 | doi = 10.1136/bmjopen-2018-026686 }}</ref> 2015 American Diabetes Association recommendations are that people with diabetes and albuminuria should receive an inhibitor of the renin-angiotensin system to reduce the risks of progression to end-stage renal disease, cardiovascular events, and death.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fox CS, Golden SH, Anderson C, Bray GA, Burke LE, de Boer IH, Deedwania P, Eckel RH, Ershow AG, Fradkin J, Inzucchi SE, Kosiborod M, Nelson RG, Patel MJ, Pignone M, Quinn L, Schauer PR, Selvin E, Vafiadis DK | display-authors = 3 | title = Update on Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Adults With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Light of Recent Evidence: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association and the American Diabetes Association | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 38 | issue = 9 | pages = 1777–1803 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26246459 | pmc = 4876675 | doi = 10.2337/dci15-0012 }}</ref> There is some evidence that [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] (ACEIs) are superior to other inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin system such as [[angiotensin receptor blockers]] (ARBs),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cheng J, Zhang W, Zhang X, Han F, Li X, He X, Li Q, Chen J | display-authors = 3 | title = Effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers on all-cause mortality, cardiovascular deaths, and cardiovascular events in patients with diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_jama-internal-medicine_2014-05_174_5/page/773 | journal = JAMA Internal Medicine | volume = 174 | issue = 5 | pages = 773–785 | date = May 2014 | pmid = 24687000 | doi = 10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.348 | doi-access = free }}</ref> or [[aliskiren]] in preventing cardiovascular disease.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zheng SL, Roddick AJ, Ayis S | title = Effects of aliskiren on mortality, cardiovascular outcomes and adverse events in patients with diabetes and cardiovascular disease or risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 13,395 patients | journal = Diabetes & Vascular Disease Research | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | pages = 400–406 | date = September 2017 | pmid = 28844155 | pmc = 5600262 | doi = 10.1177/1479164117715854 }}</ref> Although a more recent review found similar effects of ACEIs and ARBs on major cardiovascular and renal outcomes.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Catalá-López F, Macías Saint-Gerons D, González-Bermejo D, Rosano GM, Davis BR, Ridao M, Zaragoza A, Montero-Corominas D, Tobías A, de la Fuente-Honrubia C, Tabarés-Seisdedos R, Hutton B |author5-link=Barry R. Davis| display-authors = 3 | title = Cardiovascular and Renal Outcomes of Renin-Angiotensin System Blockade in Adult Patients with Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review with Network Meta-Analyses | journal = PLOS Medicine | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = e1001971 | date = March 2016 | pmid = 26954482 | pmc = 4783064 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001971 |doi-access=free }}</ref> There is no evidence that combining ACEIs and ARBs provides additional benefits.<ref name=":1" /> ==== Aspirin ==== The use of [[aspirin]] to prevent cardiovascular disease in diabetes is controversial.<ref name=":0" /> Aspirin is recommended by some in people at high risk of cardiovascular disease, however routine use of aspirin has not been found to improve outcomes in uncomplicated diabetes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pignone M, Alberts MJ, Colwell JA, Cushman M, Inzucchi SE, Mukherjee D, Rosenson RS, Williams CD, Wilson PW, Kirkman MS | display-authors = 3 | title = Aspirin for primary prevention of cardiovascular events in people with diabetes: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association, a scientific statement of the American Heart Association, and an expert consensus document of the American College of Cardiology Foundation | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 33 | issue = 6 | pages = 1395–1402 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20508233 | pmc = 2875463 | doi = 10.2337/dc10-0555 }}</ref> 2015 American Diabetes Association recommendations for aspirin use (based on expert consensus or clinical experience) are that low-dose aspirin use is reasonable in adults with diabetes who are at intermediate risk of cardiovascular disease (10-year cardiovascular disease risk, 5–10%).<ref name=":0" /> National guidelines for England and Wales by the [[National Institute for Health and Care Excellence]] (NICE) recommend against the use of aspirin in people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes who do not have confirmed cardiovascular disease.<ref name=NICENG17/><ref name=NICENG28/> ===Surgery=== [[Bariatric surgery|Weight loss surgery]] in those with [[obesity]] and type 2 diabetes is often an effective measure.<ref name="Picot2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Picot J, Jones J, Colquitt JL, Gospodarevskaya E, Loveman E, Baxter L, Clegg AJ |date=September 2009 |title=The clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of bariatric (weight loss) surgery for obesity: a systematic review and economic evaluation |journal=Health Technology Assessment |volume=13 |issue=41 |pages=1–190, 215–357, iii–iv |doi=10.3310/hta13410 |pmid=19726018 |doi-access=free |hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30064294|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Many are able to maintain normal blood sugar levels with little or no medications following surgery<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Frachetti KJ, Goldfine AB | title = Bariatric surgery for diabetes management | journal = Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 119–124 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 19276974 | doi = 10.1097/MED.0b013e32832912e7 | s2cid = 31797748 | doi-access = free }}</ref> and long-term mortality is decreased.<ref name=Schum2009/> There is, however, a short-term mortality risk of less than 1% from the surgery.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Colucci RA | title = Bariatric surgery in patients with type 2 diabetes: a viable option | journal = Postgraduate Medicine | volume = 123 | issue = 1 | pages = 24–33 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 21293081 | doi = 10.3810/pgm.2011.01.2242 | s2cid = 207551737 }}</ref> The [[body mass index]] cutoffs for when surgery is appropriate are not yet clear.<ref name=Schum2009>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schulman AP, del Genio F, Sinha N, Rubino F | title = "Metabolic" surgery for treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus | journal = Endocrine Practice | volume = 15 | issue = 6 | pages = 624–631 | date = September–October 2009 | pmid = 19625245 | doi = 10.4158/EP09170.RAR }}</ref> It is recommended that this option be considered in those who are unable to get both their weight and blood sugar under control.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dixon JB, le Roux CW, Rubino F, Zimmet P | title = Bariatric surgery for type 2 diabetes | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_june-16-22-2012_379_9833/page/2300 | journal = Lancet | volume = 379 | issue = 9833 | pages = 2300–2311 | date = June 2012 | pmid = 22683132 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60401-2 | s2cid = 5198462 }}</ref> A [[pancreas transplant]] is occasionally considered for people with type&nbsp;1 diabetes who have severe complications of their disease, including [[Chronic kidney disease|end stage kidney disease]] requiring [[kidney transplantation]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Pancreas Transplantation|url=http://www.diabetes.org/living-with-diabetes/treatment-and-care/transplantation/pancreas-transplantation.html|publisher=American Diabetes Association|access-date=9 April 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413123750/http://www.diabetes.org/living-with-diabetes/treatment-and-care/transplantation/pancreas-transplantation.html|archive-date=13 April 2014}}</ref> ===Self-management and support=== In countries using a [[general practitioner]] system, such as the United Kingdom, care may take place mainly outside hospitals, with hospital-based specialist care used only in case of complications, difficult blood sugar control, or research projects. In other circumstances, general practitioners and specialists share care in a team approach. Evidence has shown that social prescribing led to slight improvements in blood sugar control for people with type 2 diabetes.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Can social prescribing improve the health of people with diabetes? |url=https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/can-social-prescribing-improve-the-health-of-people-with-diabetes/ |access-date=26 January 2024 |website=National Institute for Health and Care Research - NIHR Evidence |date=2024 |doi=10.3310/nihrevidence_61876 |s2cid=267264134 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126130722/https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/can-social-prescribing-improve-the-health-of-people-with-diabetes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Home [[telehealth]] support can be an effective management technique.<ref name="Polisena">{{cite journal | vauthors = Polisena J, Tran K, Cimon K, Hutton B, McGill S, Palmer K | title = Home telehealth for diabetes management: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Diabetes, Obesity & Metabolism | volume = 11 | issue = 10 | pages = 913–930 | date = October 2009 | pmid = 19531058 | doi = 10.1111/j.1463-1326.2009.01057.x | s2cid = 44260857 }}</ref> The use of [[technology]] to deliver educational programs for adults with type 2 diabetes includes computer-based self-management interventions to collect for tailored responses to facilitate self-management.<ref name="pal">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pal K, Eastwood SV, Michie S, Farmer AJ, Barnard ML, Peacock R, Wood B, Inniss JD, Murray E | display-authors = 3 | title = Computer-based diabetes self-management interventions for adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 3 | pages = CD008776 | date = March 2013 | volume = 2013 | pmid = 23543567 | pmc = 6486319 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD008776.pub2 | collaboration = Cochrane Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders Group }}</ref> There is no adequate evidence to support effects on [[cholesterol]], [[blood pressure]], [[Behavior change (public health)|behavioral change]] (such as [[physical activity]] levels and dietary), [[Depression (mood)|depression]], weight and [[Quality of life (healthcare)|health-related quality of life]], nor in other biological, cognitive or emotional outcomes.<ref name=pal/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wei I, Pappas Y, Car J, Sheikh A, Majeed A | title = Computer-assisted versus oral-and-written dietary history taking for diabetes mellitus | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 12 | pages = CD008488 | date = December 2011 | volume = 2011 | pmid = 22161430 | pmc = 6486022 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD008488.pub2 | collaboration = Cochrane Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders Group }}</ref> ==Epidemiology== {{Main|Epidemiology of diabetes}} [[Berkas:Prevalence of Diabetes by Percent of Country Population (2014) Gradient Map.png|jmpl|upright=1.4|Rates of diabetes worldwide in 2014. The worldwide prevalence was 9.2%.]] [[Berkas:Diabetes mellitus world map-Deaths per million persons-WHO2012.svg|jmpl|upright=1.4|Mortality rate of diabetes worldwide in 2012 per million inhabitants {{Div col|small=yes|colwidth=10em}}{{legend|#ffff20|28–91}}{{legend|#ffe820|92–114}}{{legend|#ffd820|115–141}}{{legend|#ffc020|142–163}}{{legend|#ffa020|164–184}}{{legend|#ff9a20|185–209}}{{legend|#f08015|210–247}}{{legend|#e06815|248–309}}{{legend|#d85010|310–404}}{{legend|#d02010|405–1879}}{{div col end}}]] In 2017, 425&nbsp;million people had diabetes worldwide,<ref name="IDF2017">{{cite book|vauthors=Elflein J|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/271442/number-of-diabetics-worldwide/|title=Estimated number diabetics worldwide|date=10 December 2019|access-date=17 May 2020|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729234033/https://www.statista.com/statistics/271442/number-of-diabetics-worldwide/|url-status=live}}</ref> up from an estimated 382&nbsp;million people in 2013<ref name=Shi2014>{{cite journal | vauthors = Shi Y, Hu FB | title = The global implications of diabetes and cancer | journal = Lancet | volume = 383 | issue = 9933 | pages = 1947–1948 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 24910221 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60886-2 | s2cid = 7496891 }}</ref> and from 108&nbsp;million in 1980.<ref name=WHO2016>{{cite web |title=Global Report on Diabetes |publisher=World Health Organization |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/204871/9789241565257_eng.pdf |access-date=20 September 2018 |date=2016 |archive-date=16 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516185526/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/204871/9789241565257_eng.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Accounting for the shifting age structure of the global population, the prevalence of diabetes is 8.8% among adults, nearly double the rate of 4.7% in 1980.<ref name=IDF2017/><ref name=WHO2016/> Type&nbsp;2 makes up about 90% of the cases.<ref name=Vos2012 /><ref name=Will2011/> Some data indicate rates are roughly equal in women and men,<ref name=Vos2012/> but male excess in diabetes has been found in many populations with higher type 2 incidence, possibly due to sex-related differences in insulin sensitivity, consequences of obesity and regional body fat deposition, and other contributing factors such as high blood pressure, tobacco smoking, and alcohol intake.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gale EA, Gillespie KM | title = Diabetes and gender | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_diabetologia_2001-01_44_1/page/3 | journal = Diabetologia | volume = 44 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–15 | date = January 2001 | pmid = 11206408 | doi = 10.1007/s001250051573 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Meisinger C, Thorand B, Schneider A, Stieber J, Döring A, Löwel H | title = Sex differences in risk factors for incident type 2 diabetes mellitus: the MONICA Augsburg cohort study | journal = Archives of Internal Medicine | volume = 162 | issue = 1 | pages = 82–89 | date = January 2002 | pmid = 11784224 | doi = 10.1001/archinte.162.1.82 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The WHO estimates that diabetes resulted in 1.5&nbsp;million deaths in 2012, making it the 8th leading cause of death.<ref name="WHO2013Top10">{{cite web |date=October 2013 |title=The top 10 causes of death Fact sheet N°310 |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170530121727/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/ |archive-date=30 May 2017 |publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref><ref name=WHO2016 /> However another 2.2&nbsp;million deaths worldwide were attributable to high blood glucose and the increased risks of cardiovascular disease and other associated complications (e.g. kidney failure), which often lead to premature death and are often listed as the underlying cause on death certificates rather than diabetes.<ref name=WHO2016 /><ref>Public Health Agency of Canada, ''Diabetes in Canada: Facts and figures from a public health perspective''. Ottawa, 2011.</ref> For example, in 2017, the [[International Diabetes Federation]] (IDF) estimated that diabetes resulted in 4.0&nbsp;million deaths worldwide,<ref name=IDF2017/> using modeling to estimate the total number of deaths that could be directly or indirectly attributed to diabetes.<ref name=IDF2017/> Diabetes occurs throughout the world but is more common (especially type 2) in more developed countries. The greatest increase in rates has however been seen in low- and middle-income countries,<ref name=WHO2016 /> where more than 80% of diabetic deaths occur.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mathers CD, Loncar D | title = Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030 | journal = PLOS Medicine | volume = 3 | issue = 11 | pages = e442 | date = November 2006 | pmid = 17132052 | pmc = 1664601 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030442 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The fastest prevalence increase is expected to occur in Asia and Africa, where most people with diabetes will probably live in 2030.<ref name="Wild2004" /> The increase in rates in developing countries follows the trend of urbanization and lifestyle changes, including increasingly sedentary lifestyles, less physically demanding work and the global nutrition transition, marked by increased intake of foods that are high energy-dense but nutrient-poor (often high in sugar and saturated fats, sometimes referred to as the "Western-style" diet).<ref name=WHO2016 /><ref name="Wild2004">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wild S, Roglic G, Green A, Sicree R, King H | title = Global prevalence of diabetes: estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030 | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_diabetes-care_2004-05_27_5/page/1047 | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 27 | issue = 5 | pages = 1047–1053 | date = May 2004 | pmid = 15111519 | doi = 10.2337/diacare.27.5.1047 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The global number of diabetes cases might increase by 48% between 2017 and 2045.<ref name=IDF2017/> As of 2020, 38% of all US adults had prediabetes.<ref name="CDC 2018">{{cite web | title=Prevalence of Prediabetes Among Adults - Diabetes | website=CDC | date=2018-03-13 | url=https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/data/statistics-report/prevalence-of-prediabetes.html | access-date=2022-12-15 | archive-date=2023-03-06 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306070935/https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/data/statistics-report/prevalence-of-prediabetes.html | url-status=live }}</ref> [[Prediabetes]] is an early stage of diabetes. ==History== {{Main|History of diabetes}} Diabetes was one of the first diseases described,<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Ripoll BC, Leutholtz I |title=Exercise and disease management|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton|isbn=978-1-4398-2759-8 |page=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eAn9-bm_pi8C&pg=PA25|edition=2nd|date=2011-04-25|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160403054841/https://books.google.com/books?id=eAn9-bm_pi8C&pg=PA25|archive-date=2016-04-03 }}</ref> with an [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] manuscript from {{Abbr|c.|circa}} 1500 [[Common Era|BCE]] mentioning "too great emptying of the urine."<ref name=History2010/> The [[Ebers papyrus]] includes a recommendation for a drink to take in such cases.<ref name="Roberts">{{cite magazine|vauthors=Roberts J|title=Sickening sweet|magazine=Distillations|date=2015|volume=1|issue=4|pages=12–15|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/sickening-sweet|access-date=20 March 2018|archive-date=13 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113141421/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/sickening-sweet|url-status=live}}</ref> The first described cases are believed to have been type&nbsp;1 diabetes.<ref name=History2010>{{cite book | veditors = Poretsky L |title=Principles of diabetes mellitus|year=2009|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=978-0-387-09840-1|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0qojvF1SpUC&pg=PA3 |edition=2nd |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404170919/https://books.google.com/books?id=i0qojvF1SpUC&pg=PA3 |archive-date=2016-04-04}}</ref> Indian physicians around the same time identified the disease and classified it as ''madhumeha'' or "honey urine", noting the urine would attract ants.<ref name=History2010/><ref name="Roberts"/> The term "diabetes" or "to pass through" was first used in 230&nbsp;BCE by the Greek [[Apollonius (physician)|Apollonius of Memphis]].<ref name=History2010/> The disease was considered rare during the time of the [[Roman empire]], with [[Galen]] commenting he had only seen two cases during his career.<ref name=History2010/> This is possibly due to the diet and lifestyle of the ancients, or because the clinical symptoms were observed during the advanced stage of the disease. Galen named the disease "diarrhea of the urine" (diarrhea urinosa).<ref name="Laios"/> The earliest surviving work with a detailed reference to diabetes is that of [[Aretaeus of Cappadocia]] (2nd or early 3rd{{nbsp}}century CE). He described the symptoms and the course of the disease, which he attributed to the moisture and coldness, reflecting the beliefs of the "[[Pneumatic school|Pneumatic School]]". He hypothesized a correlation between diabetes and other diseases, and he discussed differential diagnosis from the snakebite, which also provokes excessive thirst. His work remained unknown in the West until 1552, when the first Latin edition was published in Venice.<ref name="Laios">{{cite journal | vauthors = Laios K, Karamanou M, Saridaki Z, Androutsos G | title = Aretaeus of Cappadocia and the first description of diabetes | journal = Hormones | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 109–113 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22450352 | doi = 10.1007/BF03401545 | url = http://www.hormones.gr/pdf/HORMONES%202012,%20109-113.pdf | url-status = live | s2cid = 4730719 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170104092212/http://www.hormones.gr/pdf/HORMONES%202012%2C%20109-113.pdf | archive-date = 2017-01-04 }}</ref> Two types of diabetes were identified as separate conditions for the first time by the Indian physicians [[Sushruta]] and [[Charaka]] in 400–500&nbsp;CE with one type being associated with youth and another type with being overweight.<ref name=History2010/> Effective treatment was not developed until the early part of the 20th century when Canadians [[Frederick Banting]] and [[Charles Best (medical scientist)|Charles Best]] isolated and purified insulin in 1921 and 1922.<ref name=History2010/> This was followed by the development of the long-acting insulin [[NPH insulin|NPH]] in the 1940s.<ref name=History2010/> ===Etymology=== The word ''diabetes'' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|d|aɪ|.|ə|ˈ|b|iː|t|iː|z}} or {{IPAc-en|ˌ|d|aɪ|.|ə|ˈ|b|iː|t|ᵻ|s}}) comes from [[Latin]] ''diabētēs'', which in turn comes from [[Ancient Greek]] [[wikt:διαβήτης|διαβήτης]] (''diabētēs''), which literally means "a passer through; a [[siphon]]".<ref name=OED_diabetes>Oxford English Dictionary. ''diabetes''. Retrieved 2011-06-10.</ref> [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] [[physician]] [[Aretaeus of Cappadocia]] ([[Floruit|fl.]] 1st{{nbsp}}century [[Common Era|CE]]) used that word, with the intended meaning "excessive discharge of urine", as the name for the disease.<ref name=OnlineEtymology_diabetes>{{cite web | vauthors = Harper D |title= Online Etymology Dictionary. ''diabetes.'' |year= 2001–2010 |url= http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=diabetes&searchmode=none |access-date= 2011-06-10 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120113074242/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=diabetes&searchmode=none |archive-date= 2012-01-13 }}</ref><ref>Aretaeus, ''De causis et signis acutorum morborum (lib. 2)'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0719,002:2:2&lang=original Κεφ. β. περὶ Διαβήτεω (Chapter 2, ''On Diabetes'', Greek original)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702232821/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Aabo%3Atlg%2C0719%2C002%3A2%3A2&lang=original |date=2014-07-02 }}, on Perseus</ref> Ultimately, the word comes from Greek διαβαίνειν (''diabainein''), meaning "to pass through",<ref name=OED_diabetes/> which is composed of δια- (''dia''-), meaning "through" and βαίνειν (''bainein''), meaning "to go".<ref name=OnlineEtymology_diabetes/> The word "diabetes" is first recorded in English, in the form ''diabete'', in a medical text written around 1425. The word ''[[wikt:mellitus|mellitus]]'' ({{IPAc-en|m|ə|ˈ|l|aɪ|t|ə|s}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɛ|l|ᵻ|t|ə|s}}) comes from the classical Latin word ''mellītus'', meaning "mellite"<ref name=OED_mellite>Oxford English Dictionary. ''mellite''. Retrieved 2011-06-10.</ref> (i.e. sweetened with honey;<ref name=OED_mellite/> honey-sweet<ref name=MyEtymology_mellitus>{{cite web |title=MyEtimology. ''mellitus.'' |url=http://www.myetymology.com/latin/mellitus.html |access-date=2011-06-10 |url-status=usurped |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110316045914/http://www.myetymology.com/latin/mellitus.html |archive-date=2011-03-16 }}</ref>). The Latin word comes from ''mell''-, which comes from ''mel'', meaning "honey";<ref name=OED_mellite/><ref name=MyEtymology_mellitus/> sweetness;<ref name=MyEtymology_mellitus/> pleasant thing,<ref name=MyEtymology_mellitus/> and the suffix -''ītus'',<ref name=OED_mellite/> whose meaning is the same as that of the English suffix "-ite".<ref name="OED_-ite">Oxford English Dictionary. ''-ite''. Retrieved 2011-06-10.</ref> It was [[Thomas Willis]] who in 1675 added "mellitus" to the word "diabetes" as a designation for the disease, when he noticed the urine of a person with diabetes had a sweet taste (glycosuria). This sweet taste had been noticed in urine by the ancient Greeks, Chinese, Egyptians, Indians, and [[Persian people|Persians]] {{citation needed|date=April 2022}}. ==Society and culture== {{Further|List of films featuring diabetes}} The 1989 "[[St. Vincent Declaration]]"<ref>{{Cite book| vauthors = Tulchinsky TH, Varavikova EA |title=The New Public Health, Second Edition|publisher=[[Academic Press]]|year=2008|page=200|location=New York|isbn=978-0-12-370890-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Piwernetz K, Home PD, Snorgaard O, Antsiferov M, Staehr-Johansen K, Krans M | title = Monitoring the targets of the St Vincent Declaration and the implementation of quality management in diabetes care: the DIABCARE initiative. The DIABCARE Monitoring Group of the St Vincent Declaration Steering Committee | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_diabetic-medicine_1993-05_10_4/page/371 | journal = Diabetic Medicine | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 371–377 | date = May 1993 | pmid = 8508624 | doi = 10.1111/j.1464-5491.1993.tb00083.x | s2cid = 9931183 }}</ref> was the result of international efforts to improve the care accorded to those with diabetes. Doing so is important not only in terms of quality of life and life expectancy but also economically{{snd}}expenses due to diabetes have been shown to be a major drain on health{{snd}}and productivity-related resources for healthcare systems and governments. Several countries established more and less successful national diabetes programmes to improve treatment of the disease.<ref name="EO005-Dubois&Bankauskaite">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dubois H, Bankauskaite V | title = Type 2 diabetes programmes in Europe | journal = Euro Observer | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | pages = 5–6 | year = 2005 | url = http://www2.lse.ac.uk/LSEHealthAndSocialCare/pdf/euroObserver/Obsvol7no2.pdf | url-status=live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121024171754/http://www2.lse.ac.uk/LSEHealthAndSocialCare/pdf/euroObserver/Obsvol7no2.pdf | archive-date = 2012-10-24 }}</ref> === Diabetes stigma === Diabetes stigma describes the negative attitudes, judgment, discrimination, or prejudice against people with diabetes. Often, the stigma stems from the idea that diabetes (particularly Type 2 diabetes) resulted from poor lifestyle and unhealthy food choices rather than other causal factors like genetics and social determinants of health.<ref>{{Cite web |last=CDC |date=2022-11-03 |title=Diabetes Stigma: Learn About It, Recognize It, Reduce It |url=https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/library/features/diabetes_stigma.html |access-date=2023-10-31 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us |archive-date=2023-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031192432/https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/library/features/diabetes_stigma.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Manifestation of stigma can be seen throughout different cultures and contexts. Scenarios include diabetes statuses affecting marriage proposals, workplace-employment, and social standing in communities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schabert |first1=Jasmin |last2=Browne |first2=Jessica L. |last3=Mosely |first3=Kylie |last4=Speight |first4=Jane |date=2013-03-01 |title=Social Stigma in Diabetes |journal=The Patient - Patient-Centered Outcomes Research |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1007/s40271-012-0001-0 |pmid=23322536 |s2cid=207490680 |issn=1178-1661|doi-access=free }}</ref> Stigma is also seen internally, as people with diabetes can also have negative beliefs about themselves. Often these cases of self-stigma are associated with higher diabetes-specific distress, lower self-efficacy, and poorer provider-patient interactions during diabetes care.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Puhl |first1=Rebecca M. |last2=Himmelstein |first2=Mary S. |last3=Hateley-Browne |first3=Jessica L. |last4=Speight |first4=Jane |date=October 2020 |title=Weight stigma and diabetes stigma in U.S. adults with type 2 diabetes: Associations with diabetes self-care behaviors and perceptions of health care |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2020.108387 |journal=Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice |volume=168 |pages=108387 |doi=10.1016/j.diabres.2020.108387 |pmid=32858100 |s2cid=221366068 |issn=0168-8227}}</ref> === Racial and economic inequalities === Racial and ethnic minorities are disproportionately affected with higher prevalence of diabetes compared to non-minority individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Spanakis |first1=Elias K. |last2=Golden |first2=Sherita Hill |date=December 2013 |title=Race/Ethnic Difference in Diabetes and Diabetic Complications |journal=Current Diabetes Reports |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=10.1007/s11892–013–0421–9 |doi=10.1007/s11892-013-0421-9 |issn=1534-4827 |pmc=3830901 |pmid=24037313}}</ref> While US adults overall have a 40% chance of developing type 2 diabetes, Hispanic/Latino adults chance is more than 50%.<ref>{{Cite web |last=CDC |date=2022-04-04 |title=Hispanic/Latino Americans and Type 2 Diabetes |url=https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/library/features/hispanic-diabetes.html |access-date=2023-10-31 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us |archive-date=2023-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031192358/https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/library/features/hispanic-diabetes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> African Americans also are much more likely to be diagnosed with diabetes compared to White Americans. Asians have increased risk of diabetes as diabetes can develop at lower BMI due to differences in visceral fat compared to other races. For Asians, diabetes can develop at a younger age and lower body fat compared to other groups. Additionally, diabetes is highly underreported in Asian American people, as 1 in 3 cases are diagnosed compared to the average 1 in 5 for the nation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=CDC |date=2022-11-21 |title=Diabetes and Asian American People |url=https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/library/spotlights/diabetes-asian-americans.html |access-date=2023-10-31 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us |archive-date=2023-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031192358/https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/library/spotlights/diabetes-asian-americans.html |url-status=live }}</ref> People with diabetes who have neuropathic symptoms such as numbness or tingling in feet or hands are twice as likely to be [[unemployed]] as those without the symptoms.<ref name="pmid17563611">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stewart WF, Ricci JA, Chee E, Hirsch AG, Brandenburg NA | title = Lost productive time and costs due to diabetes and diabetic neuropathic pain in the US workforce | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-occupational-and-environmental-medicine_2007-06_49_6/page/672 | journal = Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine | volume = 49 | issue = 6 | pages = 672–679 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17563611 | doi = 10.1097/JOM.0b013e318065b83a | s2cid = 21487348 }}</ref> In 2010, diabetes-related emergency room (ER) visit rates in the United States were higher among people from the lowest income communities (526 per 10,000 population) than from the highest income communities (236 per 10,000 population). Approximately 9.4% of diabetes-related ER visits were for the uninsured.<ref name="hcup-us.ahrq">{{cite journal |author1=Washington R.E. |author2=Andrews R.M. |author3=Mutter R.L. |title=Emergency Department Visits for Adults with Diabetes, 2010 |date=November 2013 |website=HCUP Statistical Brief #167 |publisher=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality |url=http://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb167.jsp |location=Rockville MD |pmid=24455787 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203011036/http://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb167.jsp |archive-date=2013-12-03 }}</ref> ===Naming=== The term "type&nbsp;1 diabetes" has replaced several former terms, including childhood-onset diabetes, juvenile diabetes, and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Likewise, the term "type&nbsp;2 diabetes" has replaced several former terms, including adult-onset diabetes, obesity-related diabetes, and noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Beyond these two types, there is no agreed-upon standard nomenclature.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Type 1 vs. Type 2 Diabetes Differences: Which One Is Worse?|url=https://www.medicinenet.com/type_1_vs_type_2_diabetes_similarities_differences/article.htm|access-date=2021-03-21|website=MedicineNet|language=en|archive-date=2021-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414120708/https://www.medicinenet.com/type_1_vs_type_2_diabetes_similarities_differences/article.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Diabetes mellitus is also occasionally known as "sugar diabetes" to differentiate it from [[diabetes insipidus]].<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Parker K |title= Living with diabetes|date=2008|publisher=Facts On File|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4381-2108-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/livingwithdiabet0000park/page/143 143]|url=https://archive.org/details/livingwithdiabet0000park|url-access=registration}}</ref> ==Other animals== {{main|Diabetes in dogs|Diabetes in cats}} Diabetes can occur in mammals or reptiles.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Niaz K, Maqbool F, Khan F, Hassan FI, Momtaz S, Abdollahi M | title = Comparative occurrence of diabetes in canine, feline, and few wild animals and their association with pancreatic diseases and ketoacidosis with therapeutic approach | journal = Veterinary World | volume = 11 | issue = 4 | pages = 410–422 | date = April 2018 | pmid = 29805204 | pmc = 5960778 | doi = 10.14202/vetworld.2018.410-422 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Stahl SJ | chapter =Hyperglycemia in Reptiles |date=2006-01-01 | title = Reptile Medicine and Surgery | edition = Second |pages=822–830 | veditors = Mader DR |place=Saint Louis |publisher=W.B. Saunders |language=en |doi=10.1016/b0-72-169327-x/50062-6 |isbn=978-0-7216-9327-9 }}</ref> Birds do not develop diabetes because of their unusually high tolerance for elevated blood glucose levels.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sweazea KL | title = Revisiting glucose regulation in birds - A negative model of diabetes complications | journal = Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part B, Biochemistry & Molecular Biology | volume = 262 | pages = 110778 | date = 8 July 2022 | pmid = 35817273 | doi = 10.1016/j.cbpb.2022.110778 | s2cid = 250404382 }}</ref> In animals, diabetes is most commonly encountered in dogs and cats. Middle-aged animals are most commonly affected. Female dogs are twice as likely to be affected as males, while according to some sources, male cats are more prone than females. In both species, all breeds may be affected, but some small dog breeds are particularly likely to develop diabetes, such as [[Poodle|Miniature Poodles]].<ref name=Merck>{{cite web | title=Diabetes mellitus | website= Merck Veterinary Manual | edition = 9th | url=http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/40302.htm | year=2005 | access-date=2011-10-23 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927154816/http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm%2Fbc%2F40302.htm | archive-date=2011-09-27 }}</ref> Feline diabetes is strikingly similar to human type 2 diabetes. The [[Burmese cat|Burmese]], [[Russian Blue]], [[Abyssinian cat|Abyssinian]], and [[Norwegian Forest cat|Norwegian Forest]] cat breeds are at higher risk than other breeds. Overweight cats are also at higher risk.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Öhlund M|title=Feline diabetes mellitus Aspects on epidemiology and pathogenesis|publisher=Acta Universitatis agriculturae Sueciae|isbn=978-91-7760-067-1|url=https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/14746/1/ohlund_m_171123.pdf|access-date=2017-12-18|archive-date=2021-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413223918/https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/14746/1/ohlund_m_171123.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The symptoms may relate to fluid loss and polyuria, but the course may also be insidious. Diabetic animals are more prone to infections. The long-term complications recognized in humans are much rarer in animals. The principles of treatment (weight loss, oral antidiabetics, subcutaneous insulin) and management of emergencies (e.g. ketoacidosis) are similar to those in humans.<ref name=Merck/> Da'a tou teks nisura zanura siföföna ... == Fombagi wökhö gulo == [[Berkas:Gas gangrene2.jpg|jmpl|257x257px|Obou duturukahe börö wökhö gulo]] Fombagi wӧkhӧ gulo molo'ӧ mbӧrӧ (''etiologi'') ma hadia ia zi tobali bӧrӧnia. ''American Diabetes Association'' (ADA) la mane sasesenia fӧkhӧ gulo te'odombua ya'ia da'ӧ fӧkhӧ gulo tipe 1 ba fӧkhӧ gulo tipe 2.<ref name=":1" /> Dombua tipe wӧkhӧ gulo da'e tesura ia molo'ӧ numero ba ''Arab'' tenga numero ba ''Romawi'', bӧrӧ numero II romawi asese elungu niha wamaigi ba lawalinga numero 11 (felezara).<ref>American Diabetes Association. (2003). [http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.26.2007.S5 Report of the Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus: Classification of Diabetes Mellitus and Other Categories of Glucose Regulation]. ''Diabetes Care'', ''26''(Suppl. 1), S5-S20. </ref> Tou da'e wangombakha sadogo-dogo wӧkhӧ gulo tipe 1 ba tipe 2. === '''Fӧkhӧ gulo tipe 1''' === Fӧkhӧ gulo tipe 1 alua bӧrӧ wӧkhӧ ''autoimun'', sel beta si so ba galakhaӧ (''pankreas'') afufu ba niha sombuyu (''rentan'') si'otarai ba dalu (nga'ӧtӧ) ba tebai mamazӧkhi isuli.<ref name=":0" /> ADA lamane fӧkhӧ gulo tipe 1 sasesenia musӧndra ba ndraono ba iraono sibohou ebua, furihӧ lafotӧi ia fӧkhӧ gulo ''juvenile''. Fӧkhӧ gulo da'e ha alua ia 5% ba niha sigӧna wӧkhӧ gulo, tandrania fa'afufu ''sel beta'' ba galakhaӧ. Da'e bӧrӧ angorudua wӧkhӧ nga'ӧtӧ (''genetik''), fatahana mboto (''imunologi''), ba tola manӧ bӧrӧ likunga (simane, tungö'ite [''virus'']) ba bӧrӧ tanӧ'bӧ'ӧ sitola fakhai ba wa'afufu ''sel beta'' ba galakhaӧ. Fӧkhӧ gulo tipe 1 tola alua ia ba zi 25-50% ba zifaero sifagӧlӧ (''kembar identik''), 6% ba zi fa'talifusӧ, ba 5% mi'tou ba nga'ӧtӧ.<ref name=":3">Black, J. M., & Hawks, J. H. (2014). ''Keperawatan Medikal Bedah: Manajemen Klinis untuk Hasil yang Diharapkan'' (8^th edisi). Singapore: Elsevier</ref> Tandra wӧkhӧ gulo tipe 1 da'e ya'ia da'ӧ asese kiӧ (''poliuria''), owӧkhi dӧdӧ sabӧlӧ-bӧlӧ (''polidipsia''), asese olofo (''polifagia''), ba fa'alӧ wa'abua silӧ taraso.<ref name=":4">Khardori, R. (2016). ''[http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/117739-overview Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus]''. ''Practice Essentials''. Muhalö me 19 Baŵa si dua 2021, moroi ba [http://emedicine.medscape.com emedicine.medscape.com].</ref> === '''Fӧkhӧ gulo tipe 2''' === Fӧkhӧ gulo tipe 2 ya'ia da'ӧ masaala ba mboto bӧrӧ me alӧ wa'abӧlӧ ''sel'' ba wanema isuli nifotӧi ''resistensi'' isuli.<ref name=":0" /> Fӧkhӧ gulo tipe 2 andre tesӧndra 90% irugi 95% ba gangarahuta zatua si'no gӧna fӧkhӧ gulo da'e.<ref>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). [http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes%20/pubs/statsreport14/national-diabetes-report-web.pdf National Diabetes Statistics Report, 2014]. ''National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.'' Muhalö me 19 Baŵa si dua, moroi ba [http://www.cdc.gov cdc.gov].</ref> Awena te'ila wӧkhӧ da'e na no aefa ndrӧfi si 40 fakhe ba sasesenia ba zatua, sesolo (''obesitas''), ba ''etnik'' awӧ ''ras'' si no mutandrai.<ref name=":3" /> Fӧkhӧ gulo tipe 2 alua bӧrӧ nga'ӧtӧ ba bӧrӧ likunga gӧi. Nga'ӧtӧ fakhai ia ba wame'e baero isuli ba ''retensi'' isuli, ba bӧrӧ likunga fakhai ia ba wa'esolo, tӧra manga, ambӧ fa olaraga, siteresi, awӧ wa'atua.<ref>Kaku, K. (2010). [https://www.med.or.jp/english/journal/pdf/2010_01/041_046.pdf Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes and Its Treatment Policy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201123223356/https://www.med.or.jp/english/journal/pdf/2010_01/041_046.pdf |date=2020-11-23 }}. ''Japan Medical Association'', ''53''(1), 41-46. Muhalö me 19 Baŵa si dua, moroi ba [https://www.med.or.jp med.or.jp].</ref> Ato niha si'gӧna fӧkhӧ gulo tipe 2 andre lӧ te'ila ma lӧ murasoi dandrania. Bahiza, so dandra si'te'ila bӧro wӧkhӧ gulo tipe 2 ya'ia da'ӧ:<ref name=":5">Khardori, R. (2016). [http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/117853-overview Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus]. ''Practice Essentials''. Muhalö me 19 Baŵa si dua, moroi ba [http://emedicine.medscape.com emedicine.medscape.com].</ref> # Tandra sasese murasoi ba si no ara simane, asese kiӧ, owӧkhi dӧdӧ sabӧlӧ-bӧlӧ, oya manga, ba alӧ wa'abua. # Alӧ mangi'ila. # Omboyu ndroto-ndroto tanӧ tou (i'otarai lӧwi-lӧwi irugi zuru gahe). # Ifeksi zungӧ, simane ''balanitis'' ba nonomatua. == Fökhö tanö'bö'ö salua börö wökhö gulo == Fa'alawa gulo ba ndro (''Hiperglikemia'') sarara tola tekiko ngawalӧ ndroto-ndroto siofӧnania ''saraf'' ba uo. Masaala samakiko fa'auri niha sigӧna fӧkhӧ gulo si lӧ muzago ya'ia da'ӧ fa'alawa gulo ba ndro sifao ''ketoasidosis''.<ref>Khan, A. N., Macdonald, S., Turnbull, I., & Chandramohan, M. (2015). ''[http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/391989-overview Imaging in Neuropathic Arthropathy (Charcot Joint)]''. Muhalö me 19 Baŵa si dua, moroi ba [http://emedicine.medscape.com emedicine.medscape.com].</ref> Fӧkhӧ tanӧ'bӧ'ӧ salua bӧrӧ wӧkhӧ gulo ya'ia da'ӧ:<ref name=":2" /> # Alio gӧna fӧkhӧ dӧdӧ ba fӧkhӧ fa'ombuyu (''stroke'') # Fa'atekiko ''saraf'' ba gahe irege alua zokho gahe (ulkus kaki), mӧi zungӧ (infeksi), irege tola la taba gahe. # Au'a bӧrӧ tekiko nuo si'ide-ide ba hӧrӧ. # Bӧrӧ [[Fökhö mbua|wӧkhӧ mbua]]. # Fa'amate ba zigӧna wӧkhӧ gulo dua kali '''(lipat)''' moroi ba zilӧ gӧna fӧkhӧ da'e. # Masaala halӧwӧ zatua (''disfungsi seksual'') == Famareso wökhö gulo (''diagnostic test'') == Famareso wӧkhӧ da'e ya'ia da'ӧ la tesi ba ''laboratorium'' lalania la su'a  wa'alawa gulo ndro. <ref>Hannon, R. A., Pooler, C., & Porth, C. M. (2010). ''Porth Pathophysiology: Consepts of Altered Health States'' (1^st Ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.</ref> Fotesi gulo ndro da'e ya'ia da'ӧ:<ref>Williams, L. S., & Hopper, P. D. (2015). ''Understanding Medical Surgical Nursing'' (5^th Ed.). Philadelphia: F.A Davis Company.</ref> ==== Gulo dro fuasӧ/''Fasting Plasma Glucose Level'' (FPG) ==== ADA imane gulo ndro fuasӧ si ''normal'' ya'ia da'ӧ ambӧ moroi ba zi 100 mg/dl. Niha tola la'''diagnosa'' mo fӧkhӧ gulo na gulo ndro fuasӧnia 126 mg/dl ma tӧra, nihalӧ si'lӧ'ӧ-lӧ'ӧ'nia 8 (walu) ja fuasӧ. Na gulo ndro fuasӧ ba zi 100-125 mg/dl, eluahania niha da'e tegadu gulo ndro fuasӧnia ma tefotӧi ia ba li bӧ'ӧ ''Impaired Fasting Glucose'' (IFG) ba tola gӧna fӧkhӧ gulo (''pradiabetes''). ==== Famareso gulo ndro si'lӧ tatu ginӧtӧ/''Random Plasma Glucose'' (RPG) ==== Gulo ndro sifaruka tefotӧi ia gulo ndro gofu hawa'ara manӧ wamareso. Famareso gulo da'e lӧ'moguna wama'anӧ ma inӧtӧ wemanga. Fӧkhӧ gulo na RPG 200 mg/dl ma tӧra sifao dandra wӧkhӧ gulo. ==== ''Oral Glucose Tolerance Test'' ==== Famareso gulo ndro aefa manga zami-ami ma tefotӧi ia ba li bӧ'ӧ ''Oral Glucose Tolerance Test'' (OGTT). Moguna ba wamaduhu'ӧ ''diagnosis'' wӧkhӧ gulo ba niha sokhӧ gulo ndro si normal ofeta alawa ma ha ma'ifu tedou. OGTT da'e manu'a gulo ndro ba ginӧtӧ aefa wamazu idanӧ si so gulo. Fӧkhӧ gulo na fa'alawa ndro ba zi 200 mg/dl ma tӧra na aefa 2 (dua) ja, na gulo ndro ba zi 140-199 mg/dl aefa 2 (dua) ja, la ''diagnosa'' ia IFG faoma ''pradiabetes''. ==== ''Glycohemoglobin''  ''Test'' ==== ''Glycohemoglobin'' la tӧtӧi ia gӧi ''glycosylated hemoglobin'' (HbA_1c) ma ''hemoglobin A1C''. HbA_1c te'oguna'ӧ ia tobali dane-dane awӧ ba wamaigi fa'atedou ''kontrol'' wӧkhӧ gulo. Su'a-su'a si ''normal'' HbA_1c ya'ia da'ӧ 4% ofeta 6%, te'tӧtӧi fӧkhӧ gulo na HbA_1c ba zi 6,5% ma tӧra, ba na HbA_1c ba gotalua zi 6% ofeta 6,5% tola tobali diabetes (''pradiabetes''). == Hadia nifalua na tohare wökhö da'e? == === '''Fӧkhӧ gulo tipe 1''' === Nifalua ba wӧkhӧ gulo tipe 1 ya'ia da'ӧ:<ref name=":4" /> # Muzago (''Kontrol'') gulo # Muzago gulo samӧsa. # Dalu-dalu isuli. # ''Diet'' ba mohalӧwӧ ma fa olaraga. === '''Fӧkhӧ gulo tipe 2''' === Nifalua ba wӧkhӧ gulo tipe 2 ya'ia da'ӧ:<ref name=":5" /> # Mangalӧsi wa'aoha (''risiko'') gӧna wӧkhӧ nuo si'ide-ide he bahӧrӧ ba he ba mbua, lalania mu'zago gulo ndro ba fa'alawa ndro. # Mangalӧsi wa'aoha gӧna wӧkhӧ nua sebua si so ba nuo dӧdӧ (''koroner''), nuo ba guto (''serebrovaskuler''), ba nuo ba mboto tanӧ'bӧ'ӧ (''perifer''). # Mangalӧsi wa'aoha ''metabolisme'' ba ''neurologi'', lalania ''kontrol'' gulo ba ndro. --> == Fökhö si fakhai == * [[Fökhö Mbua]] == Khai-khai baero == * [https://www.diabetes.org American Diabetes Association] * [https://diabetesatlas.org/ IDF Diabetes Atlas] * [https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/resources-for-health-educators/national-eye-health-education-program/nehep-partnership-directory/national-diabetes-education-program National Diabetes Education Program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415182511/https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/resources-for-health-educators/national-eye-health-education-program/nehep-partnership-directory/national-diabetes-education-program |date=2022-04-15 }} * [https://diabetesjournals.org/care/issue/42/Supplement_1 ADA's Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes 2019] * {{cite journal | vauthors = Polonsky KS | title = The past 200 years in diabetes | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2012-10-04_367_14/page/1332 | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 367 | issue = 14 | pages = 1332–1340 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 23034021 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMra1110560 | s2cid = 9456681 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite web | url = https://medlineplus.gov/diabetes.html | publisher = U.S. National Library of Medicine | work = MedlinePlus | title = Diabetes }} == Umbu == {{Reflist|18em}} [[Kategori:Fökhö]] [[Kategori:No mufareso]] dbwv3y5ylntn7zn4z513w1avz1oonqh 0 2593 27611 25382 2026-08-14T18:02:46Z InternetArchiveBot 504 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260814sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 27611 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox spesies |item = Q20980826 <!