تند گاھ

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'''تند گاھ''' (سائنسي نالو: Eleusine indica) (انگريزي: '''انڊين گوس گراس, وائرگراس, ڪروفوٽ گراس''',) (Kaiviti: kavoronaisivi, vorovoroisivi) ھڪ قسم جو [[گاهه|گاھ]] آھي. ھي گرم علائقن ۾ ھوندو آھي.

==خارجي ڳنڍڻا==&lt;!-- Micronesica40:169. --&gt;
* [http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_JM_treatment.pl?8738,8961,8962 Jepson Manual Treatment]
* [http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ELIN3 USDA Plants Profile: ''Eleusine indica''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430064741/http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ELIN3 |date=2013-04-30 }}
* [http://herbarium.usu.edu/webmanual/info2.asp?name=Eleusine_indica&amp;type=treatment Grass Manual Treatment]
* [http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?query_src=photos_index&amp;where-taxon=Eleusine+indica Photo gallery]
* [http://weedipedia.net/wiki/index.php5?title=Eleusine_indica]{{مئل ڳنڍڻو|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

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{{صفائي ڪريو}}

{{Infobox person
|name         = عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي&lt;br/&gt;{{Nastaliq|عبدالماجد بھرگڑی}}
&lt;br/&gt;Abdul Majid Bhurgri &lt;br/&gt;अबदुल माजिद भुरग॒ड़ी
|other_names  = {{Nastaliq|ماجد}}
|image        = Abdul-Majid_Bhurgri_AKU.jpg
|image_size   =
|alt          = عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي
|caption      =عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي
|birth_name   = عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي
|birthdate    = {{birth date|1948|02|08|mf=y}}
|birth_place  = گوٹھ غلام نبی ڀرڳڙي، [[قمبر شهدادڪوٽ ضلعو|قمبر شهدادڪوٽ]]، [[سنڌ]]، [[پاڪستان]]
|residence    = [[سيئٽل]], [[واشنگٽن (رياست)|واشنگٽن]], [[گڏيل آمريڪي رياستون|يونائيٽيڊ اسٽيٽس]]
|nationality  = [[پاڪستان]]ي
|ethnicity    = [[سنڌي بلوچ]]
|alma_mater   = * [[آريزونا يونيورسٽي]]  

* [[سنڌ يونيورسٽي]]
|occupation   = اڳوڻو ڪمشنر انڪم ٽيڪس&lt;br&gt;ڪمپيوٽر سافٽويئر پروفيشنل
|years_active = سال 1972ع سان موجوده (حاضر)
|education    = [[ايم بي اي]]، [[بيچلر آف آرٽس|بي.اي.]] (آنرز) جنرل هسٽري ۾
|religion     = [[اسلام]]
|website      = {{URL|http://www.bhurgri.com}}}}
'''عبد الماجد ڀرڳڙي''' سنڌي ٻولي ۾ ڪمپيوٽنگ جو باني آهي. هو لاڙڪاڻو، سنڌ، پاڪستان سان تعلق رکي ٿو، ۽ هاڻي سياٽل، آمريڪا ۾ رھي ٿو. سال 1987-1988ع کان سندس ڪم ذاتي ڪمپيوٽرن تي سنڌي جي استعمال کي فعال بڻايو ۽ سنڌي اشاعتي ادارا ۽ اشاعتي صنعت ۾ انقلاب آندائين.&lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو_ويب|url=https://nation.com.pk/28-Feb-2019/sindh-gives-go-ahead-to-wheat-export|title=Sindh gives go-ahead to wheat export|date=2019-02-28|website=The Nation|language=en|access-date=2019-08-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سال 2000-2001ع کان، ڀرڳڙي، پهريان سنڌي يونيڪوڊ جا اکر تيار ڪيا، مائيڪروسافٽ ونڊوز جي پليٽ فارم تي سنڌي لاء حمايت حاصل ڪئي، ونڊوز آپريٽنگ سسٽم تي معياري سنڌي جي استعمال کي يقيني بڻائڻ لاءِ وسيلا تيار ڪيا، ۽ انٽرنيٽ تي انهن وسيلن کي مفت فراھم ڪيو.

سال 2002ع ۾ ڀرڳڙي مائيڪروسافٽ ڏانھن ھڪ مقالو لکيو جنھن جو ٽائيٽل ھو ”پاڪستاني ٻولين کي يونيڪوڊ ذريعي قابلِ ڪار بڻائڻ“. ڀرڳڙي جي مقالي کي نظر ۾ رکندي، مائيڪرو سافٽ جي مائيڪل ايس. ڪپلان پنھنجي بلاگ تي لکيو، ” اھا ڪافي دلچسپي جي ڳالھه آھي، جيتوڻيڪ ھڪ لمحي تي سنڌي وسٽا لاءِ ڌيان ۾ رکي پئي وڃي (پر حتمي طور نه ڪئي وئي). مون کي لڳي ٿو ته عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي (جنھن سان آءُ سال 2007ع ۾ سنڌي ۽ اردو بابت رابطي ۾ ھيس) سنڌيءَ زبان کي آخرڪار ونڊوز 8 شامل ٿيندي ڏسي ڪري، خوش ٿيندو.