--taksonomi untuk Felis catus dari Wikidata https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20980826--> |synonyms= *''[[Felis silvestris]] catus'' <small>([[sinonim subyektif]])</small><ref name="Driscoll" /> *''[[Felis catus]] domestica'' <small>([[sinonim junior]] tidak valid)</small><ref name="ITIS F.c.d.">{{cite web |url= http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=727487 |title=ITIS Standard Report Page: Felis catus domestica |work=ITIS Online Database |accessdate=14 December 2011}}</ref> *''F. catus domesticus'' {{small|Erxleben, 1777}}<ref name=Erxleben>{{Cite book |last=Erxleben |first=J. C. P. |year=1777 |title=Systema regni animalis per classes, ordines, genera, species, varietates cvm synonymia et historia animalivm. Classis I. Mammalia |location=Lipsiae |publisher=Weygandt |pages=520–521 |chapter=Felis Catus domesticus |chapterurl=https://archive.org/details/iochristpolycerx00erxl/page/520}}</ref> *''F. angorensis'' {{small|[[Karl Christian Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1788}} *''F. vulgaris'' {{small|Fischer, 1829}} }} '''Mao''' ba li Indonesia lamane '''Kucing''' so göi zanötöi '''kucing domestik'''<ref name="MSW3fc">{{MSW3 Carnivora|id=14000031 |pages=534–535 |heading=Species ''Felis catus''}}</ref><ref name="ITIS F.c.">{{cite web |url= http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=183798 |title=ITIS Standard Report Page: Felis catus |work=ITIS Online Database |year=2011 |publisher=[[Integrated Taxonomic Information System]] |location=Reston, Virginia |accessdate=14 December 2011}}</ref> ma mao nifaliaro ba nomo ba Ii Indonesia ya'ia da'ö '''kucing rumah''' ''nama ilmiah'': ''Felis silvestris catus'' mazui ''Felis catus'') ya'ia da'ö sifagölö moroi ba gurifö so'ono ma ba wehede wamahaö ba zekola lamane; ''mamalia karnivora'' moroi ba ''Familia Felidae''. Fehede Mao ma si no la'ila döinia ba li Indonesia ya'ia da'ö; "kucing" andre, teŵa'ö ia ba Mao si no mauwu ba nofaliaro ba nomo,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/housecat |title="Housecat" in the American Heritage Dictionary |publisher=Education.yahoo.com |accessdate=6 Oktober 2010 |archive-date=2013-10-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022174554/http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/housecat |dead-url=yes }}</ref> ba hiza tola göi teŵa'ö ia khö Mao Sebua ma "kucing besar" simane [[Singo]] ma ba li Indonesia la'ila latötöi lamane '''singa''' faoma [[Harimo]] ba li Indonesia ya'ia da'ö '''harimau'''. Mao no fariawö ba wa'auri niha I'otarai meföna ma önö ngahönö fatua lö situmbu Yesu ma laŵa'ö ia ba wanötöi si sökhi ba li Indonesia ya'ia da'ö ‘''6.000 tahun SM''', te'ila moroi ba döla mao nisöndra ba [[Siprus|Pulau Siprus]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Meet Helen and Aphrodite, Cyprus's indigenous cats|url =http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/life/2009-11/03/content_8904093.htm|work=China Daily|accessdate = 3 November 2009}}</ref> Niha dawa Misirai (Mesir Kuno) moroi ba ndröfi si tölu ngahönö a lima ngaotu fakhe fatua lö situmbu Yesu (3.500 SM) no lafaliaro Mao ba wameta'u te'u ma ngawalö gurifö samakiko basitö zohalöŵö ba nowi hegöi si so ba halasa.<ref name="9500 years">{{cite web| title = Oldest Known Pet Cat? 9500-Year-Old Burial Found on Cyprus|url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/04/0408_040408_oldestpetcat.html|accessdate = 6 March 2007 |date=8 April 2004|publisher=National Geographic News}}</ref> Ba ginötö iada'a, mao nosa'ae sambua moroi ba zoya gurifö nirorogö ma nifaliaro si tehöngö ba zisagörö ulidanö.<ref name=SciAm>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-taming-of-the-cat |title=The Evolution of House Cats |publisher=Scientific American |author=Carlos A. Driscoll, Juliet Clutton-Brock, Andrew C. Kitchener and Stephen J. O'Brien |accessdate=26 August 2009}}</ref> Mao si no tesura lala waö-waö we'asora ba gulidanö, ya'ia da'ö mao simane mao ''trah'' mazui galur murni (''pure breed''), simane mao Persia, Mao Siam, Mao Manx, faoma mao Sphinx. Mao simane da'a la oya'ö ia ba nahia wamaliaro urifö si no latatugöi. Fa'oya Mao simane da'ö ha 1% moroi ba mao ba zi sagörö ulidanö, sitörania ya'ia da'ö mao si no teforudugö ira mao mbanua faoma mao si lö nahia ma mao si so ba mbenua misa, si lö lafaliaro niha. == Waö-waö ngandroto faoma fa'atedou ba wa'auri (Taksonomi dan evolusi) == [[Berkas:AfricanWildCat.jpg|jmpl|Kucing liar Afrika, ''Felis silvestris lybica'', ya'ia da'ö böröta moroi ba mao mbanua.]] ''Felidae'' ya'ia da'ö mao moroi ba ''familia mamalia'' si no manema fa'afabö'ö ngawalö wa'auri ba wa'alio moroi ba nina mao si tohare moroi ba mböröta mao soya moroisa, sifagölö ha 10–15&nbsp;juta ngahönö si lalö<ref name="Johnson 1997">{{Cite journal |title=Phylogenetic Reconstruction of the Felidae Using 16S rRNA and NADH-5 Mitochondrial Genes |last=Johnson |first=Warren |last2=O'Brien |first2=Stephen J. |journal=Journal of Molecular Evolution |year=1997 |volume=44 |issue=0 |pages=S98–S116 |doi=10.1007/PL00000060 |pmid=9071018 }}</ref> ba tefarahu ba zingo, harimo, ''cougar'' ba oya nasa danöbö'ö. Ba nga'ötö da'a, mao mbanua ma asese lamane ia ba li Indonesia ''kucing domestik'' ma (''Felis catus'') no amotola moroi ba ''genus Felis'', si tefarahu ba gangolifa mao side-ide si so ba zi fitu ngawalö mao (molo'ö moroi ba gangolifania).<ref name="MSW3fc" /><ref name="ITIS F.">{{cite web |url= http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=180586 |title=ITIS Standard Report Page: Felis |work=ITIS Online Database |accessdate=14 December 2011 }}</ref> Ngambatö moroi ba ngawalö mao da'a, tesöndra ba zi sagörö ulidanö ba farahu Mao Kara ma mao gatua khönia(''Felis chaus'') moroi ba Asia Tenggara, Mao kara Eropa(''F. silvestris silvestris''), Mao kara Afrika (''F. s. lybica''), Mao hili China(''F. bieti''), faoma Mao Arab (''F. margarita''), ba gotalua zoya.<ref name="Stefoff">{{Cite book |publisher=Benchmark Books |location=New York |isbn=0-7614-1577-7 |last=Stefoff |first=Rebecca |title=Cats |date=November 2003 |page=34 }}</ref> Mao mbanua si'oföna sibai la angolifagö sitobali ''Felis catus'' nibe'e namada [[Carolus Linnaeus]] bakha ba [[edisi ke-10 Systema Naturae|edisi ke-10 ''Systema Naturae'']]-nya nifaehagö ba ndröfi si 1758.<ref name="MSW3fc" /><ref name="hasilan otomatis1">{{Cite book|last=Linnaeus |first=Carolus |authorlink=Carl Linnaeus |title=''Systema naturae per regna tria naturae: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis'' |publisher=Holmiae (Laurentii Salvii) |year=1766 |page=62 |url= http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k99004c/f62.chemindefer |accessdate=2 April 2008 |language=la |volume=1 |edition=12th |origyear=1758}}</ref> Börö me [[filogenetika]] sibohou, Mao mbanua sito'ölönia lakaoni ia lamane subspesies moroi ba mao kara, ''F. silvestris''.<ref name="MSW3fc" /><ref name="Driscoll" /><ref name="MSW3fs">{{MSW3 Carnivora|pages=536–537|id=14000057|heading=Species ''Felis silvestris''}}</ref> Da'a no möi ba fa'afaruka wangoguna'ö ngawalö wogaoni, börö me Mao mbanua lakaoni ''subspecies''-nia, ''Felis silvestris catus''.<ref name="MSW3fc" /><ref name="Driscoll" /><ref name="MSW3fs" /> Mao kara lakaoni göi ba gangolifa subspesies ''F. catus'',<ref name="MSW3fs" /> ba hiza me döfi si 2003, [[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]] no la be'e döi ba mao kara ya'ia da'ö ''F. silvestris''.<ref name="ICZN">{{Cite journal |title=Opinion 2027 |journal=Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature |volume=60 |publisher=[[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]] (ICZN) |year=2003 |url= http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/iczn/BZNMar2003opinions.htm |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110609014212/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/iczn/BZNMar2003opinions.htm |archivedate= 9 June 2011 }}</ref> Töi ni'ila niha ni'oguna'ö ba Mao mbanua ya'ia da'ö ''F. catus'', na lago'ö wamatörö töi ba gurifö nifaliaro mangoguna'ö fehede sifagölö si'oföna ''(senior)'' ni fasao ma bua wangera-ngera si tola tobali söndra ba wotatugöi ya'ia.<ref name="ICZN" /> Ba itaria göi mao mbanua andre latötöi ia ''Felis domesticus''<ref name="MacDonald">{{Cite journal |title=Nutrition of the domestic cat, a mammalian carnivore |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-nutrition_1984_4/page/521 |last=MacDonald |first=M. L. |last2=Rogers |first2=Q. R. |last3=Morris |first3=J. G. |journal=Annual Review of Nutrition |volume=4 |pages=521–562 |year=1984 |pmid=6380542 |doi=10.1146/annurev.nu.04.070184.002513 }}</ref> ma ''Felis domestica'',<ref name="MSW3fc" /> simane si no lafaehagö ira sohalöŵö ba naturalis Jerman [[Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben|J. C. P. Erxleben]] ba ndröfi si 1777 ba hiza da'a tengan töi-töi ngandroto ma taksonomi valid si lö asese la'oguna'ö ba zinura ba wamahaö, literatur ilmiah,<ref name="MacDonald"/> börö binomial Linnaeus ni'ofönai'ö.<ref name="Vella">{{Cite book |title=Robinson's Genetics for Cat Breeders and Veterinarians |edition=4th |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |isbn=0-7506-4069-3 |last=Vella |first=Carolyn M. |author2=Shelton, Lorraine M. |author3=McGonagle, John J. |author4= Stanglein, Terry W. |year=1999 |page=3}}</ref> Sambua gorudua mao kara saitö ya'ia da'ö '''Transkaukasus''' mazui '''Transkaukasia''' no'irao laföfögö ya'ia da'ö ''Felis daemon''<small> ([[Konstantin Alekseevich Satunin|Satunin]] 1904)</small> ba hiza iada'a orudua da'a no tobali ma tola lamane angolifa mao mbanua.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://caucasian-large-mammalian.narod.ru/ |title=Catalogue of the Specimens of Caucasian Large Mammalian Fauna in the Collection of The National Museum of Georgia |publisher=Caucasian-large-mammalian.narod.ru |accessdate=4 July 2013}}</ref> Fefu mao ba gangolifa da'a moroi ba nga'ötö soya si no irai auri me 6–7&nbsp;juta fakhe si lalö ba Asia.<ref name="Johnson">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1122277 |volume=311 |issue=5757 |pages=73–77 |title=The Late Miocene Radiation of Modern Felidae: A Genetic Assessment |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-01-06_311_5757/page/73 |journal=Science |year=2006 |pmid=16400146 |last=Johnson |first=Warren E. |last2=Eizirik |first2=E. |last3=Pecon-Slattery |first3=J. |last4=Murphy |first4=W. J. |last5=Antunes |first5=A. |last6=Teeling |first6=E. |last7=O'Brien |first7=Stephen J. |bibcode = 2006Sci...311...73J }}</ref> Fa'afakhai sindruhu bakha ba Felidae ahatö ba hiza lö nasa si tatu,<ref name="Mattern" /><ref name="Masuda 1996">{{Cite journal |title=Molecular Phylogeny of Mitochondrial Cytochrome b and 12S rRNA Sequences in the Felidae: Ocelot and Domestic Cat Lineages |last=Masuda |first=R. |author2=Lopez, J. V. |author3=Slattery, J. P. |author4=Yuhki, N. |author5= O'Brien, Stephen J. |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |year=1996 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=351–365 |doi=10.1006/mpev.1996.0085 |pmid=8975691 }}</ref> simane mao hili Cina, itaria lafaogö ba gangolifa ''Felis silvestris bieti'' sitobali ''upaspesies'' mao kara, simane ngawalö moroi ba Afrika Utara ''F. s. lybica''.<ref name="Driscoll" /><ref name="Mattern">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.2000.tb00354.x |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=232–253 |last=Mattern |first=Michelle Y. |title=Phylogeny and Speciation of Felids |journal=Cladistics |year=2000 |last2=McLennan |first2=Deborah A. }}</ref> Na lafaedogö ia ba Nasu, Mao lö itörö wa'atedou ebua ba ginötö la'ila wa tola nifaliaro tobali mao mbanua, börö me amuata mao mbanua tenga simane amuata mao kara ba gatua si tola bataha ba gatua soya utu ndru'u.<ref name="Lipinski">{{Cite journal |title=The Ascent of Cat Breeds: Genetic Evaluations of Breeds and Worldwide Random-bred Populations |last=Lipinski |first=Monika J. |author2=Froenicke, Lutz |author3=Baysac, Kathleen C. |author4=Billings, Nicholas C. |author5=Leutenegger, Christian M. |author6=Levy, Alon M. |author7=Longeri, Maria |author8=Niini, Tirri |author9= Ozpinar, Haydar |journal=Genomics |date=January 2008 |volume=91 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1016/j.ygeno.2007.10.009 |pmid=18060738 |pmc=2267438 }}</ref><ref name="CameronBeaumont">{{Cite journal|title=Evidence Suggesting Pre-adaptation to Domestication throughout the Small Felidae |last=Cameron-Beaumont |first=Charlotte |last2=Lowe |first2=Sarah E. |last3=Bradshaw |first3=John W. S. |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |year=2002 |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=361–366 |doi=10.1046/j.1095-8312.2002.00028.x |url=http://www.neiu.edu/~jkasmer/Biol498R/Readings/essay1-06.pdf |accessdate=29 September 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609020351/http://www.neiu.edu/~jkasmer/Biol498R/Readings/essay1-06.pdf |archivedate=9 June 2011 }}</ref> Mao si so ba nomo si no mauwu, asese alua wa'afaruka ba mao ''F. catus'' [[liar]].<ref name="Bradshaw1999">{{Cite journal |title=Feral Cats: Their Role in the Population Dynamics of ''Felis catus'' |last=Bradshaw|author2=Horsfield, G. F. |author3=Allen, J. A. |author4= Robinson, I. H. |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |year=1999 |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=273–283 |doi=10.1016/S0168-1591(99)00086-6 }}</ref> Fa'afabö'ö mao andre ba ginötö wame'e töi ba mbanua si so ya'ita eluahania wa hibridisasi tola ''Hibrida Felidae#Kucing domestik faoma hibridisasi|alua sifao fa'oya Felidae danöbö'', si'oföna mao leopard ba Asia.<ref name="Oliveira">{{Cite journal|last=Oliveira |first=R. |author2=Godinho, R. |author3=Randi, E. |author4= Alves, P. C. |title=Hybridization Versus Conservation: Are Domestic Cats Threatening the Genetic Integrity of Wildcats (''Felis silvestris silvestris'') in Iberian Peninsula? |journal=Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. |volume=363 |issue=1505 |page=295329861 |year=2008 |pmid=18522917 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0052 |pmc=2606743}}</ref> So ngawalö gamuata sito'ölö mao kara te börö me no Preadaptasi ma simöi fa'afabö'ö numalö ba gurifö nifaliaro.<ref name="CameronBeaumont" /> Si tola oroma ba mao andrö ya'ia da'ö, ba wa'ide-ide mboto, hewisa ia ba zamaliaro ya'ia, hadia so khönia nasa wa'amao karania, ba omasi ia famai-mai.<ref name="Fogle">{{Cite book |last=Fogle |first=Bruce (ed.) |title=Interrelations Between People and Pets |year=1981 |publisher=Charles C. Thomas Publications |isbn=0-398-04169-5}}</ref>{{rp|12–17}} So moroi ba ngafu Felidae lö oya zitola mauwu he no tefahaö ia wa'atoröi ba nomo zamaliaro ya'ia.<ref name="CameronBeaumont" /> Mao so khönia wa'afahuwu ba niha, lö ata'u ia niha [[mutualisme|mutualistik]] ma zui [[komensalisme|komensal]]. So dombua zi no la latöngöni niha wangosisi'ö hewisa ena'ö mauwu mao kara andrö. (domestikasi). Ba nifalua siföföna, niha mangodödögö ba wa mauwu mao moroi ba wamili [[seleksi buatan]] me mao göi na sambua gurifö sondra'u ba simanga hama (predator hama).<ref name="OConnor">{{Cite journal |title=Wild or Domestic? Biometric Variation in the Cat ''Felis silvestris'' |last=O'Connor |first=T. P. |journal=International Journal of Osteoarchaeology |year=2007 |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=581–595 |doi=10.1002/oa.913 }}</ref> Da'a no tefahela ma tefalalaŵa me ambö fatema ba dödö niha, me lö oya tola tefalua lala simane da'a, mao molo'ö sito'ölönia lö lago'ö hadia ia nibawa ma nifamaha khönia heŵa'ae no la'ila niha wa mao andre, urifö sondra'u önia simane te'u, ma zui hadia manö zi tola la'a ''[[ferret]]'' mazui [[terrier]] te abölö sökhi ba wo feta'u ngawalö zamakiko.<ref name="Driscoll">{{Cite journal |title=In the Light of Evolution III: Two Centuries of Darwin Sackler Colloquium: From Wild Animals to Domestic Pets&nbsp;– An Evolutionary View of Domestication |last=Driscoll |first=C. A. |last2=MacDonald |first2=D. W. |last3=O'Brien |first3=Stephen J. |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=106 |issue=S1 |pages=9971–9978 |year=2009 |pmid=19528637 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0901586106 |pmc=2702791 |bibcode = 2009PNAS..106.9971D }}</ref> Lala tanöbö'ö ya'ia da'ö, mao la famaha ena'ö tola aefa ira moroi ba wa'auri ba danö molo'ö hewisa wa'abatahara ba nomo zamaliaro ya'ira, me hadia zi so zifasui niha ngawalö zi tola la'a tola möi fondröni dödöra ba mangahono ba nomo nih.<ref name="Driscoll" /> == Sikhala (Karakteristik) == Mao nifaliaro ma mao ba nomo sambua moroi ba zoya simanga ahuluania, mao fao ba gangolifa sitehöngö ba wondra'u ahuluania ba zisagörö ulidanö. Mao andre tola mondra'u ngahönö ngawalö zaliŵa-liŵa si tola la'a, na mao kara atö ha ndrege otu ngawalö. Ba hiza börö me botonia ide-ide, mao nifaliaro lö ata'u niha wanguri ya'ia. Sitola möi fa'ata'u niha simane naso khönia ngawalö wökhö na i usu niha ma zui na göna za'ania. Mao tola famobörö de'ala ba zisambua nahia, ba zitenga nahiania. Ba zi no irai alua, mao idugu taya ba ngafunia. Mao andre, arakhagö fagölö ira zimane na mondra'u zingo [[singa]] faoma harimo [[harimau]], la usu mbagi faoma ifö satarö, irege göna gamaudu naha noso ni ra'unia, simöi alele döla, ba tekifu noso ba mate gahuluara. [[Berkas:Gambara Mao so ndrau teu.png|kiri|jmpl|Mao si no lafaliaro mondra'u te'u ba nomo (''Rattus rattus diardii'').]] Mao na la ila niha wa simanga nagole ma ba li wamahaö ba zekola laŵa'ö ia "karnivora yang sempurna" na lafaigi molo'ö ba nifö faoma lala ba wo fangamöi ngawalö ö si numalö ba mbotonia. Ifö mao ma Gigi premolar faoma molar si'oföna sibai so dua rozi nifönia satarö si so ba ngai mbewenia faoma fatambai, so tatawi ngawalö nagole ni'ania. Heŵa'ae sikhala simane da'a tesöndra ba gangolifa mao tanöbö'ö simane [[Canidae]] mazui asu, hiza i sikhala da'a alio manöi ma monönö wangi'ila niha moroi ba mao. Tenga simane simanga nagole tanöbö'ö, mao arakhagö lö la'a ngawalö zifarukha ba zinanö. [[Beru]] ma zui [[Asu]] fa'itaria la'a mbua zinanö, wa'a zinanö, ma zui we simane we zigu-sigu naso, na mao tenga simane da'ö, ha nagole ni'ara sito'ölönia hadia zi no la ra'u samösa. Ba hiza meno oi la faliaro ia niha, ba no la akasigö ena'ö so wamalala gö me moguna ba wa'atedou ma ba wa'abataha ba wa'auri, aröu sibai fabö'ö ira nasu nifaliaro, itaria la'a göra heŵa'ae tenga nagole. Hewa'ae no oroma ba niha wa mao andre, sambua gurifö somasi ha sageu-sageu ia ba nahiania, ba tola göi owulo ira ba zisambua ngafu, hiza lö khöra fo fakai zi so bangaira, tenga simane singo. Ero-ero mao andre, ba so nahiara zamösana, na simatua atö ba abölö ebolo nahia zi so ia, ba mao andre no göi faoma lazago nawöra, ba na so atö nifadönira ba faoma langöngö nawöra, ba alua warawisa side-ide. Mao sifarawi ma si fa'udu khö nawönia, sito'ölönia, iköröbui ia, ba no mosindro yaŵa mbu zörinia, ba wangoroma'ö khö mao tanöbö'ö hulö zebua sibai ia. Na fa'udu atö ira, fatafari ba mbawa, faoma fa'usu. Ba fa'udusara lö irai so wa'amesokho sabölö-bölö, me na so atö zi kala ba alio sibai ilau moloi irege lö monönö zesokhonia. Mao sasese fa'udu sagötö wa'aurinia, mao simatua. Oroma moroi ba laheto zokho börö wa'udusu ba mbawa. Si alawe tenga lö fa'udu hiza i tenga simane fa'asese wa'udusa zimatua, ha na itaboi zameta'u ononia. Na lafaigi molo'ö hewisa gamuata mao ba ginötö iada'a, mao kara ma mao gatua sitobali böröta mao nifaliaro, no so wa'afabö'ö moroi ba wetaro zalua ba danö simate ba waö-waö nitöröra so deu ba so lökhö, irege oi so wa'afabö'ö ba mboto gurifö andrö, so zawe'e-we'e bu, ba tanöbö'önia. Mao omasi ira zanaukhu-naukhu, ba asese lalau molokhoi ba haga luo, baero da'ö, mao lö omasi ia zi ta'unö, na itibo'ö zita'unönia, ba balugö ma iko'o, sitobali tandra wa lö omasi ia na la'ila zita'unönia. Hiza mao andrö, itaha ibali'ö ia adu lömaliŵa-liŵa ia, simane ba ginötö itarogö gönia simane te'u, btn. Ba danö [[Afrika Utara]] tesöndra nasa mao kara, ma sahatö ba mao nifaliaro mane ma'ökhö. Börö me so wa'afahatöra ba gurifö sauri ba danö simate (padang gurun), irege ambö bataha ira ba danö soya sau, teu, ba namo satoru börö wa'okafu-kafu, heŵa'ae so zimane mao ''Norwegian Forest Cat'' faoma ''Maine Coon'' si tola bataha; ba lafaogö ira ba wangodödögö ba wame'e fa'abataha ba wa'aukhu mbotora, ya'ia da'ö 39°C, ba wetaro fa'abasö. Arakhagö fefu mao lö omasi ba nidanö, baero mao ''Turkish Van'' ba gotalua mao soya si lö ata'u ba nidanö. [[Berkas:White Cat Nursing Four Kittens.jpg|ka|230px|jmpl|Öfa nga'eu nono mao zamaenu khö ninania.]] Inötö wanabina ma ''gestasi'' mao ya'ia da'ö, önö ngafulu a tölu ngaluo (63 hari). Ono mao tumbu balunö ba afiso. Hörö nono mao awena teboka na no irugi ŵalu ofeta fulu ngaluo ndröfi nia (8-10 hari). Ono mao fao khö ninania, döfi önö ofeta fitu migu( 6-7 minggu) ba fangi'ila hewisa ba wa'omasi khö zi'alawe ma simatua, ba ndröfi si fulu ofeta felelima waŵa (10-15 bulan). Mao tola manabina ofeta öfa nga'eu nononia, me naha nono mao so öfa nahia sifabö'ö-bö'ö. Fa'abua mboto mao so ba zi 2,5 irugi 7 kilo ba lö'irai töra moroi ba zi 10&nbsp;kilo. Na labe'e gönia töra moroi ba zi to'ölö, fa'abua mao tola ikhamö ba zi 23&nbsp;kilo. Ba da'a tatu manö lö sökhi ba mboto mao, irege da'a no sambua ni laŵa ba wanguri mao. Ba nahia wamaliaro mao, mao andre tola ikhamö 15 ofeta 20 fakhe, mao fondrege satua si no irai so ba gulidanö ya'ia da'ö tölu ngafulu a ŵalu fakhe a tölu hari (38 tahun 3 hari) nibe'e töi [[Creme Puff]]. Mao nifaliaro sitebai la'efasi baero nomo, da'a zanau noso, me aefa ira ba wa'udusa ba mao tanöbö'ö si so baero nomo. Mao kara tola fataha ndrege dua fakhe, tola ambö. Mao faliarotö si so ba nomo niha, la haogö nahiania faoma kota-kota naha zi ta'unö, kota-kota zita'unö da'ö labe'e khönia gawu, da'a oya la'amawa ba naha zamawa soguna ba mao. Baero gawu, labe'e khönia göi naha worawi ma naha sitola ikhakha'ai faoma sa'ania. Da'a ba wo'alösi fa'atekiko wakake si so ba nomo. Asese sibai mao mamili-mili ö nia. Me mao andre so khönia wa'atarö ba wangago gofu hadia manö si so ba gararonia ni tötöi faoma ''organ vomeronasal'' mazui ''organ Jacobson''. Na so atö wa'atetuli ndroto-ndrotonia da'a moroi ba zi sambua ö, ba hiza fangago mao manöngöni hua gö da'ö, irege fefu gö sitenga hua gö si no itandroi andrö, lö omasi ia i'a.<!--When a cat wrinkles its muzzle, lowers its chin, and lets its tongue hang a bit, it is opening the passage to the vomeronasal. This is called gaping. Gaping is the equivalent of the [[Flehmen response]] in other animals, such as [[dogs]] and [[horses]]--> [[Berkas:Catpupil03042006.jpg|jmpl|230px|Hörö mao. Hörögö ''membrana nictitans'' hulö guö sanifi sibai sola'a-la'a safusi si so ba gi'o.]] Mao tola ifaigi nifaiginia ba haga sitara sibai. So khöra nifotöi guö ndrumi ''Selaput Pelangi '' ma ''iris'' sangahaogö nahia ba hörö si fasösö. Hewa'ae no simanö, fa'afasösö da'a ba wo'alösi nahia wamaigi ba mao. Sambua ngandroto ni fotöi ''tapetum lucidum''ni'oguna'ö ba nahia si lö oya. Ngandroto da'a zame'e la'a-la'a ba hörö mao na la foto ia mangoguna'ö haga (blitz). Simane ngawalö gurifö simanga nagole, mao andre sambua gurifö ba gotalua gurifö soya, dombua hörö mao föna so, mame'e otalua ba wamaigi ngawalö zi so ba zifasui ya'ia, mo'alösi fa'ebua nahia ba wamaiginia. Hörö mao so khönia famaigi tanöbö'ö ma (persepsi) ma laŵa'ö Trikromasi si tebai. Na haga si lö oya sibai ba wamaigi ngawalö hadia ia, mao mangoguna'ö bu mbewe ma "kumis" ma ''vibrissae'' ba wame'e tandra khönia he zo wetahö fetaro numalö ia, da'a no sambua fonönö ngandroto sorasoi ngawalö zalua ba zifasui ya'ia. Simane na so nangi, mao tola i'ila hadia ngawalö zi so ba zifasui ya'ia hewa'ae lö ifaigi. Bu Mbewe mao andre zame'e tandra khönia simane na so nahia side-ide simane ba pipa nidanö, tola i'ila wa namöi ia bakha wa hasambalö tolazi ia. Mao so khönia wenaeta si tölu ba hörönia nibe'e töi membran pengelip ma asese laŵa'ö göi membrana niktitans. Fenaeta hörönia andre tefa'anö ya'ia da'ö fenaeta sanifi so balugö hörö ba oroma ia na teboka hörönia. Fetaro da'a mondruhö hörönia na mofökhö ia. Simanö göi na manuköu ma omuso dödönia, oroma wenaete hörö da'a khönia. Li mao asese lasura "meong" ba li [[bahasa Indonesia]]. Na ba li Inggris ni'oguna'ö ba Amerika, li mao lasura faoma "meow". Ba mbanua ba danö Inggris samösa, lasura faoma "miaow", "miaow" ba li Prancis, "miau" ba li Geremani ma Jerman, "nya" ba wehede Jepang ba ngawalö nasa wanura tanöbö'ö ba gangolifa wehede. Li "meong" mao so khönia ngawalö geluaha molo'ö fanötöi ma hewisa li mao andre ba zi sambua nahia. Mao göi so khöni li hulö zihago sasese somasi niha wamondrongo. Mao fefu gofu hezo so wetarora ba gulidanö, talingara no mozizio ma lö manaombe tou. Tenga simane dalinga nasu, sitefatö tou. Ngawalö mao sotöi ''Scottish Fold'' sambua bagotalu zoya mao sifabö'ö ma'ifu moroi khö danöbö'önia, na aukhu ia ma na ata'u ia, mosindro dalingania, ba hulö zifangöngö li nia. Na la rongo sambua li, talingania maliŵa ba wetaro he zo moroi li da'ö, talinga mao tola möi miföna, ba ngai, ba itaria hulö möi mifuri. Mao sambua gurifö sifao ba gangolifa si lö omasi ta'unö. Simane na so ginötönia ba lafelai mbura. Saliva ma idanö gararo mao, sambua fangalösö si sökhi ba mbura, ba hiza tola göi tobali fa'ali-ali na göna ba niha. Itaria mao la utaini gölu-ölu mbu ma hairball si no la'a si so ba mbetu'ara. Mao urifö soya mörö ena'ö lö alö wa'abölöra. Fa'ara wemörö mao ero ma'ökhö 12-16 za, ma so ba rata-rata 13-14 za ba so göi zi mörö ofeta 20 za. == Amuata Mao(Perilaku kucing) == === Mohago (Mendengkur) === Mao hulö zohago na so wa'omuso dödö. Ha mao zolau li simane da'a. Tenga ha na so zomusö dödönia, hiza terongo li mao simane da'ö na edöna so wa'afökhö khönia, na mo'ono, ba simanö göi na lafaenu nonora. Na la fagölösi ba Gelombang Hertz ba li mao so ba zi 25 ofeta 150. Ba wetaro sadogo-dogo, fohago mao arakhagö fagölö ira li moto na awena la orifi. Baero mao nifaliaro, mao sohago tanöbö'ö, ya'ia da'ö mao gatua, cheetah, lynx faoma puma. Hiza na ba khö Harimo, Singo lö khöra fehago, na khöra mohaŵa, ba molo'ö si no lafareso ira amada sangila amakhoita, wa na urifö sohaŵa, lö mohago. === Mamera'ö (Memijat) === Mamera'ö awönia sambua zasese lafalua mao. Lala wolau famera'ö awöra ya'ia da'ö ofade'a-de'a lalu'ania kambölö ba takera, lafalali-lali, ba itaria göi möi baero za'ara. Ba na lalau da'ö sifao li zi hulö zihago. Na ba ginötö mamaenu nono mao, ba hiza lalau la bözi-bözi dalu ninara. Da'a lala ena'ö möi baero nidanö zusu ninara. Na la fera'ö atö zokhö ya'ira da'ö dandra wa ahono dödöra wangagö omo da'ö. Ba so khöra wanandroi wa ni fera'öra andrö, sokhö ya'ira. === Mamadölö hulu (Refleks Meluruskan) === Mamadölö hulu sambua fa'onekhe ni'okhögö mao ba wohole'ö ya'ira na aekhu hezoso ira. Da'a no so ba mao si no ikhamö 3-4 migu ndröfinia, ba nano 7 migu sa'ae ba no simane mao si no ebua. Da'a börö döla mao fetaro dölahulu, mangandrauli-mangandrauli ma ba li Indonesia ia laŵa'ö fleksibel. == Angolifa Mao (Ras kucing) == [[Nga'ötö Mao]] Faigi [[Ngawalö Mao]] [[Berkas:Karin Maine Coon.jpg|jmpl|Maine Coon nga'ötö mao sebua. Fa'anau mbotora ikhamö ba zi 1,5 mete.]] [[Berkas:BurMau Vega Star, champagne burmese kitten.jpg|jmpl|Kucing ras Burmese.]] [[Berkas:Kemra2.jpg|jmpl|Chinchilla longhair.]] Angolifa mao ba zi sagörö ulidanö no oya sibai. Ero sambua nga'ötö, so khöra waehuta faoma mao tanöbö'ö, ha ya'i börö me asese faruka zimatua mao ba gangolifa mao tanöbö'ö ba no möi famöfögö mao ba zi dombua angolifa sebua ya'ia da'ö; mao sanau bu, ba mao sadogo-dogo bu. No oya gangolifa nga'ötö mao, simane nifa'oli ba da'a mitou: ;Ocicat Sinura sifakhai ba [[Ocicat]] :Ocicat ya'ia da'ö sageu mao moroi ba ngafu soya si no faruka ba mao ni'uri faoma mao kara. Tandrania mao da'a bu nia arakhagö fagölö ira mao kara, ogara-gara. ;Manx Sinura Mao [[Manx]] :Manx ya'ia da'ö mao sitesöndra ba hulo Manx. So niha zanötöi mao da'a, ya'ia da'ö ''Rumpy''. Manx i'onia no adogo-dogo, ba bunia so zaraidö-raidö. Mao da'ö lö faröi, lö amu'i ba to la ni'azari. ;Maine Coon Sinura Mao [[Maine Coon]] :Maine Coon ya'ia da'ö mao si'onarai ba Maine, Amerika Serikat. Mao da'a nga'ötö moroi ba mao Anggora Turki faoma American Shorthair. Mao da'a ailafö, ba mauwu. Bu nia anifi-nifi, ba oya la'a-la'a. ;British Shorthair Sinura Mao [[British Shorthair]] :Mao da'a la faliaro ba mbanua Inggris. Mao da'a no ahono-hono, ba tola ni faha'ö. Bu nia sito'ölönia ha sambua la'a-la'a ma dombua la'a-la'a. Si sambua la'a-la'a simane afusi, owuge'e, aitö, na si dombua la'a-la'a simane aitö (hitam pekat) faoma ogara-gara (belang). ;Burmese Sinura Mao [[Burmese]] :Burmese mao nifaliaro namada Dr. Joseph Thompson ba mbanua Amerika Serikat me döfi si 1930. Bu mao da'a a raidö-raidö (cokelat musang), owuge'e ''champagne'', btn. Mao da'a fawude-wude sibai. ;Chinchilla Longhair Sinura sifakhai Mao [[Chinchilla Longhair]] ma laŵa'ö [[Kucing Persia]] :Chinchilla Longhair mao si'onarai ba mbanua Inggris. Mao da'a no ahono-hono. Tebagi dua ngawalö mao da'a ya'ia da'ö Chinchilla so la'a-la'a soyo ba sambua tö so hawu-hawu aitö (perak gradasi). == Ngawalö la'a-la'a mbu mao (Macam warna) == Sinura [[Ngawalö mbu Mao]] [[Berkas:Long-haired tortoiseshell DSCF0193.JPG|jmpl|Mao sanau bu so la'a-la: ''tortoiseshell''.]] [[Berkas:Calico cat - Phoebe.jpg|jmpl|Mao so la'a-la'a ''calico''.]] Mao andre oya ngawalö la'a-la'a mbunia. Na mao ni faliaro simane nifa'anö ba da'a mitou; * Mao sadogo-dogo bu (kucing domestik berbulu pendek) * Mao sanau bu (kucing domestik berbulu Panjang) * Mao oriental, (da'a fefu ngawalö mao so boto size-ize, hörönia hulö almond, ebolo dalinga, ba bunia anifi ba alösö) Gen so aturai la'a-la'a ba mao samaehusi ya'ira ba : ;''Telon'' mazui ''calico'' Sinura sifakhai ba [[Mao si tölu khoi-khoi]] ma ''Kucing belang tiga'' :Telon ya'ia da'ö la'a-la'a so dane-dane ba la'a-la'a safusi, si so saitö ma'ifu ma aruzö-ruzö. Niha Jepang asese laŵa'ö mao sola'a-la'a simane da'a ya'ia da'ö; ''mi-ke'', börö me gen so fe'aso la'a-la'a da'ö tesöndra ia ba kromosom si'alawe ma simatua. Mao sola'a-la'a telon sito'ölönia mao si'alawe. ;''Tortoiseshell'' Sinura [[Tortoiseshell]] ma ''Kucing tempurung kura-kura'' :''Tortoiseshell'' ma la'adogo-dogo'ö wanötöi ya'ia da'ö; ''tortie'' ya'ia da'ö la'a-la'a saitö, aruzö-ruzö faoma safusi ba zi sageu botonia. Mao sokhö la'a-la'a simane da'a latötöi ia ''calimanco'' mazui ''clouded tiger''. ;''Tabby'' Sinura sifakhai ba Mao [[Tabby]] :Tabby ya'ia da'ö so la'a-la'a mokhoi-khoi (warna bergaris). La'a-la'a da'a ba mboto mao so zogowulo-wulo. Tabby ngawalö makarel si so tölu khoi-khoi ba ngai mboto mao, irege na lafaigi ba zaröu hulö gambara gi'a (ikan makarel). ;''Maltese'' Sinura sifakhai ba Mao [[Maltese]] ma ''Kucing malta'' :''Maltese'' töi si no ara moroi ba mao sowuge'e. ;''Bicolor'' (dombua la'a-la'a) Sinura sifakhai ba Mao [[Bicolor]] ma ''Kucing dua warna'' :''Bicolor'' latötöi ia göi ''tuxedo cat'' mazui ''jellicle cat'' börö me bunia ma'asageu botonia aitö fefu lö oya zafusi, so ma'ifu la'a-la'a safusi ba gahe, ba dalu, ba dötö'a ba tola manö göi ba mbawania ma'ifu. == Mamauwu (Domestikasi) == Simane urifö si no lafauwu (domestikasi/penjinakan), mao andre no so wa'ahatö ba wa'auri niha. Niha sanguri mao, la'odödögö wa me'e gö, ba mao si no mauwu khöra ba nomo, mamoloi ngawalö gurifö samakiko ngawalö mbotoŵa. Ba hiza da'a no möi fa'aterou dödö dozi niha somasi mamaliaro mao. <!--Original article (tidak terlalu relevan untuk id.wiki): Humans still keep cats for companionship as [[pet]]s and to hunt [[mouse|mice]] and [[rat|rats]]. Farms often have dozens of cats living semi-wild in the barns. Hunting in the barns and the fields, they kill and eat rodents that would otherwise eat large parts of the grain crop. Many pet cats successfully hunt and kill [[mice]], [[rabbit]]s, [[bird]]s, [[lizard]]s, [[frog]]s, [[fish]], and large [[insect]]s by [[instinct]], but might not eat their prey. They may even present such victims (dead or maimed) to a beloved owner, often expecting reward. [[Berkas:Predatorycat_ubt.jpeg|thumb|right|260px|Almost all cats are skilled predators.]] [[Feral cat]]s may live alone, but most are found in large groups called [[feral cat colony|feral colonies]] with communal nurseries, depending on resource availability. Many lost or abandoned [[pet]] cats join these colonies out of desperation. The average lifespan of these feral cats is much shorter than a domestic housecat, who will live an average of sixteen years or more. Urban areas are not native environments to the cat; most domestic cats evolved from cats in desert climates and were distributed throughout the world by humans, but some feral cat colonies are found in large cities, [[e.g.]] around the [[Colosseum]] and [[Forum Romanum]] in [[Rome]]. Although cats are fairly adaptable, feral felines are unable to thrive in extreme cold and heat, and with a protein requirement of about 90%, few ferals in cities find adequate nutrition on their own. In addition, they have little defense or understanding of such predators as dogs, [[coyote]]s, and even [[automobile]]s. However, there are thousands of volunteers and organizations that trap these unadoptable feral felines, [[spay]] or [[neuter]] them, [[immunization|immunize]] the cats against [[rabies]] and feline [[leukemia]], and treat them with long-lasting [[flea]] products. Before release back into their feral colonies, the attending veterinarian nips the tip off one ear to mark the feral as spayed/neutered and inoculated, as these cats will more than likely find themselves trapped again. Volunteers continue to feed and give care to these cats throughout their lives, and not only is their lifespan greatly increased, but behavior and nuisance problems, due to competition for food, are also greatly reduced. In time, if an entire colony is successfully spayed and [[neuter]]ed, no additional kittens are born and the feral colony disappears. Many hope to see an end to the harsh and unnatural world of urban feral cat colonies through these efforts. Some [[environmentalist]]s claim that the domestication of cats is harmful to the environment, and that excessive cat populations result in the overhunting of many small animals and birds in both urban and rural areas, possibly disrupting the food chain and limiting local species' populations. Throughout the centuries, as humans took advantage of the domestic cat's hunting skills, few had regard for their habitat and care, and far fewer thought to practice good [[animal husbandry]]. This created many pockets of excessive populations and local imbalances; however, with intervention and management, most especially spay and neuter programs, the disruptions and chaos in both the feline's life cycle as well as its prey can easily be avoided, and the positive effects these small and vital predators have in the appropriate environments can be observed and appreciated.--> == Mao ba Niha (Kucing dan manusia) == [[Berkas:European Male Cat.JPG|jmpl|[[European Shorthair|Kucing Eropa]] yang sedang bermain.]] Mao sageu gurifö si no la'uri niha si so ba Eropa faoma Amerika Utara, si no tefaliaro ba zi 500 zuta rozi ba zi sagörö ulidanö. Molo'ö ''Humane Society'' moroi ba Amerika Serikat, baero mao no tobali urifö ni'uri ba hiza mao no tobali sageu gurifö nihalö mbunia ba la'amawa ba zi sagörö ulidanö,<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.hsus.org/web-files/PDF/What-is-that-they-re-wearing_FurBooklet.pdf|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20061201153853/http://www.hsus.org/web-files/PDF/What-is-that-they-re-wearing_FurBooklet.pdf |archivedate= |title=What Is That They're Wearing? |publisher=Humane Society of the United States |accessdate=15 Juni 2014}}</ref> ba wangahaogö simane zake (mantel), saeru danga (sarung tangan), tofi (topi), badagahe (sepatu), ambala (selimut) faoma boneka (mainan). Mao ni'oguna'ö ba wangahaogö sambua zake tola tehalö moroi ba zi dua wulu a öfa nga'eu mao (24 ekor kucing).<ref>{{Cite news|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6165786.stm|title=EU proposes cat and dog fur ban|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=15 Juni 2014|date=}}</ref> Da'a no tebai lafalua ba zi ha'uga negara simane Amerika Serikat, Australia faoma Uni Eropa.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.hsus.org/about_us/humane_society_international_hsi/hsi_europe/dog_cat_fur/ |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090217153420/http://www.hsus.org/about_us/humane_society_international_hsi/hsi_europe/dog_cat_fur/ |archivedate=17 Februari 2009 |title=EU Announces Strict Ban on Dog and Cat Fur Imports and Exports |date=27 Juni 2007 |publisher=Humane Society International |first=Carly |last=Ikuma |work=HSUS.org |accessdate=15 Juni 2014}}</ref> Hiza, so nasa mbu mao nihaogö tobali ambala simane ba mbanua Swiss, so göi labali'ö dalu-dalu si no lafarisayoi tola ifadöhö wa'afökhö mbu'u (rematik).<ref>{{Cite news|url= http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/switzerland-finds-a-way-to-skin-a-cat-for-the-fur-trade-and-high-fashion-815426.html|title=Switzerland Finds a Way to Skin a Cat for the Fur Trade and High Fashion|work=The Independent|location=London, England|accessdate=15 Juni 2014|first=Tony|last=Paterson|date=}}</ref> === Famareso wa'oya Mao (Sensus kucing) === Molo'ö ''International Federation for Animal Health Europe'' (IFAH), fa'oya mao nifaliaro ba zi sagörö ulidanö so ba zi dua ngaotu a dua wulu zuta rozi (220 juta ekor).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ifaheurope.org/ |title=Representing the European Animal Health Industry |publisher=IFAH-Europe |accessdate=15 Juni 2014 |archive-date=2021-09-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921073421/http://www.ifaheurope.org/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> No oya zi no lafalua ba wangerai mao si no la'odödögö tenga ba ginötö salio, alua ngafulu fakhe, he nifaluara moroi ba gangowuloa (asosiasi) mazui organisasi nasional faoma internasional (simane ''[[Canadian Federation of Humane Societies]]''<ref name="Canadian">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/story/2012/07/17/nb-cat-census-1000.html|title=Humane society launches national cat census|accessdate=15 Juni 2014|work=CBC News}}</ref>). Ba hiza, halöŵö simane da'ö, hulö na abua tola tesöndra hasila nidöna-döna.<ref name="catsbe">{{cite web |url=http://www.catsbe.com |title=Cats Be |accessdate=15 Juni 2014 }}</ref><ref name="SupremeCatCensus">{{cite web |url=http://www.supremecatcensus.co.za/ |title=The Supreme Cat Census |accessdate=15 Juni 2014 |archive-date=2013-04-22 |archive-url=https://archive.is/20130422011322/http://www.supremecatcensus.co.za/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> == Sifakhai ba zalua ba gotalua mbanua (Aspek budaya) == Ba ginötö si no numalö, no la farisayoi wa böröta mao andrö, ya'ia da'ö ''Miacis'', urifö sauri ba danö me inötö [[Eosen]] sihulö garawi (musang), sauri ba zi lima wulu zuta fakhe silalö. Si no lasura si'oföna hewisa ena'ö mao andre tola lafauwu, alua ba ndröfi si 4000 SM ba Misirai (Mesir), me inötö da'ö, mao labali'ö zo zago te'u ba nahia zamaŵa gö. Ba hiza barö da'a, ba zisambua lewatö, ba Shillourokambos, Siprus, ba na lafaigi ia so ba ndröfi si 7500 SM, la söndra so döla mao faruka bakha ba döla niha. Börö me te'u tenga urifö si so ba mbanua Siprus, eluahania tola tehalö sambua wamaha'ö wa no lafalua niha ba gulidanö meluo da'ö ba wanguri ma ba wamauwu mao andrö. Töla mao ni söndra ba Siprus fakhili-khili ira mao kara si no la'ila niha wa böröta mao nifaliaro niha.<ref name="AAAS">{{Cite web |url=http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2004/0408cats.shtml |title=Salinan arsip |access-date=2005-02-21 |archive-date=2007-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224180609/http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2004/0408cats.shtml |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref name="cbc">{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2004/04/08/sci-tech/cat_tomb040408|title=CBC News:Ancient tomb may hold oldest pet cat|date=26 Apr 2004|website=web.archive.org|access-date=15 August 2021|archive-date=26 April 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040426141353/http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2004/04/08/sci-tech/cat_tomb040408|dead-url=unfit}}</ref>. [[Berkas:Cat mummy mask.jpg|jmpl|150px| Sambua mbalu-mbalu mbawa (topeng perunggu) ni'oguna'ö ba wogo'o mumi mao ba Misirai (Mesir kuno).]] Ba ndröfi si 1800 tesöndra lewatö ma tesöndra faudu "situs" si so 300.000 mumi mao oroma lö sadudu, no monga'eu, da'a göi dandra wa mao andre meföna sambua gurifö ni'omasi'ö niha. Niha Misirai no olafarisayoi wa mao andre famaedo Dewi Bast, ma no la'ila göi ya'ia da'ö Bastet mazui Thet. Hukuma ba zamunu mao, ya'ia da'ö fa'amate. Ba naso mao simate, lahaogö simane niha, la mumikö. Ba ngahönö ndröfi si lalö (abad pertengahan), mao andre sageu gurifö nifakhai niha ba haölöŵö zogömi-gömi (sihir|penyihiir) ba asese labunu mao andrö, lahaluni, latebu, ofeta latunu. So hadauga sangodödögö ba wangi'ila ngawalö zalua ba zi lalö (ahli sejarah) so fandrafe si no lafaehagö, ya'ia da'ö wa bekhu moroi ba mao andre zangekhugö fa'amate soya ''Black Death'' ba alio sibai mozaewe misa ba nahia tanöbö'ö. ''Black Death'' na lafaigi sambua wökhö (penyakit pes) ba Eropa ba abad si-14. Fa'alio wökhö da'a mozaewe ba niha misa, ba hiza ato niha meluo da'ö farisayo wa bekhu zanga'asogöp fökhö andrö. Sanga'i halöŵö ba gosali Roma meluo da'ö ibe'e ma'ifu zöndra wa mao kara sanöröi-nöröi mbolo mbenua ma laŵa'ö ia tenga mao nifaliaro, no möi bakha khönia mbekhu. Börö zöndra da'a, oya mao ni bunu ba Eropa meluo da'ö. Ba hiza börö alö wa'oya mao no möi fa'atedou wa'oya de'u, sindruhunia solohe fökhö pes (penyakit pes). Ba ginötö iada'a, ato nasa niha zifarisayo wa mao saitö, tola molohe fa'a'udi ba zi samösa niha, ba banahia tanöbö'ö so zanguma'ö wa mao saitö solohe harazaki. Aefa da'ö, mao no fati wa so wa'abö zogömi-gömi khönia. Mao saitö asese la fakhai ia Halloween. Solo'ö ''wicca'' faoma neopaganisme tanöbö'ö la farisayoi wa mao andre urifö si sökhi, tola farukha ia ba zi lö i'ila hörö ba'ibabaya tanga, ba tola göi larasai na so gafökha. Ba [[Asia]], mao no lafaogö sambua gurifö ni'oguna'ö ba wamaigi baŵa wa'atumbu niha ma [[zodiak]] [[Vietnam]]. Ba hiza, Mao lö fao ba wamaigi mbaŵa wa'atumbu ba ''Gehai''[[zodiak]] [[Tionghoa]]. Molo'ö hikaya, me inötö Razo Dalumbanua (Raja Langit) mamaluo fa'owulo ba gurifö sedöna la'oguna'ö ba wangerai baŵa wa'atumbu niha ba gulidano, ifatenge [[Te'u|De'u]] ba wogaoni gurifö da'ö. Ba da'a no oya tefazawili misa duria da'a, hiza so zanguma'ö, wa meluo da'ö me inötö lafatenge De'u wogaoni Mao, ba Te'u olifu ia wogaoni Mao, ba hikaya tanöbö'ö, te'u alua ikaoni Mao, hiza'i no ilimo ngaluo wamalua fa'owulo andrö. Irege no lafakhai duria da'a wa sitobali fatötöisa Mao faoma Te'u börö zalua da'ö khöra molo'ö salua andrö ofeta ma'ökhö. Ba wamahaö Ndrawa ma ''syariat Islam'', samösa ndrawa ena'ö böi lafakao mao yamendrua labunu, molo'ö ''hadits shahih'' ni fa'ema '''Imam Muslim''' moroi ba hikaya '''Abdullah bin Umar'''<ref>Kisah dari [[Abdullah bin Umar]], bahwa Muhammad bersabda, "Seorang wanita disiksa karena mengurung seekor kucing sampai mati. Kemudian wanita itu masuk neraka karenanya, yaitu karena ketika mengurungnya ia tidak memberinya makan dan tidak pula memberinya minum sebagaimana ia tidak juga melepasnya mencari makan dari serangga-serangga tanah." Hadits shahih diriwayatkan oleh [[Imam Muslim]] No.4160.</ref> dan [[Abu Hurairah]].<ref>Kisah dari [[Abu Hurairah]], Muhammad bersabda, "Seorang wanita disiksa karena seekor kucing yang tidak diberi makan dan minum serta tidak pula ia melepasnya mencari makanan dari serangga-serangga tanah." Hadits shahih riwayat [[Imam Muslim]] No.4161.</ref> Huku wamawa faoma fowöli Mao ba huku ndrawa ma ''syariat Islam'' no sambua horö molo'ö hadits [[Nabi Muhammad]] faoma nifarisayoi ba zura ''fiqih'' (al-qawa'id al-kulliyah). Dalil [[hadits]] '''Nabi Muhammad''', nifa'ema moroi khö nawö Nabi sotöi [[Jabir bin Abdillah]] wa no itegu Nabi ena'ö böi la'a Mao, ba fao göi mböli Mao.<ref>Hadits riwayat Tirmidzi, Ibnu Majah, dan Al-Hakim, hadits shahih. Lihat Imam As-Suyuthi, Al-Jami' Al-Shaghir, Juz II hal. 191).</ref> [[Hadits]] [[Muhammad]] da'ö zitobali dalil wa tebai la'a mao faoma tebai la famawa. Börö da'ö dawa lö manga mao faoma lö mowöli ba mamawa mao.<ref>Tentang haramnya memakan kucing lihat Asy-Syarbaini Al-Khathib, Al-Iqna`, Juz II hal. 273; Syaikh Zakariyya Al-Anshari, Fathul Wahhab, Juz II hal. 192.</ref> == Faigi göi== * [[Kucing domestik berbulu panjang]] * [[Kucing domestik berbulu pendek]] * [[Daftar ras kucing]] * [[Hubungan anjing dan kucing]] == Umbu == {{reflist|2}} == Khai-khai moroi baero == * {{en}} [http://brainmaps.org/index.php?p=speciesdata&species=felis-catus High-Resolution Images of the Cat Brain] * {{en}} [http://www.aafponline.org/ American Association of Feline Practitioners] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514091242/http://aafponline.org/ |date=2008-05-14 }} * {{en}} [http://home.ncifcrf.gov/ccr/lgd/comparative_genome/catgenome/index_n.asp Cat Genome Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090510211956/http://home.ncifcrf.gov/ccr/lgd/comparative_genome/catgenome/index_n.asp |date=2009-05-10 }} at the US [http://www.cancer.gov/ The National Cancer Institute] * {{en}} [http://www.vet.cornell.edu/fhc/ Cornell Feline Health Center] {{taxonbar|from=Q20980826}} {{authority control}} [[Kategori:Nias]] [[Kategori:Urifö]] [[Kategori:Bohou tesura]] 9ikntdf8cdro4csr845dvq3bnes98bl 0 2626 27616 24727 2026-08-14T18:25:04Z InternetArchiveBot 504 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260814sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 27616 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Speciesbox |name = Cucumber |image = ARS_cucumber.jpg |image_caption = Bua la'izu situmbu ba dölania sihulö ndraha |image_alt = Photograph of cucumber vine with fruits, flowers and leaves visible |image2 = Cucumber BNC.jpg |image2_caption = Sambua la'izu |genus = Cucumis |species = sativus |authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] }} '''La'izu''' ('''''Cucumis sativus''''', li Indonesia: ''timun'', ''mentimun'' ma ''ketimun'') no sambua zinanö sanana si tefaböbö ba famili ''Cucurbitaceae'', sanga'asogö bua sowulo-wulo anau-anau, sasese te'gona'ö ba wamalala gö.<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica">"[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/145850/cucumber Cucumber]." ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. [1998] 2019.</ref> Tefaosatö ia ba zinumbua sauri irege döfi,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Silvertown |first1=Jonathan |title=Survival, Fecundity and Growth of Wild Cucumber, Echinocystis Lobata |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-ecology_1985-11_73_3/page/841 |journal=Journal of Ecology |date=1985 |volume=73 |issue=3 |pages=841–849 |doi=10.2307/2260151|jstor=2260151 }}</ref> so tölu ngawalö ia (heŵa'ae so nasa ngawalö bö'ö si no mufazökhi<ref>Laŵa'ö ''nifazökhi'' sambua la'izu, na lafatumbu'ö niha sambua ngawalö la'izu si bohou moroi ba wamaruka tanömö la'izu si no so.</ref>): la'izu nitaba, la'izu ni'ungugö, ba la'izu si lö hunö. Tesöndra mböröta la'izu andre ba [[Asia]] i'otarai [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Tiongkok]] (Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi), irugi [[Thailand]] Utara,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chomicki |first1=Guillaume |last2=Schaefer |first2=Hanno |last3=Renner |first3=Susanne S. |title=Origin and domestication of Cucurbitaceae crops: insights from phylogenies, genomics and archaeology |url=https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/nph.16015 |website=New Phytologist |pages=1240–1255 |language=en |doi=10.1111/nph.16015 |date=June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weng |first1=Yiqun |title=Cucumis sativus Chromosome Evolution, Domestication, and Genetic Diversity: Implications for Cucumber Breeding |journal=Plant Breeding Reviews |date=7 January 2021 |pages=79–111 |doi=10.1002/9781119717003.ch4 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781119717003.ch4 |publisher=Wiley |language=en}}</ref><ref name=powo>{{cite web |title=''Cucumis sativus'' L. |work=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:292296-1|access-date=23 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bisht |first1=I. S. |last2=Bhat |first2=K.V. |last3=Tanwar |first3=S. P. S. |last4=Bhandari |first4=D. C. |last5=Joshi |first5=Kamal |last6=Sharma |first6=A. K. |title=Distribution and genetic diversity of Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii (Royle) Alef in India |journal=The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology |date=January 2004 |volume=79 |issue=5 |pages=783–791 |doi=10.1080/14620316.2004.11511843 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14620316.2004.11511843 |language=en |issn=1462-0316}}</ref> bahiza iada'a latanö ia niha gofu heza ba gulidanö, ba no oya göi ngawalö la'izu nifazökhi niha<ref>Laŵa'ö ''nifazökhi'' sambua la'izu, na lafatumbu'ö niha sambua ngawalö la'izu si bohou moroi ba wamaruka tanömö la'izu si no so.</ref> ba ni'ogale ba zi sagörö ulidanö. Ba [[Amerika Utara]], so göi nifotöi ''la'izu gatua'' (sinumbua si tefaböbö ba genus ''Echinocystis'' awö nifotöi ''marah''), bahiza sindruhunia lö amakhaitania ba la'izu nifatunöda ba da'a. == Omböila == La'izu no sinumbua sanana, ŵa'ania tumbu ba danö ba tölania manöi miyaŵa ifalali döla zinanö bö'ö ma zui döla-döla sise-ise.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P43fDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA89|title=''Cucumis sativus'', Cucumber; Chapter 16 in: Unconventional Oilseeds and Oil Sources|last1=Mariod|first1=Abdalbasit Adam|last2=Mirghani|first2=Mohamed Elwathig Saeed|last3=Hussein|first3=Ismail Hassan|date=2017-04-14|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=9780128134337}}</ref> Tola tumbu la'izu ba gara heŵa'ae lö tambu danö, tumbu manö ia ifalali gofu hadia nitörönia. Bulunia egebolo si tobali lumö ba mbua la'izu. Bua la'izu no owulo anau-anau ba aeru irugi arakhagö atarö ba mbalö, tola irugi 62 cm wa'anau ba 10 cm wa'esolo.<ref name="ZhangLi2019">{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Tingting|last2=Li|first2=Xvzhen|last3=Yang|first3=Yuting|last4=Guo|first4=Xiao|last5=Feng|first5=Qin|last6=Dong|first6=Xiangyu|last7=Chen|first7=Shuxia|title=Genetic analysis and QTL mapping of fruit length and diameter in a cucumber (''Cucumber sativus'' L.) recombinant inbred line (RIL) population|journal=Scientia Horticulturae|volume=250|year=2019|pages=214–222|doi=10.1016/j.scienta.2019.01.062|s2cid=92837522}}</ref> Ösi mbua la'izu arakhagö ha idanö (95%) (faigi tabel nutrisi). Bakha ba wamahaö ''botani'' lafaosa la'izu tobali ngawalö ''beri'', si lö ba'a-ba'a bakha ba nösinia. Bahiza hulö zimane [[tomat]] ba [[lawu'ale]], asese lafaböbö la'izu ba ngawalö gö si tobali [[bulugeu]].<ref>{{cite web | url = https://fruitorvegetable.science/cucumber | title = Cucumber | website = Fruit or Vegetable? | access-date=2019-12-05 }}</ref> === Fonowi la'izu === [[File:Cucumis sativus 0002.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Bowo ''Cucumis sativus'']] Arakhagö fefu la'izu latanö ia faoma hunönia ba moguna khönia wamohamo ena'ö mowua.<ref>Lafotöi ''famohamo'' sambua zalua ena'ö tola alau hamo mbowo tobali bua. So dombua mbalö ba mbowo zinanö: balö si so hamo (si tobali simatua) ba balö sanema hamo (si'alawe). Ena'ö tola ikhamö zi'alawe andre hamo zimatua, moguna nangi samohombo hamo andrö irege atoru ia ba zi'alawe, ma zui aurifö sihombo-hombo ba mbowo simane ŵani, ba gahera falemba hamo zimatua ba na itugeni zi'alawe ifalemba ba da'ö hamo no mege.</ref> Ena'ö alua wamohamo andre la'ohe ngahö-ngahönö ŵani niha ba kabu la'izu ba ginötö mobunga la'izu. Mongawalö ŵani si tola manolo mamohamo la'izu andre, aurifö si fakhili ba ŵani ni'ila niha humombo-hombo ba mbowo zinumbua. Itaria göi awena alua wamohamo andre na hamo sondrugi zi'alawe andrö moroi ba zinumbua bö'ö.<ref name="Nonnecke">{{cite book |author=Nonnecke, I.L. |year=1989 |title=Vegetable Production |publisher=Springer |isbn=9780442267216 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7i8QJw8BJsC }}</ref> Some self-compatible cultivars exist that are related to the 'Lemon cucumber' cultivar.<ref name="Nonnecke" /> So mato ha'uga la'izu nifazökhi si lö moguna wamohamo. Bua la'izu simane lö hunö khönia bakha ba mo'amböta ''kualitas'' wemanga ya'ia. To'ölö latanö la'izu si lö hunö simane bakha ba nomo zinanö (nifosagö sörömi, andrö asese latötöi ia ''{{li|id|rumah kaca}}''), ba zi lö ngawalö ŵani. So ösa nitanö ba Eropa, baero ba mbenua si lö tesöndra ŵani. Sito'ölö wananö la'izu, lafatumbu'ö ua mbowo zimatua, ba awena bowo zi'alawe. Itaria latanö göi zinumbua bö'ö sanga'asogö hamo zimatua ba la'oya'ö wa'oya ŵani, irege tola alua wamohamo.<ref name="Nonnecke" /> Me 2009, labe'e wangombakha sambua angowuloa ndra sangosili ''international'' wa no la'awalisi wangerai ''genome'' la'izu.<ref>Latötöi ''fangerai genome'' sambua halöŵö nifalua ndra sangosili na la'osisi hadia oi zi so bakha ba zi sambua ''gen'' ba latanö ia bakha ba zura.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Huang|first1=S.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Zhang|first3=Z.|last4=Li|first4=L.|last5=Gu|first5=X.|last6=Fan|first6=W.|last7=Lucas|first7=W.|last8=Wang|first8=X.|last9=Xie|first9=B.|last10=Ni|first10=P.|last11=Ren|first11=Y.|display-authors=4|year=2009|title=The genome of the cucumber, ''Cucumis sativus'' L|journal=Nature Genetics|volume=41|issue=12|pages=1275–81|doi=10.1038/ng.475|pmid=19881527|doi-access=free|first28=J.|first26=G.|last27=Lu|first27=Y.|last28=Ruan|first12=H.|last29=Qian|first29=W.|last30=Wang|first30=M.|first25=Y.|last26=Tian|last25=Ren|last13=Li|first18=J.|first13=J.|last14=Lin|first14=K.|last15=Jin|first15=W.|last16=Fei|first16=Z.|last17=Li|first17=G.|last18=Staub|last12=Zhu|first24=Z.|first19=A.|last20=Van Der Vossen|first20=E. A. G.|last21=Wu|first21=Y.|last22=Guo|first22=J.|last23=He|first23=J.|last24=Jia|last19=Kilian}}</ref> === Fanenaŵa gaurifö === Itaria ifa'asogö sambua ŵe la'izu, ena'ö böi la'a mbulunia ma buania aurifö sanörö.<ref name="shang">{{cite journal |display-authors=3| vauthors = Shang Y, Ma Y, Zhou Y, Zhang H, Duan L, Chen H, Zeng J, Zhou Q, Wang S, Gu W, Liu M, Ren J, Gu X, Zhang S, Wang Y, Yasukawa K, Bouwmeester HJ, Qi X, Zhang Z, Lucas WJ, Huang S | title = Plant science. Biosynthesis, regulation, and domestication of bitterness in cucumber |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2014-11-28_346_6213/page/1084| journal = Science | volume = 346 | issue = 6213 | pages = 1084–8 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25430763 | doi = 10.1126/science.1259215 | bibcode = 2014Sci...346.1084S | s2cid = 206561241 }}</ref> Ba wanenaŵa aurifö andrö ifazökhi sambua ŵe nifotöi ''cucurbitacin C''<ref name=":0a">{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Zhiqiang |last2=Li |first2=Yawen |last3=Cao |first3=Chunyu |last4=Liang |first4=Shan |last5=Ma |first5=Yongshuo |last6=Liu |first6=Xin |last7=Pei |first7=Yanxi |title=The role of H2S in low temperature-induced cucurbitacin C increases in cucumber |journal=Plant Molecular Biology |date=February 2019 |volume=99 |issue=6 |pages=535–544 |doi=10.1007/s11103-019-00834-w |pmid=30707394 |s2cid=73431225}}</ref> la'izu. Ŵe andre zame'e irege afeto ösa la'izu. Lala nitörö la'izu ba wanenaŵa aurifö andre no tobali tuho ni'osisi'ö ndra sangosili, samareso lala simane göi ba zinumbua bö'ö.<ref name=":0a" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=He |first=Jun |title=Terpene Synthases in Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) and Their Contribution to Herbivore-induced Volatile Terpenoid Emission |journal=New Phytologist |year=2022 |volume=233 |issue=2 |pages=862–877|doi=10.1111/nph.17814 |pmid=34668204 |pmc=9299122 |hdl=11245.1/e4b87361-6747-409a-a897-0e3939f560c0 |s2cid=239035917 }}</ref> == Nutrisi, hua ba raso == {{nutritional value | name=La'izu sataha sifao uli | water=95.23 g | kJ=65 | protein=0.65 g | fat=0.11 g | carbs=3.63 g | fiber=0.5 g | sugars=1.67 | calcium_mg=16 | iron_mg=0.28 | magnesium_mg=13 | phosphorus_mg=24 | potassium_mg=147 | sodium_mg=2 | zinc_mg=0.2 | manganese_mg=0.079 | opt1n=[[Fluoride]] | opt1v=1.3 µg | vitC_mg=2.8 | thiamin_mg=0.027 | riboflavin_mg=0.033 | niacin_mg=0.098 | pantothenic_mg=0.259 | vitB6_mg=0.04 | folate_ug=7 | vitK_ug=16.4 | note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/168409/nutrients Link to USDA database entry] }} So 95% nidanö bakha ba la'izu si lö muheta uli, 4% ''[[karbohidrat]]'', 1% ''[[protein]]'' ba ma'ifu sibai dawö. So 16 kilokalori energi bakha ba 100 gram la'izu. Mo'amböta sibai khönia bakha nifotöi mikronutrisi: ha Vitamin K zi so (16% Vitamin K soguna ba mboto ero ma'ökhö. So ösa ngawalö la'izu si so raso awö hua [[melon]] börö ŵe nifotöi ''aldehyde'' awö ''cis''- ba ''trans''-isomer si so bakha khönia.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Schieberle|first1=P.|last2=Ofner|first2=S.|last3=Grosch|first3=W.|year=1990|title=Evaluation of Potent Odorants in Cucumbers (''Cucumis sativus'') and Muskmelons (''Cucumis melo'') by Aroma Extract Dilution Analysis|journal=Journal of Food Science|volume=55|pages=193–195|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.1990.tb06050.x}}</ref> Mato ha'uga la'izu afeto-feto, börö ŵe ''cucurbitacins'' si so bakha khönia.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shang|first1=Y|last2=Ma|first2=Y|last3=Zhou|first3=Y|last4=Zhang|first4=H|last5=Duan|first5=L|last6=Chen|first6=H|last7=Zeng|first7=J|last8=Zhou|first8=Q|last9=Wang|first9=S|last10=Gu|first10=W|last11=Liu|first11=M|year=2014|title=Plant science. Biosynthesis, regulation, and domestication of bitterness in cucumber|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2014-11-28_346_6213/page/1084|journal=Science|volume=346|issue=6213|pages=1084–8|doi=10.1126/science.1259215|pmid=25430763|last12=Ren|first17=H. J.|last21=Huang|first20=W. J.|last20=Lucas|first19=Z|last19=Zhang|first18=X|last18=Qi|last17=Bouwmeester|first12=J|first16=K|last16=Yasukawa|first15=Y|last15=Wang|first14=S|last14=Zhang|first13=X|last13=Gu|first21=S|bibcode=2014Sci...346.1084S|s2cid=206561241}}</ref> Awena irugi da'a zi no mu'ali moroi ba li Inggris. Höndrögö '''Bulö'ö kode''' ba wamaigi teks si lö nasa mu'ali. Tolo Wikipedia ba wanohugö ya'ia. Fao ita wama'anö fangi'ila ba li Niha. Moroi khöda, soguna khöda ba soguna khö ndraonoda miföna. <!-- == Ngawalö == In general [[Agriculture|cultivation]], cucumbers are classified into three main [[cultivar]] groups: slicing, [[Pickled cucumber|pickled]], and [[Seedless fruit|seedless/burpless]]. == Fangoguna'ö == === Ngalawö gö === ==== Nitaba ==== Cucumbers grown to eat fresh are called ''slicing cucumbers''. The main varieties of slicers mature on [[vine]]s with large leaves that provide shading.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.almanac.com/plant/cucumbers|title=Cucumbers: Planting, growing, and harvesting cucumbers|publisher=Old Farmer's Almanac, Yankee Publishing, Inc., Dublin, NH|date=2016|access-date=11 August 2016}}</ref> Slicers grown commercially for the North American market are generally longer, smoother, more uniform in color, and have much tougher skin. In contrast, those in other countries, often called [[European cucumber]]s, are smaller and have thinner, more delicate skin, often with fewer seeds, thus are often sold in plastic skin for protection. This variety may also be called a ''telegraph cucumber'', particularly in [[Australasia]].<ref>[http://www.5aday.co.nz/facts-and-tips/fruit-vegetable-info/cucumber/ Cucumber – 5+ a day, New Zealand] Retrieved 18 May 2018</ref> ==== Ni'ungugö ==== {{Main|Pickled cucumber}} [[pickled cucumber|Pickling]] with [[Pickled cucumber#Brined pickles|brine]], sugar, [[vinegar]], and spices creates various flavored products from cucumbers and other foods.<ref name="avi">{{cite web|author1=Avi, Torey|title=History in a jar: The story of pickles|url=http://www.pbs.org/food/the-history-kitchen/history-pickles/|publisher=Public Broadcasting Service|access-date=13 November 2017|date=3 September 2014}}</ref> Although any cucumber can be pickled, commercial pickles are made from cucumbers specially bred for uniformity of length-to-diameter ratio and lack of voids in the flesh. Those cucumbers intended for pickling, called ''picklers'', grow to about {{convert|7|to|10|cm|in|abbr=on|0}} long and {{convert|2.5|cm|in|abbr=on|0}} wide. Compared to slicers, picklers tend to be shorter, thicker, less-regularly shaped, and have bumpy skin with tiny white or black-dotted spines. Color can vary from creamy yellow to pale or dark green.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}} ==== La'izu ite ==== [[Pickled cucumber#Gherkin|Gherkins]], also called ''cornichons'',<ref name="kitchn">{{cite web|title=What's The Deal With Cornichons?|url=http://www.thekitchn.com/whats-the-deal-with-cornichons-117240|publisher=The Kitchn|access-date=13 November 2017|date=2017}}</ref> or ''baby pickles'', are small cucumbers, typically those {{convert|1|to|5|in|cm|round=0.5|order=flip}} in length, often with bumpy skin, which are typically used for pickling.<ref name="zon">{{cite web|title=Gherkins|url=http://www.royalzon.com/en/consumer/fruit-vegetables/gherkins|publisher=Zon|access-date=13 November 2017|location=Venlo, Netherlands|date=2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114040538/http://www.royalzon.com/en/consumer/fruit-vegetables/gherkins|archive-date=14 November 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="wifss">{{cite web|title=Cucumbers|url=http://www.wifss.ucdavis.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/FDA_WIFSS_-Cucumbers_PDF.pdf|publisher=Western Institute for Food Safety and Security, US Department of Agriculture|access-date=13 November 2017|location=University of California-Davis|date=May 2016}}</ref><ref name="india">{{cite web|title=Cucumbers and gherkins|url=http://apeda.gov.in/apedawebsite/SubHead_Products/Cucumber_and_Gherkins.htm|publisher=Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority, Government of India|access-date=13 November 2017|date=2015}}</ref> The word ''gherkin'' comes from the early modern [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''gurken'' or ''augurken'' ('small pickled cucumber').<ref>{{cite dictionary|title=Word origin and history for gherkin|url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/gherkin|dictionary=Dictionary.com|access-date=13 November 2017|date=2017}}</ref> The term is also used in the name for ''[[Cucumis anguria]]'', the ''West Indian gherkin'', a closely related species.<ref>{{cite web|title=West Indian gherkin, ''Cucumis anguria'' L.|url=http://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Cucumis+anguria|publisher=Plants for a Future|access-date=13 November 2017|date=2012}}</ref> ==== Si lö hunö ==== Burpless cucumbers are sweeter and have a thinner skin than other varieties of cucumber. They are reputed to be easy to digest and to have a pleasant taste. They can grow as long as {{convert|2|ft|cm|sp=us|order=flip|-1}}, are nearly seedless, and have a delicate skin. Most commonly grown in greenhouses, these [[parthenocarpic]] cucumbers are often found in [[Grocery store|grocery markets]], [[Shrink wrap|shrink-wrapped]] in plastic. They are marketed as either burpless or seedless, as the seeds and skin of other varieties of cucumbers are said to give some people gas.<ref>{{cite web|last=Jordan-Reilly|first=Melissa|title=Why do cucumbers upset my digestion?|url=http://www.livestrong.com/article/471722-why-do-cucumbers-upset-my-digestion/|publisher=LiveStrong.com|date=15 September 2013 }}</ref> == Produksi == {{Infobox agricultural production | year = 2020 |plant= Cucumber and Gherkin | country1 ={{CHN}} | amount1 =72.8 | country2 ={{TUR}} | amount2 =1.9 | country3 ={{RUS}} | amount3 =1.7 | country4 ={{IRN}} | amount4 =1.2 | country5 ={{MEX}} | amount5 =1.2 | world =91.3 | source = [[FAOSTAT]]<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|title=2019 Production of cucumbers and gherkins; from pick lists: World regions/Production Quantity|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/|date=2019|access-date=2021-05-11|publisher=FAOSTAT of the United Nations}}</ref> }} In 2020, world production of cucumbers and gherkins was 91 million [[tonne]]s, led by China with 80% of the total.<ref name=faostat/> == Waö-waö wananö == Cultivated for at least 3,000 years, the cultivated cucumbers ''"Cucumis sativus"'' were domesticated in [[India]] from wild "''C. sativus var. hardwickii''".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chomicki |first1=Guillaume |last2=Schaefer |first2=Hanno |last3=Renner |first3=Susanne S. |title=Origin and domestication of Cucurbitaceae crops: insights from phylogenies, genomics and archaeology |url=https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/nph.16015 |website=New Phytologist |pages=1240–1255 |language=en |doi=10.1111/nph.16015 |date=June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weng |first1=Yiqun |title=Cucumis sativus Chromosome Evolution, Domestication, and Genetic Diversity: Implications for Cucumber Breeding |journal=Plant Breeding Reviews |date=7 January 2021 |pages=79–111 |doi=10.1002/9781119717003.ch4 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781119717003.ch4 |publisher=Wiley |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bisht |first1=I. S. |last2=Bhat |first2=K.V. |last3=Tanwar |first3=S. P. S. |last4=Bhandari |first4=D. C. |last5=Joshi |first5=Kamal |last6=Sharma |first6=A. K. |title=Distribution and genetic diversity of Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii (Royle) Alef in India |journal=The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology |date=January 2004 |volume=79 |issue=5 |pages=783–791 |doi=10.1080/14620316.2004.11511843 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14620316.2004.11511843 |language=en |issn=1462-0316}}</ref> where a great many varieties have been observed, along with its closest living relative, ''[[Cucumis hystrix]]''.<ref>[[Asian News International]]. 21 July 2010. "[http://newstrackindia.com/newsdetails/170033 Cucumber, melon's common ancestor originated in Asia]." ''NewsTrack India.'' Retrieved on 4 June 2020.</ref> Three main cultivar groups of cucumber are namely Eurasian cucumbers (slicing cucumbers eaten raw and immature), East Asian cucumbers (pickling cucumbers) and Xishuangbanna cucumbers. Based on demographic modelling, the East Asian C. sativus cultivars diverged from the Indian cultivars c. 2500 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chomicki |first1=Guillaume |last2=Schaefer |first2=Hanno |last3=Renner |first3=Susanne S. |title=Origin and domestication of Cucurbitaceae crops: insights from phylogenies, genomics and archaeology |journal=New Phytologist |date=June 2020 |volume=226 |issue=5 |pages=1240–1255 |doi=10.1111/nph.16015 |url=https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/nph.16015 |language=en |issn=0028-646X|doi-access=free }}</ref> It was probably introduced to Europe by the [[Agriculture in ancient Greece|Greeks]] or [[Agriculture in ancient Rome|Romans]]. Records of cucumber cultivation appear in [[France]] in the 9th century, [[Agriculture in England|England]] in the 14th century, and in North America by the mid-16th century.<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica" /><ref name="Renner 2007">{{cite journal|last1=Renner|first1=SS|last2=Schaefer|first2=H|last3=Kocyan|first3=A|year=2007|title=Phylogenetics of ''Cucumis'' (Cucurbitaceae): Cucumber (''C. sativus'') belongs in an Asian/Australian clade far from melon (''C. melo'')|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|volume=7|page=58|doi=10.1186/1471-2148-7-58|pmc=3225884|pmid=17425784 |doi-access=free }} </ref><ref name="Doijode">Doijode, S. D. 2001. ''Seed storage of horticultural crops''. [[Haworth Press]]. {{ISBN|1-56022-901-2}}. p. 281.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.41.3.571|title=Taxonomic Relationships of A Rare ''Cucumis'' Species (''C. hystrix'' Chakr.) and Its Interspecific Hybrid with Cucumber|year=2006|last1=Zhuang|first1=Fei-Yun|last2=Chen|first2=Jin-Feng|last3=Staub|first3=Jack E.|last4=Qian|first4=Chun-Tao|journal=HortScience|volume=41|issue=3|pages=571–574|doi-access=free}}</ref> === Famatörö Roma === According to [[Pliny the Elder]], the Emperor [[Tiberius]] had the cucumber on his table daily during summer and winter. In order to have it available for his table every day of the year, the Romans reportedly used artificial methods of growing (similar to the [[Greenhouse|greenhouse system]]), whereby ''mirrorstone'' refers to Pliny's ''lapis specularis'', believed to have been sheet [[mica]]:<ref name="AncientInventions">{{cite book|author1=James, Peter J. |author2=Thorpe, Nick |author3=Thorpe, I. J. |title=Ancient Inventions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VmJLd3sSYecC|year=1995|publisher=Ballantine Books|isbn=978-0-345-40102-1|chapter=Ch. 12, Sport and Leusure: Roman Gardening Technology|page=563}}</ref><ref>[[Pliny the Elder]]. [77–79 AD] 1855. "[http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=LatinAugust2012&getid=1&query=Plin.%20Nat.%2019.23 Vegetables of a Cartilaginous Nature—Cucumbers. Pepones] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200605044058/http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=LatinAugust2012&getid=1&query=Plin.%20Nat.%2019.23 |date=5 June 2020 }}." Ch. 23 in ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|The Natural History]]'' XIX, translated by [[John Bostock (physician)|J. Bostock]] and [[Henry Thomas Riley|H. T. Riley]]. London: [[Taylor & Francis]]. – via ''Perseus under PhiloLogic'', also [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D19%3Achapter%3D23 available] via Perseus Project.</ref> {{Blockquote|text=Indeed, he was never without it; for he had raised beds made in frames upon wheels, by means of which the cucumbers were moved and exposed to the full heat of the sun; while, in winter, they were withdrawn, and placed under the protection of frames glazed with mirrorstone.|author=Pliny the Elder|title=''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' XIX.xxiii|source="Vegetables of a Cartilaginous Nature—Cucumbers. Pepones"}} Reportedly, they were also cultivated in ''specularia'', cucumber houses glazed with oiled cloth.<ref name="AncientInventions" /> Pliny describes the Italian fruit as very small, probably like a [[gherkin]]. He also describes the preparation of a medication known as ''elaterium''. However, some scholars{{who|date=February 2013}} believe that he was instead referring to ''[[Ecballium elaterium]]'', known in pre-[[Linnean nomenclature|Linnean]] times as ''Cucumis silvestris'' or ''Cucumis asininus'' ('wild cucumber' or 'donkey cucumber'), a species different from the common cucumber.<ref>[[Pliny the Elder]], ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' XX.[http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=LatinAugust2012&getid=1&query=Plin.%20Nat.%2020.3 iii] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200605043843/http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=LatinAugust2012&getid=1&query=Plin.%20Nat.%2020.3 |date=5 June 2020 }}.</ref> Pliny also writes about several other varieties of cucumber, including the cultivated cucumber,<ref>[[Pliny the Elder]], ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' XX.[http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=LatinAugust2012&getid=1&query=Plin.%20Nat.%2020.4 iv] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200605043845/http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=LatinAugust2012&getid=1&query=Plin.%20Nat.%2020.4 |date=5 June 2020 }}–[http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=LatinAugust2012&getid=1&query=Plin.%20Nat.%2020.5 v] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200605043846/http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=LatinAugust2012&getid=1&query=Plin.%20Nat.%2020.5 |date=5 June 2020 }}.</ref> and remedies from the different types (9 from the cultivated; 5 from the "anguine;" and 26 from the "wild"). === Hönö ndröfia === [[Charlemagne]] had cucumbers grown in his gardens in the 8th/9th century. They were reportedly introduced into England in the early 14th century, lost, then reintroduced approximately 250 years later. The [[Spaniards]] (through the [[Italian people|Italian]] [[Christopher Columbus]]) brought cucumbers to [[Haiti]] in 1494. In 1535, [[Jacques Cartier]], a French explorer, found "very great cucumbers" grown on the site of what is now [[Montreal]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}} === Götö modern si föföna === [[File:Trans-2,cis-6-Nonadienal.png|thumb|[[Trans,cis-2,6-Nonadienal]], or ''cucumber aldehyde'', is a component of the distinctive aroma of cucumbers.|alt=trans,cis-2,6-Nonadienal, or cucumber aldehyde|250px]] Throughout the 16th century, European trappers, traders, [[bison]] hunters, and explorers bartered for the products of American Indian [[agriculture]]. The tribes of the [[Great Plains]] and the [[Rocky Mountains]] learned from the Spanish how to grow European crops. The farmers on the Great Plains included the [[Mandan]] and [[Abenaki]]. They obtained cucumbers and [[watermelon]]s from the Spanish, and added them to the crops they were already growing, including several varieties of [[Maize|corn]] and [[bean]]s, [[pumpkin]]s, [[Squash (fruit)|squash]], and [[gourd]] plants.<ref>{{cite book|title=Taste, Memory: Forgotten Foods, Lost Flavors, and why They Matter|pages=109|last=Buchanan|first=David|publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing|location=VT, USA|isbn=9781603584401|year=2012}}</ref> The [[Iroquois]] were also growing them when the first Europeans visited them.<ref>{{cite book|title=Traditional Plant Foods of Canadian Indigenous Peoples: Nutrition, Botany and Use|pages=159|last1=Kuhnlein|first1=H. V.|last2=Turner|first2=N. J.|publisher=Gordon and Breach|location=Amsterdam, Netherlands|year=1996|isbn=9782881244650}}</ref> In 1630, the Reverend [[Francis Higginson]] produced a book called ''New-Englands Plantation'' in which, describing a garden on Conant's Island in [[Boston Harbor]] known as ''The Governor's Garden'', he states:<ref>[[Francis Higginson|Higginson, Francis]]. [1630] 1906. ''[[iarchive:newenglandsplant00higgrich/|New-Englands Plantation]]''. Salem, MA: Essex Book and Print Club. {{OCLC|1049892552}}. [https://archive.org/details/newenglandsplant00higgrich/page/24/mode/2up?q=turnips p. 5].</ref><blockquote>The countrie aboundeth naturally with store of roots of great {{Sic|varietie}} and good to eat. Our turnips, parsnips, and carrots are here both bigger and sweeter than is ordinary to be found in England. Here are store of pompions, cowcumbers, and other things of that nature which I know not…</blockquote>In ''New England Prospect'' (1633, England), William Wood published observations he made in 1629 in America:<ref>Wood, William. (1634). "[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/47082/47082-h/47082-h.htm#Page_13 Of the Hearbes, Fruites, Woods, Waters and Mineralls]", pp. 13–18 in ''New England Prospect''. London.</ref><blockquote>{{Sic|The ground affords very good kitchin gardens, for Turneps, Parsnips, Carrots, Radishes, and Pompions, Muskmillons, Isquoter-squashes, coucumbars, Onyons, and whatever grows well in England grows as well there, many things being better and larger.}}</blockquote> === Götö aefa wa'ateboka hörö === [[File:Lobster, Crab, and a Cucumber - 1891P32.jpg|thumb|''Lobster, Crab, and a Cucumber'' by [[William Henry Hunt (painter)|William Henry Hunt]] (watercolour, 1826 or 1827)]] In the later 17th century, a prejudice developed against uncooked vegetables and fruits. A number of articles in contemporary health publications stated that uncooked plants brought on summer diseases and should be forbidden to children. The cucumber kept this reputation for an inordinate period of time, "fit only for consumption by cows," which some believe is why it gained the name, ''cowcumber''.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}} [[Samuel Pepys]] wrote in his diary on 22 August 1663:<ref>[http://www.pepysdiary.com/archive/1663/08/22/ Saturday 22 August 1663 (Pepys' Diary)]. Pepysdiary.com. Retrieved on 25 November 2012.</ref><blockquote>[T]his day Sir W. Batten tells me that Mr. Newburne is dead of eating cowcumbers, of which the other day I heard of another, I think.</blockquote> According to 18th-century British writer [[Samuel Johnson]], it was commonly said among English physicians that a cucumber “should be well sliced, and dressed with pepper and vinegar, and then thrown out, as good for nothing.”<ref>{{cite book |last1=Boswell |first1=James |title=The Life of Samuel Johnson: Including A Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, Volumen 1 |date=1832 |publisher=Carter, Hendee and Company |page=423 |url=https://books.google.cl/books?id=fKAEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA423 |access-date=29 March 2024}}</ref> A copper [[etching]] made by Maddalena Bouchard between 1772 and 1793 shows this plant to have smaller, almost bean-shaped fruits, and small yellow flowers. The small form of the cucumber is figured in [[Herbal]]s of the 16th century, however stating that "[i]f hung in a tube while in blossom, the Cucumber will grow to a most surprising length."{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}} ==Gallery== <gallery mode=packed> File:Organic Gardener Holding a Fresh Salad Cucumber.jpg|Salad cucumber File:An Indian yellow cucumber.jpg|An Indian yellow cucumber File:Kurkkuja.jpg|A Scandinavian cucumber in slices File:Cucumber grated.jpg|Grated cucumber File:Komkommer (Cucumis sativus 'Gele Tros').jpg|Komkommer (''Cucumis sativus'' 'Gele Tros') File:Hmong cucumber.jpg|A varietal grown by the [[Hmong people]] with textured skin and large seeds File:Lemon cucumber J1.JPG|Lemon cucumber File:Mizeria.jpg|Dish with cucumber cut pieces ([[mizeria]]) File:PicklingCucumbers.jpg|Pickling cucumbers File:Spreewaldgurke2.jpg|Gherkins File:Persiancucumber.jpg|[[Isfahan]] burpless cucumber, [[Iran]] File:Leaves of Cucumber (a creeping vine plant).jpg|Leaves File:Cucumber vine in New Jersey.jpg|alt=A tendril emerges from cucumber vines to facilitate climbing|A [[tendril]] emerges from cucumber vines to facilitate climbing File:Cucumbers growing on a string lattice structure.jpg|alt=A string lattice supports vine growth|A string [[Trellis (architecture)|lattice]] supports vine growth File:Cucumber hanging on the vine.JPG|alt=A bulb-shaped cucumber hanging on the vine|A [[bulb]]-shaped cucumber hanging on the [[vine]] </gallery> {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = La'izu | image = ARS_cucumber.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = La'izu | regnum = Plantae | divisio = Magnoliophyta | classis = Magnoliopsida | ordo = Cucurbitales | familia = Cucurbitaceae | genus = ''Cucumis'' | species = '''''C. sativus''''' | binomial = ''Cucumis sativus'' | binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]] }} '''La'izu''' (töi resmi: ''Cucumis sativus'', li Indonesia: ''timun'', ''mentimun'' ma ''ketimun'') no sambua zinanö si tefaböbö ba famili ''Cucurbitaceae'', ya'ia da'ö ngawalö zinumbua sanga'asogö bua si tola la'a niha. Oya nidanö bakha ba mbua la'izu. Asese la'oguna'ö ia niha tobali famalala gö, itaria labali'ö ia famaruka nidanö nibadu ba gangowuloa segebua. Asese göi la'oguna'ö ia ira'alawe ba wangalösö bawa (ladökhi ia ba awena lafalemba ba mböwö ma ba mbawa). Baero da'ö so niha si faduhu tödö wa tola möi tou wa'anai ndro niha (li Indonesia: ''{{li|id|darah tinggi}}'') na la'a ia. ''Habitus'' la'izu fao ba gangolifa sitobali dalu-dalu bulu ndru'u ma laŵa'ö herba fa'aurinia hulö matonga manana ba fananö ya'ia mo'inötö. Fobowo la'izu andre, fa sambua-sambua misa ma (''monoecious'') bowo simatua faoma bowo ''hermafrodit'' mo so khönia dombua zimatuania (''berkelamin ganda''). [[Bowo Zinanö]] si'oföna sibai tefangamöi ba zi 4-5 migu, ya'ia da'ö bowo simatua. Bowo-bowo si tumbu aefa da'ö ba la'izu ya'ia bowo da'ö hermafrodit na sökhi wa'aurinia. Ba zara ngenge tola tesöndra ofeta 20 ngawua , ba hiza ba zamaliaro si sökhi no tola la tatugöi ha wa'oya mbua ena'ö tesöndra mbua si sökhi ba ebua. Bua lai'izu sibohou ebua la'a-la'ania owuge'e ba so ma'ifu zafusi misa khönia, ba na idugu atua ia, ba idugu abölö owuge'e ba hulö zafusi hoho. Buania anau-nau hulö torpedo. Ösi la'izu tedou ba gamaudu nifotöi mesokarp, so la'a-la'a a'usö safusi hoho, ofeta ba la'a-la'a oroyo-royo. Bua sitola lateu si lö irugi asoso börö na asoso ba alio sibai oköli mbuania irege baga na lateu ia fatua atua manö ya'i böi irugi asoso. == Fangoguna'ö La'izu (''Manfaat mentimun'') == La'izu so khönia nifotöi diuretik, same'e fangokafu si so ba mbuania, ba famöfögö soguna ba guli niha. Oya khönia nidanö, vitamin A, B, faoma C faoma ''mineral'' simane ''magnesium, kalium, mangan'', faoma ''silika''; da'ö wa la'oguna'ö la'izu andre niha ba wangahaogö fangalösö guli. ''Asam askorbat'' faoma ''asam caffeic'' si so ba mbua la'izu sangalösi ''retensi'' nidanö irege da'ö zimöi fangalösi fa'abao mbewe hörö niha. == Föla ba fökhö la'izu (''Hama dan penyakit'') == Föla sasese mamakao sinanö la'izu ya'ia da'ö; utu si so ba mbulu ''Aphis gossypii'' (''Hemiptera: Aphididae''), ''trips Thrips'' ''parvispinus'' (''Tysanoptera: Tripidae''), utu ''kebul Trialeurodes vaporariorum'' (''Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae''), ngalö-ngalö samakiko bulu la'izu ''Liriomyza huidobrensis'' (''Diptera: Agromyzidae''), tolu-tolu si so ba mbu nikaoni ba li wamahaö ''Aulacophora'' ''similis'' (''Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae''), ba era mbulu ya'ia da'ö ''Diaphania indica'' (''Lepidoptera: Pyralidae''). Aefa da'ö tesöndra göi mbuania lö adölö wa'anau-nau nia, abila-bila ma'ifu mbuania, ba na tefaigi hulö zi no tekiko börö wöla ''kepik'' ''Leptoglossus australis'' (''Hemiptera: Coreidae'').<ref name="repository.ipb.ac.id">http://repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/123456789/13223</ref> Fökhö-fökhö si so ba zinanö la'izu andre, ba naha wananö ya'ia, nematoda puru wa'a ''Meloidogyne arenaria'', mo namo mbulunia, ni'a'asogö ''Pseudoperonospora cubensis'', fa'atekiko mbulu börö ''Alternaria sp. dan Colletotrichum sp.'' Ba fökhö ''mosaik'' ni'a'asogö ''Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV)''. Na göna Föla samakao sinanö la'izu, ba lö tesöndra mbua sisökhi lö mo'ölö bawa'erege dödö zamaliaro fananö ya'ia. Sabua si'ai na so wöla simane ngalö-ngalö sanaba bulu la'izu ya'ia da'ö ''L. huidobrensis'' faoma utu mbulu ''A. gossypii''. Baero wöla, sasese möi fangalösi mbua sisökhi ba waneu la'izu andre, ya'ia da'ö ba mbuania si lö adölö-dölö, oya zi lakiritö ni'a'asogö föla ''kepik L. australis''.<ref name="repository.ipb.ac.id"/> No so wökhö ba zinanö simane la'izu ma ''Cucurbitaceae'' simöi famakao zangohalöŵögöi me tebai niteu ma lö tesöndra mbua sisökhi. Sambua ba gotalua dungö zamakao sinanö ba ''Cucurbitaceae'' andrö sifao ba danömö ya'ia da'ö '''''Squash mosaic virus'''''. ''SqMV'' no la'ila niha, tungö samakao ba mbanua sananö simane la'izu andre ma ''Cucurbitaceae'' me si no göna ya'ia ba lö alua mbua sisökhi ma lö böli gölö wohalöŵögöigö.<ref>http://repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/123456789/53361</ref> --> == Umbu == {{Reflist|30em}} == Khai-khai baero == * {{en}} [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/27548 ''Seni Bercocok Tanam Mentimun dan Melon''] karya Thomas Watkins * [http://repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/123456789/13223 Survei Hama dan Penyakit pada Pertanaman Mentimun (Cucumis sativus L.) di Desa Ciherang, Kecamatan Pacet, Kabupaten Cianjur, Jawa Barat] * [http://repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/123456789/53361 Keberadaan Beberapa Virus dan Efisiensi Tular Benih Squash mosaic virus pada Cucurbitaceae] {{Taxonbar|from=Q23425}} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Ngawalö gö]] [[Kategori:Bulugeu]] [[Kategori:Cucurbitaceae]] [[Kategori:Sinanö]] [[Kategori:Sinumbua]] rs1asgd7xu0ngu6oqtitt6qkgeay6ah 0 2716 27613 25670 2026-08-14T18:05:49Z InternetArchiveBot 504 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260814sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 27613 wikitext text/x-wiki ''Sura ba da'a wurugö nösi zura'' [[Berkas:Lactancia bebe aire libre.jpg|jmpl|150px|Samösa ndra alawe samaenu ono khönia.]] '''Mamaenu''' ba [[li Indonesia]] '''Menyusui''' no sa'ae la'ila niha ya'ia da'ö ba wame'e idanö zusu ma idanö meme ö ndraono side-ide moroi ba meme ninania. Iraono sawuyu, no so khönia wangi'ila hewisa ba wanisiö meme andrö, ena'ö idanö zusu tola itölö. Ba [[Tanö Niha|Danö Niha]], lö fa'afaehura ba mbanua bö'ö misa, ono sawena tumbu, ba si'oföna sibai inania ibe'e önia meme. Sitobali furugö moroi ba zi no lafalui ba wamahaö sifakhai ba wamaenu andre, ya'ia da'ö wa idanö zusu ma meme sambua wamalala gö fondrege zi sökhi ba ndraono sawuyu.<ref name="Picciano_2001">{{cite journal |author=Picciano M |title=Nutrient composition of human milk |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_pediatric-clinics-of-north-america_2001-02_48_1/page/53 |journal=Pediatr Clin North Am |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=53–67 |year=2001 |id=PMID 11236733}}</ref> Ba hiza no möi lala wabu'usa ba gotalua ndra amada si so ba wamahaö salaŵa, ma ya'ira ere ba wamahaö, hawa'ara ginötö si sökhi ba wame'e meme khö ndraono sawuyu. Ma na haogö wanguma'ö ya'ia lamane, hawa'ara awena lafabali ndraono ba wamadu meme <ref name="Kramer_2002">{{cite journal |author=Kramer M, Kakuma R |title=Optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue= |pages=CD003517 |year=2002 |id=PMID 11869667}}</ref> ba wa'aröu wa'alö sökhi na la badu susu ni'öli <ref name="Baker_2003">{{cite journal |author=Baker R |title=Human milk substitutes. An American perspective |journal=Minerva Pediatr |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=195–207 |year=2003 |id=PMID 12900706}}</ref><ref name="Agostoni_2003">{{cite journal |author=Agostoni C, Haschke F |title=Infant formulas. Recent developments and new issues |journal=Minerva Pediatr |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=181-94 |year=2003 |id=PMID 12900705}}</ref> Ono sawuyu tola ifaenu ia inania ba tola göi ina tanöbö'ö. Da'a alua ba Danö Niha, na ono sawuyu atö iröi inania sofanö ba wemilo, ba na olofo nono sawuyu andrö, ba na so ba zitambai nomo si so ono sawuyu ba mangele nasa nösi memenia, ba tola ifaenu nono sawuyu andrö. Ba molo'ö fa'atedou wangi'ila niha, ba idanö zusu andrö ba tola labe'e ba nahia si sökhi, ba mboto-boto, lalania, lafera'ö meme ninania ba lafo'ösi naha si no lahenagö. Da'a lala khö nina si lö omasi mamaenu ba mbagi zusu. Hiza abölö sökhi wamaenu faoma meme moroi ba wamadu susu ni'öli.<ref name="Riordan_1997">{{cite journal | author = Riordan JM | title = The cost of not breastfeeding: a commentary | journal = J Hum Lact | year = 1997 | volume = 13 | issue = 2 | pages = 93-97 | url = http://jhl.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/13/2/93 | id = PMID 9233193 }}</ref> Ba mbauna sebua misa ba no ato ndraono sawuyu zimate börö wamadu susu ni'öli,<ref>{{cite web |author=Horton S |title=Breastfeeding promotion and priority setting in health |year=1996 |url=http://heapol.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/11/2/156 |pmid=10158457}}</ref> ba na lahaogö susu ni'öli sifao idanö saukhu, nahia si no lasasai, ba tola sökhi göi ba dalu ndraono sawuyu.<ref name="Baker_2003" /> Famareta ba hegöi ba zi sagörö ulidanö no mangosara'ö wa mamaenu ono sawuyu sambua lala si sökhi ba wa'atedou fa'ebua-bua ndraono. Lafarou ena'ö, lafaenu nonora ya'ira ina sibohou mo'ono sawuyu, he ha ba zi döfi zi lö'ö-lö'önia lafaenu ndraonora, ba yamendrua sa'ae na töra moroi ba zi döfi wa'ara awena lafabali ba meme,<ref name="WHO_breastfeeding">{{cite web | title=Exclusive Breastfeeding | work=WHO: Child and Adolescent Health and Development | url=http://www.who.int/child-adolescent-health/NUTRITION/infant_exclusive.htm | accessdate=2006-05-03}}</ref> Nahia wamahaö Akademi Dokter Anak Amerika ma American Academy of Pediatrics,<ref name="Gartner_2005">{{cite journal | author=Gartner LM, ''et al'' | title=Breastfeeding and the use of human milk | journal=Pediatrics | year=2005 | pages=496–506 | volume=115 | issue=2 | url=http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;115/2/496 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2004-2491 | id= PMID 15687461}}</ref> dan [[Departemen Kesehatan]]. == Laktasi == Lala waö-waö wa'amo'ösi nösi meme, sekresi, ba fo'angamöi nidanö zusu baero, da'ö nifotöi laktasi. === Ni fobörö hormonal ma pengaruh hormonal === Moroi ba zi tölu waŵa dabina niha, boto ndra alawe sanabina te fa'aso khönia hormone so dou'ö ösi ba meme : * Progesteron: zo fe'amöi fa'atedou ma fa'amanöi wa'ebua alveoli. Fenaeta progesteron ba estrogen te'alösi ba ginötö salio aefa mo'ono. Da'a zo dou'ö ya'ia<ref name=Mohrbacher_2003>{{cite book|last= Mohrbacher|first= Nancy|coauthor=Stock, Julie|title = The Breastfeeding Answer Book|url= https://archive.org/details/breastfeedingans0000mohr_k9t1|edition = 3rd ed. (revised)|publisher = La Leche League International|year = 2003|id = ISBN 0-912500-92-1 }}</ref> * Estrogen: da'a zo nönö lala meme ebua ia. Fenaeta estrogen alö gamaudu aefo mo'ono ba idugu adogo-dogo ba ginötö mamaenu ono sawuyu ba zi ha'uga waŵa. <ref name=Mohrbacher_2003 /> Börö da'ö, si bagania ina samaenu ono sawuyu, böi mangoguna'ö KB hormonal sodane-dane ba hormon estrogen, börö tola möi fangalösi ösi meme. * Follicle stimulating hormone ma na la'adogo-dogo'ö ya'ia da'ö FSH * Luteinizing hormone ma LH * Prolaktin: da'a moguna ba wangebua'ö alveoil sagötö manabina. * Oksitosin: mamadoli ngandroto ba naha nono ba ginötö tumbu ndraono ma na no aefa, simanö göi ba zifakhai ba orgasme. Nano aefa tumbu nono, oksitosin mamadoli ngandroto sahatö ba alveoli ba wamera'ö meme numalö ba lala nidanö zusu. Oksitosin moguna siai ba wanga'asogö idanö zusu ma ''let-down / milk ejection reflex''. * Human placental lactogen ma laŵa'ö ia HPL: i'otarai ba zi dua waŵa dabina, plasenta ma fusö oya mame baero HPL, ba wadou'ö fa'ebua meme, balö meme, ba areola fatua lö tetabi. Ba zi lima waŵa ba zi önö waŵa dabina, meme no sa'ae ibörötaigö mo idanö. Hiza, idanö zusu tola göi mo'ösi he lö manabina (''induced lactation''). ==== Laktogenesis I ==== Ba wetaro safuria wanabina, meme fao ba waosatö ''Laktogenesis I''. Ba ginötö da'ö meme mama'anö kolostrum, ya'ia da'ö idanö zi hulö susu ba la'a-la'ania hulö za'usö. Ba ginötö da'ö, fenaeta progesteron salaŵa möi taha-taha wama'aso idanö meme. Ba hiza lö möi ia fökhö na na sa'ae aboto nidanö meme nina fatua lö si tumbu nasa nono khönia, ba da'a göi tenga sambua gambara wa dania na no tumbu nono, ba oya nidanö meme nina andrö. ==== Laktogenesis II ==== Ba ginötö tetabi, fe'amöi baero wusö tola möi fangalösi wa'alaŵa hormon progesteron, estrogen, ba HPL ba zi lö ara sibai, ba hiza hormon prolaktin lö fa'alö no so manö ia ba wa'alaŵa. Da'a zimöi börö wanga'asogö idanö zusu sabölö oya, si no la'ila niha lamane no so ba wenaeta ''Laktogenesis II''. Na tebabaya atö meme andrö, fenaeta level prolaktin si so ba ndro, so wa'atedou ba zi 45 menit, aefa da'ö mangawuli zui ia ba wetaronia simane sito'ölö ba zi 3 za aefa ginötö da'ö. Ba we'amöi baero hormon prolaktin da'a zo fahulu ngandroto bakha ba alveoli ba wanga'asogö idanö meme, ba hormon da'a göi möi baero ba nidanö zusu da'ö samosa. Ba wamareso sifakhai ba wamahaö, no latahö wa fenaeta prolaktin si so ba susu nihaogö ba pabrik, abölö alaŵa na idanö zusu oya, ya'ia da'ö ba gotalua ginötö bözi 2 irugi bözi 6 sihulöwongi, ba hiza fenaeta prolactin adodogo-dogo nano afönu nösi meme.<ref name="Cregan_2002">{{cite journal |author=Cregan M, Mitoulas L, Hartmann P |title=Milk prolactin, feed volume and duration between feeds in women breastfeeding their full-term infants over a 24 h period |journal=Exp Physiol |volume=87 |issue=2 |pages=207-14 |year=2002 |id=PMID 11856965}}</ref> Hormon tanöbö'ö, simane insulin, tiroksin, ba kortisol, tola göi alua ba gangolifa da'a, ba hiza fohalöŵö hormon da'ö ofeta iada'a lö nasa mu'ila. Same tandra biokimiawi ba wamaigi wa lala wa'alua laktogenesis II tebörötaigö ba zi 30-40 za aefa tetabi, ba hiza ira alawe saefa tetabi sito'ölönia awena taraso wa no afönu nösi meme andrö ba zi 50-73 za (2-3 ngaluo) aefa tetabi. Eluahania, fa'amo'ösi meme lö izumaigö afönu na awena aefa tetabi. Nibadu nono sawuyu na mamaenu ia si'oföna sibai, sindruhunia tenga ösi meme sindruhu, töinia ya'ia da'ö Kolostrum sangadono khönia sel darah putih faoma antibodi salaŵa moroi ba nidanö zusu sindruhu, salaŵania gamaudu wenaeta immunoglobulin A mazui IgA, sanolo ba wangawe'e-we'eö mbetu'a ndraono sawuyu ena'ö lö möi dungö. IgA da'a tola göi ba wanenaŵa moroi ba alergi ngawalö gö.<ref name="Sears_2002">{{cite book|last = Sears|first = Martha|coauthors = [[William Sears (physician)|Sears, William]]|title = The Breastfeeding Book|url = https://archive.org/details/breastfeedingboo00sear|publisher = Little, Brown|year = 2000|id = ISBN 978-0-316-77924-5 }}</ref> Ba zi dombua migu na no aefa tetabi, kolostrum ida'i-da'i wa'atayania ba i'angali'ö faoma ösi zusu sindruhu.<ref name="Mohrbacher_2003" /> ==== Laktogeneses III ==== So hörögö hormon endokrin so föfögö ba wanga'asogö ösi meme ba ginötö manabina ndra alawe ba simanö göi nano aefa tetabi. Na no sa'ae oya nidanö zusu andre, sangöhörö autokrin tebörötaigö. Fenaeta da'a lafotöi ''Laktogenesis III''. Ba wenaeta da'a, na oya atö möi baero nösi zusu, ba simanö göi wa'oya tefagati ba meme.<ref name=deCarvalho_1985>{{cite journal |author=deCarvalho M, Anderson D, Giangreco A, Pittard W |title=Frequency of milk expression and milk production by mothers of non-nursing premature neonates |journal=Am J Dis Child |volume=139 |issue=5 |pages=483-5 |year=1985 |id=PMID 3984973}}</ref><ref name=Hopkinson_1988>{{cite journal |author=Hopkinson J, Schanler R, Garza C |title=Milk production by mothers of premature infants |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_pediatrics_1988-06_81_6/page/815 |journal=Pediatrics |volume=81 |issue=6 |pages=815-20 |year=1988 |id=PMID 3368280}}</ref> Ba wamahaö mangorudugö söndra lamane, na la'oya'ö atö wamaenu ndraono sawuyu, ba simanö göi wa'oya nidanö zusu tefagati.<ref name=Daly_1993>{{cite journal |author=Daly S, Owens R, Hartmann P |title=The short-term synthesis and infant-regulated removal of milk in lactating women |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_experimental-physiology_1993-03_78_2/page/209 |journal=Exp Physiol |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=209-20 |year=1993 |id=PMID 8471241}}</ref> Börö da'ö, fa'oya nösi meme mangawuli ha wa'asese lafaenu ndraono, ba wa'asökhi wanisiö ndraono zusu andrö, ba tanöbö'önia tefaigi moroi ha wa'asese tehori nösi meme. Na ambö nösi meme börö : * Ambö asese mamaenu iraono mazui ambö lafera * Ono sawuyu lö nasa to'ölö manisiö balö meme, nifa'asogö simane: ** Fenaeta mbawa ma simbi nono sawuyu ambö tefaudugö ** Lala wamaenu sambö fagöna * Fa'afaehu endokrin nina (da'a lö oya alua) * uo ba meme hipoplastik * Fa'afaehu metabolisme ma betu'a nono sawuyu, irege tebai itema talunia nasa nidanö zusu * Fa'ambö we gö nina Mamaenu ono sawuyu ero dua-tölu za tola möi ba wo zagö wa'oya nösi meme. Si to'ölönia ba nina ma dozi ndra alawe, mamaenu ma mamera'ö meme ŵalu kali ba zi dua wulu a öfa za, sambua lala wozago ena'ö ösi meme andre oya ba ginötö samosa nina mamaenu iraono, tefarou ba zi öfa waŵa aefa tetabi.<ref name=Gartner_2005 /> Tenga sambua fa'ahöli-höli dödö na töra moroi ba da'ö wamanenu nono sawuyu, börö sito'ölönia so ba zi 10-12 kali mamaenu ndraono sawuyu ba zi 24 za, ma na'i itaria ikhamö fa 18 kali. Mamaenu ''on-demand'' ya'ia da'ö famaenu gofu wa'ara manö ono andrö omasi ia mamadu meme (eluahania töra moroi ba zi to'ölö) no sambua lala si sökhi ba zago fa'oya ösi meme lö fa'alö ba fangabuso nono sawuyu.<ref name=WHO_breastfeeding /> Ba hiza ni teöngöni nina samaenu ononia, ena'ö böi ba zi sabata na mamaenu ia, ena'ö we gö tola möi ba mboto nono sawuyu. ''foremilk'' faoma ''hindmilk'' so wa fagölö wa'oyania, lö oya zambua na. === Fa'atokea möi baero nidanö zusu (Refleks turunnya zusu) === Fe'amöi baero hormon oksitosin da'a zamokai bawandruhö ba we'amöi baero nidanö meme (''milk ejection'' / ''let-down reflex''). Oksitosin mohia'ö ndroto-ndroto ba zifasui meme ba wamera'ö ena'ö ösinia möi baero. Ira ina-ina oi fabö'ö-bö'ö worasoirar ba we'amöi baero nidanö memera, so zorasoi hulö nididiga, ba so göi zorasoi afökhö, ba tanöbö'önia so zilö morasoi hadia ia. Fa'atokea möi baero nidanö zusu, lö alua ia ero inötö ha ba mböröta sibai. Fa'atokea da'a, alua manö ba zisamösa ina simane na irongo we'e nono khönia, irege memenia tola manö aduwa nidanönia. Asese göi, na mamaenu atö nono ba gambölö ba tola manö ösi dakera möi baero. Ba hiza mato dombua migu aefa da'ö tebato tenga sa'ae simanö da'ö. Fa'atokea we'amöi baero nidanö zusu, moguna ba zago ösi meme, ba tola tebato na oya wangera-ngera nina. Börö zimanö da'ö, ina samaenu tebai oya wangera-ngera. Fa'atokea we'amöi baero nidanö zusu, sambö bagania na möi baero börö wa'amesokho mbalö meme, mazui simane meme si no la sila börö ngawalö wökhö nina, ma fa'atekiko ba ndroto-ndroto meme. Na samosa nina so ma'ifu wa akao dödö we'amöi baero nösi meme, tola lafalua wanolo sabata ya'ia da'ö, lafera-fera'ö meme faoma idanö sanaukhu-naukhu, ba na tola mondri faoma idanö saukhu, ba tefaroi ena'ö mamaenu ono sawuyu ba wa'ahono dödö. == Umbu == {{Reflist}} == Umbu baero == {{Commonscat|Breastfeeding}} * [http://www.breastfeeding.asn.au Australian Breastfeeding Association] * [http://mammary.nih.gov/reviews/lactation/Neville001/ Human Milk Secretion: An Overview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403062619/http://mammary.nih.gov/reviews/lactation/Neville001/ |date=2007-04-03 }} * [http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=breastfeeding&search_crit=title&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form Read Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Breastfeeding and U.S. law] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011135915/http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=breastfeeding&search_crit=title&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form |date=2007-10-11 }} * [http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/895_brstfeed.html U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) "Breast-Feeding Best Bet for Babies"] * [http://www.infactcanada.ca/Breastfeeding_Rights.htm Canadian Breastfeeding Rights] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220117000955/http://www.infactcanada.ca/Breastfeeding_Rights.htm |date=2022-01-17 }} * [http://lalecheleague.org/ La Leche League International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313152122/https://www.lalecheleague.org/ |date=2023-03-13 }} * [http://www.kellymom.com/ Kellymom.com] — Providing evidence based breastfeeding information {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Nias]] [[Kategori:Bohou tesura]] i2if7rla6tuskvbpwia2f9kx8nolxvo 0 3817 27619 25927 2026-08-14T18:27:40Z InternetArchiveBot 504 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260814sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 27619 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Laekato''' ma '''lekato''' ya'ia da'ö saurifa sanana ba danö, sanana, samadu do niha. Ba [[Tanö Niha|Danö Niha]], laekato tenga urifö sibohou, no ngaotu fakhe no la'ila niha gutundru'u side-ide andre. Ba li Indonesia, latötöi ia; '''''Lintah'''''. Urifö da'a fao ba gangolifa [[Keleŵazi|geleŵazi]] ma ''cacing beruas'' ba li latin, ''Annelida'' samadu do, niha, ba hegöi urifö tanöbö'ö ni'olembainia. Laekato andre, famadunia ndro, tenga ha ba mbalö högönia, hiza fangöna samadu do, so göi ba gi'onia. No tölu ni'o'öfa ngawawa laekato andre ma ''spesies lintah'' fa'aurira no samakao ma ''parasit'' samadu do he zo tosake ia ma hezo gaurifara bö'ö zi falemba ya'ia, ba baero zi tölu ni'o'öfa, ma sisambua ni'o'öfa tö, tafarahagu ba lakaeto ''pemangsa''. Molo'ö wenaeta ndroto-ndroto laekato ''(secara taksonomi)'', utundru'u da'a lafaogö ba ngafu '''Hirudinea'''. Laekato fahatö ia ba gurifö ''Oligocheata'' simane keleŵazi si no fagölö ngandroto sombuyu-mbuyu, ba tola manganau mazui mangadogo-dogo'ö ngandrotonia, so khönia ''klitelum'', faoma ''hermafrodit''. Faehuta laekato andre faoma eleŵazi, ya'ia da'ö moroi ba wangöna fanisiö do ni'okhögö laekato, si lö hadöi khö geleŵazi. [[Berkas:Haemadipsa zeylanica japonica.jpg|jmpl|Laekato si so ba Jepang]] Na molo'ö si no oi la'ila niha, wa fa'auri laekato andre, oya tesöndra ia ba gelea ma nidanö-nidanö sangele, ba so göi zauri ba nasi. Ngawalö laekato si no dozi niha la'ila ya'ia da'ö '''lintah medis''' ''(Hirudo medicinalis)'' si so fa'ato'ölö mamadu do niha ''Hematofagi'' ma so zanötöi göi ''hematofagus'' ma (pemakan darah). Ba wamadu do ngawalö zanauge ya'ia (tubuh inang) ba da'ö ifangamöi baero ''senyawa peptida'' sotöi ''hirudin'' ba wanenaŵa ena'ö lö baku ndro fatua lö isisiö. Laekato da'a so mboha irege tola itöla'ö guli ni'olembainia. Hiza wotöla'önia, hulö doho ma na tafaigi moroi ba wa'ebuania, te hulö zimane nifahö faoma falölöŵa. Baero da'ö, laekato tanöbö'ö so zokhö nifotöi ''probosis'' (semacam belalai) si tola ibe'e baero ba wanöla'ö uli. Laekato da'a, oya zi lö mamadu do, hiza lara'u öra gurifö sigide-ide ma ''hewan-hewan avertebrata''. Laekato ma lekato tenga so'ono, ya'ia da'ö sangadulo. Fangadulonia, na si so ba nidanö-nidanö, adulo laekato i'irö'ö ba doyo namö. Sambua ba gotalua zoya, laekato sangadulo simane da'a, ya'ia da'ö laekato ''Glossiphoniidae'', ba hiza ifaukhugö gadulonia. Na ba dete danö, laekato ibini'ö gadulonia ba danö sabasö-basö ba oya göi barö guli-guli geu. Laekato andre, so ba zi 700 ngawalö zauri ba nidanö, 100 ngawalö zauri ba nasi, ba 90 ngawalö zauri ba dete danö. Irugi ''abad ke-19'', laekato no la'oguna'ö ba wamadöhö fökhö, ira sohalöŵö ba rumasaki, laekato labali'ö dela ba wanga'i do zofökhö. Hiza ba wamadöhö fökhö meföna ato zifaduhu tödö ma zamarisayoi wa na ibadu ndro laekato, ba oya wökhö tola tefadöhö. Ba wamahaö ''kedokteran modern'', fangoguna'ö laekato lafalaha ha ba wamadöhö wökhö ndroto-ndroto simane ''epikondilitis'' faoma ''osteoartritis'', ''varikosa'', ba na fangoguna'ö laekato ba wamuli fangabölö zofökhö, aefa ''bedah mikro''. ''Hirudin'' moroi ba laekato sitobali dalu-dalu ''antikoagulan'' si fakhai ba wa'abaku ndro. == Ngawalö laekato ma lekato ba börötania ''(ragam dan asal usul)'' == [[Berkas:Parasite180056-fig1 Placobdelloides siamensis (Glossiphoniidae).png|jmpl|alt=Dorsal (upper) surface and ventral (lower) surface of Placobdelloides siamensis. Ventral surface showing numerous young leeches.| ''[[Placobdelloides siamensis]]'', laekato sauri sitobali ''parasit'' khö mbo'ole ba [[Thailand]]. Gambara Fetaro '''Takera''': sisi dorsal hulu ''(punggung)'', '''kambölö''': sisi ventral talu ''(perut)'' faoma oya nono laekato.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chiangkul |first1=Krittiya |last2=Trivalairat |first2=Poramad |last3=Purivirojkul |first3=Watchariya |title=Redescription of the Siamese shield leech ''Placobdelloides siamensis'' with new host species and geographic range |journal=Parasite |volume=25 |year=2018 |page=56 |issn=1776-1042 |doi=10.1051/parasite/2018056 |url=https://www.parasite-journal.org/articles/parasite/full_html/2018/01/parasite180056/parasite180056.html|doi-access=free }}</ref>]] So ba zi 680 ngawalö ''spesies'' laekato si no muzaewe ma sitesöndra 100 (otu) zauri ba nasi, 90 (siŵa wulu) ngawalö zauri ba dete danö, ba tanöbönia auri ba nidanö.<ref name=Sket>{{cite journal |author1=Sket, Boris |author2=Trontelj, Peter |year=2008 |title=Global diversity of leeches (Hirudinea) in freshwater |journal=[[Hydrobiologia]] |volume=595 |issue=1 |pages=129–137 |doi=10.1007/s10750-007-9010-8}}</ref><ref name="Fogden">{{Cite journal |author1=Fogden, S. |author2= Proctor, J. | title=Notes on the Feeding of Land Leeches (''Haemadipsa zeylanica'' Moore and ''H. picta'' Moore) in Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biotropica_1985-06_17_2/page/172 |journal=[[Biotropica]] |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=172–174 |year=1985 |doi=10.2307/2388511 | jstor=2388511 }}</ref> Laekato ma lekato side-ide, fa'anaunia 1&nbsp;cm, ba laekato sebua, ma laŵa'ö ia ''lintah raksasa amazon'' nifotöi (''Haementeria ghilianii'') ikhamö fa'anaunia ba zi 30&nbsp;cm. Laekato no tesöndra dozi mbanua ba zi sagörö ulidanö, baero [[Antarktika]],<ref name=Sket/> ba hiza oya tesöndra ba nidanö-nidanö si lö mangele, simane tabe-tabe, si so inötö ma ''iklim sedang'' ba ''Belahan Bumi utara'' ma so zanguma'ö ''paruh Bumi utara''. Laekato si tesöndra ba nidanö, la fahatö ira ba mbewe ngöfi-ngöfi nidanö ba zi so sinumbua sauri ba da'ö, du'u ba tanöbö'önia. Laekato tesöndra ba wetaro nahia salaŵa simane fa'oya 10.000 rozi laekato ero m<sup>2</sup> si no lasura ba zi so idanö ''(polutan organik)'' ba [[Illinois]], Amerika Serikat. So ha'uga ''spesies'' mamalua ''estivasi'' ma lö auri ia na baŵa lökhö ba tola fataha wa'aurinia heŵa'ae no alö 90% mbotonia.Ba gotalua laekato si so ba nidanö, so sambua ngafu ''Glossiphoniidae'', urifö sanifi-nifi samakao urifö tanöbö'ö ''(bertindak sebagai parasit)'' simane [[Bo'ole]], ba sambua gutundru'u ''Annelida'' samaukhugö adulonia ba i'ohesi nononia ba mbotonia.<ref>{{cite web |last=Siddall |first=Mark E. |title=Glossiphoniidae |url=http://research.amnh.org/~siddall/mes/leech/glossiphoniidae.html|publisher=[[American Museum of Natural History]]|accessdate=4 September 2022|date=2022}}</ref> Sifao ba gangolifa laekato dete danö ma ''Haemadipsidae'' ya'ia da'ö utundru'u sauri ba ''tropis'' faoma ''subtropis'', na laekato sifao ba gangolifa ''Hirudinidae'' sauri ba nidanö arakhagö oi auri ba zi sagörö ulidanö. Dombua gangolifa laekato da'a, mangalui göra ira moroi ba wamadu do, simane niha, ba simanö ba gurifö tanöbö'ö. Na tafaigi, simane i'a no tobali ''inang utama'' ba laekato angolifa ''Piscicolidae'', sauri ba nidanö si lö mangele, sikhala laekato da'a so khönia ba högönia zihulö walölöŵa ni'oguna'önia ba wamadu do.<ref name="Meyer1940">{{cite journal |last1=Meyer |first1=Marvin C. |title=A Revision of the Leeches (Piscicolidae) Living on Fresh-Water Fishes of North America |journal=[[Transactions of the American Microscopical Society]] |date=Juli 1940 |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=354–376 |jstor=3222552|doi=10.2307/3222552 }}</ref> Lö fefu laekato mamadu do; ngawawa ''Erpobdelliformes'', sauri ba nidanö, laekato ''karnivora'' si so bawa ba ifö simanga ''larva'', ''moluska'', faoma urifö ''Annelida''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oceguera |first1=A. |last2=Leon |first2=V. |last3=Siddall |first3=M. |title=Phylogeny and revision of Erpobdelliformes (Annelida, Arhynchobdellida) from Mexico based on nuclear and mitochondrial gene sequences |journal=Revista Mexicana de Biodiversidad |date=2005 |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=191–198 |url=http://www.ejournal.unam.mx/bio/BIOD76-02/BIOD760204.pdf |access-date=2018-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150616154535/http://www.ejournal.unam.mx/bio/BIOD76-02/BIOD760204.pdf |archive-date=2015-06-16 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Aefa da'ö, laekato no tobali göi ö gi'a, fofo, ba wa'oya nasa gurifö ''avertebrata'' tanöbö'ö.<ref>{{cite web |title=Leeches |url=https://australianmuseum.net.au/learn/animals/worms/leeches/ |publisher=Australian Museum |accessdate=4 September 2022 |date=14 November 2019}}</ref> Fefu laekato lafarahugö ba ngawawa ''Hirudinea'', sitefa'aso moroi ba duho wehede li ''latin'', nitötöi; ''hirudo'' ma ''hirudinis'', nifo'eluaha laekato (''lintah'').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.finedictionary.com/Hirudinea.html |title=Hirudinea etymology |publisher=Fine Dictionary |accessdate=4 September 2022}}</ref> Töi da'a tefangamöi moroi ba döi ''Les hirudinées'' nibe'e samösa gere ''alam'' Prancis [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] ba ndröfi 1818.<ref name="Lamarck 1818">{{cite book |last=Lamarck |first=Jean-Baptiste |authorlink=Jean-Baptiste Lamarck |title=Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres ... précédée d'une introduction offrant la détermination des caractères essentiels de l'animal, sa distinction du végétal et des autres corps naturels, enfin, l'exposition des principes fondamentaux de la zoologie. Volume 5 |date=1818 |publisher=Verdière |location=Paris |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/46337#page/297/mode/1up}}</ref> Imbuhan ''-bdella'' sasese so ba gangolifa-gangolifa laekato nifangamöi moroi ba wehede Yunani βδέλλα ''bdella'', ni fo'eluaha; ya'ia da'ö; laekato.<ref name="Scarborough1992">{{cite book |last=Scarborough |first=John |title=Medical and Biological Terminologies: Classical Origins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hjwN65nZBE0C&pg=PA58 |year=1992 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0-8061-3029-3 |page=58}}</ref> Ba ''taksonomi tradisional'', ngawalö laekato lafa'oli ba zi dombua ''infrakelas'', ya'ia da'ö; '''Acanthobdellidea''' faoma '''Euhirudinea'''. Euhirudinea molo'ö eluaha ngawua wehede ya'ia da'ö laekato sanau ölö ''(secara harfiah)'' ma lamane ia ba li Indonesia ''"lintah sejati"'' si so fangÖna ba högö faoma ba gi'o ni'oguna'önia ba wanisiö do. Ba na lafaigi moroi ba ''tradisional'', lafa'oli göi ba zi dombua ngafu, ya'ia da'ö; ''"Rhynchobdellida"'' sangokhögö ''probosis'' ma ''"belalai"'', ba baero da'ö lafaogö ia ba ngafu ''"Arhynchobdellida"'' ma si löhadöi ''probosis'' ma ("yang tanpa probosis"), laekato da'a ''spesies'' si so boha ba ngandrotonia. === Fa'atedou, fa'amanöi, btn ''(Evolusi)'' === [[Berkas:Probable leech from the Waukesha Biota.jpg|jmpl|upright=0.6|alt=Fossil of a possible leech found in Wisconsin| ''Fosil'' si no lafareso, ba na lafaigi abe'e dödö wa moroi ba laekato me inötö ''Silur'' ba [[Wisconsin]], Amerika Serikat]] Ngafu fondrege zatua ba ''Annelida'' ya'ia da'ö; '''''Polychaeta''''', salua moroi ba wa'atedou, fa'amanöi ma ''evolusi'' ba ginötö ''Kambrium'' soya tesöndra ba [[Serpih Burgess]] ba ginötö 500 juta fakhe silalö. ''Oligochaeta'' so khönia wa'afabö'ö ngandroto ma ''evolusi'' moroi ''Polychaeta'' faoma ngafu laekato si no alua ''evolusi'' moroi ''Oligochaeta''. Ngawalö-ngawalö ''Oligochaeta'' mazui laekato si löhadöi sabe'e moroi ba ba ngandrotonia, irege lö oya ia zitobali ''fosil''.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Margulis, Lynn |author1link=Lynn Margulis |author2=Chapman, Michael J.|title=Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9IWaqAOGyt4C&pg=PA308 |year=2009 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-08-092014-6 |page=308}}</ref> ''Fosil'' laekato fondrege zara, ni söndra me inötö ''Jura'' ma ba zi 150 juta fakhe si lalö, ba hiza sambua ''fosil'' gurifö ''Annelida'' na lafaigi so khönia wangöna wamadu do nisöndra ba [[Wisconsin]] ba ndröfi si 1980-a. Na ''fosil'' da'a moroi ba laekato, eluahania mame'e turia ba niha wa laekato no alua khönia ''evolusi'' so ba zi 437 juta si lalö, ya'ia da'ö ba ginötö ''Silur''.<ref name=Thorp>{{cite book|author1=Thorp, James H.|author2=Covich, Alan P. |title=Ecology and Classification of North American Freshwater Invertebrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aj2ZMSekmHEC&pg=PA466 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-690647-9 |page=466}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Mikulic, D. G. |author2=Briggs, D. E. G. |author3=Kluessendorf, J. |year=1985 |title=A new exceptionally preserved biota from the Lower Silurian of Wisconsin, U.S.A. |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B|Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B]]|volume=311 |pages=75–85 |url=https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1985.0140}}</ref> == Sikhala ngandroto laekato ma lekato ''(Anatomi dan fisiologi)'' == Fefu laekato moroi ba zikhalania, arakhagö fagölö. Hiza no aröu fabö'ö moroi ba geleŵazi. Ba ngandroto laekato, ''selom'' no tobali öfa lala ''(saluran)'' ba zi sageu ngandrotonia. Bakha ba mbotonia tefa'anö ''dermis'' si fasösö so fabali ngandroto-ngandroto. Sito'ölönia, ngandroto laekato, ebolo-bolo ba dölahulu ''dorsal (punggung)'' ba ''ventral'' ba dalu ''(perut)'' ba idugu ize-ize ba mbalö ''anterior'' tanö föna faoma ''posterior'' ba gi'o ''(belakang/ekor)''. Baero ngandroto-ngandroto ''longitudinal (membujur)'' faoma ''sirkular (melingkar)'' bakha ba mboto laekato, so khönia ngandroto ''otot diagonal'' irege tola ifatö'ö ia hulö niha zolitoini. Sabölö oya laekato so khönia mbawa ba högö ni'oguna'önia ba wamadu do ba mbalö ''anterior (kepala)'' faoma ''posterior (ekor), ba so ma'ifu laekato ''primitif'' sokhö famadu do tesöndra ha ba gi'o. == Umbu == <references /> [[Kategori:Aurifö]] [[Kategori:Biologi]] [[Kategori:Zoologi]] 2q70mk2xapdla13bontbuu1ufwvwn4r 0 3845 27620 27199 2026-08-14T18:37:06Z InternetArchiveBot 504 Add 18 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260814sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 27620 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Ambox | type = notice | image = | text = This page is being translated from English Wikipedia and very long. So it will take a long time. Moreover there will be some error in the footnotes because of the possible missing named references that may only appear in the parts that haven't been translated yet. So bear with me. }} {{Taxobox | name = Singo | status = VU | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref>[https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/15951/115130419 ''Panthera leo'']</ref> | fossil_range = [[Pleistosen]] | image = Lion waiting in Namibia.jpg | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | ordo = [[Carnivora]] | familia = [[Felidae]] | genus = [[Panthera]] | species = Panthera leo | binomial = Panthera leo | binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758 | subdivision_ranks = Subspesies | subdivision = : P. l. leo : Panthera leo melanochaita : Panthera leo sinhaleyus † | range_map = Lion distribution.png }} '''Singo''' (töi ilmiah ''Panthera leo'') no aurifö si hulö mao sebua si tefaböbö ba ngafu ''Panthera'' ba sito'ölönia auri ira ba danö Afrika ba ba danö India. Botonia monagole soya ba tötö'ania mangebolo. Högö ba fisonia owulo-wulo ba ba mbalö gi'onia so samböbö mbu. Sikhala zimatua fabö'ö ma'ifu moroi ba zi'alawe. Boto zimatua abölö ebua moroi ba zi'alawe ba so khönia rambe sanau. Singo no aurifö ''sosial'', eluahania auri ira oi fao-fao ba zi sambawa, eluahania so mato ha'uga rozi zimatua faoma zi'alawera ba iraono zingo. Sito'ölönia möi malu ndra singo si'alawe oi fao-fao. Ahulua ni'aluira ya'ia aurifö segebua sa'a duturu gahe simane kudo, bawi, laosi, btn. Singo no fondrege onekhe mealu ba gotalua gaurifö fefu. Sito'ölönia lö lagohi niha singo, heŵa'ae no alua wa la'a nagole niha. Toröi zingo ba mbenua soya ndru'u. Sito'ölönia maoso ba mangalui ö ira ba zima'ökhö, heŵa'ae tola göi lalau mangalui ö ba zibongi na la'ila wa lagohi ira niha ma aurifö bö'ö. Götö [[neolitik]] latöröi zi sagörö Afrika ba Eurasia i'otarai Eropa Timur irugi India. Ba hiza afuriatania hatö dombua ngawa zi so: samba ngawa ba gölana danö simate Sahara ba Afrika ba sambua tö ba India Barat. I'otarai 1996 no tefaböbö zingo ba gaurifö sarakhagö taya ba IUCN Red List, börö me alö 43% wa'oyara i'otarai 1990. Lö mo'ölö ira baero nahia nirorogö niha, eluahnia nahia heza lö mealu niha. Lö ta'ila hadia sibai mbörö wa itugu alö wa'oyara, heŵa'ae ta'ila wa sikho sebua khöra niha simöi mamunu ya'ira. Moroi ba gotalua gaurifö sasese te'oguna'ö bakha ba gambara ba ba nidunö-dunö niha, singo no aurifö fondrege asese te'oroma'ö bakha ba nadu, gambara, bendera nasional, filem ba ngawalö zura. No göi lafauwu zingo ni'oguna'ö ba wondrara dödö zato<ref>Ba ginötö föna, töra-töra ba kerajaan Romawi, asese lafalua wae'atasa same'e fondrara dödö niha sato. Ba wae'atasa andrö lafabago darua niha, ma zui lafabago samösa niha ba sageu zingo. Fabagosa simane andre so ia irugi ma'ökhö ba ''pertandingan tinju''. Fabagosa samösa niha ba aurifö so nasa ba Spanyol, heza fabago samösa niha ba öröbao samu'i. Iada'a lö sa'ae fabagosa niha singo, hatö famaisa faoma singo zi so sasese ta'ila ba ''sirkus''.</ref> moroi ba ginötö kerajaan Romawi ba asese göi la'alui zingo niha tobali nifaliaro ba nifotöi kabu gurifö (li Indonesia ''kebun binatang'') ba zi sagörö ulidanö i'otarai ngaotu ndröfi si-18. Fogambaraini zingo so ba niha Miserayi ba tola taŵaö ba fefu budaya niha föna irugi ma'ökhö. == Oroita wehede == Fehede singo bakha ba li Niha tehalö moroi ba li Indonesia ''singa''. Töi ilmiah khönia ya'ia ''leo'' (li Latin) niwawalö moroi ba li Yunani λέων, ''leon''. Töi ''generik'' khönia ya'ia ''Panthera'', göi tehalö moroi ba li Latin 'panthēra' ba li Yunani satua πάνθηρ, ''panther''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Liddell, H. G. |last2=Scott, R. |name-list-style=amp |year=1940 |chapter=πάνθηρ |chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2377441 |title=A Greek-English Lexicon |edition=Revised and augmented |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press}}</ref> == Famöfö'ö == [[File:Two cladograms for Panthera.svg|thumb|right|Tefazökhi diagram tanö yaŵa molo'ö fangosili ba ndröfi 2006,<ref name=Johnson2006/><ref name="werdelin2009">{{cite journal |last1=Werdelin|first1=L. |last2=Yamaguchi|first2=N. |last3=Johnson |first3=W. E. |last4=O'Brien|first4=S. J. |name-list-style=amp |title=Phylogeny and evolution of cats (Felidae) |journal=Biology and Conservation of Wild Felids |year=2010 |pages=59–82 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266755142}}</ref> ba tanö tou molo'ö fangosili ba ndröfi 2010<ref name=davis2010/> and 2011<ref name=mazak2011/> studies.]] I'oguna'ö ''Felis leo'' tobali töi ilmiah zingo [[Carl Linnaeus]] me ndröfi 1758, me isura zanandrösa ba zingo bakha ba mbuku ''Systema Naturae''.<ref name="Linn1758">{{cite book |last=Linnaeus|first= C. |year=1758 |title=Caroli Linnæi Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis |volume=Tomus I |edition=decima, reformata |location=Holmiae |publisher=Laurentius Salvius |page=41 |chapter=''Felis leo'' |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000798865#page/41/mode/2up}} {{ba lang|la}}</ref> Same'e töi ''genus'' (''Panthera'') ba no Lorenz Oken ba ndröfi 1816.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Oken |first1=L. |year=1816 |title=Lehrbuch der Zoologie. 2. Abtheilung |location=Jena |publisher=August Schmid & Comp. |page=1052 |chapter=1. Art, ''Panthera'' |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5o5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1052}}</ref> Ba gotalua ngaotu ndröfia si-18 ba si-20 so 26 zingo nisura amuata ba te'andrö tobali ''sub-spesies''. Me ndröfi 2005, 11 moroi ba gotalua zi 26 andrö tetema'ö tobali töi resmi ba mbolo zoologi.<ref name=MSW3/> Si fabö'ö ba gotaluara ya'ia fa'ebua mbotora, la'a-la'a mbu [[wikt:söri|zöri]]ra ba la'a-la'a gulira.<ref name=Hemmer/> === Sub-spesies === [[File:Lion subspecies distribution3.png|thumb|Fa'amuzawili su-spesies ba kelas zingo]] Götö ngaotu ndröfi si-19 ba si-20, mato ha'uga tipe zingo ni'andrö tobali sub-spesies, ba salusi ba gotaluara tetema'ö tobali töi resmi (''valid taxa'') irugi ndröfi 2017.<ref name=MSW3/> Ba gotalua ndröfi 2008 ba 2016, la'oguna'ö ira sohalöŵö ba organisasi IUCN Red List ha dombua döi sub-spesies: ''P. l. leo'' khö ngafu singo ba Afrika ba ''P. l. persica'' khö ngafu zingo ba Asia.<ref name=IUCN/><ref name=Breitenmoser2008>{{cite iucn |author=Breitenmoser, U. |author2=Mallon, D. P. |author3=Ahmad Khan, J. and |author4=Driscoll, C. |date=2008 |volume=2008 |page=e.T15952A5327221 |title=''Panthera leo'' ssp. ''persica'' |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T15952A5327221.en }}</ref><ref name=Henschel2015>{{cite iucn |author=Henschel, P. |author2=Bauer, H. |author3=Sogbohoussou, E. |author4=Nowell, K. |name-list-style=amp |date=2015 |volume=2015 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T68933833A54067639.en |title=''Panthera leo'' West Africa subpopulation}}</ref> Me 2017, labulö'ö wamöfö'ö zingo (li Indonesia ''taksonomi'') ya'ira samalua famöfö'ö ngawalö mao (li Inggris ''the Cat Classification Task Force'') si tefaböbö ba wa'awösa ''the Cat Specialist Group'', ba laföfö'ö dombua sub-spesies molo'ö wangosili evolusi zingo:<ref>Lafotöi evolusi waö-waö wa'atobali zauri ba danö i'otarai me hulö dungö ira irege manöi ba fabö'ö tobali sinumbua, aurifö ba niha. Duma-dumania me föna ha sambua dua ndra fefu mao, singo, harimo, btn. nifotöi ''Felidae''. Ba hiza ba wamofanö ginötö manöi ba fabö'ö ira irege so zi tobali mao, so zi tobali singo ma zui harimo btn.</ref><ref name=catsg>{{cite journal |author1=Kitchener, A. C. |author2=Breitenmoser-Würsten, C. |author3=Eizirik, E. |author4=Gentry, A. |author5=Werdelin, L. |author6=Wilting, A. |author7=Yamaguchi, N. |author8=Abramov, A. V. |author9=Christiansen, P. |author10=Driscoll, C. |author11=Duckworth, J. W. |author12=Johnson, W. |author13=Luo, S.-J. |author14=Meijaard, E. |author15=O'Donoghue, P. |author16=Sanderson, J. |author17=Seymour, K. |author18=Bruford, M. |author19=Groves, C. |author20=Hoffmann, M. |author21=Nowell, K. |author22=Timmons, Z. |author23=Tobe, S. |name-list-style=amp |year=2017 |title=A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 11 |pages=71–73 |url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/32616/A_revised_Felidae_Taxonomy_CatNews.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y#page=71}}</ref> * ''P. l. leo (Panthera leo leo)'' {{small|(Linnaeus, 1758)}} − ba ngafu da'a fao zingo si so ba Asia, singo Mesir (ba li Inggris ''barbary lion'') awö oi zingo sauri ba Utara, Barat ba Tengah ba Afrika.<ref name=catsg/> Si fagölö töi khönia ya'ia ''P. l. persica'' {{small|(Meyer, 1826)}}, ''P. l. senegalensis'' {{small|(Meyer, 1826)}}, ''P. l. kamptzi'' {{small|([[Paul Matschie|Matschie]], 1900)}}, ba ''P. l. azandica'' {{small|([[Joel Asaph Allen|Allen]], 1924)}}.<ref name=MSW3/> Ato zanura same'e töi khö ngawalö zingo andre 'singo Utara' ba sub-spesies Utara'.<ref name="Wood1865">{{cite book |last=Wood |first=J. G. |author-link=John George Wood |title=The Illustrated Natural History. Mammalia, Volume 1 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |chapter=Felidæ; or the Cat Tribe |page=129−148 |location=London |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v1DPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA147 |year=1865}}</ref><ref name=Hunter2018>{{cite book |last1=Hunter |first1=L. |author-link=Luke Hunter |last2=Barrett |first2=P. |title=The Field Guide to Carnivores of the World |edition=2 |publisher=Bloomsbury |location=London, Oxford, New York, New Delhi, Sydney |isbn=978-1-4729-5080-2 |date=2018 |chapter=Lion ''Panthera leo'' |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4HpxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 |pages=46−47}}</ref> * ''P. l. melanochaita (Panthera leo melanochaita)'' {{small|([[Charles Hamilton Smith|Smith]], 1842)}} − fao ba da'a singo Afrika Selatan (li Inggris ''Cape lion'') si no taya ba ngawa zingo sauri ba danö tanö ba Timur ba ba Selatan Afrika.<ref name=catsg/> Si fagölö töi khönia ya'ia ''P. l. somaliensis'' {{small|(Noack 1891)}}, ''P. l. massaica'' {{small|([[Oscar Neumann|Neumann]], 1900)}}, ''P. l. sabakiensis'' {{small|([[Einar Lönnberg|Lönnberg]], 1910)}}, ''P. l. bleyenberghi'' {{small|(Lönnberg, 1914)}}, ''P. l. roosevelti'' {{small|([[Edmund Heller|Heller]], 1914)}}, ''P. l. nyanzae'' {{small|(Heller, 1914)}}, ''P. l. hollisteri'' {{small|([[Joel Asaph Allen|Allen]], 1924)}}, ''P. l. krugeri'' {{small|([[Austin Roberts (zoologist)|Roberts]], 1929)}}, ''P. l. vernayi'' {{small|(Roberts, 1948)}}, ba ''P. l. webbiensis'' {{small|(Zukowsky, 1964)}}.<ref name=MSW3 /><ref name=Hemmer/> Latötöi ia göi 'sub-spesies Selatan' ba 'singo Selatan'.<ref name=Hunter2018/> Heŵa'ae simanö so zi faruka ba gotalua zi dombua ngawa andre ba danö tanö ba Tengah Utara Afrika. Molo'ö analisa DNA safuria, singo moroi ba Afrika Tengah no nga'ötö moroi he ba zingo Utara ba he singo Selatan, ba mtDNA tefaogö ira ba ''P. leo leo'' bahiza ba DNA genomik tefaböbö ira ba ''P. leo melanochaita''.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Manuel|first1= M.|last2= Barnett|first2= R.|last3= Sandoval-Velasco|first3= M. |last4=Yamaguchi|first4= N.|last5= Vieira|first5= F. G.|last6= Mendoza|first6= M. L. Z.|last7=Liu|first7=S.|last8=Martin|first8=M. D.|last9=Sinding|first9=M-S. S.|last10=Mak|first10=S. S. T.|last11=Carøe|first11=C.|last12=Liu|first12=S.|last13=Guo|first13=C.|last14=Zheng|first14=J.|last15=Zazula|first15=G.|last16=Baryshnikov|first16=G.|last17=Eizirik|first17=E.|last18=Koepfli|first18=K-P.|last19=Johnson|first19=W. E.|last20=Antunes|first20=A.|last21=Sicheritz-Ponten|first21=T.|last22=Gopalakrishnan|first22=S.|last23=Larson|first23=G.|last24=Yang|first24=H|last25=O’Brien|first25=S. J.|last26=Hansen|first26=A. J.|last27=Zhang|first27=G.|last28=Marques-Bonet|first28=T.|last29=Gilbert|first29=M. T. P.|date=2020|title= The evolutionary history of extinct and living lions|journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=117|issue=20|pages= 10927–10934|doi=10.1073/pnas.1919423117|pmid= 32366643|pmc=7245068|bibcode= 2020PNAS..11710927D|doi-access= free}}</ref> Akhökhöla zingo nisöndra ba hili-hili [[Etiopia]] tefaogö molo'ö genetik khö ndra singo moroi ba [[Kamerun]] ba [[Chad]], bahiza singo moroi ba nahia bö'ö ba Etiopia tefaogö khö ndra moroi ba Afrika timur. Börö da'ö laŵaö ira sangosili wa [[Etiopia]] no tobali nahia wa'afaruka zi dombua sub-spesies zingo andre.<ref name=Bertola2016>{{cite journal |author1=Bertola, L. D. |author2=Jongbloed, H. |author3=Van Der Gaag, K. J. |author4=De Knijff, P. |author5=Yamaguchi, N. |author6=Hooghiemstra, H. |author7=Bauer, H. |author8=Henschel, P. |author9=White, P. A. |author10=Driscoll, C. A. |author11=Tende, T. |author12=Ottosson, U. |author13=Saidu, Y. |author14=Vrieling, K. |author15=de Iongh, H. H. |year=2016 |title=Phylogeographic patterns in Africa and High Resolution Delineation of genetic clades in the Lion (''Panthera leo'') |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=6 |page=30807 |doi=10.1038/srep30807 |pmid=27488946 |pmc=4973251 |bibcode=2016NatSR...630807B}}</ref> Molo'ö data genome fefu zingo si no oi taya moroi ba Sudan tefaböbö ia ba ''P. l. leo'' ba mtDNA, bahiza no ahatö sibai ia ba ''P. l. melanochaita''. Börö da'ö te moguna mufaigi mangawuli wamöfö'ö ngawalö zingo si so ba Afrika Tengah.<ref name="DeManuel_al2020">{{cite journal |author1=Manuel, M. d. |author2=Ross, B. |author3=Sandoval-Velasco, M. |author4=Yamaguchi, N. |author5=Vieira, F. G. |author6=Mendoza, M. L. Z. |author7=Liu, S. |author8=Martin, M. D. |author9=Sinding, M.-H. S. |author10=Mak, S. S. T. |author11=Carøe, C. |author12=Liu, S. |author13=Guo, C. |author14=Zheng, J. |author15=Zazula, G. |author16=Baryshnikov, G. |author17=Eizirik, E. |author18=Koepfli, K.-P. |author19=Johnson, W. E. |author20=Antunes, A. |author21=Sicheritz-Ponten, T. |name-list-style=amp |author22=Gopalakrishnan, S. |author23=Larson, G. |author24=Yang, H. |author25=O'Brien, S. J. |author26=Hansen, A. J. |author27=Zhang, G. |author28=Marques-Bonet, T. |author29=Gilbert, M. T. P. |title=The evolutionary history of extinct and living lions |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=117 |issue=20 |pages=10927–10934 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1919423117 |year=2020 |pmid=32366643 |pmc=7245068 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11710927D |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Lahe molo'ö akhökhöla === [[File:Panthera Atrox.jpg |thumb|right|Töla högö sageu zingo Amerika ni'oroma'ö ba National Museum of Natural History, Washington]] Sub-spesies zingo tanöbö'ö ma spesies si fatalifusö ba zingo modern no tesöndra ba ginötö föna me lö nasa tebörögö hikaya:<ref name="Christiansen08CaveLions">{{cite journal |last1=Christiansen |first1=P. |year=2008 |title=Phylogeny of the great cats (Felidae: Pantherinae), and the influence of fossil taxa and missing characters |journal=[[Cladistics (journal)|Cladistics]] |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=977–992 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.2008.00226.x|pmid=34892880 |s2cid=84497516 }}</ref> * ''P. l. sinhaleyus (Panthera leo sinhaleyus)'' no akhökhöla zingo nifotöi ''carnassial''<ref>Lafotöi ''carnassial'' zingo si so ifö satarö ifö tanö yaŵa ba tanö tou ba nifalali-lali wa'ate'olinia irege balö satarö moroi yaŵa möi ba gotalua nifö tanö tou ba ifö satarö moroi tou möi ba gotalua nifö tanö yaŵa</ref> nisöndra ba [[Sri Lanka]]. Te taya ia 39.000 fakhe si lalö.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=K. |last1=Manamendra-Arachchi |first2=R. |last2=Pethiyagoda |first3=R. |last3=Dissanayake |first4=M. |last4=Meegaskumbura |name-list-style=amp |year=2005 |title=A second extinct big cat from the late Quaternary of Sri Lanka |journal=[[The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology]] |issue=Supplement 12 |pages=423–434 |url=http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/s12/s12rbz423-434.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807215533/http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/s12/s12rbz423-434.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-08-07 }}</ref> * ''P. fossilis (Panthera fossilis)'' no singo sabölö ebua moroi ba zingo modern ba auri ia ba ginötö nifotöi [[Middle Pleistocene]]. Akhökhöla döla tesöndra me lakhao ba dögi danö ba [[Britania Raya]], [[Jerman]], [[Italia]] ba [[Czeko]].<ref name=Marciszak2010>{{cite journal |last1=Marciszak |first1=A. |last2=Stefaniak |first2=K. |name-list-style=amp |year=2010 |title=Two forms of cave lion: Middle Pleistocene ''Panthera spelaea fossilis'' Reichenau, 1906 and Upper Pleistocene ''Panthera spelaea spelaea'' Goldfuss, 1810 from the Bisnik Cave, Poland |journal=Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen |volume=258 |issue=3 |pages=339–351 |doi=10.1127/0077-7749/2010/0117 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233669138}}</ref><ref name=Sabol2014>{{cite journal |last=Sabol |first=M. |year=2014 |title=''Panthera fossilis'' (Reichenau, 1906) (Felidae, Carnivora) from Za Hájovnou Cave (Moravia, The Czech Republic): A Fossil Record from 1987–2007 |journal=Acta Musei Nationalis Pragae, Series B, Historia Naturalis |volume=70 |issue=1–2 |pages=59–70 | doi=10.14446/AMNP.2014.59 |doi-access=free }}</ref> * ''P. spelaea (Panthera spelaea)'' ma '''singo dögi danö''' tumbu ba [[Eurasia]]<ref>Lafotöi ''eurasia'' danöa sebua si fakhai, ya'ia da'ö Eropa ba Asia</ref> ba ba [[Beringia]]<ref>Lafotöi ''beringia'' danö ba asi ba gotaluara [[Rusia]] ba [[Kanada]]</ref> ba ginötö nifotöi [[Late Pleistocene]]. Tobali taya ia börö ihötöi aukhu danöa ma zui börö wamuzawili niha 11.900 fakhe si lalö.<ref name=Stuart2011>{{cite journal |last1=Stuart |first1=A. J. |last2=Lister |first2=A. M. |name-list-style=amp |year=2011 |title=Extinction chronology of the cave lion ''Panthera spelaea'' |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |volume=30 |issue=17 |pages=2329–40 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.04.023 |bibcode=2011QSRv...30.2329S}}</ref> Moroi ba gakhökhöla döla nisöndra ba dögi danö ba Eropa, Asia Utara, Kanada ba Alaska oroma wa mukoli zingo andre moroi ba Eropa, itörö [[Siberia]] lumalö ba Alaska Barat.<ref name="Hemmer2011">{{cite journal |author=Hemmer, H. |year=2011 |title=The story of the cave lion – ''Panthera Leo Spelaea'' (Goldfuss, 1810) – A review |journal=Quaternaire |volume=4|pages=201–208|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285886884}}</ref> Te tefakhai ba ''P. fossilis'',<ref name=Barnett2016>{{cite journal |last1=Barnett |first1=R. |last2=Mendoza |first2=M. L. Z. |last3=Soares |first3=A. E. R. |last4=Ho |first4=S. Y. W. |last5=Zazula |first5=G. |last6=Yamaguchi |first6=N. |last7=Shapiro |first7=B. |last8=Kirillova |first8=I. V. |last9=Larson |first9=G. |last10=Gilbert |first10=M. T. P. |name-list-style=amp |year=2016 |title=Mitogenomics of the Extinct Cave Lion, ''Panthera spelaea'' (Goldfuss, 1810), resolve its position within the ''Panthera'' cats |journal=Open Quaternary |volume=2 |page=4 |doi=10.5334/oq.24 |url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:9d4f84e6-64c6-49fd-a1dc-a981ba7e8028/download_file?file_format=pdf&safe_filename=Larson%2Bet%2Bal%252C%2BMitogenomics%2Bof%2Bthe%2BExtinct%2BCave%2BLion%252C%2BPanthera%2Bspelaea%2B%2528Goldfuss%252C%2B1810%2529%252C%2Bresolve%2Bits%2Bposition%2Bwit.pdf&type_of_work=Journal+article |doi-access=free |access-date=2023-08-28 |archive-date=2020-10-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003085724/https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:9d4f84e6-64c6-49fd-a1dc-a981ba7e8028/download_file?file_format=pdf&safe_filename=Larson%2Bet%2Bal%252C%2BMitogenomics%2Bof%2Bthe%2BExtinct%2BCave%2BLion%252C%2BPanthera%2Bspelaea%2B%2528Goldfuss%252C%2B1810%2529%252C%2Bresolve%2Bits%2Bposition%2Bwit.pdf&type_of_work=Journal+article |dead-url=yes }}</ref> ba lö si faruka ia molo'ö genetik ba fabö'ö sibai ia moroi ba zingo modern ba Afrika ba ba Eurasia.<ref name="BurgerJ-Molecular-phylogeny">{{Cite journal |last1=Burger |first1=J. |year=2004 |title=Molecular phylogeny of the extinct cave lion ''Panthera leo spelaea'' |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |pmid=15012963 |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=841–849 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2003.07.020 |url=http://www.uni-mainz.de/FB/Biologie/Anthropologie/MolA/Download/Burger%202004.pdf |last3=Loreille |first3=O. |last4=Hemmer |first4=H. |last5=Eriksson |first5=T. |last6=Götherström |first6=A. |last7=Hiller |first7=J. |last8=Collins |first8=M. J. |last9=Wess |first9=T. |last2=Rosendahl |first2=W. |last10=Alt |first10=K. W. |name-list-style=amp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925204424/http://www.uni-mainz.de/FB/Biologie/Anthropologie/MolA/Download/Burger%202004.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2007 }}</ref><ref name=Barnett2016/> Te'oroma'ö zingo andre ba gambara si so ba dögi danö moroi ba ginötö ''Paleolitik'', ba gambara nifakhoi ba nifö gaza ba ba nadu dötö'a nifazökhi moroi ba la'uri.<ref name="Packer00">{{Cite journal |author=Packer, C. |author2=Clottes, J. |name-list-style=amp |title=When Lions Ruled France |journal=Natural History |volume=109 |issue=9 |pages=52–57 |date=2000 |url=http://www.cbs.umn.edu/sites/cbs.umn.edu/files/public/downloads/When_lions_ruled_France.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151229212607/http://cbs.umn.edu/sites/cbs.umn.edu/files/public/downloads/When_lions_ruled_France.pdf |archive-date=2015-12-29 |url-status=live}}</ref> * ''P. atrox (American lion)'' ma zui '''singo Amerika''', itöröi danö ba Amerika ba ba Kanada lumalö ba Patagonia.<ref>Lafotöi ''patagonia'' fefu mbalö danö tanö tou Amerika Selatan si so negara [[Argentina]] ba [[Cile]].</ref><ref name="Chimento2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Chimento |first1=N. R. |last2=Agnolin |first2=F. L. |name-list-style=amp |year=2017 |title=The fossil American lion (''Panthera atrox'') in South America: Palaeobiogeographical implications |journal=Comptes Rendus Palevol |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=850–864 |doi=10.1016/j.crpv.2017.06.009 |bibcode=2017CRPal..16..850C |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321056731|doi-access=free }}</ref> Tobali so ia me te'u'u zingo sauri ba dögi danö ba Beringia ba ginötö wenaeta es nifotöi ''Cordilleran'' salua 370.000 fakhe si lalö.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harington |first1=C. R.|title=Pleistocene remains of the lion-like cat (''Panthera atrox'') from the Yukon Territory and northern Alaska |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_canadian-journal-of-earth-sciences_1969-10_6_5/page/1277 |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |volume= 6|issue= 5 |year=1969 |pages=1277–1288 |doi=10.1139/e69-127|bibcode=1969CaJES...6.1277H}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Christiansen |first1= P. |last2=Harris |first2=J. M. |name-list-style=amp |title=Craniomandibular morphology and phylogenetic affinities of ''Panthera atrox'': implications for the evolution and paleobiology of the lion lineage |year=2009 |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages= 934–945 |doi=10.1671/039.029.0314|bibcode= 2009JVPal..29..934C |s2cid= 85975640 }}</ref> No tesöndra sambua gakhökhöla ba Edmonton (Kanada) moroi khö zingo sauri a.t. 11.355 fakhe si lalö.<ref name="King2013">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1080/08912963.2013.861462 |title=Phylogenetics of ''Panthera'', including ''Panthera atrox'', based on craniodental characters |journal=[[Historical Biology]] |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=827–833 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265790587 |date=2014 |last1=King |first1=L. M. |last2=Wallace |first2=S. C. |s2cid=84229141 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> === Evolusi === [[File:Cave lion range.png|thumb|soyo: ''Panthera spelaea''{{break}}sobowo doru: ''Panthera atrox''{{break}}sowuge'e: ''Panthera leo''{{break}}{{break}}Fa'ebolo döröiŵa zingo modern{{break}}ba talifusönia pra-sejarah{{break}}ba ginötö nifotöi ''Pleistocene'']] Molo'ö fangerai, aboto khoi nga'ötö ''Panthera'' molo'ö genetik moroi ba dua si ha sambaua ''Felidae'' a.t. 9,32 irugi 4,47 juta irege 11,75 irugi 0,97 juta fakhe si lalö,<ref name="Johnson2006">{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=W. E. |last2=Eizirik |first2=E. |last3=Pecon-Slattery |first3=J. |last4=Murphy |first4=W. J. |last5=Antunes |first5=A. |last6=Teeling |first6=E. |last7=O'Brien |first7=S. J. |name-list-style=amp |title=The late miocene radiation of modern Felidae: A genetic assessment |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=311 |issue=5757 |pages=73–77 |date=2006 |pmid=16400146 |doi=10.1126/science.1122277 |bibcode=2006Sci...311...73J|s2cid=41672825 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230866 }}</ref><ref name="Werdelin2010">{{cite book |last1=Werdelin |first1=L. |last2=Yamaguchi |first2=N. |last3=Johnson |first3=W. E. |last4=O'Brien |first4=S. J. |name-list-style=amp |chapter=Phylogeny and evolution of cats (Felidae) |date=2010 |pages=59–82 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=978-0-19-923445-5 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266755142 |editor1-last=Macdonald |editor1-first=D. W. |editor2-last=Loveridge |editor2-first=A. J. |title=Biology and Conservation of Wild Felids}}</ref><ref name=Li_al2016>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=G. |last2=Davis |first2=B. W. |last3=Eizirik |first3=E. |last4=Murphy |first4=W. J. |name-list-style=amp |date=2016 |title=Phylogenomic evidence for ancient hybridization in the genomes of living cats (Felidae) |journal=Genome Research |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1101/gr.186668.114 |pmid=26518481 |pmc=4691742}}</ref> ba andrö alua ia molo'ö nahia geografis ba tanö ba Utara Asia Tengah..<ref name=Tseng2014>{{cite journal |author1=Tseng, Z. J. |author2=Wang, X. |author3=Slater, G. J. |name-list-style=amp |author4=Takeuchi, G. T. |author5=Li, Q. |author6=Liu, J. |author7=Xie, G. |date=2014 |title=Himalayan fossils of the oldest known pantherine establish ancient origin of big cats |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=281 |issue=1774 |page=20132686 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2013.2686|pmid=24225466 |pmc=3843846 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Fabö'ö-bö'ö mbua wangosisi (li Indonesia ''analisis'') wurugö ngawalö ngafu zingo; so zöndra sanguma'ö wa tobali ngafu si fatalifusö khö jaguar<ref>Jaguar no sambua moroi ba mao gatua sebua si tölu ngafu, ya'ia da'ö harimo, singo ba jaguar.</ref> (''P. onca'') zingo, si fabali me 3,46 irugi 1,22 juta fakhe si lalö,<ref name=Johnson2006/> bahiza fatalifusö göi ia khö leopard<ref>Leopard no göi mao gatua sebua tanöbö'ö si tefaböbö ba genus Panthera simane singo.</ref> (''P. pardus'') si fabali moroi khö zingo me 3,1 irugi 1,95 juta fakhe si lalö<ref name="davis2010">{{cite journal |last1=Davis|first1=B. W. |last2=Li |first2=G. |last3=Murphy |first3=W. J. |name-list-style=amp |title=Supermatrix and species tree methods resolve phylogenetic relationships within the big cats, ''Panthera'' (Carnivora: Felidae) |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |year=2010 |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=64–76 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2010.01.036 |pmid=20138224 |url=https://www.academia.edu/12157986}}</ref><ref name="mazak2011">{{cite journal |last1=Mazák|first1=J. H. |last2=Christiansen |first2=P. |last3=Kitchener |first3=A. C. |last4=Goswami |first4=A. |name-list-style=amp |title=Oldest known pantherine skull and evolution of the tiger |journal=PLOS ONE |year=2011 |volume=6 |issue=10 |pages=e25483 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0025483 |pmid=22016768 |pmc=3189913|bibcode=2011PLoSO...625483M|doi-access=free }}</ref> irugi 4,32 irugi 0,02 juta fakhe si lalö. Fa'afatali genetik ndra furugö zingo ba leopard sauri ba danö si so es (''P. uncia'') te tetohugö irugi 2,1 juta fakhe si lalö.<ref name=Li_al2016/> Singo-leopard andre no muzawili ba danö si fatohu Asia Afrika i'otarai ginötö ''Pliocene''.<ref name=Tseng2014/> Akhökhöla fondrege atua soroma hulö singo, no tesöndra ba Olduvai Gorge ba [[Tanzania]] ba molo'ö fangerai te 2 juta fakhe wa'atuania.<ref name="Werdelin2010"/> Fanahö ginötö hamega fabali nga'ötö zingo modern ba singo dögi danö tola i'otarai 529.000 irugi 392.000 fakhe si lalö na lafaigi moroi ba wa'afabö'ö salua götö sambua generasi zingo modern. Lö nisöndra boto ni'ila hörö (li Indonesia ''bukti'') hohou genetik ba gotalua nga'ötö andre, eluahania lö irai toröi ira ba zi sambua nahia molo'ö geografi.<ref name="DeManuel_al2020" /> Tobali taya zingo dögi danö moroi ba Eurasia ba moroi ba Amerika ba gangahorita nifotöi periode glasial safuria<ref>Lafotöi periode glasial safuria ginötö me ihawui zi sagörö tanö nasa es. Andrö göi itaria latötöi ia götö es safuria (li Inggris ''last ice age'')</ref> ba zi lö nga'ötö mitokhondrial<ref>Latötöi mitokhondria hunö si so bakha ba ''sel'' gaurifö, sinumbua ba ngawalö nandröta (li Inggris ''fungi'')</ref> ba danöa (li Indonesia ''benua'').<ref name="BurgerJ-Molecular-phylogeny"/><ref name=Barnett>{{Cite journal |last1=Barnett |first1=R. |last2=Shapiro |first2=B. |author-link2=Beth Shapiro |last3=Barnes |first3=I. |last4=Ho |first4=S. Y. W. |last5=Burger |first5=J. |author-link5=Joachim Burger |last6=Yamaguchi |first6=N. |last7=Higham |first7=T. F. G. |last8=Wheeler |first8=H. T. |title=Phylogeography of lions (''Panthera leo'' ssp.) reveals three distinct taxa and a late Pleistocene reduction in genetic diversity |journal=[[Molecular Ecology]] |date=2009 |volume=18 |issue=8 |pages=1668–1677 |pmid=19302360 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04134.x |first9=W. |last9=Rosendahl |last10=Sher |first10=A. V. |last11=Sotnikova |first11=M. |last12=Kuznetsova |first12=T. |last13=Baryshnikov |first13=G. F. |last14=Martin |first14=L. D. |last15=Harington |first15=C. R. |last16=Burns |first16=J. A. |last17=Cooper |first17=A. |s2cid=46716748 |name-list-style=amp |url=http://www.zin.ru/Labs/theriology/eng/staff/baryshnikov/references/barnett_et_al_2009.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808225555/http://www.zin.ru/labs/theriology/eng/staff/baryshnikov/references/barnett_et_al_2009.pdf |archive-date=2017-08-08 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Argant, A. |author2=Brugal, J.-P. |name-list-style=amp |year=2017|title=The cave lion ''Panthera (Leo) spelaea'' and its evolution: ''Panthera spelaea intermedia'' nov. subspecies |journal=Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=58–103 |doi=10.3409/azc.60_2.59 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Tola manö wa oya muzawili zingo modern ba Afrika götö nifotöi [[Middle Pleistocene]] ba tebörögö so wabalisa ba gölana tanö tou danö-simate Sahara ba Afrika götö [[Late Pleistocene]]. Tobali tefabali zingo si so ba Afrika Timur ba Selatan moroi ba zingo si so ba Afrika Barat ba Utara me gatua si so ba gölana equator monönö wa'ebolo 183.500 irugi 81.800 fakhe si lalö.<ref name=Barnett_al2014>{{cite journal |author1=Barnett, R. |author2=Yamaguchi, N. |author3=Shapiro, B. |author4=Ho, S. Y. |author5=Barnes, I. |author6=Sabin, R. |author7=Werdelin, L. |author8=Cuisin, J. |name-list-style=amp |author9=Larson, G. |year=2014 |title=Revealing the maternal demographic history of ''Panthera leo'' using ancient DNA and a spatially explicit genealogical analysis |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=70 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-14-70|pmid=24690312 |pmc=3997813 |doi-access=free }}</ref> They shared a common ancestor probably between 98,000 and 52,000 years ago.<ref name="DeManuel_al2020" /> Börö me itugu ebolo danö-simate Sahara 83.100 irugi 26.000 fakhe si lalö, tobali tefabali ngawalö zingo si so ba Afrika Barat ba Utara. Me itugu alö wa'ebolo gatua si so ba equator, awua'a zingo moroi ba Afrika Barat lumalö ba Afrika Tengah. Muzawili zingo moroi ba Afrika Utara miyöu ba Eropa ba ba Asia 38.800 ba 8.300 fakhe si lalö.<ref name=Barnett_al2014/> Börö wa'ataya zingo ba Eropa Selatan, Afrika Utara ba Timur Tengah, tebatogö hohou genetik zingo ba Asia ba ba Afrika. Moroi ba mbua wangosili genetik oroma wa so ha'uga wa'afabö'ö salua ba zingo soroi ba Afrika Timur ba ba Afrika Selatan, eluahania so waö-waö evolusi ngawa zingo andre abölö anau moroi ba gakhetela zingo moro ba Asia ba ba Afrika Barat awö Tengah.<ref name=Bertola2011>{{Cite journal |last1=Bertola |first1=L. D. |last2=Van Hooft |first2=W. F. |last3=Vrieling |first3=K. |last4=Uit De Weerd |first4=D. R. |last5=York |first5=D. S. |last6=Bauer |first6=H. |last7=Prins |first7=H. H. T. |last8=Funston |first8=P. J. |last9=Udo De Haes |first9=H. A. |last10=Leirs |first10=H. |last11=Van Haeringen |first11=W. A. |last12=Sogbohossou |first12=E. |last13=Tumenta |first13=P. N. |last14=De Iongh |first14=H. H. |name-list-style=amp |year=2011 |title=Genetic diversity, evolutionary history and implications for conservation of the lion (''Panthera leo'') in West and Central Africa |journal=Journal of Biogeography |volume=38 |issue=7 |pages=1356–1367 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02500.x|s2cid=82728679 }}</ref> Aefa la'osisi'ö gama'olita genome<ref>Ama'olita genome (li Inggris ''genome sequence'') no sambua halöŵö nifalua ndra sogonekhe ba wangosisi'ö hewisa wa'ate'oli DNA (li Inggris DeoxyriboNucleic Acid), sambua ''molekul'' fondrege moguna ba mboto fefu zauri ba danö. Bakha ba DNA andre no so fefu ''kode'' wa'auri, irege moroi ba ''sel'' side-ide oi manumbu ba tedou ngawalö hadia ia simane ta'io, tanga, högö, uto, hörö, btn. na ba niha. Tola tafaedogö ia ba sambua gadulo. Bakha ba gadulo andrö no so fefu ngawalö ''kode'' sama'anö hewisa wa moroi ba zi sambua adulo tumbu ba manöi sageu manu, si so afi, tara, söri, högö, btn. No la'osisi'ö DNA andre ira sogonekhe ba ''ilmu pengetahuan'' ba lasöndra wa fa'afa'oli kode DNA andrö no arakhagö fagölö, ba hiza si fabö'önia si ma'ifu andrö, da'ö zamabö'öni ero ''spesies'' ba töra-töra ero ngafu he sinumbua, aurifö ba niha.</ref> gakhetela zingo andre oroma wa fakhili gakhetela moroi Afrika Barat faoma Afrika Selatan, ba fakhili gakhetela zingo moroi Afrika Tengah ba Asia. Eluahania, Afrika Tengah no sambua nahia heza faruka oi ngawalö ngawa zingo, aefa tefabali ira götö ginötö nifotöi [[Holocene]].<ref name="DeManuel_al2020" /> === Singo si faruka === Ba kabu gaurifö, no lafangowalu zingo faoma harimo, soguna ba wangomuso dödö dome ma zui soguna ba wangosili ilmiah.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pocock, R. I. |year=1898 |title=Lion-Tiger Hybrid |journal=Nature |volume=58 |issue=1496 |page=200 |doi=10.1038/058200b0|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1889713 |bibcode=1898Natur..58Q.200P |s2cid=4056029 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Benirschke, K. |title=Comparative aspects of reproductive failure |pages=218––234 |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |year=1967 |chapter=Sterility and fertility of interspecific mammalian hybrids |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-48949-5_12 |isbn=978-3-642-48949-5}}</ref> Abölö ebua mboto ''liger'' (ono zingo simatua-harimo si'alawe) moroi khö zingo ma zui harimo, bahiza arakhagö fefu ''tigon'' (ono harimo simatua-singo si'alawe) ide-ide moroi khö ndra satuara, börö ''efek genetik'' (bua wa'afaruka gene).<ref name="shi">{{cite thesis |last=Shi |first=W. |year=2005 |title=Growth and Behaviour: Epigenetic and Genetic Factors Involved in Hybrid Dysgenesis |type=PhD |series=Digital Comprehensive Summaries of Uppsala Dissertations from the Faculty of Science and Technology |publisher=Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis |location=Uppsala |chapter=Hybrid dysgenesis effects |page=8–10 |chapter-url=http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:165749/FULLTEXT01.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518050521/http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:165749/FULLTEXT01.pdf |archive-date=2019-05-18 |url-status=live|url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-4784 }}</ref><ref name="Carnivores">{{Cite book |last1=Rafferty |first1=J. P. |title=Carnivores: Meat-eating Mammals |date=2011 |location=New York |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-61530-340-3 |chapter=The Liger |page=120 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EMui7zVOqeUC&pg=PA120 |access-date=4 July 2014}}</ref> So göi ''leopon'' si tumbu moroi ba wangowalu leopard simatua ba singo si'alawe.<ref>{{Cite journal |author1=Zhang, Z. |author2=Chen, J. |author3=Li, L. |author4=Tao, M. |author5=Zhang, C. |author6=Qin, Q. |author7=Xiao, J. |author8=Liu, Y. |author9=Liu, S. |title=Research advances in animal distant hybridization |year=2014 |journal=Science China Life Sciences |volume=57 |issue=9 |pages=889–902 |doi=10.1007/s11427-014-4707-1 |pmid=25091377 |s2cid=18179301 |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11427-014-4707-1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181030104852/https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs11427-014-4707-1.pdf |archive-date=2018-10-30 |url-status=live|doi-access=free }}</ref> == Deskripsi == {{multiple image|align=right|direction=vertical |image1=Lioness 12.jpg|caption1=Ha khö zingo so mbömbö mbu ba mbalö gi'o. |image2=Description iconographique comparée du squelette et du système dentaire des mammifères récents et fossiles (Panthera leo).jpg|caption2=Töla}} Singo no mao sebua soya nagole, sebolo tö'a, högönia adogo ba owulo-wulo, baginia göi adogo ba fisonia owulo-wulo; högö zimatua abölö ebolo. La'a-la'a mbunia oi fabö'ö i'otarai za'usö-usö irugi zolamuhu atua, ba gotalua zoroyo-royo ba so'usö-usö irugi zowumanu-soyo. Sito'ölönia la'a-la'a mboto tanö tou abölö mohaga. So khö nono zingo sawena tumbu lahe-lahe sogömi, situgu taya na ebua ia, heŵa'ae tola oroma nasa ma'ifu lahenia ba gahe ma ba mboto tanö tou khönia.<ref name=Guggisberg1975/><ref name=Haas2005>{{cite journal |author1=Haas, S. K. |author2=Hayssen, V. |author3=Krausman, P. R. |title=''Panthera leo'' |year=2005 |journal=Mammalian Species |volume=762 |pages=1–11 |url=http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/762_Panthera_leo.pdf |doi=10.1644/1545-1410(2005)762[0001:PL]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=198968757 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728131140/http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/762_Panthera_leo.pdf |archive-date=28 July 2017 }}</ref> Fefu mbalö gi'o zingo hulö mböbö mbu ambö töra ba mbalönia so döla sabe'e si 5mm fa'anau. Lö ta'ila hadia guna döla sabe'e andre. Lö hadöi mböbö mbu andre ba nono zingo sawena tumbu, awena ibörötaigö oroma ia me lima amatonga waŵa ndröfinia ba oroma sibai sa'ae ia na irugi fitu waŵa ndröfinia.<ref name="Schaller28">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], pp. 28–30.</ref> Fakhili-khili döla högönia ba döla högö harimo, heŵa'ae na abölö ebolo högö tanö föna zingo ba abölö adogo-dogo, simanö göi abölö ebua dögi nikhunia. Börö me oya variasi döla högö he spesies zingo ba he göi spesies harimo, andrö wa ha simbi zi tola te'oguna'ö ba wangila hadia spesies andrö.<ref name=Pocock1939>{{cite book |author=Pocock, R. I. |year=1939 |title=The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Mammalia. Volume 1 |publisher=Taylor and Francis Ltd. |location=London |chapter=''Panthera leo'' |pages=212–222 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/PocockMammalia1/pocock1#page/n261/mode/2up}}</ref><ref name="USSR">{{Cite book |last1=Heptner |first1=V. G. |last2=Sludskii |first2=A. A. |orig-date=1972 |year=1992 |title=Mlekopitajuščie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Moskva: Vysšaia Škola |trans-title=Mammals of the Soviet Union, Volume II, Part 2 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation |location=Washington DC |chapter=Lion |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/mammalsofsov221992gept#page/82/mode/2up |pages=83–95 |isbn=978-90-04-08876-4}}</ref> Fa'abua nagole zingo no 58.8% moroi ba wa'abua mbotonia ba börö da'ö tobali aurifö fondrege oya nagolenia ba gotalua zauri ba danö samaenu ono ma sasese latötöi mamalia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Davis|first=D. D. |date=1962 |title=Allometric relationships in Lions vs. Domestic Cats |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_evolution_1962-12_16_4/page/505|journal=Evolution |volume=16|issue=4|pages=505–514 |doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.1962.tb03240.x|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Calder|first=W. A. |chapter=Skeletal muscle |pages=17–21 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-iBS6-2OO3wC&pg=PA19 |title=Size, Function, and Life History |date=1996 |publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0-486-69191-6}}</ref> === Fa'ebua mboto === Ba gotalua ngafu mao sebua, singo no mao fondrege ebua aefa harimo.<ref name=Haas2005/> Oi fabö'ö wa'ebua ba fa'abua mboto zingo si no atua molo'ö nahia heza auri ia (li Indonesia ''habitat'').<ref name=Smuts_etal_1980>{{Cite journal |last=Smuts|first=G. L. |author2=Robinson, G. A. |author3=Whyte, I. J. |title=Comparative growth of wild male and female lions (''Panthera leo'') |journal=Journal of Zoology |year=1980 |volume=190 |issue=3 |pages=365–373 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1980.tb01433.x }}</ref><ref name=Chellam1993>{{cite book |author=Chellam, R. and A. J. T. Johnsingh |year=1993 |chapter=Management of Asiatic lions in the Gir Forest, India |pages=409–23 |title=Mammals as predators: the proceedings of a symposium held by the Zoological Society of London and the Mammal Society, London. Volume 65 of Symposia of the Zoological Society of London |editor1-last=Dunstone |editor1-first=N. |editor2-last=Gorman |editor2-first=M. L. |publisher=Zoological Society of London |location=London}}</ref><ref name="BCKM1993">{{cite book |author=Brakefield, T. |chapter=Lion: Sociable Simba |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szBm5kPeC-cC&pg=PA50 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bigcatskingdomof0000brak/page/50 50–67] |title=Big Cats: Kingdom of Might |publisher=Voyageur Press |location=London |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-89658-329-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/bigcatskingdomof0000brak/page/50 }}</ref><ref name="nowak">{{Cite book |last=Nowak |first=R. M. |year=1999 |title=Walker's Mammals of the World |location=Baltimore |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |chapter=''Panthera leo'' |pages=832–834 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T37sFCl43E8C&pg=PR832 |isbn=978-0-8018-5789-8}}</ref> So mato ha'uga zingo ba Afrika ba India sebua boto moroi ba zingo si fagölötö.<ref name=Guggisberg1975/><ref name=CAP>{{Cite book |last1=Nowell |first1=K. |last2=Jackson |first2=P. |title=Wild Cats: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan|chapter-url=http://carnivoractionplans1.free.fr/wildcats.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050529182212/http://carnivoractionplans1.free.fr/wildcats.pdf |archive-date=2005-05-29 |url-status=live |year=1996 |publisher=IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group |location=Gland, Switzerland |isbn=978-2-8317-0045-8 |pages=17–21; 37–41 |chapter=African lion, ''Panthera leo'' (Linnaeus, 1758); Asiatic lion, ''Panthera leo persica'' (Meyer, 1826)}}</ref><ref name="Smuts et al., 1982">{{cite book |author=Smuts, G. L. |year=1982 |title=Lion |location=Johannesburg, South Africa |publisher=MacMillan }}</ref><ref name="Sinha1987">{{cite thesis |author=Sinha, S. P. |year=1987 |title=''Ecology of wildlife with special reference to the lion (''Panthera leo persica'') in Gir Wildlife Sanctuary, Saurashtra, Gujurat'' |type=PhD |publisher=Saurashtra University |location=Rajkot |isbn=978-3844305456}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" ! Si fagölötö !!Singo si'alawe !!Singo simatua |- |Fa'anau högö-ba-boto ||{{cvt|160|-|184|cm}}<ref name=West2013>{{cite book |last1=West |first1=P. M. |last2=Packer |first2=C. |chapter=''Panthera leo'' Lion |pages=150–159 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B_07noCPc4kC&pg=RA4-PA150 |editor1=Kingdon, J. |editor2=Happold, D. |editor3=Butynski, T. |editor4=Hoffmann, M. |editor5=Happold, M. |editor6=Kalina, J. |title=Mammals of Africa |year=2013 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |location=London |isbn=978-1-4081-8996-2}}</ref> ||{{cvt|184|-|208|cm}}<ref name=West2013/> |- |Fa'anau gi'o ||72-89.5cm<ref name=West2013/> ||82,5-93,5cm<ref name=West2013/> |- |Fa'abua ||118,37-143.52kg ba Afrika Selatan,<ref name=Smuts_etal_1980/>{{break}}119,5kg ba Afrika Timur,<ref name=Smuts_etal_1980/>{{break}}110-120kg ba India<ref name=Chellam1993/> ||186,55-225kg ba Afrika Selatan,<ref name=Smuts_etal_1980/>{{break}}174,9kg ba Afrika Timur,<ref name=Smuts_etal_1980/>{{break}}160-190kg ba India<ref name=Chellam1993/> |} === Bu zöri === {{multiple image|align=right|direction=vertical |image1=Lion (Panthera leo) male 6y.jpg|caption1=Singo simatua, 6 fakhe döfi ba Phinda Private Game Reserve |image2=Lion au repos parc pendjari.jpg|caption2=Singo simatua ba Pendjari National Park}} Bu zöri zingo simatua no sambua zi i'anema'ö oroma khöda tobali amuata spesies andre.<ref name=Hemmer>{{cite journal |author=Hemmer, H. |year=1974 |title=Untersuchungen zur Stammesgeschichte der Pantherkatzen (''Pantherinae'') Teil 3. Zur Artgeschichte des Löwen ''Panthera (Panthera) leo'' (Linnaeus, 1758) |journal=Veröffentlichungen der Zoologischen Staatssammlung |volume=17| pages=167–280 |url=https://archive.org/stream/verfentlichungen171974zool#page/178/mode/2up}}</ref> Te tebörötaigö so ia ambö töra 320.000–190.000 fakhe si lalö.<ref name=Yamaguchietal2004Mane>{{Cite journal |last1=Yamaguchi |first1=Nobuyuki |last2=Cooper |first2=A. |last3=Werdelin |first3=L. |last4=MacDonald |first4=David W. |date=2004 |title=Evolution of the mane and group-living in the lion (''Panthera leo''): a review |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=263 |issue=4 |pages=329–342 |doi=10.1017/S0952836904005242}}</ref> Tumbu ia mitou ba mifuri, ifönui arakhagö fefu högö, bagi, alisi ba tötö'a. Sito'ölönia la'a-la'ania owumanu-soyo ba so ma'ifu mbu sa'usö-usö, ma saraidö-aidö.<ref name=Haas2005/> Ibörötaigö tumbu ia me ebua-bua zingo, me manöi mbosi wa'oya ŵe wa'amatua nifotöi ''testosteron'', ba afönu wa'atumbu mbu zöri andre na irugi öfa fakhe ndröfi zingo.<ref>[[#Packer|Packer]], p. 148.</ref> Te börö wa'odöŵa-döŵa wa'aukhu nahia gaurifö (li Inggris ''zoo'') ba Eropa ba ba Amerika Utara, abölö atabö mbu zöri zingo ba da'ö.<ref name=BarnettYamaguchi2006/> Sito'ölönia abölö ambö wa'oya mbu zöri zingo Asia moroi ba mbu zöri zingo Afrika.<ref name=Menon>{{Cite book |last=Menon |first=V. |year=2003 |title=A Field Guide to Indian Mammals |location=New Delhi |publisher=Dorling Kindersley India |isbn=978-0-14-302998-4}}</ref> Wa so mbu zöri andre tenga sibai börö me moguna ia ba wondrorogö mbagi, bahiza me moguna ia ba wangoroma'ö khö zingo si'alawe ha wa'abölö zingo simatua. Ba ginötö wasöndrata, göi ba gotalua ndra singo si lö bu zörö ba singo sihino döla, lö lagohi mbagi töra moroi ba mbawa, hulu ba tanö ba doyo. Ibörötaigö mangatoru mbu zöri zingo si mesokho ba wasöndrata, tandra da'a wa tenga ba wondrorogö mbagi guna mbu zöri andrö. Hulö abölö mowua ba [[wikt:nia:faro'a|waro'asa]] zingo si so bu zöri sabölö ogömi ba sito'ölönia abölö ara toröi zingo so bu zöri sogömi ba gotalua ngawa zingo. Bulura göi anau ba agawe'e-we'e, alaŵa mbosi ŵe wa'amatua (''testosteron'') ba abölö tebai lataha wa'aukhu.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Peyton|first1=P. M.|last2=Packer|first2=C|year=2002|title=Sexual selection, temperature, and the lion's mane|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2002-08-23_297_5585/page/1339|journal=Science|volume=297|issue=5585|pages=1339–1343|doi=10.1126/science.1073257|pmid=12193785 |bibcode=2002Sci...297.1339W |s2cid=15893512 }}</ref><ref>[[#Packer|Packer]], pp. 137, 145.</ref> Tenga simane spesies mao sebua tanöbö'ö, oi [[wikt:nia:faro'a|faro'a]] zingo si'alawe khö oya zingo simatua, tenga ha khö zi sageu. Te da'a mbörö hana wa lö tumbu mbu zöri ba zimatua ngawalö mao tanöbö'ö.<ref>[[#Packer|Packer]], p 148.</ref> Almost all male lions in [[Pendjari National Park]] are either maneless or have very short manes.<ref name=Schoeetal2010>{{cite book |author1=Schoe, M. |author2=Sogbohossou, E. A. |author3=Kaandorp, J. |author4=De Iongh, H. |title=Progress Report—collaring operation Pendjari Lion Project, Benin |work=The Dutch Zoo Conservation Fund (for funding the project) |year=2010}}</ref> [[Maneless lion]]s have also been reported in Senegal, in [[Sudan]]'s [[Dinder National Park]] and in [[Tsavo East National Park]], Kenya.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Trivedi |first=Bijal P. |title=Are Maneless Tsavo Lions Prone to Male Pattern Baldness? |magazine=National Geographic |year=2005 |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/04/0412_020412_TVtsavolions.html |access-date=7 July 2007}}</ref> [[castration|Castrated]] lions often have little to no mane because the removal of the [[gonad]]s inhibits testosterone production.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=L. |last=Munson |date=2006 |title=Contraception in felids |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_theriogenology_2006-07-01_66_1/page/126 |journal=Theriogenology |pmid=16626799 |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=126–134 |doi=10.1016/j.theriogenology.2006.03.016}}</ref> Increased testosterone may be the cause of maned lionesses reported in northern Botswana.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Dell'Amore |first=C. |date=2016 |access-date=18 April 2016 |title=No, those aren't male lions mating. One is likely a female |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/04/160418-lions-mating-africa-animals-science/|magazine=National Geographic}}</ref> === Variasi la'a-la'a === Afusi mbu zingo safusi börö wökhö ondröita (li Indonesia ''kondisi genetik'') same'e irege mo'amböta wamola'a-la'a mbu nifotöi ''pigmentasi''. Eluahania singo safusi tenga ''albino'' nifotöi The white lion is a rare [[Polymorphism (biology)|morph]] with a genetic condition called [[leucism]] which is caused by a double [[recessive allele]]. It is not albino; it has normal pigmentation in the eyes and skin. White lions have occasionally been encountered in and around [[Kruger National Park]] and the adjacent [[Timbavati Private Game Reserve]] in eastern South Africa. They were removed from the wild in the 1970s, thus decreasing the white lion [[gene pool]]. Nevertheless, 17 births have been recorded in five prides between 2007 and 2015.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Turner|first1=J. A.|last2= Vasicek|first2=C. A. |last3= Somers |first3=M. J. |year=2015 |title=Effects of a colour variant on hunting ability: the white lion in South Africa |journal=Open Science Repository Biology |page=e45011830}}</ref> White lions are selected for breeding in captivity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McBride |first=C. |title=The White Lions of Timbavati |year=1977 |publisher=E. Stanton |location=Johannesburg |isbn= 978-0-949997-32-6}}</ref> They have reportedly been bred in camps in South Africa for use as trophies to be killed during [[canned hunt]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tucker|first=L. |title=Mystery of the White Lions—Children of the Sun God|year=2003 |publisher=Npenvu Press|location=Mapumulanga |isbn=978-0-620-31409-1}}</ref> == Fa'amuzawili ba nahia to'ölö auri == [[File:Asiatic lion 01.jpg|thumb|Singo si so ba Gir National Park, Gujarat, India]] Muzawili zingo Afrika ba zi sagörö gölana tanö raya danö-simate Sahara. Abölö omasi ira la'iagö danö sondraso-ndraso satabö ndru'u (li Indonesia ''dataran'') ba ba ''savana'',<ref>Lafotöi savana nahia ma tanö sebolo satabö ndru'u ba so ma'ifu geu, si so ba gölana i'otarai 23°26ʹ tanö yöu irugi ba 23°26ʹ tanö raya katulistiwa. Asese göi latötöi ia gölana ''tropis''. Eluahania tesöndra nifotöi savana ba gölana tropis.</ref> ba la'anöröi nahia sahatö ba nungo nidanö awö zahatö ba gatua. Ŵaraö sibai möi ira bakha ba gatua. Ba hili Elgon si so ba gotaluara [[Uganda]] ba [[Kenya]], no tesöndra zingo ba nahia sirugi 3.600m wa'alaŵa, ahatö ba nahia si so ''teu asio''<ref>Lafotöi ''teu asio'' nidanö deu satoru tou hulö nasio safusi börö wa'okafu mbanua (li Indonesia ''salju''). Na no atoru ba owulo ia tou ba danö ba tola abe'e ia tobali hulö idanö sibaku (li Indonesia ''es'')</ref> yaŵa ba hili Kenya.<ref name=Guggisberg1975>{{Cite book |last=Guggisberg |first=C. A. W. |title=Wild Cats of the World |year=1975 |publisher=Taplinger Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8008-8324-9 |chapter=Lion ''Panthera leo'' (Linnaeus, 1758) |pages=138–179 |chapter-url=}}</ref> Ba savana heza moteu 300 irugi 1.500 mm ero röfi, ba da'ö auri arakhagö fefu zingo ba Afrika, ambö töra 3.390,821 km<sup>2</sup>, heŵa'ae so ösa ngawa sauri ba gatua tropis sabazö-bazö ba Afrika Barat ba ba gatua ba hili-hili ba Afrika Timur.<ref name=Riggio_al2013>{{cite journal |author=Riggio, J. |author2=Jacobson, A. |author3=Dollar, L. |author4=Bauer, H. |author5=Becker, M. |author6=Dickman, A. |author7=Funston, P. |author8=Groom, R. |author9=Henschel, P. |author10=de Iongh, H. |author11=Lichtenfeld, L. |author12=Pimm, S. |year=2013 |title=The size of savannah Africa: a lion's (''Panthera leo'') view |journal=Biodiversity Conservation |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=17–35|doi=10.1007/s10531-012-0381-4 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Auri nasa zingo Asia ha bakha ba ba zifasui Gir National Park ba Gujarat, India tanö ba gaekhula. Tanö ba da'ö mogatua soköli irege oköli sibai soya eu sigine-ide bulu ba sadawa-dawa satoru bulu ero röfi.<ref name=Breitenmoser2008/> === Götö auri ia === Ba Afrika ba mböröta oi auri zingo ba Afrika Tengah ba gatua soya moteu ba ba danö-simate [[Sahara]].<ref name="Schaller5">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 5.</ref> Ba ndröfia si-60s, taya ira ba Afrika Utara, ha ba tanö raya [[Sudan]] lö'ö.<ref name=Chardonnet2002/><ref name="Riggio_al2013" /><ref name="Black_al2013">{{cite journal |last1=Black |first1=S. A. |last2=Fellous |first2=A. |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=N. | last4=Roberts |first4=D. L. |year=2013 |title=Examining the Extinction of the Barbary Lion and Its Implications for Felid Conservation |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=4 |page=e60174 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0060174 |pmid=23573239 |pmc=3616087 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...860174B |doi-access=free}}</ref> Me föna tesöndra zingo ba danö tanö yöu Eropa ba ba Asia, ba nahia heza faudu ''iklim''<ref>Lafotöi ''iklim'' fefu zanandrösa ba hewisa zi to'ölönia ''luo'' ba zi sambua nahia (li Indonesia ''cuaca''). Duma-dumania lö mamalö lökhö, heŵa'ae itaria moteu; lö mamalö moteu-teu, heŵa'ae itaria mosino ba molökhö. To'ölö wa auri ma tesöndra zinumbua ba aurifö ba nahia si so ''luo'' simane ba ambö ba nahia si so ''luo'' bö'ö.</ref> ba oya gamauluta.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schnitzler |first1=A. |last2=Hermann |first2=L. |title=Chronological distribution of the tiger ''Panthera tigris'' and the Asiatic lion ''Panthera leo persica'' in their common range in Asia |journal=[[Mammal Review]] |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=340–353 |doi=10.1111/mam.12166 |date=2019|s2cid=202040786 }}</ref> Simane nituriaigö Herodotus ba döfi 480 föK (föna wa'tumbu Yesu föK), so zingo ba Yunani; ba döfi 300 föK no itugu ŵaraö tesöndra ia ba ba döfi 300 föK taya sa'ae.<ref name=Guggisberg1975/> So zingo ba [[Kaukasus]] irege ngaotu ndröfi si-10.<ref name="USSR"/> Simanö tesöndra ia ba [[Palestina]] ndrege [[Abad Pertengahan]], ba ba [[Asia Tenggara]] irugi gangahorita ngaotu ndröfia si-19. Ba gangahorita ngaotu ndröfia si-19 no sa'ae oi taya ia ba [[Turki]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Üstay, A. H. |year=1990 |title=Hunting in Turkey |publisher=BBA |location=Istanbul}}</ref> Afuriata la'ila niha zingo ba [[Iran]] me 1942 ambö töra 65 km tanö yöu danö Dezfull,<ref name=Firouz05>{{cite book |last=Firouz |first=E.|year=2005 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=t2EZCScFXloC |page=66}}|title=The complete fauna of Iran |publisher=I. B. Tauris| isbn=978-1-85043-946-2 |pages=5–67}}</ref> Heŵa'ae tesöndra gamatela zingo ba zinga nungo nidanö Karun ba Provinsi Khūzestān me 1944.<ref name="simba"/> La'anöröi danö singo meföna moroi ba Sind ba Punjab ba [[Pakistan]] irege [[Benggala]] ba ungo nidanö Narmada ba [[India]] Tengah.<ref name=Kinnear1920>{{cite journal |author=Kinnear, N. B. |year=1920 |title=The past and present distribution of the lion in southeastern Asia |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=27 |pages=34–39 |url=https://archive.org/stream/journalofbombayn27192022bomb#page/32/mode/2up}}</ref> == Waö-waö wobenuasa == Lahorigö ginötöra singo ba zahono manö (molombase); Tola ahono manö ira irugi 24 jam ma'ökhö.<ref name="Schaller122">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 122.</ref> Heŵa'ae tola gofu hawa'ara aktif ira, si to'ölönia sa ba abölö aktif ira na arakhagö bongi, heza lalau fariawö, mangehao bu ba möi ti'i. Tola aktif ira simane ba zi'anema'ö ba ba zi itaria irege zihulöwongi, heza asese lalau malu wangalui ö. Lalau mowaö-waö mato dua jam ero ma'ökhö ba inötö wemanga mato 50 menit.<ref name="Schaller120">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 120–21.</ref> === Famatörö wa'awösa === {{multiple image|align=right|direction=vertical |image1=Lion (Panthera leo) male and cub Etosha.jpg|caption1=Fa'awösa zingo ba Etosha National Park, [[Namimbia]] |image2=Lions Family Portrait Masai Mara.jpg|caption2=Singo si'alawe (kambera) ba dua geu zingo simatua ba Masai Mara, [[Kenya]]}} Singo no fondrege fa'awö (li Indonesia ''sosial'') ba gotalua fefu spesies mao gatua, so ira bakha ba wa'awösa (li Indonesia ''grup'') zi fakhai ero ira khö ndraonora. Ba li Inggris latötöi wa'awösa simanö ''lion pride'' ba latötöi wa'awösa ndra singo simatua "coalitions".<ref name="Schaller33">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 33.</ref> Same'e ena'ö aro ba mogötö wa'awösa simane no singo si'alawe ba singo si'alawe andre zame'e ena'ö böi fao faruka zingo si'alawe moroi baero.<ref name="Schaller37">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 37.</ref> Arakhagö fefu zingo si'alawe toröi bakha ba wa'awösa heza tumbu ira, bahiza fefu zingo simatua ba mato ha'uga zi'alawe fabali moroi ba wa'awösa samuza ma'ökhö.<ref name=Packer33>[[#Packer|Packer]], nga'örö 33.</ref> Si to'ölönia so 15 zingo bakha ba si sambua wa'awösa, fao ba da'ö mato ha'uga zingo si'alawe si no ebua-bua ba irege öfa zingo simatua ba iraono zingo. No göi ira la'ila niha wa'awösa segebua si so bakha irugi 30 zingo.<ref>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 34–35.</ref> Ha fa'awösa zingo Tsavo zi fabö'ö moroi ba da'e, me lö mamalö ha sageu zingo simatua so bakha ba zi sambua fa'awösa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Milius |first=S. |date=2002 |title= Biology: Maneless lions live one guy per pride|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science-news-us_2002-04-20_161_16/page/253 |journal=Society for Science & the Public |volume=161 |issue=16 |page=253 |doi=10.1002/scin.5591611614}}</ref> Ba ginötö latöröi danö tola manö lababagi ira ba wa'awösa sabölö ide-ide ba faoma la'ombakha'ö heza so ira khö nawöra faoma fe'ao zingo.<ref>[[#Packer|Packer]], nga'örö 25, 31.</ref> Agaröu latöröi ya'ira singo sawu'a-wu'a nahia, daru-darua ma zui ha samösa.<ref name="Schaller33"/> Abölö asese lalau mangalui daru-darua singo simatua si fatalifusö. Bahiza tola göi ibulö'ö lala wa'aurinia singo. Ya'ira sawu'a-wu'a nahia tola tobali sangahono ba zi sambua nahia, ma zui singo sangahono tobali singo sawu'a-wu'a.<ref name=Estes>{{cite book |author=Estes, R. |year=1991 |title=The behavior guide to African mammals: including hoofed mammals, carnivores, primates |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-08085-0 |location=Berkeley |chapter=Lion |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_0520080858/page/369 369–376] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0520080858/page/369 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0520080858/page/369 }}</ref> Asese aekhu ba wasöndrata na falukha zingo si toröi ba wa'awösa ba zingo sawu'a-wu'a, heŵa'ae tola göi itehe singo si'alawe ihatö'ö ia singo simatua sawu'a-wu'a ba ginötö waro'asa.<ref>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 52–54.</ref> Ara itörö ginötö wa'awu'a-wu'a singo simatua fatua lö tetema'ö ia ba sambua wa'awösa zingo.<ref>{{cite book |author=Hanby, J. P.|author2=Bygott, J. D. |name-list-style=amp |year=1979 |chapter=Population changes in lions and other predators |title=Serengeti: dynamics of an ecosystem |editor1=Sinclair, A. R. E. |editor2=Norton-Griffiths, M. |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |pages=249–262}}</ref> Molo'ö sambua wangosili nifalua ba Serengeti National Park, [[Tanzania]], isöndra nahania ba wa'awösa wa'ahono singo sawu'a-wu'a na no irugi 3,5 ba 7,3 fakhe ndröfinia.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Borrego, N. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Ozgul, A.|author3=Slotow, R.|author4=Packer, C. |year=2018 |title=Lion population dynamics: do nomadic males matter? |journal=Behavioral Ecology |volume=29 |issue=3 |doi=10.1093/beheco/ary018 |pages=660–666 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ba Kruger National Park, [[Afrika Selatan]], iröi wa'awösa si tumbu ya'ia sageu singo ba ifasindro mbolokhania samösa mato 25 km moroi ba nahia wa'atumbunia. Toröi ahatö zingo si'alawe ba nahia heza tumbu ia. Börö da'ö fahatö fatalifusö zingo si si tesöndra ba zisambua nahia moroi ba zingo simatua.<ref>{{cite journal |author=van Hooft, P.|author2=Keet, D.F. |name-list-style=amp |author3=Brebner, D.K.|author4=Bastos, A.D. |year=2018 |title=Genetic insights into dispersal distance and disperser fitness of African lions (''Panthera leo'') from the latitudinal extremes of the Kruger National Park, South Africa |journal=BMC Genetics |volume=19 |issue=1 |page=21 |doi=10.1186/s12863-018-0607-x |pmid=29614950 |pmc=5883395}}</ref> Wa alua evolusi wa'awösa ba zingo, te börö me itugu oya zingo ba me itugu fadege nahia ba ''savana''. Itugu ebua sambua wa'awösa zingo, itugu ebolo gölana si sökhi si tola labelegö; so oya ira ba zahatö ba wahandrona, heza aoha khöra wanöndra idanö, wanöndra ahulua ba ba wanöndra nahia wemörö (barö lumö geu).<ref>[[#Packer|Packer]], nga'örö 195–196, 222.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mosser|first1=A. A.|last2=Kosmala|first2=M|last3=Packer|first3=C|year=2015|title=Landscape heterogeneity and behavioral traits drive the evolution of lion group territoriality|journal=Behavioral Ecology|volume=26|issue=4|pages=1051–1059|doi=10.1093/beheco/arv046}}</ref> Latötöi ba li Inggris ''pride area'' nahia ni'iagö sambua wa'awösa zingo ba ''range'' nahia ni'iagö zingo sawu'a-wu'a.<ref name="Schaller33"/> Lafauze nudu si fasui ira singo simatua, si tefaböbö ba wa'awösa.<ref name=Haas2005/> Faoma latahö nudu, he singo simatua ba he singho si'alawe, bahiza abölö faudu zingo simatua ba wasöndrata me botonia abölö ebua ba abölö mofa'abölö. So ösa zimatua sondrönia'ö wombelegösa wa'awösa ba simatua bö'ö sambö.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heinsohn|first= R. |author2=C. Packer |name-list-style=amp |year=1995 |title=Complex cooperative strategies in group-territorial African lions |journal=Science |volume=269 |issue=5228 |pages=1260–1262 |doi=10.1126/science.7652573 |pmid=7652573|bibcode=1995Sci...269.1260H |s2cid= 35849910 |url=http://www.life.umd.edu/faculty/wilkinson/BIOL608W/Heinsohn&Packer95.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810170702/http://www.life.umd.edu/faculty/wilkinson/BIOL608W/Heinsohn&Packer95.pdf |archive-date=2017-08-10 |url-status=live}}</ref> To'ölö wa lagohi noro-dödö zamösana bakha ba wa'awösa ya'ira singo; he ya'ira sahou wofanö, so göi noro-dödö nigohira soguna ba wa'awösara.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morell |first=V. |year=1995 |title=Cowardly lions confound cooperation theory |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1995-09-01_269_5228/page/1216 |journal=Science |volume=269 |issue=5228 |pages=1216–1217 |doi=10.1126/science.7652566 |pmid=7652566|bibcode=1995Sci...269.1216M |s2cid=44676637}}</ref> Tola manö wa so "döi" nisöndra na tobali sondrönia'ö ba wolaŵa nudu si tohare ba wamakiko; oroma mbosi ndra singo si'alawe bakha ba wa'awösa ba hewisa nilaura na tohare nudu.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jahn |first=G. C. |year=1996 |title=Lioness Leadership |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1996-03-01_271_5253/page/1215 |journal=Science |volume=271 |issue=5253 |page=1215 |doi=10.1126/science.271.5253.1215a |pmid=17820922 |bibcode=1996Sci...271.1215J|s2cid=5058849 }}</ref> Silötolalö'ö labelegö wa'awösara ya'ira singo simatua ba wolaŵa singo simatua moroi baero sedöna mangalani ya'ira.<ref name=Estes/> Molo'ö famaigida lö hadöi bosi wa'abölö ba gotalua zingo, he ba gotalua singo simatua ba he ba gotalua singo si'alawe.<ref>[[#Packer|Packer]], nga'örö 42, 57.</ref> Fabö'ö zingo Asia molo'ö nga'eu zingo si so bakha khönia. Toröi samösa zingo Asia simatua ma zui fao ira ba wa'awösa zi datölu zimatua si lö fadoli wa'afaböböra. Toröi ndra singo si'alawe bakha ba wa'awösa irege 12 zi'alawe, ba aro wa'atefaböbö wa'awösara fao awö ndraono khöra. Fao zingo simatua ba si'alawe ha ba ginötö waro'asa.<ref name=Joslin1973>{{cite book |author=Joslin, P. |year=1973 |title=The Asiatic lion: a study of ecology and behaviour |location=University of Edinburgh, UK |publisher=Department of Forestry and Natural Resources}}</ref> Toröi abölö ara wa'awösa zingo simatua sawu'a-wu'a ba zi sambua gölana moroi ba zingo si toröi ha ya'i-ya'ia. Singo simatua sawu'a-wu'a si toröi bakha ba wa'awösa mato datölu ma daöfa zingo, so khöra mbosi, heza ifatörö zingo tanöbö'ö sageu singo ba heza abölö asese faro'a ia.<ref name=Chakrabarti2017>{{cite journal |author=Chakrabarti, S. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Jhala, Y. V. |author2-link=Yadvendradev Vikramsinh Jhala |year=2017 |title=Selfish partners: resource partitioning in male coalitions of Asiatic lions |journal=Behavioral Ecology |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=1532–1539 |doi=10.1093/beheco/arx118|pmid=29622932 |pmc=5873260}}</ref> === Fealu ba femanga === {{multiple image| perrow=1|image1=Male Lion and Cub Chitwa South Africa Luca Galuzzi 2004.JPG |caption1=Singo simatua ba ononia si manga-manga nagole göröbao gatua moroi ba Afrika ba Sabi Sand Game Reserve, Afrika Selatan |image2=Lions taking down cape buffalo.jpg|caption2=Lara'u sageu göröbao gatua daöfa ira singo si'alawe ba Serengeti, Tanzania |image3=Lion and eland.jpg |caption3=Famasindro akhökhöla döla-töla sageu zingo sogohi nago, niforoma'ö ba The Museum of Osteology }} Singo no aurifö si tola auri gofu heza ba töra 7% gönia moroi ba nagole. Latötöi ia zuzu gaurifö me i'a oya ngawalö gaurifö bö'ö.<ref>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 208.</ref><ref name="Frank1998">{{cite book |last=Frank| first=L. G. |year=1998 |title=Living with lions: carnivore conservation and livestock in Laikipia District, Kenya |location=Mpala Research Centre, Nanyuki |publisher=US Agency for International Development, Conservation of Biodiverse Resource Areas Project, 623-0247-C-00-3002-00}}</ref> Ira'u gaurifö si so sa'a segebua simane zebra, öröbao Afrika, sökha, böhö ba jerapah.<ref name=Hayward2005>{{Cite journal |last1=Hayward |first1=M. W. |last2=Kerley |first2=G. I. H. |year=2005 |title=Prey preferences of the lion (''Panthera leo'') |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=267 |issue=3 |pages=309–322 |doi=10.1017/S0952836905007508 |url=http://www.zbs.bialowieza.pl/g2/pdf/1595.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627132429/http://www.zbs.bialowieza.pl/g2/pdf/1595.pdf |archive-date=2015-06-27 |url-status=live |citeseerx=10.1.1.611.8271}}</ref> Sasese tobali ö zingo ba India, ya'ia böhö nifotöi khöra ba da'ö ''chital'' ba ''sambar'',<ref name="Haas2005" /><ref name="Hayward2005" /><ref name="Mukherjee">{{cite journal |last1=Mukherjee |first1=S. |last2=Goyal |first2=S. P. |last3=Chellam| first3=R. |year=1994 |title=Refined techniques for the analysis of Asiatic lion ''Panthera leo persica'' scats |journal=Acta Theriologica |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=425–430 |doi=10.4098/AT.arch.94-50 |doi-access=free}}</ref> heŵa'ae urifö si so baero göli tobali nigohi zingo göi.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Meena, V. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Jhala, Y.V. |author3=Chellam, R. |author4=Pathak, B. |year=2011 |title=Implications of diet composition of Asiatic lions for their conservation |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=284 |issue=1 |pages=60–67 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2010.00780.x |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230157940}}</ref> Si to'ölönia lö igohi gaza si no ebua-bua awö nifotöi badak ba kudo nidanö Nil (hippopotamus), simanö göi gaurifö sigide-ide simane [[laosi]], [[arawi]] ba [[ba'e]].<ref name=Hayward2005/><ref>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 195.</ref> Itaria ibunu gaurifö bö'ö simanga nagole (sogohi aurifö bö'ö ba wemanga ya'ira) bahiza ha ŵaraö i'a ia.<ref>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 220–221.</ref> <!-- irugi da'e ua ni'ali ba li Niha moroi ba li Inggris: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lion Ta'odödögö ena'ö abölö ahatö wangali ba li Inggris, me da'ö dania zi tobali referensi ''penerjemahan otomatis'' ba zi so föna. Young lions first display stalking behaviour at around three months of age, although they do not participate in hunting until they are almost a year old and begin to hunt effectively when nearing the age of two.<ref name="Schaller153">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 153.</ref> Single lions are capable of bringing down zebra and wildebeest, while larger prey like buffalo and giraffe are riskier.<ref name=Estes/> In [[Chobe National Park]], large prides have been observed hunting [[African bush elephant]]s up to around 15 years old in exceptional cases, with the victims being calves, juveniles, and even subadults.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Joubert |first1=D. |year=2006 |title=Hunting behaviour of lions (''Panthera leo'') on elephants (''Loxodonta africana'') in the Chobe National Park, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=279–281 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.2006.00626.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Power |first1=R. J. |last2=Compion |first2=R. X. S. |title=Lion predation on elephants in the Savuti, Chobe National Park, Botswana |journal=African Zoology |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=36–44 |doi=10.3377/004.044.0104 |year=2009 |s2cid=86371484 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232693088}}</ref> In typical hunts, each lioness has a favoured position in the group, either stalking prey on the "wing", then attacking, or moving a smaller distance in the centre of the group and capturing prey fleeing from other lionesses. Males attached to prides do not usually participate in group hunting.<ref name=hunt>{{Cite journal |last=Stander |first=P. E. |title=Cooperative hunting in lions: the role of the individual |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |volume=29 |issue=6 |pages=445–454 |year=1992 |doi=10.1007/BF00170175 |s2cid=2588727 |url=http://lchc.ucsd.edu/MCA/Mail/xmcamail.2011_09.dir/pdfeL5GzNL2FL.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518095055/http://lchc.ucsd.edu/MCA/Mail/xmcamail.2011_09.dir/pdfeL5GzNL2FL.pdf |archive-date=2015-05-18 |url-status=live}}</ref> Some evidence suggests, however, that males are just as successful as females; they are typically solo hunters who ambush prey in small bushland.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Loarie, S. R. |last2=Tambling, C. J. |last3=Asner, G. P. |year=2013 |title=Lion hunting behaviour and vegetation structure in an African savanna |journal=Animal Behaviour |volume=85 |issue=5 |pages=899–906 |doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.01.018 |hdl=2263/41825 |s2cid=53185309 |url=https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/2263/41825/1/Loarie_Lion_2013.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816101650/http://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/2263/41825/1/Loarie_Lion_2013.pdf |archive-date=2017-08-16 |url-status=live |hdl-access=free}}</ref> They may join in the hunting of large, slower-moving prey like buffalo; and even hunt them on their own. Moderately-sized hunting groups generally have higher success rates than lone females and larger groups.<ref>[[#Packer|Packer]], nga'örö 150, 153, 164–165.</ref> Lions are not particularly known for their stamina. For instance, a lioness's heart comprises only 0.57% of her body weight and a male's is about 0.45% of his body weight, whereas a hyena's heart comprises almost 1% of its body weight.<ref>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 248.</ref> Thus, lions run quickly only in short bursts at about {{cvt|48-59|km/h}} and need to be close to their prey before starting the attack.<ref name="Schaller2478">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 233, 247–248</ref> One study in 2018 recorded a lion running at a top speed of {{cvt|74.1|km/h}}.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wilson|first1= A.|last2= Hubel|first2= T.|last3= Wilshin|first3= S. |display-authors=etal |year=2018 |title=Biomechanics of predator–prey arms race in lion, zebra, cheetah and impala |journal=Nature |volume=554 |issue=7691|pages= 183–188|doi=10.1038/nature25479 |pmid=29364874 |bibcode=2018Natur.554..183W |s2cid= 4405091 |url=https://researchonline.rvc.ac.uk/id/eprint/11143/1/11143.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200305065622/https://researchonline.rvc.ac.uk/id/eprint/11143/1/11143.pdf |archive-date=2020-03-05 |url-status=live}}</ref> They take advantage of factors that reduce visibility; many kills take place near some form of cover or at night.<ref name="Schaller237">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 237.</ref> The lion's attack is short and powerful; they attempt to catch prey with a fast rush and final leap. They usually pull it down by the rump and kill by a clamping bite to the [[Throat clamp|throat]] or [[Muzzle clamp|muzzle]].<ref>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 244, 263–267.</ref> Lions typically consume prey at the location of the hunt but sometimes drag large prey into cover.<ref name="Schaller2706"/> They tend to squabble over kills, particularly the males. Cubs suffer most when food is scarce but otherwise all pride members eat their fill, including old and crippled lions, which can live on leftovers.<ref name=Estes/> Large kills are shared more widely among pride members.<ref name="Schaller133">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 133.</ref> An adult lioness requires an average of about {{cvt|5|kg}} of meat per day while males require about {{cvt|7|kg}}.<ref>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 276.</ref> Lions gorge themselves and eat up to {{cvt|30|kg}} in one session.<ref name="simba">{{Cite book |last=Guggisberg |first=C. A. W. |title=Simba: the life of the lion. |year=1961 |publisher=Howard Timmins |location=Cape Town}}</ref> If it is unable to consume all of the kill, it rests for a few hours before continuing to eat. On hot days, the pride retreats to shade with one or two males standing guard.<ref name="Schaller2706">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 270–76.</ref> Lions defend their kills from scavengers such as vultures and hyenas.<ref name=Estes/> Lions scavenge on [[carrion]] when the opportunity arises, scavenging animals dead from natural causes such as disease or those that were killed by other predators. Scavenging lions keep a constant lookout for circling vultures, which indicate the death or distress of an animal.<ref name = "Schaller213">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 213–216.</ref> Most carrion on which both hyenas and lions feed upon are killed by hyenas rather than lions.<ref name="nowak" /> Carrion is thought to provide a large part of lion diet.<ref name=AWF>{{cite web |title=Behavior and Diet |work=African Wildlife Foundation website |publisher=African Wildlife Foundation |year=1996 |url=http://www.awf.org/wildlife-conservation/lion |access-date=6 June 2014}}</ref> ===Predatory competition=== {{multiple image |perrow=1 |image1=Hyenas Fight Against Lions Over a Kill HD 10.png|caption1=Lion attacked by spotted hyenas in Sabi Sand Game Reserve |image2=Lioness vs Leopard 9 July 2016 Latest Sightings 1.png |caption2=Lioness stealing a kill from a leopard in Kruger National Park}} Lions and [[spotted hyena]]s occupy a similar ecological niche and compete for prey and carrion; a review of data across several studies indicates a dietary overlap of 58.6%.<ref name="prey">{{Cite journal |title=Prey preferences of the spotted hyaena (''Crocuta crocuta'') and degree of dietary overlap with the lion (''Panthera leo'') |url=http://www.zbs.bialowieza.pl/g2/pdf/1598.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430024111/http://www.zbs.bialowieza.pl/g2/pdf/1598.pdf |archive-date=2011-04-30 |url-status=live |last=Hayward |first=M. W. |journal=Journal of Zoology |year=2006 |volume=270 |issue=4 |pages=606–614 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00183.x}}</ref> Lions typically ignore hyenas unless they are on a kill or are being harassed, while the latter tend to visibly react to the presence of lions with or without the presence of food. In the [[Ngorongoro crater]], lions subsist largely on kills stolen from hyenas, causing them to increase their kill rate.<ref name="Kruuk">{{Cite book |first=H. |last=Kruuk |title=The Spotted Hyena: A Study of Predation and Social Behaviour |publisher=Echo Point Books & Media |year=2014|isbn=978-1626549050 |pages=128–138|edition=2nd}}</ref> In Botswana's Chobe National Park, the situation is reversed as hyenas there frequently challenge lions and steal their kills, obtaining food from 63% of all lion kills.<ref name="Conservation">{{Cite book |chapter=Interspecific competition and the population biology of extinction-prone carnivores |last1=Creel |first1= S.|last2= Spong |first2=G. |last3=Creel|first3= N. |pages=35–60 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v39RdyYUfRIC&pg=PA36 |title=Carnivore Conservation |edition=First |editor1-first=J. L. |editor1-last=Gittleman |editor2-first=S. M. |editor2-last=Funk |editor3-first=D. W. |editor3-last=Macdonald |editor4-first=R. K. |editor4-last=Wayne |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-66232-1}}</ref> When confronted on a kill, hyenas may either leave or wait patiently at a distance of {{cvt|30|-|100|m}} until the lions have finished.<ref name="schaller272">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 272.</ref> Hyenas feed alongside lions and force them off a kill. The two species attack one another even when there is no food involved for no apparent reason.<ref name="schaller273">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 273–74.</ref> Lions can account for up to 71% of hyena deaths in [[Etosha National Park]]. Hyenas have adapted by frequently mobbing lions that enter their home ranges.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Competitive interactions between spotted hyenas and lions in the Etosha National Park, Namibia |last1=Trinkel |first1=M. |last2=Kastberger |first2=G. |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=43 |issue=3 |year=2005 |pages=220–224 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.2005.00574.x}}</ref> When the lion population in Kenya's [[Masai Mara National Reserve]] declined, the spotted hyena population increased rapidly.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Green |first1= D. S.| last2= Johnson-Ulrich |first2=L.| last3=Couraud | first3=H. E. |last4=Holekamp |first4=K. E. |year=2018 |title=Anthropogenic disturbance induces opposing population trends in spotted hyenas and African lions |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=871–889 |doi=10.1007/s10531-017-1469-7 |s2cid= 44240882}}</ref> Lions tend to dominate [[cheetah]]s and [[leopard]]s, steal their kills and kill their cubs and even adults when given the chance.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Denis-Hoot|first1=C. |last2= Denis-Hoot|first2= M. |year=2003 |title=The Art of Being a Lion |publisher=Barnes & Noble |location=New York |isbn=9780760747674 |page=198}}</ref> Cheetahs often lose their kills to lions or other predators.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=O'Brien |first1=S. J. |last2=Wildt |first2 =D. E. |last3=Bush |first3=M. |year=1986 |title=The Cheetah in Genetic Peril |journal=Scientific American |volume=254 |issue=5 |pages=68–76 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0586-84 |url=http://www.catsg.org/cheetah/05_library/5_3_publications/N_and_O/OBrien_et_al_1986_Cheetah_in_genetic_peril.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513071205/http://www.catsg.org/cheetah/05_library/5_3_publications/N_and_O/OBrien_et_al_1986_Cheetah_in_genetic_peril.pdf |archive-date=2011-05-13 |url-status=live|bibcode=1986SciAm.254e..84O}}</ref> A study in the Serengeti ecosystem revealed that lions killed at least 17 of 125 cheetah cubs born between 1987 and 1990.<ref name="laurenson">{{cite journal |last1=Laurenson |first1=M. K. |title=High juvenile mortality in cheetahs (''Acinonyx jubatus'') and its consequences for maternal care |journal=Journal of Zoology |year=1994 |volume=234 |issue=3 |pages=387–408 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1994.tb04855.x |url=http://www.catsg.org/cheetah/05_library/5_3_publications/L/Laurenson_1994_Cheetah_cub_mortality_-_maternal_care.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171120042410/http://www.catsg.org/cheetah/05_library/5_3_publications/L/Laurenson_1994_Cheetah_cub_mortality_-_maternal_care.pdf |archive-date=2017-11-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> Cheetahs avoid their competitors by hunting at different times and habitats.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rostro-García |first1=S. |last2=Kamler |first2=J. F. |last3=Hunter |first3=L. T. B. |name-list-style=amp |year=2015 |title=To kill, stay or flee: the effects of lions and landscape factors on habitat and kill site selection of cheetahs in South Africa |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=2 |page=e0117743 |pmid=25693067 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0117743 |pmc=4333767|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1017743R |doi-access=free}}</ref> Leopards take refuge in trees, but lionesses occasionally attempt to climb up and retrieve their kills.<ref name="Schaller293">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 293.</ref> Lions similarly dominate [[African wild dog]]s, taking their kills and slaying pups or adult dogs. Population densities of wild dogs are low in areas where lions are more abundant.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Conserving the African wild dog ''Lycaon pictus''. I. Diagnosing and treating causes of decline |last1=Woodroffe |first1=R. |last2=Ginsberg |first2=J. R. |name-list-style=amp |year=1999 |journal=Oryx |volume=33 |pages=132–142 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-3008.1999.00052.x |issue=2 |doi-access=free}}</ref> However, there are a few reported cases of old and wounded lion falling prey to wild dogs.<ref name=Pienaar1969>{{Cite journal |last1=Pienaar |first1=U. de V. |title=Predator–prey relationships among the larger mammals of the Kruger National Park |journal=Koedoe |date=1969 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=108–176 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v12i1.753 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schaller, nga'örö 188">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 188.</ref> [[Nile crocodile]]s may also kill and eat lions, evidenced by the occasional lion claw found in crocodile stomachs.<ref name="Guggisberg1972">{{Cite book |last=Guggisberg |first=C. A. W. |title=Crocodiles: Their Natural History, Folklore, and Conservation |year=1972 |page=195 |isbn=978-0-7153-5272-4 |publisher=David & Charles |location=Newton Abbot |url=}}</ref> ===Reproduction and life cycle=== {{multiple image|align=right|direction=vertical |image1=Panthera leo massaica mating.jpg|caption1=Lions mating at Masai Mara |image2=Lion_cub,_Masai_Mara,_Kenya.jpg|caption2=A lion cub in Masai Mara}} Most lionesses reproduce by the time they are four years of age.<ref name="Schaller29">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 29.</ref> Lions do not mate at a specific time of year and the females are [[polyestrous]].<ref name="Schaller174">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 174.</ref> Like those of other cats, the male lion's penis has [[Penile spines|spines]] that point backward. During withdrawal of the penis, the spines rake the walls of the female's vagina, which may cause [[ovulation]].<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1002/zoo.1430130403|title = Spontaneous and induced ovulation in the lion (Panthera leo)| journal=Zoo Biology| volume=13| issue=4| pages=301–307|year = 1994|last1 = Schramm|first1 = Ralph Dee| last2=Briggs| first2=Michael B.| last3=Reeves| first3=Jerry J.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Asdell |first=Sydney A. |title=Patterns of mammalian reproduction |year=1993 |orig-date=1964 |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca |isbn=978-0-8014-1753-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/asdellspatternso00hays }}</ref> A lioness may mate with more than one male when she is [[Estrous cycle|in heat]].<ref name="Schaller142">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 142.</ref> Lions of both sexes may be involved in group [[Homosexuality in animals|homosexual]] and courtship activities. Males will also head-rub and roll around with each other before mounting each other.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bagemihl |first=Bruce |year=1999 |title=Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity |location=New York |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-0-312-19239-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biologicalexuber00bage/page/302 302–05] |url=https://archive.org/details/biologicalexuber00bage/page/302 }}</ref><ref>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 137.</ref> [[Generation time|Generation length]] of the lion is about seven years.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Generation length for mammals |author=Pacifici, M.|author2= Santini, L.|author3= Di Marco, M.|author4= Baisero, D.|author5= Francucci, L.|author6= Grottolo Marasini, G.|author7= Visconti, P. |author8= Rondinini, C. |journal=Nature Conservation |year=2013 |issue=5 |pages=87–94}}</ref> The average gestation period is around 110{{spaces}}days;<ref name="Schaller174"/> the female gives birth to a litter of between one and four cubs in a secluded den, which may be a thicket, a reed-bed, a cave, or some other sheltered area, usually away from the pride. She will often hunt alone while the cubs are still helpless, staying relatively close to the den.<ref name="Scott45">[[#Scott|Scott]], nga'örö 45.</ref> Lion cubs are born blind, their eyes opening around seven days after birth. They weigh {{convert|1.2|–|2.1|kg|lb|abbr=on}} at birth and are almost helpless, beginning to crawl a day or two after birth and walking around three weeks of age.<ref name="Schaller143">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 143.</ref> To avoid a buildup of scent attracting the attention of predators, the lioness moves her cubs to a new den site several times a month, carrying them one-by-one by the nape of the neck.<ref name="Scott45"/> Usually, the mother does not integrate herself and her cubs back into the pride until the cubs are six to eight weeks old.<ref name="Scott45"/> Sometimes the introduction to pride life occurs earlier, particularly if other lionesses have given birth at about the same time.<ref name=Estes/><ref name=Schaller148/> When first introduced to the rest of the pride, lion cubs lack confidence when confronted with adults other than their mother. They soon begin to immerse themselves in the pride life, however, playing among themselves or attempting to initiate play with the adults.<ref name=Schaller148/> Lionesses with cubs of their own are more likely to be tolerant of another lioness's cubs than lionesses without cubs. Male tolerance of the cubs varies—one male could patiently let the cubs play with his tail or his mane, while another may snarl and bat the cubs away.<ref>[[#Scott|Scott]], nga'örö 46.</ref> [[File:Lion Cubs Phinda 2011.ogv|thumb|right|Video of a lioness and her cubs in Phinda Reserve]] Pride lionesses often synchronise their reproductive cycles and communal rearing and suckling of the young, which suckle indiscriminately from any or all of the nursing females in the pride. The synchronisation of births is advantageous because the cubs grow to being roughly the same size and have an equal chance of survival, and sucklings are not dominated by older cubs.<ref name=Estes/><ref name=Schaller148>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 147-49.</ref> Weaning occurs after six or seven months. Male lions reach maturity at about three years of age and at four to five years are capable of challenging and displacing adult males associated with another pride. They begin to age and weaken at between 10 and 15 years of age at the latest.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crandall |first=L. S. |title=The management of wild animals in captivity |year=1964 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |oclc=557916}}</ref> When one or more new males oust the previous males associated with a pride, the victors often [[infanticide (zoology)|kill any existing young cubs]], perhaps because females do not become fertile and receptive until their cubs mature or die. Females often fiercely defend their cubs from a usurping male but are rarely successful unless a group of three or four mothers within a pride join forces against the male.<ref name="Packpus83">{{Cite journal |last1=Packer |first1=C. |last2=Pusey |first2=A. E. |date=May 1983 |title= Adaptations of female lions to infanticide by incoming males|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-naturalist_1983-05_121_5/page/716 |journal= American Naturalist |volume=121 |issue=5 |pages=716–28 |doi= 10.1086/284097|s2cid=84927815 }}</ref> Cubs also die from starvation and abandonment, and predation by leopards, hyenas and wild dogs. Male cubs are excluded from their maternal pride when they reach maturity at around two or three years of age,<ref name="Schaller44">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 44.</ref> while some females may leave when they reach the age of two.<ref name=Packer33/> When a new male lion takes over a pride, adolescents both male and female may be evicted.<ref>[[#Scott|Scott]], nga'örö 68.</ref> ===Health and mortality=== [[File:Lake-Nakuru-Lions-in-Tree.JPG|thumb|Lions in a tree near [[Lake Nakuru]]]] Lions may live 12–17 years.<ref name=Haas2005/> Although adult lions have no natural predators, evidence suggests most die violently from attacks by humans or other lions.<ref name="Schaller183">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 183.</ref> Lions often inflict serious injuries on members of other prides they encounter in territorial disputes or members of the home pride when fighting at a kill.<ref name="Schaller1889">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 188–89.</ref> Crippled lions and cubs may fall victim to hyenas and leopards or be trampled by buffalo or elephants. Careless lions may be maimed when hunting prey.<ref name="Schaller1890">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 189–90.</ref> [[Tick]]s commonly infest the ears, neck and groin regions of the lions.<ref name="Schaller184">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 184.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Yeoman |first=Guy Henry|author2=Walker, Jane Brotherton |title=The ixodid ticks of Tanzania |year=1967 |publisher=Commonwealth Institute of Entomology |location=London |oclc=955970}}</ref> Adult forms of several [[tapeworm]] species of the genus ''[[Taenia (tapeworm)|Taenia]]'' have been isolated from lion intestines, having been ingested as larvae in [[antelope]] meat.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sachs |first=R. |year=1969|title=Untersuchungen zur Artbestimmung und Differenzierung der Muskelfinnen ostafrikanischer Wildtiere [Differentiation and species determination of muscle-cysticerci in East African game animals] |journal=Zeitschrift für Tropenmedizin und Parasitologie |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=39–50 |pmid=5393325|language=de}}</ref> Lions in the Ngorongoro Crater were afflicted by an outbreak of stable fly (''[[Stable fly|Stomoxys calcitrans]]'') in 1962, resulting in lions becoming emaciated and covered in bloody, bare patches. Lions sought unsuccessfully to evade the biting flies by climbing trees or crawling into hyena burrows; many died or migrated and the local population dropped from 70 to 15 individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fosbrooke |first=H. |year=1963 |title=The stomoxys plague in Ngorongoro |journal=East African Wildlife Journal |volume=1 |issue=6 |pages=124–126 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.1963.tb00190.x}}</ref> A more recent outbreak in 2001 killed six lions.<ref name="Nkwame06">{{Cite news | last=Nkwame | first=V. M. |title=King of the jungle in jeopardy | work=The Arusha Times| date=9 September 2006 | url=http://www.arushatimes.co.tz/2006/36/features_10.htm | access-date=4 September 2007 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929044925/http://www.arushatimes.co.tz/2006/36/features_10.htm | archive-date=29 September 2007 | df=dmy-all}}</ref> Captive lions have been infected with [[canine distemper]] virus (CDV) since at least the mid-1970s.<ref>{{Cite journal |author1=Myers, D. L. |author2=Zurbriggen, A. |author3=Lutz, H. |author4=Pospischil, A. |date=1997 |title=Distemper: not a new disease in lions and tigers |journal=Clinical Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=180–184 |doi=10.1128/CDLI.4.2.180-184.1997 |pmid=9067652 |pmc=170498 |url=}}</ref> CDV is spread by domestic dogs and other carnivores; a 1994 outbreak in Serengeti National Park resulted in many lions developing neurological symptoms such as seizures. During the outbreak, several lions died from [[pneumonia]] and [[encephalitis]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Roelke-Parker|first1=M. E.|date=1996 |title=A canine distemper epidemic in Serengeti lions (''Panthera leo'') |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1996-02-01_379_6564/page/441|journal=Nature |volume=379 |issue=6564 |pages=441–445 |doi=10.1038/379441a0|pmid=8559247 |last2=Munson |first2=L. |last3=Packer |first3=C. |last4=Kock |first4=R. |last5=Cleaveland |first5=S. |last6=Carpenter |first6=M. |last7=O'Brien |first7=S. J. |last8=Pospischil |first8=A. |last9=Hofmann-Lehmann |first9=R. |first10=Hans |last10=L. |first11=G. L. M. |last11=Mwanengele |first12=M. N. |last12=Mgasa |first13=G. A. |last13=Machange |first14=B. A. |last14=Summers |first15=M. J. G. |last15=Appel |bibcode=1996Natur.379..441R|pmc=7095363 }}</ref> [[Feline immunodeficiency virus]] and [[lentivirus]] also affect captive lions.<ref>{{Cite journal |author1=Bull, M. E. |author2=Kennedy-Stoskopf, S. |author3=Levine, J. F. |author4=Loomis, M. |author5=Gebhard, D. G. |author6=Tompkins, W. A. |date=2003 |title=Evaluation of T lymphocytes in captive African lions (''Panthera leo'') infected with feline immunodeficiency virus |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-veterinary-research_2003-10_64_10/page/1293 |journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research |volume=64 |issue=10 |pages=1293–1300 |doi=10.2460/ajvr.2003.64.1293|pmid=14596469 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author1=Poli, A. |author2=Abramo, F. |author3=Cavicchio, P. |author4=Bandecchi, P. |author5=Ghelardi, E. |author6=Pistello, M. |date=1995 |title=Lentivirus infection in an African lion: a clinical, pathologic and virologic study |journal=Journal of Wildlife Diseases |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=70–74 |doi=10.7589/0090-3558-31.1.70|pmid=7563428 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Communication=== [[File:Lion cub with mother.jpg|thumb|Head rubbing among pride members is a common social behaviour.]] When resting, lion socialisation occurs through a number of behaviours; the animal's expressive movements are highly developed. The most common peaceful, tactile gestures are [[Bunting (animal behavior)|head rubbing]] and [[social licking]],<ref name=Schaller85>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 85.</ref> which have been compared with the role of [[allogrooming]] among primates.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sparks |first=J. |title=Primate Ethology |chapter=Allogrooming in primates: a review |pages=148–175 |year=1967 |editor=Morris, D. |publisher=Aldine |location=Chicago |edition=2011 |isbn=9780202368160}}</ref> Head rubbing, nuzzling the forehead, face and neck against another lion appears to be a form of greeting<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leyhausen |first=P. |title=Verhaltensstudien an Katzen |edition=Second |year=1960 |publisher=Paul Parey |location=Berlin |isbn=978-3-489-71836-9 |language=de}}</ref> and is seen often after an animal has been apart from others or after a fight or confrontation. Males tend to rub other males, while cubs and females rub females.<ref name=Schaller858>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 85–88.</ref> Social licking often occurs in tandem with head rubbing; it is generally mutual and the recipient appears to express pleasure. The head and neck are the most common parts of the body licked; this behaviour may have arisen out of utility because lions cannot lick these areas themselves.<ref name=Schaller8891>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 88–91.</ref> {{listen|filename=Lion raring-sound1TamilNadu178.ogg|title=Lion roar|description=A captive lion roaring}} Lions have an array of facial expressions and body postures that serve as visual gestures.<ref name=Schaller92102>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 103–117.</ref> A common facial expression is the "grimace face" or [[flehmen response]], which a lion makes when sniffing chemical signals and involves an open mouth with bared teeth, raised muzzle, wrinkled nose, closed eyes and relaxed ears.<ref>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 95.</ref> Lions also use chemical and visual marking;<ref name=Schaller92102/> males [[Territory (animal)#Scent marking|spray urine]]<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Andersen, K. F. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Vulpius, T. |year=1999 |title=Urinary volatile constituents of the lion, ''Panthera leo'' |journal=Chemical Senses |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=179–189 |doi=10.1093/chemse/24.2.179 |pmid=10321819 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and scrape plots of ground and objects within the territory.<ref name=Schaller92102/> The lion's repertoire of vocalisations is large; variations in intensity and pitch appear to be central to communication. Most lion vocalisations are variations of [[growling]], [[snarling]], meowing and roaring. Other sounds produced include purring, puffing, bleating and humming. Roaring is used to advertise its presence. Lions most often roar at night, a sound that can be heard from a distance of {{convert|8|km|0}}.<ref name=Schaller10313>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], nga'örö 103–113.</ref> They tend to roar in a very characteristic manner starting with a few deep, long roars that subside into a series of shorter ones.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eklund |first1=R. |last2=Peters |first2=G. |last3=Ananthakrishnan |first3=G. |last4=Mabiza |first4=E. |title=An acoustic analysis of lion roars. I: Data collection and spectrogram and waveform analyses |journal=Speech, Music and Hearing Quarterly Progress and Status Report |volume=51 |page=1 |year=2011 |url=http://roberteklund.info/pdf/Eklund_et_al_2011_LionRoars.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001083629/http://roberteklund.info/pdf/Eklund_et_al_2011_LionRoars.pdf |archive-date=2011-10-01 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ananthakrishnan |first1=G. |last2=Eklund |first2=R. |last3=Peters |first3=G. |last4=Mabiza |first4=E. |title=An acoustic analysis of lion roars. II: Vocal tract characteristics |journal=Speech, Music and Hearing Quarterly Progress and Status Report |volume=51 |page=5 |year=2011 |url=http://roberteklund.info/pdf/Ananthakrishnan_et_al_2011_LionRoars.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001083621/http://roberteklund.info/pdf/Ananthakrishnan_et_al_2011_LionRoars.pdf |archive-date=2011-10-01 |url-status=live}}</ref> ==Conservation== The lion is listed as [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] on the [[IUCN Red List]]. The Indian population is listed on [[CITES Appendix I]] and the African population on [[CITES Appendix II]].<ref name="IUCN" /> ===In Africa=== [[File:Lion.ogv|thumb|right|Video of a wild lioness]] Several large and well-managed protected areas in Africa host large lion populations. Where an infrastructure for wildlife tourism has been developed, cash revenue for park management and local communities is a strong incentive for lion conservation.<ref name="IUCN" /> Most lions now live in East and Southern Africa; their numbers are rapidly decreasing, and fell by an estimated 30–50% in the late half of the 20th century. Primary causes of the decline include disease and human interference.<ref name=IUCN/> In 1975, it was estimated that since the 1950s, lion numbers had decreased by half to 200,000 or fewer.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=N. |year=1975 |title=The silent savannahs |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-wildlife_september-october-1975_5_5/page/5 |journal=International Wildlife |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=5–10 }}</ref> Estimates of the African lion population range between 16,500 and 47,000 living in the wild in 2002–2004.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bauer |first1=H. |last2=Van Der Merwe |first2=S. |year= 2002 |title=The African lion database |journal=Cat News |volume=36 |pages=41–53}}</ref><ref name=Chardonnet2002>{{Cite book |last=Chardonnet|first=P. |year=2002|title=Conservation of African lion |url=http://conservationforce.org/pdf/conservationoftheafricanlion.pdf |publisher=International Foundation for the Conservation of Wildlife|location=Paris, France |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110184540/http://conservationforce.org/pdf/conservationoftheafricanlion.pdf}}</ref> In the [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Odzala-Kokoua National Park]] was considered a lion stronghold in the 1990s. By 2014, no lions were recorded in the protected area so the population is considered locally extinct.<ref name=carn>{{cite journal |last1=Henschel |first1=P. |last2=Malanda |first2=G.-A. |last3=Hunter |first3=L. |title=The status of savanna carnivores in the Odzala-Kokoua National Park, northern Republic of Congo |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-mammalogy_2014-08_95_4/page/882 |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |date=2014 |volume=95 |issue=4 |page=882−892 |doi=10.1644/13-mamm-a-306 |doi-access=free }}{{open access}}</ref> The West African lion population is isolated from the one in Central Africa, with little or no exchange of breeding individuals. In 2015, it was estimated that this population consists of about 400 animals, including fewer than 250 mature individuals. They persist in three protected areas in the region, mostly in one population in the [[W National Park|W]] [[Arli National Park|A]] [[Pendjari National Park|P]] protected area complex, shared by [[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]] and [[Niger]]. This population is listed as [[Critically Endangered]].<ref name=Henschel2015/> Field surveys in the [[W-Arly-Pendjari Complex|WAP ecosystem]] revealed that lion occupancy is lowest in the W National Park, and higher in areas with permanent staff and thus better protection.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Henschel |first1=P. |last2=Petracca |first2=L. S. |last3=Hunter |first3=L. T. |last4=Kiki |first4=M. |last5=Sewadé |first5=C. |last6=Tehou |first6=A. |last7=Robinson |first7=H. S. |year=2016 |title=Determinants of distribution patterns and management needs in a critically endangered lion ''Panthera leo'' population |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=110 |doi=10.3389/fevo.2016.00110 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A population occurs in Cameroon's [[Waza National Park]], where between approximately 14 and 21 animals persisted as of 2009.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tumenta |first1=P. N. |last2=Kok |first2=J. S. |last3=van Rijssel |first3=J. C. |last4=Buij |first4=R. |last5=Croes |first5=B. M. |last6=Funston |first6=P. J. |last7=de Iongh |first7=H. H. |last8=de Haes |first8=H. A. Udo |year=2009 |title=Threat of rapid extermination of the lion (''Panthera leo leo'') in Waza National Park, Northern Cameroon |journal=African Journal of Ecology |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01181.x |pages=1–7 |volume=48 |issue=4|hdl=1887/14372 |s2cid=56451273 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> In addition, 50 to 150 lions are estimated to be present in Burkina Faso's [[Arly-Singou]] ecosystem.<ref name="Bauer & van der Merwe">{{Cite journal |last1=Bauer |first1=H. |last2=Van Der Merwe |first2=S. |doi=10.1017/S0030605304000055 |title=Inventory of free-ranging lions ''Panthera leo'' in Africa |journal=Oryx |volume=38 |year=2004 |issue=1 |pages=26–31|doi-access=free }}</ref> In 2015, an adult male lion and a female lion were sighted in Ghana's [[Mole National Park]]. These were the first sightings of lions in the country in 39 years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Angelici |first1=F. M. |last2=Rossi |first2=L. |year=2017 |title=Further lion, ''Panthera leo senegalensis'' Meyer, 1826, sightings in Mole National Park, Ghana, and possible first serval ''Leptailurus serval'' Schreber, 1776 record after 39 years (Mammalia Felidae) |journal=Biodiversity Journal |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=749–752 |url=http://www.biodiversityjournal.com/pdf/8(2)_749-752.pdf |access-date=9 March 2018 |archive-date=10 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310074200/http://www.biodiversityjournal.com/pdf/8(2)_749-752.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> In the same year, a population of up to 200 lions that was previously thought to have been [[Local extinction|extirpated]] was filmed in the [[Alatash National Park]], Ethiopia, close to the Sudanese border.<ref name="NewScientist2016">{{cite magazine|magazine=New Scientist|title=Hidden population of up to 200 lions found in remote Ethiopia|date=2016|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2075740-hidden-population-of-up-to-200-lions-found-in-remote-ethiopia/|access-date=2 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="BBC Ethiopian lion, 2016">{{cite news|date=2016|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-35460573|title=Lions rediscovered in Ethiopia's Alatash National Park|publisher=BBC News|access-date=1 February 2016}}</ref> In 2005, Lion Conservation Strategies were developed for West and Central Africa, and or East and Southern Africa. The strategies seek to maintain suitable habitat, ensure a sufficient wild prey base for lions, reduce factors that lead to further fragmentation of populations, and make lion–human coexistence sustainable.<ref>{{cite book |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion West and Central Africa |publisher=IUCN |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |year=2006 |location=Yaounde, Cameroon |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.4._Strategies___Action_Plans/African_lion/IUCN_CatSG_2006_West_and_Central_Africa_Lion_Conservation_Strategy.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919114530/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.4._Strategies___Action_Plans/African_lion/IUCN_CatSG_2006_West_and_Central_Africa_Lion_Conservation_Strategy.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-19 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |year=2006 |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |location=Pretoria, South Africa |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.4._Strategies___Action_Plans/African_lion/IUCN_CatSG_2006_East_and_South_Africa_Lion_Conservation_Strategy.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150619001314/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.4._Strategies___Action_Plans/African_lion/IUCN_CatSG_2006_East_and_South_Africa_Lion_Conservation_Strategy.pdf |archive-date=2015-06-19 |url-status=live}}</ref> Lion depredation on livestock is significantly reduced in areas where herders keep livestock in improved enclosures. Such measures contribute to mitigating [[human–lion conflict]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Assessment and mitigation of human-lion conflict in West and Central Africa |author1=Bauer, H. |author2=de Iongh, H. |author3=Sogbohossou, E. |journal=Mammalia |year=2010 |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=363–367 |doi=10.1515/MAMM.2010.048|s2cid=86228533 }}</ref> ===In Asia=== [[File:Lion Gir.jpg|thumb|A lioness in Gir National Park]] The last refuge of the Asiatic lion population is the {{cvt|1412|km2}} Gir National Park and surrounding areas in the [[Saurashtra (region)|region of Saurashtra]] or [[Kathiawar Peninsula]] in Gujarat State, India. The population has risen from approximately 180 lions in 1974 to about 400 in 2010.<ref name="Singh, Gibson">{{Cite journal |last1=Singh | first1= H. S. |last2=Gibson | first2= Luke |title=A conservation success story in the otherwise dire megafauna extinction crisis: The Asiatic lion (''Panthera leo persica'') of Gir forest |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biological-conservation_2011-05_144_5/page/1753 |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=144 |issue=5 |pages=1753–57 |year=2011 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2011.02.009}}</ref> It is geographically isolated, which can lead to [[inbreeding]] and reduced [[genetic diversity]]. Since 2008, the Asiatic lion has been listed as [[Endangered]] on the [[IUCN Red List]].<ref name=Breitenmoser2008/> By 2015, the population had grown to 523 individuals inhabiting an area of {{cvt|7000|km2}} in Saurashtra.<ref name=Venkataraman2016>{{cite book |author=Venkataraman, M. |year=2016 |chapter=Wildlife and human impacts in the Gir landscape |title=Human Animal Conflict in Agro-Pastoral Context: Issues & Policies |editor1=Agrawal, P.K |editor2=Verghese, A. |editor3=Krishna, S.R. |editor4=Subaharan, K. |publisher=Indian Council of Agricultural Research |location=New Delhi |page=32−40}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Singh, A.P. |year=2017 |title=The Asiatic Lion (''Panthera leo persica''): 50 Years Journey for Conservation of an Endangered Carnivore and its Habitat in Gir Protected Area, Gujarat, India |journal=Indian Forester |volume=143 |issue=10 |pages=993–1003}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Singh, H.S. |year=2017 |title=Dispersion of the Asiatic lion ''Panthera leo persica'' and its survival in human-dominated landscape outside the Gir forest, Gujarat, India |journal=Current Science |volume=112 |issue=5 |pages=933–940|doi=10.18520/cs/v112/i05/933-940 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The Asiatic Lion Census conducted in 2017 recorded about 650 individuals.<ref>{{cite news|title=Lion population roars to 650 in Gujarat forests|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Lion-population-roars-to-650-in-Gujarat-forests/articleshow/59907625.cms |author=Kaushik, H. |newspaper=The Times of India |date=2017|access-date=9 August 2017}}</ref> The presence of numerous human habitations close to the National Park results in conflict between lions, local people and their livestock.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=V. K. |last1=Saberwal |first2=J. P. |last2=Gibbs |first3=R. |last3=Chellam |first4=A. J. T. |last4=Johnsingh |title=Lion‐Human Conflict in the Gir Forest, India |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_conservation-biology_1994-06_8_2/page/501 |date=1994 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08020501.x |journal=Conservation Biology |issue=2 |volume=8 |pages=501–507}}</ref><ref name=Venkataraman2016 /> Some consider the presence of lions a benefit, as they keep populations of crop damaging herbivores in check.<ref name=Meena2016>{{cite book |author=Meena, V. |year=2016 |chapter=Wildlife and human impacts in the Gir landscape |editor=Agrawal, P.K. |editor2=Verghese, A. |editor3=Radhakrishna, S. |editor4=Subaharan, K. |title=Human Animal Conflict in Agro-Pastoral Context: Issues & Policies |publisher=Indian Council of Agricultural Research |location=New Delhi}}</ref> The establishment of a second, independent Asiatic lion population in [[Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary]], located in [[Madhya Pradesh]] was planned but in 2017, the [[Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project]] seemed unlikely to be implemented.<ref name="TOI 12-2017">{{cite news |author=Sharma, R. |newspaper=The [[Times of India]] |title=Tired of Gujarat reluctance on Gir lions, MP to release tigers in Kuno |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/tired-of-gujarat-reluctance-on-gir-lions-mp-to-release-tigers-in-kuno/articleshow/61937836.cms |date=2017 |access-date=27 January 2018}}</ref><ref name="HT 2017">{{cite news |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |title=Stalemate on translocation of Gir lions Kuno Palpur in Madhya Pradesh to be used as tiger habitat now |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bhopal/stalemate-on-translocation-of-gir-lionskuno-palpur-in-madhya-pradesh-to-be-used-as-tiger-habitat-now/story-hX8ELtxSSL4I8GeLTh6xYI.html |date=2017 |access-date=27 January 2018}}</ref> ===Captive breeding=== [[File:India Animals.jpg|thumb|Two captive male Asiatic lions in [[Sanjay Gandhi National Park]], India]] Lions imported to Europe before the middle of the 19th century were possibly foremost Barbary lions from North Africa, or Cape lions from Southern Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barnett |first1=R. |last2=Yamaguchi |first2=N. |last3=Shapiro |first3=B. |last4=Nijman |first4=V. |year=2007 |title=Using ancient DNA techniques to identify the origin of unprovenanced museum specimens, as illustrated by the identification of a 19th century lion from Amsterdam |url=http://dpc.uba.uva.nl/cgi/t/text/get-pdf?c=ctz;idno=7602a02 |journal=Contributions to Zoology |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=87–94 |access-date=27 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522041326/http://dpc.uba.uva.nl/cgi/t/text/get-pdf?c=ctz;idno=7602a02 |archive-date=22 May 2011 |url-status=dead |doi=10.1163/18759866-07602002 |s2cid=2131247 }}</ref> Another 11 animals thought to be Barbary lions kept in [[Addis Ababa Zoo]] are descendants of animals owned by [[Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia|Emperor Haile Selassie]]. WildLink International in collaboration with [[Oxford University]] launched an ambitious International [[Barbary lion|Barbary Lion Project]] with the aim of identifying and breeding Barbary lions in captivity for eventual reintroduction into a national park in the [[Atlas Mountains]] of Morocco.<ref name="yamaguchi-haddane">{{Cite journal |last=Yamaguchi |first=N. |author2=Haddane, B. |year=2002 |title=The North African Barbary Lion and the Atlas Lion Project |journal=International Zoo News |volume=49 |pages=465–481}}</ref> However, a genetic analysis showed that the captive lions at Addis Ababa Zoo were not Barbary lions, but rather closely related to wild lions in Chad and Cameroon.<ref name="Bruche_al2012">{{Cite journal |last=Bruche |first=S. |author2=Gusset, M. |author3=Lippold, S. |author4=Barnett, R. |author5=Eulenberger, K. |author6=Junhold, J. |author7=Driscoll, C. A. |author8=Hofreiter, M. |title=A genetically distinct lion (''Panthera leo'') population from Ethiopia |journal=European Journal of Wildlife Research |year=2012 |pages=215–225 |doi=10.1007/s10344-012-0668-5 |volume=59 |issue=2|s2cid=508478 }}</ref> In 1982, the [[Association of Zoos and Aquariums]] started a [[Species Survival Plan]] for the Asiatic lion to increase its chances of survival. In 1987, it was found that most lions in North American zoos were hybrids between African and Asiatic lions.<ref name=OBrien1987>{{cite journal |author1=O'Brien, S. J. |author2=Joslin, P. |author3=Smith, G. L. III |author4=Wolfe, R. |author5=Schaffer, N. |author6=Heath, E. |author7=Ott-Joslin, J. |author8=Rawal, P. P. |author9=Bhattacharjee, K. K. |author10=Martenson, J. S. |year=1987 |title=Evidence for African origins of founders of the Asiatic lion Species Survival Plan |journal=Zoo Biology |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=99–116 |doi=10.1002/zoo.1430060202 |url=http://dobzhanskycenter.bio.spbu.ru/pdf/sjop/MS129_O%27Brien_ZooBiol.pdf |access-date=25 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225092713/http://dobzhanskycenter.bio.spbu.ru/pdf/sjop/MS129_O%27Brien_ZooBiol.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Breeding programs need to note origins of the participating animals to avoid cross-breeding different subspecies and thus reducing their conservation value.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Frankham |first1=R. |last2=Ballou |first2=J. |last3=Briscoe |first3=D. |title=Introduction to Conservation Genetics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2009| isbn=978-0-521-70271-3 |location=Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid |edition=Second |chapter=Genetic management of Captive Populations |pages=430–452 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vLZKnsCk89wC&pg=PA437 |access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> Captive breeding of lions was halted to eliminate individuals of unknown origin and [[Pedigree (animal)|pedigree]]. Wild-born lions were imported to American zoos from Africa between 1989 and 1995. Breeding was continued in 1998 in the frame of an African lion Species Survival Plan.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Daigle, C. L. |author2=Brown, J. L. |author3=Carlstead, K. |author4=Pukazhenthi, B. |author5=Freeman, E. W. |author6=Snider, R. J. |year=2015 |title=Multi-institutional survey of social, management, husbandry and environmental factors for the SSP African lion Panthera leo population: examining the effects of a breeding moratorium in relation to reproductive success |journal=International Zoo Yearbook |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=198–213 |doi=10.1111/izy.12073 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270901189}}</ref> About 77% of the captive lions registered in the [[International Species Information System]] in 2006 were of unknown origin; these animals might have carried genes that are extinct in the wild and may therefore be important to the maintenance of the overall [[genetic variability]] of the lion.<ref name=BarnettYamaguchi2006>{{Cite journal |last1=Barnett |first1=R. |last2=Yamaguchi |first2 =N. |last3=Barnes | first3=I. |last4=Cooper |first4=A. |date=2006 |title=Lost populations and preserving genetic diversity in the lion ''Panthera leo'': Implications for its ''ex situ'' conservation |journal=Conservation Genetics |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=507–514 |doi=10.1007/s10592-005-9062-0 |s2cid=24190889 |url=http://abc.zoo.ox.ac.uk/Papers/consgen06_lion.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060824064412/http://abc.zoo.ox.ac.uk/Papers/consgen06_lion.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2006-08-24 }}</ref> ==Interactions with humans== ===In zoos and circuses=== {{multiple image|align=right|direction=vertical |image1=Lion - melbourne zoo.jpg|caption1=Lion at [[Melbourne Zoo]] |image2=Lion tamer (LOC pga.03749).jpg|caption2=19th-century [[etching]] of a lion tamer in a cage with lions and tigers}} Lions are part of a group of exotic animals that have been central to zoo exhibits since the late 18th century. Although many modern zoos are more selective about their exhibits,<ref name="dc81">[[#Courcy|de Courcy]], nga'örö 81-82.</ref> there are more than 1,000 African and 100 Asiatic lions in zoos and wildlife parks around the world. They are considered an ambassador species and are kept for tourism, education and conservation purposes.<ref name="WAZA">{{cite web |last1= Dollinger |first1= P. |last2= Geser |first2= S. |title=Lion: In the Zoo (subpage) |work= Visit the Zoo |publisher= WAZA (World Association of Zoos and Aquariums) |url= http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/cats-1254385523/panthera-leo |access-date= 5 April 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110929135611/http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/cats-1254385523/panthera-leo |archive-date= 29 September 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Lions can live over twenty years in captivity; for example, three sibling lions at the [[Honolulu Zoo]] lived to the age of 22 in 2007.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Aguiar|first=E.|date=2007|title=Honolulu zoo's old lion roars no more|newspaper=Honolulu Advertiser|url=http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2007/Aug/08/ln/hawaii708080394.html|access-date=4 September 2007|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225033236/http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2007/Aug/08/ln/hawaii708080394.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Lum|first=C.|date=2007|title=Zoo puts end to 2 lions' suffering|newspaper=Honolulu Advertiser|url=http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2009/Feb/25/ln/hawaii902250384.html|access-date=29 September 2020|archive-date=6 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106104728/http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2009/Feb/25/ln/hawaii902250384.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The first European "zoos" spread among noble and royal families in the 13th century, and until the 17th century were called [[seraglio]]s. At that time, they came to be called [[menagerie]]s, an extension of the [[cabinet of curiosities]]. They spread from France and Italy during the [[Renaissance]] to the rest of Europe.<ref>[[#Baratay|Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier]], nga'örö 19–21, 42.</ref> In England, although the seraglio tradition was less developed, lions were [[Tower of London#Menagerie|kept at the Tower of London]] in a seraglio established by [[John of England|King John]] in the 13th century;<ref>[[#Baratay|Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier]], nga'örö 20.</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Owen |first=J. |title=Medieval Lion Skulls Reveal Secrets of Tower of London "Zoo"|magazine=National Geographic Magazine |date=2005 |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/11/1103_051103_tower_lions.html| access-date=5 September 2007}}</ref> this was probably stocked with animals from an earlier menagerie started in 1125 by [[Henry I of England|Henry I]] at his hunting lodge in [[Woodstock, Oxfordshire]], where according to [[William of Malmesbury]] lions had been stocked.<ref name=Blunt15>[[#Blunt|Blunt]], nga'örö 15.</ref> Lions were kept in cramped and squalid conditions at [[London Zoo]] until a larger lion house with roomier cages was built in the 1870s.<ref name=Blunt208>[[#Blunt|Blunt]], nga'örö 208.</ref> Further changes took place in the early 20th century when [[Carl Hagenbeck]] designed enclosures with concrete "rocks", more open space and a moat instead of bars, more closely resembling a natural habitat. Hagenbeck designed lion enclosures for both [[Melbourne Zoo]] and Sydney's [[Taronga Zoo]]; although his designs were popular, the use of bars and caged enclosures prevailed in many zoos until the 1960s.<ref name=dc69>[[#Courcy|de Courcy]], nga'örö 69.</ref> In the late 20th century, larger, more natural enclosures and the use of wire mesh or laminated glass instead of lowered dens allowed visitors to come closer than ever to the animals; some attractions such as the Cat Forest/Lion Overlook of [[Oklahoma City Zoo and Botanical Garden|Oklahoma City Zoological Park]] placed the den on ground level, higher than visitors.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Grisham |first=J. |editor-first=C. E. |editor-last=Bell |title=Lion |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the World's Zoos |volume=2: G–P |year=2001 |publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn |location=Chicago |isbn=978-1-57958-174-9 |pages=733–739}}</ref> [[Lion taming]] has been part of both established [[circus]]es and individual acts such as [[Siegfried & Roy]]. The practice began in the early 19th century by Frenchman Henri Martin and American [[Isaac A. Van Amburgh|Isaac Van Amburgh]], who both toured widely and whose techniques were copied by a number of followers.<ref name=baratay187/> Van Amburgh performed before [[Queen Victoria]] in 1838 when he toured Great Britain. Martin composed a [[pantomime]] titled ''Les Lions de Mysore'' ("the lions of Mysore"), an idea Amburgh quickly borrowed. These acts eclipsed [[equestrianism]] acts as the central display of circus shows and entered public consciousness in the early 20th century with cinema. In demonstrating the superiority of human over animal, lion taming served a purpose similar to animal fights of previous centuries.<ref name=baratay187>[[#Baratay|Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier]], nga'örö 187.</ref> The ultimate proof of a tamer's dominance and control over a lion is demonstrated by the placing of the tamer's head in the lion's mouth. The now-iconic lion tamer's chair was possibly first used by American [[Clyde Beatty]] (1903–1965).<ref>{{Cite book |first=D. |last=Feldman |author-link=David Feldman (author) |year=1993 |title=How Does Aspirin Find a Headache? |publisher=HarperCollins |location=New York |isbn=978-0-06-016923-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/howdoesaspirinfi00davi}}</ref> ===Hunting and games=== {{Main|Lion hunting}} {{See also|Lion baiting}} [[File:Sculpted reliefs depicting Ashurbanipal, the last great Assyrian king, hunting lions, gypsum hall relief from the North Palace of Nineveh (Irak), c. 645-635 BC, British Museum (16722183731).jpg|thumb|[[Bas-relief]] of a wounded lioness from [[Nineveh]], {{circa|645–635 BC}}]] Lion hunting has occurred since ancient times and was often a royal tradition, intended to demonstrate the power of the king over nature. Such hunts took place in a reserved area in front of an audience. The monarch was accompanied by his men and controls were put in place to increase their safety and ease of killing. The earliest surviving record of lion hunting is an [[ancient Egypt]]ian inscription dated circa 1380 BC that mentions Pharaoh [[Amenhotep&nbsp;III]] killing 102 lions in ten years "with his own arrows". The [[Assyria]]n emperor [[Ashurbanipal]] had one of his lion hunts depicted on a sequence of [[Assyrian palace reliefs]] {{circa|640 BC}}, known as the [[Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal]]. Lions were also hunted during the [[Mughal Empire]], where Emperor [[Jahangir]] is said to have excelled at it.<ref name=Jackson156>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], nga'örö 156–159.</ref> In [[Ancient Rome]], lions were kept by emperors for [[Venatio|hunts]], [[Bestiarii|gladiator fights]] and [[Damnatio ad bestias|executions]].<ref>{{Cite book |first= T. |last=Wiedemann |title=Emperors and Gladiators |publisher=Routledge |year=1995 |page=60 | isbn=978-0-415-12164-4}}</ref> The [[Maasai people]] have traditionally viewed the killing of lions as a rite of passage. Historically, lions were hunted by individuals, however, due to reduced lion populations, elders discourage solo lion hunts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hazzah |first1=L. |last2=Borgerhoof Mulder |first2=M. |last3=Frank |first3=L. |year=2009 |title=Lions and warriors: Social factors underlying declining African lion populations and the effect of incentive-based management in Kenya |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biological-conservation_2009-11_142_11/page/2428 |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=142 |issue= 11|pages=2428–2437 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2009.06.006}}</ref> During the [[Scramble for Africa|European colonisation of Africa]] in the 19th century, the hunting of lions was encouraged because they were considered pests and lion skins were sold for [[Pound sterling|£1]] each.<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], nga'örö 166.</ref> The widely reproduced imagery of the heroic hunter chasing lions would dominate a large part of the century.<ref>[[#Baratay|Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier]], nga'örö 113.</ref> [[Trophy hunting]] of lions in recent years has been met with controversy, notably with the [[killing of Cecil the lion]] in mid-2015.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Capecchi |first1=Christina |last2=Rogers |first2=Katie |title=Killer of Cecil the lion finds out that he is a target now, of internet vigilantism |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=30 July 2015 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/30/us/cecil-the-lion-walter-palmer.html |access-date=30 July 2015}}</ref> ===Man-eating=== [[File:Lionsoftsavo2008.jpg|thumb|The Tsavo maneaters of East Africa on display in the [[Field Museum of Natural History]] in Chicago]] {{Further information|Man-eater#Lions}} Lions do not usually hunt humans but some (usually males) seem to seek them out. One well-publicised case is the [[Tsavo maneaters]]; in 1898, 28 officially recorded railway workers building the [[Uganda Railway]] were taken by lions over nine months during the construction of a bridge in Kenya.<ref name=Patterson>{{cite book |last=Patterson |first=B. D. |year=2004 |title=The Lions of Tsavo: Exploring the Legacy of Africa's Notorious Man-Eaters |publisher=McGraw Hill Professional |location=New York |isbn=978-0-07-136333-4}}</ref> The hunter who killed the lions wrote a book detailing the animals' predatory behaviour; they were larger than normal and lacked manes, and one seemed to suffer from tooth decay. The infirmity theory, including tooth decay, is not favoured by all researchers; an analysis of teeth and jaws of man-eating lions in museum collections suggests that while tooth decay may explain some incidents, prey depletion in human-dominated areas is a more likely cause of lion predation on humans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Patterson |first=B. D. |author2=Neiburger, E. J.|author3=Kasiki, S. M. |date=2003 |title=Tooth Breakage and Dental Disease as Causes of Carnivore–Human Conflicts |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-mammalogy_2003-02_84_1/page/190 |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=190–196 |doi=10.1644/1545-1542(2003)084<0190:TBADDA>2.0.CO;2 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Sick or injured animals may be more prone to man-eating but the behaviour is not unusual, nor necessarily aberrant.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Peterhans |first1=J. C. K. |first2=T. P. | last2=Gnoske |title=The Science of Man-eating |journal=Journal of East African Natural History |volume=90 |issue=1&2 |year=2001 |pages=1–40 |doi=10.2982/0012-8317(2001)90[1:TSOMAL]2.0.CO;2 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lions' proclivity for [[man-eating]] has been systematically examined. American and Tanzanian scientists report that man-eating behaviour in rural areas of Tanzania increased greatly from 1990 to 2005. At least 563 villagers were attacked and many eaten over this period. The incidents occurred near [[Selous Game Reserve]] in [[Rufiji River]] and in [[Lindi Region]] near the Mozambican border. While the expansion of villages into bush country is one concern, the authors argue conservation policy must mitigate the danger because in this case, conservation contributes directly to human deaths. Cases in Lindi in which lions seize humans from the centres of substantial villages have been documented.<ref name=Packer05>{{Cite journal |last1=Packer |first1=C. |last2=Ikanda | first2= D. |last3=Kissui| first3= B. |last4=Kushnir| first4= H. |date=2005 |title=Conservation biology: lion attacks on humans in Tanzania |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2005-08-18_436_7053/page/927 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=436 |issue=7053 |pages=927–28 |doi=10.1038/436927a| pmid=16107828 |bibcode=2005Natur.436..927P |s2cid=3190757}}</ref> Another study of 1,000 people attacked by lions in southern Tanzania between 1988 and 2009 found that the weeks following the [[full moon]], when there was less moonlight, were a strong indicator of increased night-time attacks on people.<ref name=fullmoon>{{cite journal |title=Fear of Darkness, the Full Moon and the Nocturnal Ecology of African Lions |last=Packer |first=C. |journal=[[PLOS One]] |date=2011 |volume=6 |issue=7 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0022285 |author2=Swanson, A. |author3=Ikanda, D. |author4=Kushnir, H. |pages=e22285 |pmid=21799812 |pmc=3140494|bibcode=2011PLoSO...622285P|doi-access=free}}</ref> According to Robert R. Frump, Mozambican refugees regularly crossing Kruger National Park, South Africa, at night are attacked and eaten by lions; park officials have said man-eating is a problem there. Frump said thousands may have been killed in the decades after [[apartheid]] sealed the park and forced refugees to cross the park at night. For nearly a century before the border was sealed, Mozambicans had regularly crossed the park in daytime with little harm.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frump |first=R. R. |title=The Man-Eaters of Eden: Life and Death in Kruger National Park |year=2006 |publisher=The Lyons Press |isbn=978-1-59228-892-2}}</ref> ==Cultural significance== {{Main|Cultural depictions of lions}} [[File:Jiroft tabriz museum 1.JPG|thumb|Lions carved on a rock weight, [[Jiroft culture]], Iran, 3rd mil. BC]] The lion is one of the most widely recognised animal symbols in human culture. It has been extensively depicted in sculptures and paintings, on national flags, and in contemporary films and literature.<ref name=Guggisberg1975/> It appeared as a symbol for strength and nobility in cultures across Europe, Asia and Africa, despite incidents of attacks on people. The lion has been depicted as "king of the jungle" and "king of beasts", and thus became a popular symbol for royalty and stateliness.<ref name=Garai73>{{Cite book |last=Garai |first=J. |title=The Book of Symbols |year=1973 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=978-0-671-21773-0}}</ref> The lion is also used as a symbol of sporting teams.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2004 |title=Chelsea centenary crest unveiled |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/c/chelsea/4008257.stm |publisher=BBC |access-date=2 January 2007}}</ref> ===Africa=== [[File:Luxor Sekhmet New Kingdom.JPG|thumb|right|upright|Granite statue of the Egyptian goddess [[Sekhmet]] from the [[Luxor Temple]], dated 1403–1365 BC, exhibited in the [[National Museum of Denmark]]]] In sub-Saharan Africa, the lion has been a common character in stories, proverbs and dances, but rarely featured in visual arts.<ref name=Jackson119/> In some cultures, the lion symbolises power and royalty.<ref name=Hogarth/> In the [[Swahili language]], the lion is known as ''simba'' which also means "aggressive", "king" and "strong".<ref name=BCKM1993/> Some rulers had the word "lion" in their nickname. [[Sundiata Keita]] of the [[Mali Empire]] was called "Lion of Mali".<ref name=Lynch/> The founder of the [[Waalo]] kingdom is said to have been raised by lions and returned to his people part-lion to unite them using the knowledge he learned from the lions.<ref name=Hogarth/> In parts of West Africa, lions symbolised the top class of their social hierarchies.<ref name=Hogarth/> In more heavily forested areas where lions were rare, the leopard represented the top of the hierarchy.<ref name=Jackson119>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], nga'örö 119.</ref> In parts of West and East Africa, the lion is associated with healing and provides the connection between [[Clairvoyance|seers]] and the supernatural. In other East African traditions, the lion represents laziness.<ref name=Hogarth>{{cite book |last1=Hogarth |first1=C. |last2=Butler |first2=N. |year=2004 |title=Shamanism: An Encyclopedia of World Beliefs, Practices, and Culture |volume=1 |editor=Walter, M. N. |isbn=978-1-57607-645-3 |chapter=Animal Symbolism (Africa) |pages=3–6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8waCmzjiD4C&pg=PA3 |url=https://archive.org/details/shamanism00mari/page/3}}</ref> In much of [[African folklore]], the lion is portrayed as having low intelligence and is easily tricked by other animals.<ref name=Lynch>{{cite book |last=Lynch |first=P. A. |year=2004 |title=African Mythology A to Z |publisher=Infobase Publishing |page=63 |isbn=978-0-8160-4892-2 |chapter=Lion |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/africanmythology00lync_0/page/63}}</ref> The ancient Egyptians portrayed several of their [[List of war deities|war deities]] as lionesses, which they revered as fierce hunters. Egyptian deities associated with lions include [[Sekhmet]], [[Bastet|Bast]], [[Mafdet]], [[Menhit]], [[Pakhet]] and [[Tefnut]].<ref name="Garai73"/> These deities were often connected with the sun god [[Ra]] and his fierce heat, and their dangerous power was invoked to guard people or sacred places. The [[sphinx]], a figure with a lion's body and the head of a human or other creature, represented a [[pharaoh]] or deity who had taken on this protective role.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pinch|first=G. |title=Egyptian Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt|date=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-517024-5 |pages=133–134, 206}}</ref> ===Asia=== [[File:Berlín Ishtar león. 02.JPG|thumb|Roaring and striding lion from the Throne Room of [[Nebuchadnezzar&nbsp;II]], 6th century BC, from [[Babylon]], Iraq]] The lion was a prominent symbol in ancient [[Mesopotamia]] from [[Sumer]] up to [[Assyria]]n and [[Babylonia]]n times, where it was strongly associated with kingship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cassin |first=Elena |author-link=Elena Cassin |year=1981 |title= Le roi et le lion |journal=Revue de l'Histoire des Religions | trans-title = The king & the lion | volume=298 |issue=198–4 |pages=355–401 |language=fr|doi=10.3406/rhr.1981.4828}}</ref> Lions were among the major symbols of the goddess [[Inanna]]/[[Ishtar]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Black|first1=J. |first2=A. |last2=Green |title=Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=05LXAAAAMAAJ |publisher=The British Museum Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-7141-1705-8|page=118}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Collins|first=P. |title=The Sumerian Goddess Inanna (3400-2200 BC) |journal=Papers from the Institute of Archaeology |volume=5 |date=1994 |pages=113–114|doi=10.5334/pia.57 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Lion of Babylon]] was the foremost symbol of the [[Babylonian Empire]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sass |first1=B. |last2=Marzahn|first2=J. |date=2010 |title=Aramaic and figural stamp impressions on bricks of the sixth century B.C. from Babylon |location=Wiesbaden, Germany |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=9783447061841 |chapter=The motifs |pages=178–186 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-LfWEWhwyf8C&pg=PA181}}</ref> The [[Lion of Judah]] is the biblical emblem of the [[tribe of Judah]] and the later [[Kingdom of Judah]].<ref name=Epstein>{{Cite book|last=Epstein| first=M. M. |title=Dreams of subversion in medieval Jewish art and literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bzINIM23-TcC&q=lions+symbolize+yehuda&pg=PA110 |pages=110, 121 |publisher=Penn State Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-271-01605-4}}</ref> Lions are frequently mentioned in the Bible, notably in the [[Book of Daniel]], in which the [[Daniel (biblical figure)|eponymous hero]] refuses to worship [[Darius the Mede|King Darius]] and is forced to sleep in [[Daniel in the lions' den|the lions' den]] where he is miraculously unharmed ({{bibleref2|Dan|6}}). In the [[Book of Judges]], [[Samson]] kills a lion as he travels to visit a Philistine woman.({{bibleref2|Judg|14}}).<ref>{{cite book |editor=Sakenfeld, K. D. |year=2008 |title=New Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible |volume=3 |chapter=Lion |author=Borowski, O. |publisher=Abingdon Press|pages=669–670 |isbn=978-0687333653}}</ref> Indo-Persian chroniclers regarded the lion as keeper of order in the realm of animals. The [[Sanskrit]] word ''mrigendra'' signifies a lion as king of animals in general or deer in particular.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rangarajan, M. |year=2013 |title=Animals with rich histories: the case of the lions of Gir Forest, Gujarat, India |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_history-and-theory_2013-12_52_4/page/109 |journal=History and Theory |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=109–127 |doi=10.1111/hith.10690}}</ref> [[Narasimha]], the man-lion, is one of ten [[avatar]]s of the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] god [[Vishnu]].<ref>{{Cite book |editor1=Piccardi, L. |editor2=Masse, W. B. |title=Myth and Geology |series=Geological Society Special Publications No. 273 |year=2007 |publisher=Geological Society |location=London |author=Chandrasekharam, D. |chapter=Geo-mythology of India |pages=29–37 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/MythAndGeology/MythGeology#page/n35/mode/2up}}</ref> [[Singh]] is an [[History of India|ancient India]]n [[Vedic Sanskrit|vedic]] name meaning "lion", dating back over 2,000 years. It was originally used only by [[Rajputs]], a Hindu [[Kshatriya]] or military [[caste]] but is used by millions of Hindu Rajputs and more than twenty million [[Sikhs]] today.<ref>{{Cite book |first=K. |last=Singh |year=2004 |author-link=Khushwant Singh |title=A History of the Sikhs: 1469–1838 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-567308-1| volume = I}}</ref> The [[Lion Capital of Ashoka]], erected by [[Emperor Ashoka]] in the 3rd century CE, depicts four lions standing back to back. It was made the [[National Emblem of India]] in 1950.<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], nga'örö 122.</ref> The lion is also symbolic for the [[Sinhalese people]], the term derived from the [[Sanskrit]] ''Sinhala'', meaning "of lions"<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.etymonline.com/?term=Sinhalese |contribution=Sinhalese |last=Harper|first=Douglas |year=2016 |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=2016-08-20}}</ref> while a sword-wielding lion is the central figure on the national [[flag of Sri Lanka]].<ref>{{cite web | work = Constitution | year = 1978 | title = Article 6: The National Flag | publisher=Government of Sri Lanka |url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Schedle_2_Amd.html |access-date=6 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070814100316/http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Schedle_2_Amd.html |archive-date=14 August 2007}}</ref> The lion is a common motif in [[Chinese art]]; it was first used in art during the late [[Spring and Autumn period]] (fifth or sixth century BC) and became more popular during the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BC{{snd}}AD 220) when [[imperial guardian lions]] started to be placed in front of imperial palaces for protection. Because lions have never been native to China, early depictions were somewhat unrealistic; after the introduction of [[Buddhist art]] to China in the [[Tang dynasty]] after the sixth century AD, lions were usually depicted wingless with shorter, thicker bodies and curly manes.<ref>{{Cite news |first=L. |last=Ling |date=2002 |url=http://www.cityu.edu.hk/ccs/Newsletter/newsletter4/Lion/Lion.htm | title=The Two-Way Process in the Age of Globalization |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050406143133/http://www.cityu.edu.hk/ccs/Newsletter/newsletter4/Lion/Lion.htm | archive-date=6 April 2005 |newspaper=Ex/Change |publisher=[[City University of Hong Kong]] |issue=4 |access-date=26 September 2007}}</ref> The [[lion dance]] is a traditional dance in [[Chinese culture]] in which performers in lion costumes mimic a lion's movements, often with musical accompaniment from cymbals, drums and gongs. They are performed at [[Chinese New Year]], the [[Mid-Autumn Festival|August Moon Festival]] and other celebratory occasions for good luck.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/Chinese_Customs/lion_dance.htm |title=Lion Dance |publisher=Nations Online|access-date=September 2, 2020}}</ref> ===Western world=== [[File:Cowardly lion2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Dorothy Gale]] meets the Cowardly Lion in ''[[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]]''. Art by [[W. W. Denslow]], 1900.]] Lion-headed figures and amulets were excavated in tombs in the Greek islands of [[Crete]], [[Euboea]], [[Rhodes]], [[Paros]] and [[Chios]]. They are associated with the Egyptian deity Sekhmet and date to the early [[Iron Age]] between the 9th and 6th centuries BC.<ref>{{cite book |author=Apostola, E. |year=2014 |chapter=Cross-cultural Relations between Egypt and Greece during the Early Iron Age: Representations of Egyptian Lion-Headed Deities in the Aegean |title=Current Research in Egyptology: Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Symposium |publisher=Oxbow Books |location=Oxford |pages=100–112 |editor=Pinarello, M.S. |editor2=Yoo, J. |editor3=Lundock, J. |editor4=Walsh, C.}}</ref> The lion is featured in several of [[Aesop's fables]], notably [[The Lion and the Mouse]].<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], nga'örö 99, 150</ref> The [[Nemean lion]] was symbolic in [[ancient Greece]] and Rome, represented as the constellation and zodiac sign [[Leo (astrology)|Leo]], and described in mythology, where it was killed and worn by the hero [[Heracles]],<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], nga'örö 96</ref> symbolising victory over death.<ref name="Helicon Publishers">{{cite book |last1=Tressider |first1=J. |title=The Hutchinson Dictionary of Symbols |date=1997|publisher=Helicon Publishers |location=London|isbn=978-1-85986-059-5|page=124 }}</ref> [[Lancelot]] and [[Gawain]] were also heroes slaying lions in the [[Middle Ages]]. In some medieval stories, lions were portrayed as allies and companions.<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], nga'örö 103–105.</ref> "Lion" was the nickname of several medieval warrior-rulers with a reputation for bravery, such as [[Richard the Lionheart]].<ref name="Garai73"/> Lions continue to appear in modern literature as characters including the messianic [[Aslan]] in the 1950 novel ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]'' and ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' series by [[C. S. Lewis]],<ref name=Ford>{{cite book |title=Companion to Narnia: Revised Edition |last=Ford |first=P. |year=2005 |page=6 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |location=San Francisco |isbn=978-0-06-079127-8 }}</ref> and the comedic [[Cowardly Lion]] in [[L. Frank Baum]]'s 1900 ''[[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]]''.<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], nga'örö 135.</ref> Lion symbolism was used from the advent of cinema; one of the most iconic and widely recognised lions is [[Leo the Lion (MGM)|Leo]], which has been the mascot for [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]] studios since the 1920s.<ref name=tvacres>{{cite web |title=Advertising Mascots—Animals—Leo the MGM Lion (MGM Studios) |website= TV Acres |url=http://www.tvacres.com/adanimals_leolion.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121205093550/http://www.tvacres.com/adanimals_leolion.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date= 5 December 2012}}</ref> The 1966 film ''[[Born Free]]'' features [[Elsa the lioness]] and is based on the book [[Born Free (book)|Born Free]] published in 1960.<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], nga'örö 54–55.</ref> The lion's role as king of the beasts has been used in the 1994 [[Disney animated feature]] film ''[[The Lion King]]''.<ref>[[#Jackson|Jackson]], nga'örö 7, 197.</ref> Lions are frequently [[Lion (heraldry)|depicted]] on [[coat of arms|coats of arms]], like on the [[coat of arms of Finland]],<ref>{{cite book |author=Klinge, M. |title=Suomen sinivalkoiset värit: Kansallisten ja muidenkin symbolien vaiheista ja merkityksestä |publisher=[[Otava (publisher)|Otava]] |year=1999 | language=fi | isbn=951-1-15314-5}}</ref> either as a device on shields or as [[supporters]], but the lioness is used much less frequently.<ref>{{cite web |title=Arms of Margaret Norrie McCain |website=The Public Register of Arms, Flags and Badges |location=Canada |url=http://archive.gg.ca/heraldry/pub-reg/project-pic.asp?lang=e&ProjectID=538&ProjectElementID=1883 |access-date = 30 June 2010}}</ref> The heraldic lion is particularly common in British arms. It is traditionally depicted in a great variety of [[Attitude (heraldry)|attitudes]], although within French heraldry only lions rampant are considered to be lions; felined figures in any other position are instead referred to as leopards.<ref name=Davies>{{cite book |author=Fox-Davies, A. |year=1909 |title=A Complete Guide to Heraldry |location=London |publisher=T.C. and E.C. Jack |pages= |chapter=Chapter XI |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/completeguidetoh00foxduoft}}</ref> == Faigi göi == {{div col|colwidth=15em}} * [[List of largest cats]] * [[Mapogo lion coalition]] * ''[[Roar (1981 film)|Roar]]'' (1981 film) {{div col end}} --> == Famotokhi == {{Notelist}} == Basoŵa == {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book |last1=Baratay |first1=E. |first2=E. |last2=Hardouin-Fugier |name-list-style=amp |year=2002 |title=Zoo: A History of Zoological Gardens in the West |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V0JSVvpZvYYC&pg=PA3 |location=London |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=978-1-86189-111-2 |ref=Baratay}} * {{Cite book |last=Blunt |first=W. |year=1975 |title=The Ark in the Park: The Zoo in the Nineteenth Century |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_241893313 |url-access=registration |location=London |publisher=Hamish Hamilton |isbn=978-0-241-89331-9 |ref=Blunt}} * {{Cite book |last=de Courcy |first=C. |year=1995 |title=The Zoo Story |location=Ringwood, Victoria |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-023919-5|ref=Courcy}} * {{cite book|last=Jackson| first= D. |year=2010|title=Lion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=65lK7UIVRfIC |location=London |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=978-1861896551 |ref=Jackson}} * {{cite book|last=Packer|first=C.|author-link=Craig Packer |year=2023|title=The Lion: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation of an Iconic Species|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691215297|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TYOREAAAQBAJ&q=The+Lion:+Behavior,+Ecology,+and+Conservation+of+an+Iconic+Species|ref=Packer}} * {{Cite book |last=Schaller |first=G. B. |author-link=George Schaller |year=1972 |title=The Serengeti Lion: A Study of Predator–Prey Relations |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-73639-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ann2dYn9iYC&pg=PP1 |ref=Schaller}} * {{Cite book |last1=Scott |first1=J. |last2=Scott |first2=A. |year=2002 |title=Big Cat Diary: Lion |location=New York |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=9780007146666 |ref=Scott}} {{Refend}} == Referensi == {{Reflist|18em}} == Khai-khai baero == * {{cite web |url=http://www.catsg.org/index.php?id=108 |title=Lion ''Panthera leo'' |author=IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group |access-date=2023-08-28 |archive-date=2019-03-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327090743/http://www.catsg.org/index.php?id=108 |dead-url=yes }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.lionconservationfund.org/ | title=Lion Conservation Fund}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.theportugalnews.com/news/rare-desert-lion-killed-in-angola-after-supplying-unprecedented-data/32633 |title=Rare desert lion killed in Angola after supplying unprecedented data |author=The Portugal News |date=2014 |access-date=24 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802223523/http://www.theportugalnews.com/news/rare-desert-lion-killed-in-angola-after-supplying-unprecedented-data/32633 |archive-date=2 August 2018 |url-status=dead }} * {{Cite Collier's|wstitle=Lion|short=x}} {{Taxonbar|from1=Q140|from2=Q15294488}} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Famili mao]] [[Kategori:Aurifö]] qxxk10numinh2z74gddr4agxtswc619 0 4004 27615 27271 2026-08-14T18:23:49Z InternetArchiveBot 504 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260814sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 27615 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = '''Bogo''' | image = Porcupine-BioDome.jpg | image_alt = Bogo sauri ba Amerika Utara | image_caption = Bogo sauri ba Amerika Utara | auto = yes | parent = Hystricognathi | includes = *[[Hystricidae]] *[[Erethizontidae]] | excludes = *{{extinct}}''[[Bathyergoididae]]'' *''[[Bathyergidae]]'' *{{extinct}}''[[Myophiomyidae]]'' *{{extinct}}''[[Diamantomyidae]]'' *{{extinct}}''[[Phiomyidae]]'' *{{extinct}}''[[Kenyamyidae]]'' *''[[Petromuridae]]'' *''[[Thryonomyidae]]'' *''[[Chinchillidae]]'' *{{extinct}}''[[Neoepiblemidae]]'' *''[[Dinomyidae]]'' *{{extinct}}''[[Cephalomyidae]]'' *{{extinct}}''[[Eocardiidae]]'' *''[[Caviidae]]'' *''[[Dasyproctidae]]'' *''[[Cuniculidae]]'' *''[[Ctenomyidae]]'' *''[[Octodontidae]]'' *''[[Abrocomidae]]'' *''[[Echimyidae]]'' *''[[Myocastoridae]]'' *''[[Capromyidae]]'' *{{extinct}}''[[Heptaxodontidae]]'' }} '''Bogo''' no aurifö si hulö de'u sebua, bunia aganau ba agatarö hulö ndroi, si tobali fangöna famoloi nudu sedöna mondra'u ya'ira. Tefaböbö ia ba gaurifö satarö ifö ba wanaba hadia ia ([[li Indonesia]] ''hewan pengerat'', [[li Latin]] ''Rodentia''). Ara auri ia, so zi no irai auri 32 fakhe. Bogo si so ba Afrika manga balö geu, gowi, bua geu awö fakhe ba laza/nowi. Bogo si so ba Amerika asese toröi ira ba hogu geu ba wemanga bulu geu, ba hiza la'a göi ndru'u. {{Omböila}} Si to'ölönia fa'anau mbogo 60-90 cm, inönö ba da'ö 20-25 cm gi'o. Fa'abua mbotora 5-16 kg ba omböilara owulo ba no ahou sibai na mofanö. La'a-la'a mbura no amarukhata zafusi, sohawu-hawu ba sowaru-waru. Oya ngawalö mbogo, so zi tefaböbö ba ngawalö ''Hystricidae'' (si tesöndra ba Italia, Asia ba Afrika) ba so göi ba ''Erethizontidae'' (si tesöndra ba Amerika Utara ba Selatan). Si fagölö khöra ya'ia da'ö bulu si hulö ndroi börö me so khönia bakha nifotöi ''keratin''. Bogo ''hystricidae'' egebua ba ha mangalui gö ira ba zi bongi. Bogo si tefaböbö ba ''Erethizontidae'' no igide-ide ba tola göi mangalui gö ira ba zi ma'ökhö. {{Habitat}} [[File:Ялтинский зоопарк 079.jpg|jmpl|Bogo si tefaböbö ba Hystricidae]] Tesöndra mbogo ba mbenua tropis ba Asia, Eropa Selatan, Afrika, Amerika Utara ba Amerika Selatan. Auri ira ba gatua, ba danö simate, ba danö soya kara segebua ba ba naere-naere hili. Si to'ölönia mangalui gö ira ba zi bongi, heŵa'ae so göi mbogo sangalui gö ba zi ma'ökhö {{Kultivasi}} Bogo tenga urifö, börö da'ö lö waö-waö wanguri ya'ia ([[li Indonesia]] ''pembudidayaan'' ma ''kultivasi''). {{Fangoguna'ö}} Si to'ölönia lö labali'ö ö mbogo. Ba hiza ba Asia Tenggara, töra-töra ba Vietnam, labali'ö ia börö gö. Andrö wa itugu alö wa'oya mbogo ba da'ö.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/08/100825103830.htm |title=Wild Southeast Asian porcupines under threat due to illegal hunting, researchers find |publisher=Sciencedaily.com |date=2010-08-25 |access-date=2012-02-20 |archive-date=2019-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421160439/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/08/100825103830.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2010.07.030|title=The conservation impact of commercial wildlife farming of porcupines in Vietnam|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biological-conservation_2010-11_143_11/page/2808|year=2010|last1=Brooks|first1=Emma G.E.|last2=Roberton|first2=Scott I.|last3=Bell|first3=Diana J.|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=143|issue=11|pages=2808 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Ettinger, Powell |url=http://www.wildlifeextra.com/go/news/porcupine-vietnam.html#cr |title=Wildlife Extra News – Illegal hunting threatens Vietnam's wild porcupines |publisher=Wildlifeextra.com |date=2010-08-30 |access-date=2012-02-20 |archive-date=2019-01-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128082742/http://www.wildlifeextra.com/go/news/porcupine-vietnam.html#cr |url-status=live }}</ref> <!-- As mentioned, in Kenya porcupines are eaten as a delicacy.<ref name="BBC"/> --> So ösa niha samaliaro bogo ba nomo tobali urifö hulö zimane mao ba asu. Ba hiza lö to'ölö da'a. [[File:MAPElNorte041.JPG|jmpl|Balu högö moroi ba mbu mbogo nifazökhi ndra niha asli Amerika]] [[File:Libertarian Party Porcupine (USA).svg|jmpl|Logo libertarianisme Amerika samokhala mbogo]] Ba Amerika so zangoguna'ö bu mbogo tobali famoadu bala högö simane nifalua ndra niha asli Amerika (faigi gambara). Baero da'ö la'oguna'ö gambara mbogo tobali tandra libertarianis Amerika (faigi gambara), ya'ia da'ö hou wangera-ngera sanguma'ö wa tebai mubörögö wasöndrata, ba hiza tola molau balö na lasuwö ita niha, ena'ö böi irugi te'ala ita.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Libertarian Party Symbol|url=https://www.symbols.com/symbol/the-libertarian-party-symbol|access-date=2021-04-02|website=www.symbols.com|language=en|archive-date=2021-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023201943/https://www.symbols.com/symbol/the-libertarian-party-symbol|url-status=live}}</ref> {{Faniaga}} Lö tefamawa mbogo, andrö wa lö ya'ia ba waniaga. {{Onönöta}} Ba [[li Indonesia]] latötöi mbogo ''landak''. Ba [[li Inggris]] lafotöi ia ''porcupine'', nihalö moroi ba [[li Italia]] ''porcospino'', eluahania bawi si so ndroi. {{Umbu}} <references /> [[Kategori:Aurifö]] [[Kategori:No mufareso]] sunrfl8xnln360po4xguxpokj6tug7l 0 4076 27612 27219 2026-08-14T18:03:42Z InternetArchiveBot 504 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260814sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 27612 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox santo |honorific_prefix = [[Santo]] |name = Mataio |death_date = Ngaotu ndröfi si-1 |feast_day = 21 September (niha Keriso ba Barat)<br />22 Oktober (Ortodoks Koptik)<br />16 November (niha Keriso ba Timur) |venerated_in = Gereja Ortodoks Timur<br />[[Gereja Katolik]]<br />Gereja Katolik Timur<br />Ortodoks Timur<br />Gereja Timur<br />Persekutuan Anglikan<br />[[Gereja Lutheran]] |image = Berkas:Rubens apostel mattheus grt.jpg |caption = Santo Mataio (a.t. 1611) nigambaraini Peter Paul Rubens |birth_place = Kafanauma,{{sfn|Easton|1897}} Galilaia, Kerajaan Romawi |death_place = [[Etiopia]] |titles = Nifahaö, Sanura Injil, Martir |canonized_date = |attributes = Mala'ika |patronage = Akuntan; kota Salerno (Italia); ira sohalöŵö ba bank; sangowuloi bea; ya'ira samazökhi parfum; pegawai negeri<ref name=stmatthewscathedral.org /> |major_works = [[Sura Mataio|Turia Somuso Dödö Nisura Mataio]] }} '''Mataio''' ([[li Ibrani]] מַתִּתְיָהוּ, te'adogo'ö מַתִּי; [[li Aramaia]] ܡܰܬ݁ܰܝ; [[li Yunani]] Μαθθαῖος; [[li Koptik]] ⲙⲁⲧⲑⲉⲟⲥ; [[li Latin]] Matthaeus; li Indonesia Matius) ma asese lakaoni ia '''Santo Mataio''' no töi samösa moroi ba gotalua ndra nifahaö Yesu si felendrua. Molo'ö tradisi niha Keriso, ya'ia göi samösa moroi ba gotalua zi daöfa zanura [[Injil]], sanura Sura Mataio, ba börö da'ö tehöngö göi ia faoma töi '''Mataio Sanura Injil''', sambua döi si lö latema arakhagö fefu gere Zura Ni'amoni'ö, heŵa'ae so göi zanohugö manguma'ö wa Mataio zanura Injil andrö.{{sfn|Allison|2010|p=27}} Isura Amabu'ulali Sibohou wa i'o'ö Yesu Mataio tobali nifahaö Yesu. Furi da'ö laŵaö ira tua Gereja simane [[Ireneus]] ba [[Klemens moroi ba Aleksandria]] wa ituriagö Injil Mataio khö ndra angowuloa Yahudi ba danö Yudea, fatua lö awu'a ia ba negara bö'ö. == Mataio bakha ba Gamabu'ulali Sibohou == [[Berkas:Bodleian Library MS. Arm. d.13. Armenian Gospels-0039-0.jpg|thumb|upright|Gambara Mataio bakha ba Injil Armenia 1609, ni'irö'ö ba Bodleian Library]] Bakha ba {{SN|Mataio|9|9}} awö {{SN|Mataio|10|3}} tetötöi Mataio samösa niha sangowuloi bea ba Kafanauma, si dadao ba gödo wanema bea me tekaoni ia wolo'ö Yesu. Tefa'oli göi ia ba gotalua ndra nifahaö si felendrua, ba hiza lö nisura sanandrösa heza moroi ia bakha ba {{SN|Mar|3|18}}, {{SN|Luk|6|15}} ba ba {{SN|HalZin|1|13}}. Ba ayati si fagölö ba Mataio 9:9, lasura Mareko 2:14 ba Luka 5:27 zanandrösa ba wogaoni Lewi, sanema bea, ono Alfeus, ba hiza lö irai latötöi Injil Mareko ba injil Luka wa Lewi andrö no samösa moroi ba gotalua ndra nifahaö si felendrua. == Halöŵö fa'a'enoni == Ituriagö Amabu'ulali Sibohou wa i'o'ö Yesu Mataio, tobali samösa nifahaö. Aefa da'ö la'iagö sambua lote ira nifahaö ({{SN|HalZin|1|10|14}}) (latötöi ia kenakel ba gotalua ndra niha Keriso me föna) ba Yerusalema.{{sfn|Jacquier|1911}} Toröi ndra nifahaö ba Yerusalema ba ba mbanua sifasui ba laturiagö wa Yesu andrö no Keriso. Ba mbuku ''Talmud [[Babilonia]]'' (Sanhedrin 43a), tesura wa "Mattai" andrö no samösa moroi ba gotalua zi dalima nifahaö "Jeshu".{{sfn|Schneemelcher|2003|p=17}} Laŵaö ira tua Gereja simane [[Ireneus]] (''Against Heresies'' 3.1.1) ma zui Klemens moroi ba Aleksandria wa ituriagö Injil Mataio khö ndra niha Yahudi ba danö Yudaia, fatua lö möi ia ba mbanua zobanua. Lö la'ila ya'ira sanura me föna hadia mbanua zobanua andrö, ba hiza latötöi [[Etiopia]] arakhagö fefu gumbu zura.{{sfn|Jacquier|1911}} Ira [[Gereja Katolik]] ba [[Gereja Ortodoks]] la'o'ö tradisi wa mate Mataio tobali ''martir'' (niha nibunu börö wamatinia) ba hulö i'ombakha'ö hewisa labunu ia ''Talmud [[Babilonia]]'' bakha ba Sanhedrin 43a.{{sfn|Lardner|1838|p=299}}{{sfn|Bock|2002|p=164}} Molo'ö tradisi Gereja, me möi mangombakha Mataio ba Etiopia, ibe'e tobali niha Keriso Ephigenia, ono alawe khö razo Etiopia Egippus<ref>''The Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine'', trans. and adapted by Ryan, Granger and Helmut Ripperger. (Arno Press: Longmans, Green & Co) 1941. pp. 561–566.</ref> ba aefa da'ö te'angaruwusi ia tobali biarawati. Me i'ali Egippus razo Hirtacus, i'andrö khö Mataio ena'ö tola omasi Ephigenia mangowalu khönia. Börö da'ö ikaoni razo Hirtacus Mataio ena'ö fao ia ba [[misa]] ba hari migu föna da'ö. Bakha ba misa andrö ihöwö razo Hirtacus andrö Mataio ba wangisönia Ephigenia, si no tobali biarawati ba börö da'ö no sangowalu khö Keriso. Bakha ba wönunia ifatenge zaradadunia razo andrö ba wamunu Mataio si sindro nasa ba [[altar]], irege tebunu ia tobali [[martir]].<ref name=ROCOR2004>The Autonomous Orthodox Metropolia of Western Europe and the Americas (ROCOR). ''St. Hilarion Calendar of Saints for the year of our Lord 2004.'' St. Hilarion Press (Austin, TX). p.&nbsp;70.</ref> == Injil Mataio == [[Berkas:Rembrandt - Saint Matthew and the angel.jpg|jmpl|upright|Gambara ''Santo Mataio faoma Mala'ika'' nigambaraini [[Rembrandt]] (1661)]] Ifaduhu'ö tradisi Gereja meföna wa Mataio zanura Turia Somuso Dödö nisura Mataio. Si föföna sibai manguma'ö da'a ya'ia ngawalö zinura moroi ba ngaotu ndröfia si sara ba si dua, simane sinura uskup Papias moroi ba Hierapolis (a.t. döfi 60–163),{{sfn|Martin|2012}} sangai niŵaö Eusebius, samösa ere Hikaya Gereja (döfi 260–340), imane: "I'owuloi ngawalö ngawua wehede (''logia'': nidunö-dunö khö Yesu) ba li Ibrani Mataio, ba ifo'eluaha ia ndrege wa'abölönia."{{sfn|Turner|2008|p=15–16}}{{efn|name=Eusebius}}{{sfn|Bingham|1998|p=64}} Simanö göi iŵa'ö teolog sotöi Origenes (a.t. 184 – a.t. 253) wa Injil si föföna no nisura Mataio,{{sfn|Edwards|2009|p=18}}{{sfn|Repschinski|2000|p=14}} ba wa Injil andrö khönia no tesura ba li Ibrani ba zahatö ba Yerusalema si lalö khö ndra niha Keriso Ibrani ba ni'ali ba li Yunani. Injil asli ba li Ibrani andrö te'irö'ö ba perpustakaan Kaisaria. Ba gangahorita ngaotu ndröfia si öfa lafazökhi sambua kopi Injil andrö ira fa'awösa Nazarene ba labe'e ia khö Hieronimus{{sfn|Nicholson|1879|p=82}} ni'oguna'önia dania ba halöŵö wangosili Zura Ni'amoni'ö.{{sfn|Saint Jerome|2000|p=10}} Latötöi Injil Mataio me luo da'ö ''Turia Somuso Dödö molo'ö niha Heberaio''{{sfn|Hultgren|Haggmark|1996|p=122}} ba itaria göi ''Turia Somuso Dödö ndra Nifahaö''{{sfn|Nicholson|1879|p=26}}{{sfn|Dods|1858|p=iv}} ba faduhu dödö niha me luo da'ö wa injil andre no tanömö zura asli ''Mataio Yunani'' si so bakha ba Zura Ni'amoni'ö.{{sfn|Harrison|1964|p=152}} Ba hiza no latenaŵa da'a ira ere Zura Ni'amoni'ö modern simane Bart D. Ehrman ba James R. Edwards.{{sfn|Edwards|2009|p=245}}{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|p=43}} Faigi göi nifotöi ''hipotese dombua-gumbu''.<ref>'''Hipotese dombua-gumbu''' no sambua zöndra nifaehagö ndra ere zura Ni'amoni'ö ba wamotokhi hana wa oya zi fagölö ba so göi zi fabö'ö ba gotalua zi tölu injil Mataio, Mareko ba Luka. Molo'ö famotokhi andre me lasura injil khöra ira Mataio ba Luka, la'oguna'ö '''injil Mareko'''. Awena lanönö göi nidunö-dunö si tesöndra ba zura '''Q''', ya'ia da'ö angowuloa angowuloa nidunö-dunö sanandrösa khö Yesu ba gotalua ndra niha Keriso.</ref>{{sfn|Mills|Wilson|2003|p=942}}{{sfn|Epiphanius of Salamis|1987|p=129}} Ha sambalö latema'ö arakhagö fefu gere Zura Ni'amoni'ö modern wa sanura Injil Mataio no niha bö'ö si lö ta'ila töi ba tenga Mataio samösa.{{sfn|Muddiman|Barton|2010|p=27}}{{sfn|Allison|2010|p=27}} Lö nibe'enia döinia bakha ba teks sanura injil Mataio ba molo'ö ndra ere Zura Ni'amoni'ö, awena ba ngaotu ndröfia si dua tenönö döi zura "molo'ö Mataio".{{sfn|Harrington|1991|p=8}}{{sfn|Nolland|2005|p=16}} == Injil bö'ö si lö resmi ("apokrif") == [[Berkas:Matthaeus San Giovanni in Laterano 2006-09-07.jpg|thumb|upright|Gambara ''Santo Mataio'' nigambaraini Camillo Rusconi (1713–1715), so ba Basilika Sebua Santo Yohane Lateran ba Roma]] Ba ngaotu ndröfia si tölu, la'oguna'ö injil Keriso-Yahudi niböbögö khö Mataio ya'ira niha Keriso Yahudi simane fa'awösa Nazarene ba fa'awösa Ebionita. Tesöndra gakhökhöla si toröi moroi ba injil andre bakha ba zura Hieronimus, sura Epiphanius ba ba zura tanöbö'ö. La'o'ö wamaosatö ngawalö zura andre arakhagö fefu zangosili Zura Ni'amoni'ö: Injil ndra fa'awösa Nazarene (36 fragmen), Injil ndra niha Ebionita (7 fragmen) ba Injil ndra niha Yahudi (7 fragmen) si tesöndra bakha ba Gamabu'ulali Sibohou ''apokrif''<ref>Lafotöi ''apokrif'' fefu zura injil si ''lö resmi'' tetema'ö bakha ba Gereja, simane injil ndra Nazarene, injil ndra Ebionita, injil ndra niha Heberaio, injil Tomas btn. Lö te'oguna'ö ia bakha ba Gereja me manumbu dödö niha ba wa'afatulönia. Bahiza la'oguna'ö oi zura andre ira ere Zura Ni'amoni'ö ba wangosili hewisa zalua me luo no ba ginötö Yesu.</ref> nifa'anö Schneemelcher. Laŵa'ö ira komentator si no mangosisi'o ngawalö teks andre wa tesura ia ba li Yunani ba tefaböbö ia ba Mataio Yunani.{{sfn|Vielhauer|Strecker|2003|p=542}} So ösa ndra komentator sanguma'ö wa teks andre no akhökhöla (li Indonesia ''fragmen'') moroi ba injil asli ba li Ibrani ba ba li Aramaia si no taya. Injil nifotöi Pseudo-Mataio no sambua zura nifa'anö ba ngaotu ndröfia si fitu moroi ba zi tölu zura ''apokrif'' tanöbö'ö ya'ia da'ö Injil Yakobus, Foloi ba Mesir, ba Injil Nono Side-ide nisura Tomas. Ifasinga Hieronimus, wa molo'ö ndra fa'awösa Nazarene, Injil Heberaio khöra no nisura Mataio {{sfn|Saint Jerome|2000|p=10}} heŵa'ae laŵa'ö ira [[Ireneus]] ba Epiphanius moroi ba Salami wa sindruhunia injil andre ha nisura mangawuli Injil resmi (''kanonik''). So ma'ifu nösi Injil andre si tesöndra ba ngawalö zura ndra [[tua Gereja]], niŵa'ö nisura Mataio.{{sfn|Mills|Wilson|2003|p=942}} Lö iŵa'ö Epiphanius wa Mataio zanura Injil Heberaio, ha iböbögö wanguma'ö simanö khö ndra Ebionita (sambua wa'awösa niha Keriso selungu).{{sfn|Epiphanius of Salamis|1987|p=129}} [[Berkas:Matthew the Apostle. Detail of the mosaic in the Basilica of San Vitale. Ravena, Italy.jpg|jmpl|upright|Gambara ''Mataio Nifahaö'', detil mosaik si so ba Basilika Santo Vitale, Ravenna, ngaotu ndröfia si önö]] == Fanörö-tödö khönia == Latema'ö Mataio tobali samösa niha ni'amoni'ö (''santo'') ya'ira [[Gereja Katolik]], [[Gereja Ortodoks Timur]], [[Gereja Lutheran]]{{sfn|ELCA|2006|p=57}} ba [[Gereja Anglikan]]. La'owasaini wanörö-tödö khönia ero 21 September ba Barat ba ero 16 November ba Timur (Ba gereja-gereja solo'ö kalender Julian te'aekhugö ia ero 29 November kalender Gregorian modern, saekhu ba 16 November ba kalender Julian). Latörö-tödö göi Mataio ba Gereja Ortodoks ero 30 Juni (13 Juli) fao awö ndra nifahaö bö'ö, nifotöira ''Synaksis ndra Nifahaö Ni'amoni'ö''. So lewatönia ba gereja Katedral Salerno ba Italia Selatan. Bakha ba Gereja Anglikan ba Inggris la'owasaini ia faoma sambua festival sebua ero 21 September.<ref name=Calendar /> Simane ya'ira sanura Injil tanöbö'ö, asese göi tegambaraini Mataio bakha ba ''seni'' niha Keriso faoma aurifö nitötöi bakha ba zura Wama'ele'ö 4:7.<ref>{{SN|Fam|4|7}}</ref> Si to'ölö labe'e fao bakha ba gambara Mataio ya'ia samösa niha si so afi. Tölu gambara Mataio nifazökhi Caravaggio si so ba Gereja San Luigi dei Francesi ba [[Roma]], heza oroma ikaoni Mataio Yesu moroi ba halöŵönia ba wangowuloi bea, no tölu gambara fondrege tehöngö ba ''seni'' Barat. == Bakha ba Islam == Itötöi Al-Qur'an wa so ndra nifahaö Yesu, ba hiza lö itötöi döira, ha ifotöi ira "sanolo halöŵö Lowalangi".<ref>{{Cite quran|3|49|e=53|s=ns}}</ref> Ba hiza latötöi döi ndra nifahaö andrö ira samo'eluaha Al-Qur'an ba laŵaö wa fao ba da'ö Mataio.{{sfn|Noegel|Wheeler|2003|p=86}} Latohugö sambua tradisi ira samo'eluaha Al-Qur'an wa Mataio ba Andrea no darua nifahaö si möi ba Etiopia ba wanuriagö turia Lowalangi. == Bakha ba arsitektur == Ba narö zagö Basilika Wanuriagö ba Nazareta so gambara Mataio Nifahaö awö hikayania faoma razo Eglypus moroi ba Etiopia ba iraono khönia. Te'oroma'ö hewisa me i'oloi'ö ira Mataio moroi khö gafökha. Itutunö Sura Ni'amoni'ö hewisa me ibali'ö niha Keriso razo andrö awö ndraono khönia Mataio. Tenga ha itutunö gambara Mataio andre hadia nifazökhi Mataio bakha ba Zura Ni'amoni'ö, ba hiza ifasinga göi wa edöna tobali ''martir'' Mataio. Me labunu Mataio Nifahaö, tobali ia ''martir'' khö agama niha Keriso börö me tebunu ia ba wamatinia ba ba wamahaönia. Itolo ita fogambaraini gambara ba narö zagö Basilika Wanuriagö andre ena'ö aboto ba dödöda hewisa ba ginötö föna andrö me tobali agama wa'anihakeriso. I'oroma'ö sambua nikhoi sadölö ba gotaluara Etiopia ba Nazareta, heza so ibu kota iada'a.<ref name=stmatthewscathedral.org>{{cite web|url=http://www.stmatthewscathedral.org/events/2013/09/happy-feast-st-matthew |title=Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle, Washington, D.C |publisher=Stmatthewscathedral.org |date=2013-09-21 |access-date=2014-07-10}}</ref><ref name=franciscanmedia.org>{{Cite web |title=Saint Matthew |website=franciscanmedia.org |publisher=Franciscan Media |access-date=21 September 2020 |url=https://www.franciscanmedia.org/saint-matthew/ |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008010504/https://www.franciscanmedia.org/saint-matthew/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref name=Calendar>{{Cite web|title=The Calendar|url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar|access-date=2021-03-27|website=The Church of England|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Jewish">{{Cite journal |last1=Nees |first1=Lawrence |last2=Boehm |first2=Barbara Drake |last3=Holcolmb |first3=Melanie |date=2018 |title=Pleasurable Perplexity: Reflecting the Holy City |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/90025854 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=551–561 |jstor=90025854 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref><ref name="Neophilologus">Jasmine A. L. Kilburn. 2003. "The Contrasted `Other' in the Old English Apocryphal Acts of Matthew, Simon and Jude." Neophilologus 87 (1) (01): 137–151.</ref><ref name=Humanities>Naomi, Simhony. 2020. "The Central Synagogue of Nazareth Illit and its Architectural Dialogue with Nazareth’s Basilica of the Annunciation." Humanities & Social Sciences Communications 7 (1) (12).</ref> == Bakha ba zura fiksi == * Novel The Master and Margarita == Galeri == <gallery widths="154px" heights="200px" perrow="4" caption="Mataio Sanura Injil"> Saint Matthew2.jpg|Santo Mataio bakha ba Injil Ebbo MattewIslam.JPG|''Isura injil Santo Mataio ba mala'ika sogogohe ya'ia'', gambara Islam a.t.. 1530 nifazökhi Kesu Das khö razo Mughal The Calling of Saint Matthew-Caravaggo (1599-1600).jpg|''Fogaoni Santo Mataio'', nigambaraini Caravaggio (1599–1600) Guido Reni - St Matthew and the Angel.jpg|''Santo Mataio ba Mala'ika'' nigambaraini Guido Reni (1620–1630) MatthewSt.Matts.jpg|Gambara Santo Mataio ba Gereja Lutheran Jerman ba Charleston, South Carolina Saint Matthew (crop) - Triumphal arch - Sant'Apollinare in Classe - Ravenna 2016.jpg|Ikon Santo Mataio ba Basilika Santo Apolinaris, Ravenna Giuseppe Bernardi-Matthew-BMA.jpg|Adu Santo Mataio nifazökhi moroi ba dambu nibogö nifazökhi Giuseppe Bernardi Salerno 2013-05-17 10-47-55.jpg|Lewatö barö Gereja Katedral Salerno Helsinki Cathedral Matthew the Evangelist.jpg|Adu Santo Mataio nifazökhi August Wredow ba zagö Katedral Helsinki </gallery> == Faigi göi == * [[Mataio]] * [[Sura Mataio]] * [[Mareko]] * [[Sura Mareko]] * [[Luka]] * [[Sura Luka]] * [[Yohane]] * [[Injil Yohane]] * [[Sura Yohane]] == Referensi == === Famotokhi === {{notelist|notes= {{efn|name=Eusebius|Eusebius, "History of the Church" 3.39.14–17, c.&nbsp;325 CE, teks Yunani 16: "ταῦτα μὲν οὖν ἱστόρηται τῷ Παπίᾳ περὶ τοῦ Μάρκου· περὶ δὲ τοῦ Ματθαῖου ταῦτ’ εἴρηται· Ματθαῖος μὲν οὖν Ἑβραΐδι διαλέκτῳ τὰ λόγια συνετάξατο, ἡρμήνευσεν δ’ αὐτὰ ὡς ἧν δυνατὸς ἕκαστος. Oya te'ali ba li Inggris, referensi standar nifazökhi Philip Schaff ba [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.viii.xxxix.html CCEL]: "[C]oncerning Matthew he [Papias] writes as follows: 'So then(963) Matthew wrote the oracles in the Hebrew language, and every one interpreted them as he was able.'(964)" Versi online fao ba da'ö wamotokhi ba gahe 963 awö 964 moroi khö Schaff.<br>Iŵa'ö göi [[Ireneus moroi ba Lyons]] (mate a.t. 202) zimane da'ö, te ihalö moroi khö Papias, bakha ba ''Against Heresies'', [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.ii.html Book III, Chapter 1], ''"Matthew also issued a written Gospel among the Hebrews in their own dialect"''}} }} === Umbu === {{Reflist}} === Basoŵa === {{refbegin|2|indent=yes}} *{{cite EB1911|first=James Vernon |last=Bartlet|wstitle=Matthew, St|volume=17}} *{{cite book| first=Dale C. Jr. |last=Allison|author-link=Dale Allison|editor-first1=John|editor-last1=Muddiman|editor-first2=John|editor-last2=Barton|title=The Gospels|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=utMUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27|date=22 April 2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-958025-5|page=27}} *{{cite book|last=Bingham|first=D. Jeffrey |title=Irenaeus' Use of Matthew's Gospel in Adversus Haereses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5vRvCYSw4DIC&pg=PA64|year=1998|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=978-90-6831-964-4}} *{{cite book|last=Bock|first=Darrell L. |title=Studying the Historical Jesus: A Guide to Sources and Methods|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZooDflYCwEC&pg=PA164|year=2002|publisher=Baker Academic|isbn=978-1-58558-596-0}} *{{cite book|last1=Davies|first1=William David |last2=Finkelstein|first2=Louis |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 2, The Hellenistic Age|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L20ipjJ-efYC|year=1984|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-21929-7}} *{{cite book |first=John Bovee |last=Dods |editor=Gibson Smith |year=1858 |url=https://archive.org/details/gospeljesus00dodsgoog |quote=Gospel of the Apostles. |title=The Gospel of Jesus |publisher=G. Smith }} *{{cite EBD|wstitle=Matthew}} *{{cite book|last=Edwards|first=James R. |title=The Hebrew Gospel and the Development of the Synoptic Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vs9YXAB_axYC&pg=PA18|year=2009|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-6234-1}} *{{cite book|first=Bart D.|last=Ehrman|author-link=Bart D. Ehrman|title=Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U8_QCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA45|date=23 September 1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-802888-8|page=45}} *{{cite book|first=Bart D.|last=Ehrman|title=A Brief Introduction to the New Testament|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrRBAQAAIAAJ|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-536934-2|page=56}} *{{cite book|ref={{sfnref|ELCA|2006}}|publisher=Evangelical Lutheran Church in America|title=Evangelical Lutheran Worship|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UnOnQwAACAAJ|year=2006|via=Augsburg Fortress|isbn=978-0-8066-5672-4|chapter=Lesser Festivals, Commemorations, and Occasions}} *{{cite book|author=Epiphanius of Salamis|author-link=Epiphanius of Salamis|title=The Panarion of Ephiphanius of Salamis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s9-utOHPLfEC&pg=PA129|volume=Book I (sects 1–46)|year=1987|publisher=Brill|isbn=90-04-07926-2|translator=Frank Williams}} *{{cite book|last=Freedman|first= David Noel |title=The Anchor Bible Reference Library|year=2001|publisher=Doubleday|title-link=Anchor Bible Series}} *{{cite book |last=Harrison |first=Everett Falconer |year=1964 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qh7b4o6JQpIC&pg=PA152 |title=Introduction to the New Testament|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=9780802847867 }} *{{cite book|last=Hezser|first=Catherine |title=Jewish Literacy in Roman Palestine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zlrxbYml2ioC&pg=PA172|year=2001|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|isbn=978-3-16-147546-7}} *{{cite book|last1=Hultgren|first1=Arland J. |last2=Haggmark|first2=Steven A. |title=The Earliest Christian Heretics: Readings from Their Opponents|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_wLZAAAAMAAJ|year=1996|publisher=Fortress Press|isbn=978-0-8006-2963-2}} *{{cite CE1913|wstitle=St. Matthew|first=Eugène |last=Jacquier|volume=10}} *{{cite book |author=Saint Jerome |editor=Thomas P. Halton |year=2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uqzY1zBtKg0C&q=%22composed%20a%20gospel%20of%20Christ%22&pg=PA10 |title=On Illustrious Men (The Fathers of the Church, Volume 100) |publisher=CUA Press |isbn=978-0813201009 }} *{{cite book|last=Lardner|first=Nathaniel |author-link=Nathaniel Lardner|title=The Works of Nathaniel Lardner|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DX89AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA299|year=1838|publisher=W. Ball|volume=5|chapter=St Matthew, Apostle and Evangelist}} *{{Cite web |title=Introduction to New Testament History and Literature |last=Martin |first=Dale B. |work=oyc.yale.edu |date=2012 |publisher=Yale University |access-date=21 September 2020 |url= https://oyc.yale.edu/sites/default/files/canon_0.pdf }} *{{cite journal|first=Werner G. |last=Marx|title=Money Matters in Matthew|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-bibliotheca-sacra_1979-06_136_542/page/148 |journal=Bibliotheca Sacra|volume= 136|issue=542|date=April–June 1979|pages=148–157}} *{{cite book|last1=Mills|first1=Watson E. |last2=Wilson|first2=Richard F. |title=Mercer Commentary on the New Testament|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iNLZYtBEw0sC&pg=PA942|year=2003|publisher=Mercer University Press|isbn=978-0-86554-864-0}} *{{Cite book|last1=Muddiman|first1=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=utMUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27|title=The Gospels|last2=Barton|first2=John|date=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-958025-5}} *{{cite book|last=Nicholson|first=E.B. |author-link=E.B. Nicholson|title=The Gospel according to the Hebrews, its fragments tr. and annotated, with a critical analysis of the evidence relating to it|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cb4CAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA82|year=1879}} *{{cite book |author1-last= Noegel|author1-first= Scott B.|author2-last= Wheeler|author2-first= Brandon M.|date= 2003|title= Historical Dictionary of Prophets in Islam and Judaism|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6aTXAAAAMAAJ|location= Lanham, MD|publisher= Scarecrow Press (Rowman & Littlefield)|isbn= 978-0810843059}} *{{cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924095207126/page/n651/mode/2up |title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia|chapter= Matthew |editor-first=James|editor-last= Orr |publisher=The Howard-Severance Co.|location=Chicago |year=1915 }} *{{cite book|last=Repschinski|first=Boris |title=The Controversy Stories in the Gospel of Matthew: Their Redaction, Form und &#91;sic&#93; Relevance for the Relationship Between the Matthean Community and Formative Judaism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X2VLANXcZsYC&pg=PA14|year=2000|publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht|isbn=978-3-525-53873-9}} *{{cite book|editor-last=Schneemelcher|editor-first=Wilhelm |title=New Testament Apocrypha: Writings relating to the Apostles; Apocalypses and related subjects|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v6IqqnEoN3QC&pg=PA17|year=2003|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22722-7|translator=Robert McLachlan Wilson}} *{{Cite book|last=Theissen|first=Gerd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zhQsAQAAMAAJ|author-link=Gerd Theissen|title=The New Testament: History, Literature, Religion|date=2003|publisher=T & T Clark|isbn=978-0-567-08949-6}} *{{cite book|editor-last=Schneemelcher|editor-first=Wilhelm |author-link=Wilhelm Schneemelcher|title=New Testament Apocrypha: Writings relating to the Apostles; Apocalypses and related subjects|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v6IqqnEoN3QC&pg=PA17|year=2003|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22722-7|translator=Robert McLachlan Wilson|last1=Vielhauer |last2=Strecker|first1=Philipp|first2=Georg}} *{{Cite journal|last1=NEES |first1=LAWRENCE |author2=Barbara Drake Boehm |author3=Melanie Holcolmb |title=Pleasurable Perplexity: Reflecting the Holy City |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=108 |issue=4 |year=2018 |pages=551–561 |doi=10.1353/jqr.2018.0038 |jstor=90025854 |s2cid=165897158 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/90025854}} {{refend}} === Basoŵa onönöta === {{refbegin|2|indent=yes}} * {{Cite book|editor-last=Aune|editor-first=David E. |title=The Gospel of Matthew in current study|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E8lZ7BXzt0sCe|isbn=978-0-8028-4673-0}} * {{Cite book|last=Aune|first=David E.|title=The New Testament in its literary environment|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1987|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XdSto1nkx9AC|isbn=978-0-664-25018-8}} * {{Cite book |last=Beaton |first=Richard C. |chapter=How Matthew Writes |editor1-last=Bockmuehl |editor1-first=Markus |editor2-last=Hagner |editor2-first=Donald A. |title=The Written Gospel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pAZxCMRztQ4C&pg=PA116 |isbn=978-0-521-83285-4 }} * {{Cite book|last=Browning|first=W. R. F.|title=Oxford Dictionary of the Bible|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lKsdAtPUoRgC&q=W.+R.+F.+Browning,+Gospel+of+Matthew,+A+dictionary+of+the+Bible|isbn=978-0-19-860890-5}} * {{Cite book|last=Burkett|first=Delbert|title=An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EcsQknxV-xQC&q=Gospel+of+Matthew|isbn=978-0-521-00720-7}} * {{Cite book |last = Casey |first = Maurice |author-link = Maurice Casey |title = Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching |publisher = Continuum |year = 2010 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC |isbn = 978-0-567-64517-3 }} * {{Cite book|last=Clarke|first=Howard W.|title=The Gospel of Matthew and Its Readers|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5BB70m7EVPkC&q=Howard+W.+Clarke+%282003%29|isbn=978-0-253-34235-5}} * {{Cite book |editor1-last = Cross |editor1-first = Frank L. |editor1-link = Frank Leslie Cross |editor2-last = Livingstone |editor2-first = Elizabeth A. |title = The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |contribution = Matthew, Gospel acc. to St. |page = 1064 |publisher = Oxford University Press |year = 2005 |orig-year = 1997 |edition = 3 |url = http://www.biblicalwritings.com/the-oxford-dictionary-of-the-christian-church/?alfa=M&word=Matthew,%0AGospel+acc.+to+St.+ |isbn = 978-0-19-280290-3 |access-date = 14 November 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923184503/http://www.biblicalwritings.com/the-oxford-dictionary-of-the-christian-church/?alfa=M&word=Matthew,%0AGospel+acc.+to+St.+ |archive-date = 23 September 2015 |url-status = dead |df = dmy-all }} * {{Cite book|last=Dunn|first=James D. G.|title=Jesus Remembered|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G4qpnvoautgC|isbn=978-0-8028-3931-2}} * {{cite book |last = Ehrman |first = Bart D. |title = Did Jesus Exist?: The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth |year = 2012 |publisher = HarperCollins |isbn = 978-0-06-220460-8 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hf5Rj8EtsPkC&pg=PT102 }} * {{Cite book |last=Fuller |first=Reginald H. |chapter=Biblical Theology |editor1-last=Metzger |editor1-first=Bruce M. |editor2-last=Coogan |editor2-first=Michael D. |title=The Oxford Guide to Ideas & Issues of the Bible |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=9780195149173 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aml3tEWoOVEC&pg=PA68 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |last = Hagner |first = D. A. |editor-last = Bromiley |editor-first = Geoffrey W. |title = International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Vol. 3: K-P |contribution = Matthew, Gospel According to |pages = 280–8 |year = 1986 |publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn = 978-0-8028-8163-2 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Zkla5Gl_66oC&pg=PA280 }} * {{cite book|last=Harris |first=Stephen L. |title=Understanding the Bible |location=Palo Alto |publisher=Mayfield |year=1985 }} * {{Cite book |last=Kowalczyk |first=A. |title=The influence of typology and texts of the Old Testament on the redaction of Matthew's Gospel |publisher=Bernardinum |year=2008 |url=http://digital.fides.org.pl/publication/814 |isbn=978-83-7380-625-2 }} * {{Cite book |last=Kupp |first=David D. |title=Matthew's Emmanuel: Divine Presence and God's People in the First Gospel |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-57007-7 }} * {{Cite book |last=Levine |first=Amy-Jill |chapter=Visions of kingdoms: From Pompey to the first Jewish revolt |editor1-last=Coogan |editor1-first=Michael D. |title=The Oxford History of the Biblical World |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PT546 |isbn=978-0-19-513937-2 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Levison |first1=J. |last2=Pope-Levison |first2=P. |chapter=Christology |editor1-last=Dyrness |editor1-first=William A. |editor2-last=Kärkkäinen |editor2-first=Veli-Matti |title=Global Dictionary of Theology |publisher=InterVarsity Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780830878116 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncqkZnDSeo4C&pg=PA167 }} * {{Cite book|last=Luz|first=Ulrich|title=Studies in Matthew|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voRVZFEpNsAC&q=Luz+Studies+in+Matthew|isbn=978-0-8028-3964-0}} * {{Cite book|last=Luz|first=Ulrich|title=The Theology of the Gospel of Matthew|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1995|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cKl5M_MQMoYC|isbn=978-0-521-43576-5}} * {{Cite book |last=McMahon |first=Christopher |chapter=Introduction to the Gospels and Acts of the Apostles |editor-last=Ruff |editor-first=Jerry |title=Understanding the Bible: A Guide to Reading the Scriptures |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |isbn=9780884898528 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=al4d-3t6rqwC&pg=PA57 }} * {{Cite book|last=Morris|first=Leon|title=New Testament Theology|publisher=Zondervan|year=1986|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6D3o6fZd67EC&q=Morris+New+Testament+Theology|isbn=978-0-310-45571-4}} * {{Cite book |last=Peppard |first=Michael |title=The Son of God in the Roman World: Divine Sonship in Its Social and Political Context |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iH4Zk-3MJJcC&pg=PA133|isbn=9780199753703 }} * {{Cite book|last=Perkins|first=Pheme|chapter=The Synoptic Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles: Telling the Christian Story|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSHCRgS_SAUC&pg=PR7|title=The Cambridge Companion to Biblical Interpretation|isbn=0521485932|date=1998-07-28}}, in {{Cite book|editor-last=Kee|editor-first=Howard Clark|title=The Cambridge companion to the bible: part 3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-521-48593-7}} * {{Cite book|last=Saldarini|first=Anthony|chapter=Matthew|year=2003|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA1000|title=Eerdmans commentary on the Bible|isbn=0802837115}}, in {{Cite book|last1=Dunn|first1=James D. G.|last2=Rogerson|first2=John William|title=Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8028-3711-0}} * {{Cite book|last=Saldarini|first=Anthony|title=Matthew's Christian-Jewish Community|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1994|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=btSZh4_vzqoC|isbn=978-0-226-73421-7}} * {{Cite book |last=Sanford |first=Christopher B. |title=Matthew: Christian Rabbi |publisher=Author House |year=2005 |isbn=9781420883718 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FYw3MGiYgSkC }} * {{Cite book |last=Scholtz |first=Donald |title=Jesus in the Gospels and Acts: Introducing the New Testament |publisher=Saint Mary's Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780884899556 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=royKA4FeMB4C&pg=PA34 }} * {{Cite book|last=Senior|first=Donald|chapter=Directions in Matthean Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E8lZ7BXzt0sC|title=The Gospel of Matthew in Current Study: Studies in Memory of William G. Thompson, S.J|isbn=0802846734|year=2001}}, in {{Cite book|editor-last=Aune|editor-first=David E. |title=The Gospel of Matthew in current study|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8028-4673-0}} * {{Cite book|last=Senior|first=Donald|title=What are they saying about Matthew?|publisher=PaulistPress|year=1996|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xuyaPmvwnLEC&q=What+are+they+saying+about+Matthew|isbn=978-0-8091-3624-7}} * {{Cite book|last=Stanton|first=Graham|title=A gospel for a new people: studies in Matthew|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1993|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GytxXOIsF-0C&q=Stanton%2BA+Gospel+for+a+New+People|isbn=978-0-664-25499-5}} * {{Cite book|last=Strecker|first=Georg|title=Theology of the New Testament|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2000 |orig-year=1996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_6NxpAvdrOgC&q=Strecker+Theology+New+Testament|isbn=978-0-664-22336-6}} * {{Cite book |last=Tuckett |first=Christopher Mark |title=Christology and the New Testament: Jesus and His Earliest Followers |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=2001 |isbn=9780664224318 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J5Zr0_CsEcwC&q=christology+matthew&pg=PA119 }} * {{Cite book|last=Van de Sandt|first=H. W. M.|chapter=''Introduction''|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTE0FQtrphwC&q=Matthew+and+the+Didache|title=Matthew and the Didache: Two Documents from the Same Jewish–Christian Milieu?|isbn=9023240774|year=2005}}, in {{Cite book|last=Van de Sandt|first=H. W. M.|title=Matthew and the Didache|publisher=Royal Van Gorcum&Fortress Press|year=2005|isbn=978-90-232-4077-8}} * {{Cite book|last=Weren|first=Wim|chapter=The History and Social Setting of the Matthean Community|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTE0FQtrphwC&q=Matthew+and+the+Didache|title=Matthew and the Didache: Two Documents from the Same Jewish–Christian Milieu?|isbn=9023240774|year=2005}}, in {{Cite book|editor-last=Van de Sandt|editor-first=H. W. M.|title=Matthew and the Didache|publisher=Royal Van Gorcum&Fortress Press|year=2005|isbn=978-90-232-4077-8}} {{refend}} ==== Komentar ==== {{refbegin|2|indent=yes}} * {{Cite book|last=Allison|first=D. C.|author-link=Dale Allison|title=Matthew: A Shorter Commentary|publisher=T&T Clark|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m_OShrBh0I0C&q=Allison+Matthew:+a+shorter+commentary|isbn=978-0-567-08249-7}} * {{Cite book|last1=Davies|first1=W. D.|author-link=W. D. Davies|last2=Allison|first2=D. C.|title=Matthew 1–7|publisher=T&T Clark|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VQzZc7KYUKgC&q=Davies+and+Allison+%E2%80%94+Matthew+1-7|isbn=978-0-567-08355-5 }} * {{Cite book|last1=Davies|first1=W. D.|last2=Allison|first2=D. C.|title=Matthew 8–18|publisher=T&T Clark|year=1991|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZdpE84GmWiIC&q=Davies+and+Allison+%E2%80%94+Matthew+8-18&pg=PA211|isbn=978-0-567-08365-4}} * {{Cite book|last1=Davies|first1=W. D.|last2=Allison|first2=D. C.|title=Matthew 19–28|publisher=T&T Clark|year=1997|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QEKQ_iBhX7UC&q=Davies+and+Allison+%E2%80%94+Matthew+19-28|isbn=978-0-567-08375-3}} * {{Cite book |last = Duling |first = Dennis C. |editor-last=Aune |editor-first = David E. |title = The Blackwell Companion to the New Testament |contribution = The Gospel of Matthew |publisher = Wiley-Blackwell |year = 2010 |isbn = 978-1-4051-0825-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygcgn8h-jo4C&q=%22Chapter+18+The+Gospel+of+Matthew%22&pg=PA295}} * {{Cite book|last=France|first=R. T.|title=The Gospel of Matthew|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ruP6J_XPCEC&q=%22A+pre-70+date+for+Matthew%22&pg=PA19 |isbn=978-0-8028-2501-8 |page=19}} * {{Cite book |last=Harrington|first=Daniel J.|title=The Gospel of Matthew | publisher=Liturgical Press|year=1991|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=bNf13S3k2w0C|isbn=9780814658031 }} * {{Cite book|last=Keener|first=Craig S.|title=A commentary on the Gospel of Matthew|publisher=Eerdmans|year=1999|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sWzhEdBZOp4C&q=Craig+S.+Keener+%E2%80%94+A+Commentary+on+the+Gospel+of+Matthew|isbn=978-0-8028-3821-6}} * {{Cite book|last=Luz|first=Ulrich|author-link=Ulrich Luz|title=Matthew 1–7: a commentary|publisher=Fortress Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-8006-9600-9}} * {{Cite book|last=Luz|first=Ulrich|title=Matthew 8–20: a commentary|publisher=Fortress Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8006-6034-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/matthewcommentar0000luzu}} * {{Cite book|last=Luz|first=Ulrich|title=Matthew 21–28: a commentary|publisher=Fortress Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8006-3770-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/matthewcommentar0000luzu}} * {{Cite book|last=Morris|first=Leon|title=The Gospel according to Matthew|publisher=Eerdmans|year=1992|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-pwaSKcHyEEC&q=Leon+Morris+%E2%80%94+The+Gospel+According+to+Matthew|isbn=978-0-85111-338-8}} * {{Cite book|last=Nolland|first=John|title=The Gospel of Matthew: A Commentary on the Greek Text|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2005|isbn=0802823890}} * {{Cite book|last=Turner|first=David L.|title=Matthew|publisher=Baker|year=2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8z9LSdKLUl4C&q=David+Turner|isbn=978-0-8010-2684-3}} {{refend}} == Khai-khai baero == *[https://web.archive.org/web/20121118101557/http://www.mcah.columbia.edu/medmil/pages/non-mma-pages/text_links/gl_matthew.html Saint Matthew the Apostle] from The ''[[Golden Legend]]'' *[http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsViewer.asp?SID=4&ID=1&FSID=103313 Apostle and Evangelist Matthew] Orthodox [[icon]] and [[synaxarion]] *[https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/audiences/2006/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20060830_en.html Benedict XVI, "Matthew", General audience, 30 August 2006] *[https://opinion.inquirer.net/81926/the-caravaggio-effect "The Caravaggio Effect"] {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Mataio]] [[Kategori:Sura Mataio]] [[Kategori:Niha ni'amoni'ö]] [[Kategori:Niha Keriso]] [[Kategori:Turia Somuso Dödö]] [[Kategori:Sura Ni'amoni'ö]] [[Kategori:Nifahaö Yesu]] [[Kategori:Biografi]] [[Kategori:No mufareso]] d6n1a12yy0uqqy9wqa7pknf4v4asa77 0 4192 27617 22669 2026-08-14T18:25:48Z InternetArchiveBot 504 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260814sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 27617 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox pejabat | honorific-prefix = <small>[[Jenderal Besar (Indonesia)|Jenderal Besar]] [[Tentara Nasional Indonesia|TNI]] ([[Purnawirawan|Purn.]]) [[Haji|H.]] [[Muhammad|M.]]</small> | name = Suharto | image = President Suharto, 1993.jpg | image_size = 220px | alt = Foto resmi Soeharto untuk masa jabatan 1993–1998 | caption = Foto resmi untuk masa jabatan 1993–1998 | office = Presiden Indonesia<!--- mohon jangan sunting bagian ini, sudah sesuai kaidah bahasa Indonesia ---> | order = [[Daftar presiden Indonesia|ke-2]] | state = <!--- mohon jangan sunting bagian ini, sudah sesuai kaidah bahasa Indonesia ---> | term_start = 12 Maret 1967 | term_end = 21 Mei 1998<br /><small>(Pejabat Presiden sampai 27 Maret 1968)</small> | vicepresident = {{unbulleted list|[[Hamengkubuwana IX]]|[[Adam Malik]]|[[Umar Wirahadikusumah]]|[[Soedharmono]]|[[Try Sutrisno]]|[[B. J. Habibie]]}} | predecessor = [[Soekarno]] | successor = [[B. J. Habibie]] | office2 = Sekretaris Jenderal [[Gerakan Non-Blok]] ke-16 | term_start2 = 7 September 1992 | term_end2 = 20 Oktober 1995 | predecessor2 = [[Dobrica Ćosić]] | successor2 = [[Ernesto Samper Pizano]] | office4 = Menteri Pertahanan Keamanan Republik Indonesia | order4 = ke-13 | term_start4 = 28 Maret 1966 | term_end4 = 28 Maret 1973 | president4 = [[Soekarno]]<br/>''Dirinya sendiri'' | predecessor4 = [[Abdul Haris Nasution]] | successor4 = [[Maraden Panggabean]] | office3 = Panglima Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia | order3 = ke-5 | term_start3 = 6 Juni 1968 | term_end3 = 28 Maret 1973 | president3 = ''Dirinya sendiri'' | predecessor3 = [[Abdul Haris Nasution]] | successor3 = [[Maraden Panggabean]] | office5 = Komando Operasi Pemulihan Keamanan dan Ketertiban{{!}}Panglima Komando Operasi Pemulihan Keamanan dan Ketertiban | order5 = ke-1 dan ke-5 | term_start5 = 5 Oktober 1965 | term_end5 = 19 November 1969 | predecessor5 = ''Jabatan dibentuk'' | successor5 = [[Maraden Panggabean]] | term_start6 = 2 Maret 1974 | term_end6 = 5 April 1978 | predecessor6 = [[Soemitro]] | successor6 = [[Soedomo]] | office7 = Kepala Staf TNI Angkatan Darat | order7 = ke-8 | term_start7 = 16 Oktober 1965 | term_end7 = 1 Mei 1968 | 1blankname7 = Panglima | 1namedata7 = [[Abdul Haris Nasution]] | predecessor7 = [[Pranoto Reksosamodra]] | successor7 = [[Maraden Panggabean]] | office8 = Daftar Kepala Badan Intelijen Negara{{!}}Kepala Badan Intelijen Negara | order8 = ke-3 | term_start8 = 1965 | term_end8 = 22 Agustus 1966 | president8 = [[Soekarno]] | predecessor8 = [[Soebandrio]] | successor8 = [[Yoga Sugama]] | office9 = Ketua Presidium Kabinet Indonesia | order9 = ke-1 | term_start9 = 25 Juli 1966 | term_end9 = 17 Oktober 1967 | president9 = {{unbulleted list|[[Soekarno]]|''Dirinya sendiri''<br /><small>(sebagai Pejabat Presiden)</small>}} | predecessor9 = [[Soekarno]]<br /><small>(sebagai Perdana Menteri)</small> | successor9 = ''Jabatan dihapuskan'' | office10 = Panglima Komando Cadangan Strategis Angkatan Darat{{!}}Panglima Kostrad | order10 = ke-1 | term_start10 = 6 Maret 1961 | term_end10 = 2 Desember 1965 | predecessor10 = ''Jabatan dibentuk'' | successor10 = [[Umar Wirahadikusumah]] | birthname = Soeharto | birth_date = {{birth date|1921|6|8}} | birth_place = [[Kemusuk, Argomulyo, Sedayu, Bantul|Kemusuk]], [[Kesultanan Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat]], [[Hindia Belanda]] | death_date = {{death date and age|2008|1|27|1921|6|8}} | death_place = [[Kota Administrasi Jakarta Selatan|Jakarta Selatan]], [[Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta|Jakarta]], Indonesia | restingplace = [[Astana Giribangun]], [[Matesih]], [[Kabupaten Karanganyar|Karanganyar]], [[Jawa Tengah]] | nationality = [[Indonesia]] | spouse = {{marriage|[[Tien Soeharto|Raden Ajeng Siti Hartinah]]|1947|28 April 1996|end=d.}} | children = {{unbulleted list|[[Siti Hardijanti Rukmana]] (Tutut)<ref name="NYT">{{cite web|title=Suharto Dies at 86; Indonesian Dictator Brought Order and Bloodshed|date=28 Januari 2008|work=The New York Times|last=Berger|first=Marilyn|language=en|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/28/world/asia/28suharto.html|access-date=2018-12-14|archive-date=2018-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202231503/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/28/world/asia/28suharto.html|dead-url=no}}</ref>|[[Sigit Harjojudanto]]|[[Bambang Trihatmodjo]]|[[Siti Hediati Hariyadi]] (Titiek)|[[Hutomo Mandala Putra]] (Tommy)|[[Siti Hutami Endang Adiningsih]] (Mamiek)}} | father = Kertosoediro | mother = Soekirah | profession = {{bulleted list|[[Tentara]]|[[Politikus]]}} | signature = Suharto signature.svg | serviceyears = 1940–1974 | rank = [[File:23-TNI Army-GA.svg|25px| ]] [[Jenderal Besar]] [[Tentara Nasional Indonesia|TNI]] | branch = {{bulleted list|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Netherlands.svg}} [[Koninklijk Nederlandsch-Indische Leger|KNIL]] (1940–1942)|{{flagicon image|Flag of PETA (Pembela Tanah Air).svg}} [[Pembela Tanah Air|PETA]] (1942–1945)|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Indonesian Army.svg}} [[Tentara Nasional Indonesia Angkatan Darat|TNI Angkatan Darat]] (1945–1974)}} | unit = [[Infanteri]] | battles = [[Revolusi Nasional Indonesia|Perang Kemerdekaan Indonesia]] *[[Pertempuran Ambarawa]] *[[Serangan Umum 1 Maret]]{{br}} [[Operasi Trikora]] | party = {{parpolicon|Golongan Karya}} | allegiance = {{bulleted list|{{flag|Hindia Belanda}} (1940–1942)|{{flag|Kekaisaran Jepang}} (1942–1945)|{{flag|Indonesia}} (1945–1974)}} | residence = | alma_mater = {{bulleted list|Schakel Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta (1935–1938)|Sekolah Bintara KNIL di [[Gombong]] (1940)}} | occupation = | honorific-suffix = ꦯꦸꦲꦂꦠ }} '''Soeharto''', Presiden Indonesia sanohugö famatörö moroi khö [[Sukarno|Soekarno]]. Hiza, ya'ia andre, no salaŵa faka ba ngandroto zaradadu, ya'ia da'ö; Jenderal Besar - Tentara Nasional Indonesia(TNI) Purnawirawan H.M '''Soeharto''', ba li Jawa latötöi ba lasura faoma; (Hanacaraka): ꦯꦸꦲꦂꦠ; [[Alfabet Fonetik Internasional|IPA]]: [[Bantuan: IPA untuk bahasa Indonesia|{{IPA|/suːˈhɑːrtɔ/}}]]) (Ejaan Republik, ER, ''EYD'': '''Suharto'''; tumbu ba Kemusuk, Argomulyo, Sedayu, Bantul, barö wamatörö Kesultanan Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat, ba ngaluo si '''8 Juni 1921''', Ya'ia andre, tobali presiden moroi ba ndröfi si 1967 ofeta 1998, manohugö famatörö Soekarno. Ba ''dunia internasional'', simane sifakhai ba ''Dunia Barat'', Soeharto no asese lakaoni faoma fanötöi "''The Smiling General''" ma na lafo'eluaha ba li Indonesia; "Sang Jenderal yang Tersenyum", dane-dane da'a me Suharto andre, no mozökhi sibai mbawania. Heŵa'ae simanö, no oya sibai wabu'a-bu'asa sifakhai ba wamatörö Suharto andre, asese lafaedogö ia samatörö sabe'e ma ''(otoriter)'' ba niha si lö fao tödö ba lala wamatörönia.<ref name="NYT"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Obituary: Suharto, former Indonesian dictator: 1921-2008|date=27 Januari 2008|language=en|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/27/obituaries.johngittings|work=The Guardian|last=Gittings|first=John|access-date=2018-12-14|archive-date=2018-12-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214164141/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/27/obituaries.johngittings|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Is Indonesia’s Reformasi a success, 20 years after Suharto? |date=19 Mei 2018 |work=South China Morning Post |last=Hutton |first=Jeffrey |url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/2146838/indonesias-reformasi-success-20-years-after-suharto |language=en |access-date=2018-12-14 |archive-date=2018-12-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217125832/https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/2146838/indonesias-reformasi-success-20-years-after-suharto |dead-url=no }}</ref> Fatua lö tobali ia presiden, Soeharto no samösa zalaŵa faka ba ''militer'' ba ginötö [[Hindia Belanda]] faoma [[Kekaisaran Jepang]], faka safuria nigogohenia meluo da'ö ya'ia da'ö, ''Mayor Jenderal''. Me aefa ''Gerakan 30 September'' ba ndröfi si 1965, Suharto fao ia ba wamöfögö ngawalö zalua meluo da'ö, hiza tenga moroi ba nilau dödönia samösa, no sambua fareta nitemania moroi khö Presiden Soekarno, sambua moroi ba fareta nitemania ya'ia da'ö; ba wolaŵa ''Gerakan 30 September'' ba hiza ba ginötö sifagölö te'osara'ö wa ''Partai Komunis Indonesia'' (PKI) sambua angowuloa sitebai mufanöi ngawalö halöŵönia ''(sebagai organisasi terlarang)''. No oya duria sanguma'ö wa meluo da'ö so ba 100.000 niha ofeta 2 juta niha zimate (hewa'ae da'a lö hadöi dane-dane ma lohe-lohe sifakhai ba duria andrö), notobali ia duri mbewe me oi la'ila niha wa ba ginötö ''Gerakan 30 September'' ato göi niha zimate. [https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/3654348/4-tokoh-jadi-ujung-tombak-penumpasan-pki banyak].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_asian-survey_july-august-2002_42_4/page/550 |first=Robert |last=Cribb |journal=Asian Survey |volume=42 |issue=4 |date=2002 |pages=550–563 |doi=10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550}}</ref><ref>Friend (2003), pages 107–109; {{cite video |people =Chris Hilton (writer and director) |title =Shadowplay |medium =Television documentary |publisher =Vagabond Films and Hilton Cordell Productions |year=2001 }}; Ricklefs (1991), pages 280–283, 284, 287–290</ref> Ba meluo da'ö, Soeharto itema noro sabua moroi khö ''Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Sementara'' (MPRS) tobali ia samatörö ba wamareta ma latuyu ia tobali Presiden ba ngaluo 26 Maret 1968<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2019/03/26/18242931/26-maret-1968-saat-soeharto-ditunjuk-gantikan-soekarno-jadi-presiden|title=26 Maret 1968, Saat Soeharto Ditunjuk Gantikan Soekarno Jadi Presiden|work=[[Kompas.com]]|language=id|access-date=2019-06-19|archive-date=2019-06-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619154935/https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2019/03/26/18242931/26-maret-1968-saat-soeharto-ditunjuk-gantikan-soekarno-jadi-presiden|dead-url=no|editor-last=Galih|editor-first=Bayu|first=Aswab Nanda|last=Prattama}}</ref> manohugö famatörö Soekarno. Aefa da'ö ifuli zui ''Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat'' (MPR) lafili Soeharto tobali Presiden ba ndröfi si 1973, 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, ba döfi 1998. Ba ndröfi 1998, ba da'ö ahori ginötö wamatörönia, hiza tenga sahori börö ginötö si no mutatugöi, ya'ia samösa zomasi molombase, ibe'e zura wolombasenia ba ngaluo 21 Mei 1998, ya'ia sa'ae alua wa'owulo-wulo sato sibai ba zisagörö Indonesia ni tandroi faoma fanötöi ''kerusuhan Mei 1998'' nifalua ngahönö wa'ato ndra Mahasiswa. Soeharto andre, presiden samatörö sara sibai ba Indonesia, ba me molombase ia, ba itohugö wamatörö presiden [[B. J. Habibie]]. Soeharto göi no sa'ae la'ila niha ba ginötö wamatörönia, samösa samatörö sanaha wa'amozaewe ndra gehai, nifotönia meluo da'ö ''warga negara Indonesia keturunan'' [[Tionghoa]], alua wasuwöta side-ide ba niha si so yaŵa ba Timor Timur, famaso ena'ö lagogohe dane-dane [[Pancasila]] ba ngawalö lala wa'auri nono mbanua, ba no sa'ae oi la'ila niha, ba ginötö wamatörönia andre, no samösa samatörö samöfögö tana khönia. Molo'ö ''Transparency International'', fangerai fa'arugi negara meluo da'ö so ba zi 15–35 miliar ''dolar Amerika Serikat''.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3567745.stm | title=Suharto tops corruption rankings | work=BBC News | date=25 March 2004 | accessdate=4 February 2006 | archive-date=2020-11-13 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113042444/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3567745.stm | dead-url=no }}</ref> Hiza, lö hadöi sitobali lohe-lohe saro ba wohuku ya'ia, mana'i meluo da'ö, surat kabar ''Time'' mangala ba wabusa föna hakim <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/4049227/12-tahun-lalu-soeharto-menang-lawan-majalah-time|title=12 Tahun Lalu, Soeharto Menang Lawan Majalah Time|date=2019-08-30|work=[[Liputan6.com]]|language=id|access-date=2019-12-16|archive-date=2019-12-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223115012/https://m.liputan6.com/news/read/4049227/12-tahun-lalu-soeharto-menang-lawan-majalah-time|dead-url=no|last=Liputan6.com|editor-last2=Linawati|editor-first2=Mevi|editor-last=Salim|editor-first=Hanz Jimenez}}</ref> inönö meluo da'ö fa'atua Soeharto, no tebai sa'ae, mofökhö-fökhö simöi taha-taha ba wamareso amatohulo wohuku ya'ia. Irege sa'ae iröi gulidanö ba [[Jakarta]] me 27 Januari 2008. {{Fa'a'iraono}} === Waö-waö zatua Suharto === [[Berkas:Lukisan Ny Soekirah Ibunda Presiden Soeharto.jpg|jmpl|Lukisan Ny Sukirah, Ibu Kandung Soeharto.]] Soeharto tumbu me tanggal 8 Juni 1921 ono ninada sotöi Sukirah sitoröi ba Dusun Kemusuk, Desa Argomulyo, Kecamatan Sedayu, [[Kabupaten Bantul|Bantul]], [[Yogyakarta]]. Fa'atumbu nono andre, i'omösi faoma duku sotöi Mbah Kromodiryo ya'ia da'ö akhi dua Sukirah, Mbah Kertoirono.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blogs.unpad.ac.id/maharani/biografi-presiden-soeharto/|title=Biografi Soeharto|website=blogs.unpad.ac.id/maharani|access-date=01 Juni 2023|language=id|archive-date=2023-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531174525/https://blogs.unpad.ac.id/maharani/biografi-presiden-soeharto/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Ba waö-waö lala wa'auri Suharto, Bua wangera-ngera, fehede salua ba zinata mbawa, faoma ngawalö nifaluagu, "fehede Suharto" ba li Indonesia; ''Pikiran, Ucapan dan Tindakan Saya,'' nifa'anö G. Dwipayana, Sukirah nifaehagö Soeharto ina sawuyu-wuyu si so abula dödö ba wongambatö. Hiza, oya nitandroi ba mbuku-buku waö-waö Soeharto samaogö töi Sukirah so abula tödö.<ref name="soeharto">{{Cite web|url=http://vindictivesquad.blogspot.co.id/2012/06/secuil-kisah-tentang-mantan-presiden.html|title=secuil kisah tentang mantan presiden Soeharto|access-date=2015-10-24|archive-date=2016-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160531163618/http://vindictivesquad.blogspot.co.id/2012/06/secuil-kisah-tentang-mantan-presiden.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Fatua lö Soeharto (situmbu 8 Juni 1921) me döfinia 40 ngaluo, Sukirah göna ''talak'' ia khö wo'omonia iramatua, Kertosudiro.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://soeharto.co/akar-saya-dari-desa/|title=Akar Saya Dari Desa|date=2013-09-27|website=soeharto.co|language=id|access-date=2019-11-4|archive-date=2019-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011123024/https://soeharto.co/akar-saya-dari-desa/|dead-url=no}}</ref> Kertosudiro, samösa kafalo wamangele idanö ''ulu-ulu'' (pengatur irigasi) no sinumana sibai, hiza lö oya sibai wefaonia khö nononia Suharto, ma na'i ato zi no mohörö-hörögö waö-waö wa'auri Suharto simane R.E. Elson, so ira zanura lala wa'auri niha ma ba li Indonesia lamane; ''biografer'' ba ya'ira sahatö khö Suharto, simane mantan Menteri Penerangan, Mashuri, wa Kertosudiro andre tenga ama so'ono Soeharto.<ref name="soeharto" /> Ba ndröfi si 1974, no irai so wamazaewe turia sambö baga wombaso ya'ia nisura ba ''majalah gosip'' sotöi ‘POP’ sifakhai ba waö-waö wa'auri si no ara lö murongo niha wa Soeharto andre ono Padmodipuro, samösa niha ni fosumange moroi ba ''trah Hamengkubowono II''.<ref name="soeharto" /> Soeharto andre me ide-ide ia ya'ia da'ö ba 6 fakhe ndröfinia, latibo'ö ia satuania ba ihalö ia ono Kertosudiro. Da'a dania zitobali wabu'asa Soeharto nifa'emania ba ''konferensi pers'' ba gödo Bina Graha wa fefu nifazaewe niha sifakhai wa ono niha nifosumenge ia, itenaŵa da'ö ba hiza ifa'ema meluo da'ö wa ya'ia andre tenga niha sokhö ma ono niha nifosumange, hiza ha samösa iraono simane ono niha bö'ö, ono niha mbanua ma moroi ba desa.<ref name="soeharto" /> === Waö-waö we'amöinia ba zekola SD === [[Berkas:Tempat Presiden Soeharto Lahir di Dusun Kemusuk Yogyakarta By Dany Hilmi Amrullah.jpg|jmpl|Lokasi Soeharto dilahirkan, Dusun Kemusuk, [[Yogyakarta]] pada tahun 1921.]] Soeharto andre, tenga simane iraono sifagölö khönia si so ba mbanua naha wa'atumbunia, oi mohalöŵö ba laza. Ba wa'awuyu-wuyunia, ibe'e ia sekola Kertosudiro.<ref name="soeharto" /> Lö hadöi turia sangombakha hewisa Soeharto andre me inötö modadao ia ba [[Sekolah Rakyat]] (ma fagölö ira SD iada'a). Ni'ila niha ba ginötö wa'a'iraono Soeharto andre, ya'ia da'ö hewisa waö-waönia ba wokubaloi [[Öröbao|öröbao]] khönia. No aröu sibai fabö'ö moroi ba waö-waö wa'a'iraono ndra Soekarno, Hatta faoma Sjahrir si no lakaoni döinia faoma Karl May mazui simane si no tefaehagö ba ngawalö hikaya nibaso moroi ba ''novel-novel'' nisura [[Charles Dickens]].<ref name="soeharto" /> Lala wa'auri ma waö-waö wa'a'iraono Soeharto andre, no fondrege wa'afökhö, simane ba ginötö ba zekola SD asese sibai la risa ia ira awönia, hiza farisata nifalua ndra awönia andrö i'ohe ofeta ebua-bua ia, ma ara taya ba wangera-ngerania, simane fehede sanguma'ö; ''"Den Bagus tahi mabul! Den Bagus tahi mabul"'' faoma ''"Harto sirah gede!"''. Irege meluo da'ö ya'ia andre, samösa ndraono si lö hede-hede, tenga hada'ö so göi moroi khö duania Mbah Notosudiro ''(buyutnya)'' samaehusi Soeharto ba gotalua ma'uwunia tanöbö'ö. Fefu da'a nomöi dohöfania ba wangalui fa'atua-tua, ba dödönia meluo da'ö hewisa lala wa tola tobali ia niha sikayo, salaŵa faka ba hiza ifondrondrongo So'aya ngarö-ngarö dödönia, irege tobali ia Presiden.<ref name="Jejak Masa Kecil Soeharto Bocah Bertelanjang Dada Yang Sampai Ke Istana">{{Cite web |url=https://www.goodnewsfromindonesia.id/2021/06/08/jejak-masa-kecil-soeharto-bocah-bertelanjang-dada-yang-sampai-ke-istana |title=Salinan arsip |access-date=2022-04-30 |archive-date=2022-05-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520070937/https://www.goodnewsfromindonesia.id/2021/06/08/jejak-masa-kecil-soeharto-bocah-bertelanjang-dada-yang-sampai-ke-istana |dead-url=no }}</ref> Me no sa'ae idugu ebua-bua Soeharto, toröi ia khö duania, Mbah Atmosudiro, tuania moroi khö ninania. Soeharto andre, ibörö möi ba zekola ba zi 8 fakhe ndröfinia, hiza no asese sibai findra sekola ia. Si'oföna sibai ba Sekolah Dasar (SD) ba Desa Puluhan, Godean. Aefa da'ö, findra ba SD Pedes (Yogyakarta) börö me ama ba ina sangai ya'ia iraono ''(ibu dan ayah tirinya)'', sotöi Pramono, findra omo ba mbanua Kemusuk Kidul. Kertosudiro aefa da'ö ifandrakö ia ba Wuryantoro, Wonogiri, Jawa Tengah. Soeharto lafataro ba nomo tatönia sangowalö khö ''mantri tani'' sotöi Prawirowihardjo. Soeharto andre latema'ö ia sökhi-sökhi ma na'i labali'ö ia ono sia'a ba nomo tatönia ba gotalua nono Prawirowihardjo. Soeharto aefa da'ö labe'e ia sekola, ba no ibe'e sibai dödönia we'amöi ba zekola, irege onokhe ia ba wangerai. Ba hiza tenga hada'ö, ibe'e dödönia ba wangalui famahaö ba agama me tatönia andrö samösa samati ba agama. Fa'omasi Soeharto ba wohalöŵö ba danö, ya'ia da'ö ba ginötö me toröi ia ba mbanua Wuryantoro, ni fahaö zibayania ma donga tatöi sohalöŵö ''mantri tani'', Soeharto ibe'e sibai dödönia ba wohalöŵö ba danö. Soeharto ilau faguru mangazi ba nahia ''langgar'' faoma ira awö-awönia, itaria na'i fa sara wongi ira ba nahia andrö, ba fao ia ba ''kepanduan Hizbul Wathan'' ba baginötö da'ö ibörötaigö i'ila haniha manö ira zi no fao ba wolaŵa sanuwö simane Raden Ajeng Kartini faoma Pangeran Diponegoro, hiza turia andre, nibasonia ba ''koran'' sofeta ba desa si toröi ya'ia. Aefa tama ia moroi ba Sekolah Rendah (SR) ba zi öfa fakhe wa'ara, Soeharto lafatohugö'ö khönia sekola ''lanjutan rendah'' ma SMP ia andre na ba ginötö iada'a, ba Wonogiri. Ba zi 14 fakhe ia, Soeharto toröi ia ba nomo Hardjowijono. Hardjowijono ya'ia da'ö awö namania sohalöŵö ba ''kereta api'', si no fasiu meluo da'ö. Hiza Hardjowijono andre, samösa solo'ö famahaö moroi khö Kiai Darjatmo, si no la'ila samösa ''tokoh agama'' si no tehöngö ba mbanu Wonogiri meluo da'ö. === Fongambatö Suharto === [[Berkas:Suharto family.jpg|jmpl|Foto keluarga Soeharto]] Ba mbaŵa sifulu me döfi si 1947 (Oktober 1947), Soeharto andre lafalukhaisi ia ngambatö Prawirowihardjo, tenga niha bö'ö, sibayania, si no manga'i ya'ia ono. Labude-budegö ia wa lafamatua ia khö [[Siti Hartinah|Raden Ayu Siti Hartinah]], ono KRMT Soemoharyomo. Soemoharyomo andre samösa Wedana ba [[Solo]]. Döfi Soeharto andre meluo da'ö, no 26 fakhe ba na fakese-kese ia walö hadöi nasa nisöndrania döla nosunia. Satuania, so wa'alangu-langu dödö, alai dania na manalu'i ginötö ba tobali ono matua satua ba geu, me no la'ila wa Soeharto andre, niha sahono-hono, si lö oya fehede. Ba hiza famatuasa nia khö ngambatö Prawirodihardjo alua simane sito'ölönia, ma lamane lö taha-taha.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Disebut Pendiam dan Pemalu, Kehidupan Asmara Pak Harto Ternyata Tidak Semulus Kariernya|url=https://kaltim.tribunnews.com/2017/04/09/disebut-pendiam-dan-pemalu-kehidupan-asmara-pak-harto-ternyata-tidak-semulus-kariernya|website=Tribunkaltim.co|language=id-ID|access-date=2022-12-15|archive-date=2023-03-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324032930/https://kaltim.tribunnews.com/2017/04/09/disebut-pendiam-dan-pemalu-kehidupan-asmara-pak-harto-ternyata-tidak-semulus-kariernya|dead-url=no}}</ref> [[Berkas:Letkol Soeharto Pada Tahun 1949.jpg|jmpl|ki|Soeharto muda yang sibuk memperjuangkan kemerdekaan, sehingga tak sempat mencari pasangan.]] Lala wamaigi niha Soeharto andre, lö ara sibai, ma lö sa'ae ilau fasita ua, hiza Letnan Kolonel (Letkol) Soeharto faoma Siti Hartinah (ya'ia sa'ae döi si tehöngö ma ni'ila niha ya'ia da'ö ibu Tien Soeharto) alua walöŵania me ngaluo si dua wulu a'önö ba mbaŵa si felendrua ba ndröfi si saribu a siŵa ngaotu a öfa wulu afitu (26 Desember 1947) nifalua ba Solo. Mangowalu Soeharto ba zi 26 fakhe ndröfinia, dongania sotöi Siti Hartinah 24 fakhe. Ngambatö da'a, te amualagö khöra howu-howu ndraono, ya'ia da'ö daönö wa'ato, so nono matua ba ono alawe. Iraononia sotöi [[Siti Hardijanti Rukmana|Siti Hardiyanti Hastuti]] (Tutut), [[Sigit Harjojudanto]], [[Bambang Trihatmodjo]], [[Siti Hediati Hariyadi|Siti Hediati Harijadi]] (Titiek), [[Hutomo Mandala Putra]] (Tommy), faoma siakhi sotöi [[Siti Hutami Endang Adiningsih]] (Mamiek).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jawapos.com/nasional/pemilihan/21/07/2018/sah-anak-anak-pak-harto-berkumpul-di-partai-berkarya//|title=Sah Anak_Anak Pak Harti Berkumpul di Partai Berkarya|date=2018-07-21|website=jawapos.com|language=id|access-date=2019-11-4|archive-date=2019-11-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191104042837/https://www.jawapos.com/nasional/pemilihan/21/07/2018/sah-anak-anak-pak-harto-berkumpul-di-partai-berkarya/|dead-url=no}}</ref>. {{Karier}} === Militer === [[Berkas:Mayor Soeharto Saat Menjadi Komandan Resimen Tahun 1946.Jpg|jmpl|Mayor Soeharto ba ndröfi si 1946, me tobali ia Komandan Resimen ba [[Yogyakarta]].]] Me tanggal 1 Juni 1940, latema ia samösa siswa ba zekola militer ba Gombong, Kebumen, [[Jawa Tengah]]. Me no aefa önö waŵa ''latihan dasar'', i'asiwaisi wamahaö andrö ''lulusan terbaik'' ba labe'e khönia faka ''kopral''. Hiza, tefili ia samösa ''prajurit'' nibali'ö duma-duma ma ''teladan'' ba zekola Bintara, Gombong. Soeharto ''resmi'' faböbö ba zaradadu kolonial [[Belanda]], KNIL ba ginötö hino wasuwöta me [[Perang Dunia II]]. La fatenge ia ba [[Bandung]] sitobali saradadu sotundreheni ''Markas Besar Angkatan Darat'' samigu wa'ara, meluo da'ö fakania no sa'ae ''sersan''.<ref name="Masa masa sulit Soeharto sebelum masuk militer"/> Hiza Soeharto ifuli zui alua khönia wa'a'udi, ma ba li Indonesia asese lamane; ''apes'', ya'ia da'ö; ba tanggal 8 Maret 1942, Belanda lafazaŵa danga khö Jepang, irege lösa'ae fao ia ba KNIL. Soeharto ifuli zui tosasa dödönia, ba hiza ilau manofa sabata ba nomo tatönia, ba Wuryantoro, ifuli zui tobali ia samösa nono matua si lö halöŵö. Ba tenga hada'ö hulö zi fawulaete wa'abudödö andre sinörö Soeharto, hiza göna ia [[Malaria]], irege la'ohe ia ba rumasaki. Me no ifuli owaöri ia, börö me sanofa ia, ba i'andrö tolo khö zibayania Prawirowihardjo sangai halöŵö ''penyuluh (mantri)'' khöndra sohalöŵö ba danö, ena'ö i'alui halöŵö Soeharto. Ba hiza, sibayania andre, lö hadöi lala halöŵö baero wanolo ya'ia ba wame'e ngawalö wangi'ila sifakhai ba wohalöŵö ba danö. Ba hiza Soeharto itema halöŵö andrö, sitobali famahaö khönia ba wangi'ila hewisa lala wohalöŵö ba danö. Hiza fohalöŵönia ba da'a, ha ba ginötö si sabata, lö ara sibai.<ref name="Soeharto Pribadi Tangguh Pantang Mengeluh">{{Cite web |url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-599748/soeharto-pribadi-tangguh-pantang-mengeluh |title=Salinan arsip |access-date=2022-10-13 |archive-date=2022-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013083258/https://news.detik.com/berita/d-599748/soeharto-pribadi-tangguh-pantang-mengeluh |dead-url=no }}</ref> No sa'ae ibörötaigö so wa'atage khö Suharto andre walö hadöi halöŵönia, idalaigö ifasura'ö döinia tobali ''Keibuho'' ma tobali folisi Jepang ba mbaŵa sifelezara döfi si 1942. Meluo da'ö so ma'ifu khönia wa'ata'u ma la'ila wa no irai tobali saradadu Belanda ia. Ba hiza i'abe'e'ö dödönia ba latema ia tobali folisi. Ba hiza izago sibai ngawalö wariawösania meluo da'ö me so so dödönia alai na la'ila wano irai saradadu Belanda ia. Suharto andre me no awai itörö ''pendidikan polisi'', hiza no samösa zonekhe ba gotalua nawönia ma ''lulusan terbaik''. Da'a sambua hare khönia me no to'ölö itörö zekola ''pendidikan bintara KNIL Belanda''.<ref name="Saat daftar tentara PETA, Soeharto takut rahasianya ketahuan">{{Cite web |url=https://www.merdeka.com/peristiwa/saat-daftar-tentara-peta-soeharto-takut-rahasianya-ketahuan.html |title=Salinan arsip |access-date=2022-10-13 |archive-date=2022-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013084756/https://www.merdeka.com/peristiwa/saat-daftar-tentara-peta-soeharto-takut-rahasianya-ketahuan.html |dead-url=no }}</ref> Ba ginötö da'ö, kafalo Suharto ba kepolisian ifa'ema duria khö Suharto wa so wanema Tentara [[Pembela Tanah Air]] (PETA), saradadu ni ''sponsori'' [[Jepang]]. Perwira Jepang andrö ma sangombakha'ö khönia duria da'ö, ifarou ena'ö edöna Suharto ifasura'ö döinia ba PETA, ba hiza itema'ö da'ö Suharto irege tobali ia ''perwira magang/pembantu letnan'' nifataro ba [[Karanganyar, Kebumen]]. Meno aefa ginötö wanandraigö ba faka nitema'önia ma ''masa percobaan'', ba itohugö wanga'i sekola ma ''pendidikan militer lanjutan'' ba [[Bogor]], [[Jawa Barat]], la tuyu ia tobali Chudancho (komandan kompi). Ba asrama Peta Bogor fao ira Shodancho Singgih, Putra Panji Singgih awö ''seperjuangan'' Sukarno. Aefa da'ö tobali Chudanco ba Seibu, markas besar PETA ba [[Solo]], lafindrakö ia zui ba zahatö ba [[Gunung Wilis]] ba desa Brebeg Selatan Madiun ba wo lati prajurit PETA.<ref name="Kisah Soeharto yang Tidak Tahu Bung Karno Kumandangkan Proklamasi Kemerdekaan Indonesia">{{Cite web |url=https://daerah.sindonews.com/read/858305/29/kisah-soeharto-yang-tidak-tahu-bung-karno-kumandangkan-proklamasi-kemerdekaan-indonesia-1660694893/10 |title=Salinan arsip |access-date=2022-10-13 |archive-date=2022-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013083257/https://daerah.sindonews.com/read/858305/29/kisah-soeharto-yang-tidak-tahu-bung-karno-kumandangkan-proklamasi-kemerdekaan-indonesia-1660694893/10 |dead-url=no }}</ref> Ba 17 Agustus 1945 tefaehagö wa'a merdeka Indonesia, Suharto latuyu ia tobali anggota [[TNI]] ba ngaluo 5 Oktober 1945 fakania meluo da'ö, ''letnan''. Lö ara aefa da'ö, börö me so wangi'ilania me no irai fao ia ba PETA, lafili ia zui tobali ''komandan batalion'' fakania, ''mayor''. Ba ndröfi si 1946, manöi zui fakania tobali ia ''komandan resimen'' fakania ''letnan kolonel'' ma ''overste''.<ref name="Tokoh Soeharto">{{Cite web |url=https://tni.mil.id/tokoh-9-soeharto.html |title=Salinan arsip |access-date=2022-10-13 |archive-date=2022-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013121459/https://tni.mil.id/tokoh-9-soeharto.html |dead-url=no }}</ref> {{Tendroma gera-era}} ''Pandangan politik orang tsb. (ideologi), aliran (keilmuan, akademis, seniman, dlsb)'' {{Ondröita}} ''Dampak sepak terjang orang tsb., pengaruhnya di dunia politik/keilmuan/seni. Apakah dia memiliki citra publik tertentu yang berdampak luas seperti presiden pertama berkulit hitam (Barack Obama) atau efek Jokowi (Joko Widodo)?'' {{Fa'auri}} ''Hal relevan (hanya yang relevan, bukan gosip!) tentang hidup pribadi ybs. misalnya keluarga dan hal lain yang patut direkam sebagai catatan sejarah.'' {{Töi nibe'e}} ''Penghargaan yang diterima ybs (nasional, dari negara lain, penghargaan lainnya)'' {{Publikasi}} ''Buku atau artikel menonjol yang ditulis dan dipublikasikan oleh ybs. (akademisi, ilmuan, politikus, dlsb.); karya menonjol baik lukisan (perupa), album (musikus), film (sutradara)'' {{Onönöta}} ''Hal lain yang merupakan informasi berharga, namun belum disebut di atas; Catatan khusus kalau ada.'' {{Basoŵa}} ''Di sini ditulis daftar buku relevan tambahan tentang orang tsb. yang belum disebut dalam tulisan.'' {{Khai-khai baero}} ''Di sini ditulis situs web utama yang membahas orang tsb. kalau ada'' {{Börö zura}} {{Umbu}} {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Nias]] [[Kategori:Biografi]] [[Kategori:Bohou tesura]] 9ncqy7vb6c1pdud9y6ufrc9pctk33y1