== ابتدائي زندگي ==
ڀرڳڙي 8 فيبروري، 1948ع تي ڳوٺ غلام نبي ڀرڳڙي،  تعلقي شهداد ڪوٽ، لاڙڪاڻو (هاڻي قمبر شهدادڪوٽ) ضلعي، پاڪستان جي صوبي سنڌ ۾ جو حصو جي ڳوٺ ۾ پيدا ٿيو. سندس پيء، عبدالغفور ڀرڳڙي، هڪ وڪيل، سياستدان ۽ اديب هو. سندس ماء، خورشيد بانو، هڪ گھريلو عورت هئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=ڀرڳڙي عبدالماجد : (Sindhianaسنڌيانا)&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt; |url=http://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%DA%80%D8%B1%DA%B3%DA%99%D9%8A%20%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AF |accessdate=2019-12-15 |archive-date=2025-01-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250120202827/https://www.encyclopediasindhiana.org/article.php?Dflt=%DA%80%D8%B1%DA%B3%DA%99%D9%8A%20%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AF |dead-url=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== تعليم ==
ڀرڳڙي لاڙڪاڻو ۾ سندس پرائمري تعليم، پهریون پی وی اسڪول ۾ ۽ بعد ۾ شاهه محمد اسڪول سان مڪمل ڪئي. هن ميونسپل هاء اسڪول، لاڙڪاڻي ۾ سندس ثانوي تعليم شروع ڪئي ۽ گورنمينٽ هاء اسڪول، لاڙڪاڻي ۾ ان کي مڪمل ڪيو.

هو سنڌ يونيورسٽي ويو، جتي هن بی.ای. عام تاريخ ۾ اعزاز سان حاصل ڪئي. هن ان کان پوء پاڪستان جي اعليٰ خدمتن جي امتحانن لاء تيار ٿيڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو ۽ لاڙڪاڻو ۾ قانون واري ڪاليج ۾ قانون جي بيچلرس، ایل ایل بی پروگرام لاء داخلا گھري.

سال 1983ع ۾، هو ايريزونا يونيورسٽي [[تڪسن|ٽوسان]] جي ايم بي اي پروگرام ۾ داخل ٿي. ھو ناڻي ۾ هڪ زور سان سال 1985ع ۾ گريجویٽ ٿيو. اهو ايريزونا يونيورسٽي ۾ پنهنجي پڙهائي دوران هو ته هن کي ڪمپيوٽر ٽيڪنالاجي سان متعارف ڪرايو ويو.

== ڪاروھنوار واري زندگي ==
آڪٽوبر 1971ع ۾، ڀرڳڙي پاڪستان جي اعليٰ خدمتن وارو امتحان ڏنو. هو پاس ٿيو ۽ پاڪستان ٽيڪسيشن سروس لاءِ ڪم ڪرڻ جي لاءِ چونڊيو ويو، جيڪو ھن 13 نومبر 1972ع تي جوائن ڪيو. هن والٽن، لاھور جي ويجھو، ۾ مالي خدمتن جي اڪيڊمي ۾ ھڪ سال جي تربيت ورتي. ان کانپوءِ، هن کي ڇهن مهينن جي لاء وڌيڪ کاتيوار تربيت ملي.

جولاء 1974ع ۾، هن کي هڪ انڪم ٽيڪس آفيسر طور لاڙڪاڻو ۾ ڀرتي ڪيو ويو. هو اتي ٽن سالن لاء رھيو. 1977ع ۾، ھن کي حيدرآباد منتقل ڪيو ويو،۽ بعد ۾ ڪراچي 1980ع ۾.

هو سال 1980-1983 کان موڪل تي ويو، ۽ جڏهن موڪل تي، هن کي انڪم ٽيڪس جي اضافي ڪمشنر ڏانھن فروغ ڏنو ويو. پنهنجي موٽڻ تي، هن کي ڪراچي ۾ ڀرتي ڪيو ويو. 1990ع ۾، هو پاڪستان جي بين الاقوامي ايئر لائن تي معاشي خريدارين لاءِ جنرل مينيجر ٿيو. تقريبن ڇهن مهينن کان پوء، هو پگھار کان سواء موڪل تي آمريڪا ويو. اتي، هڪ سليڪان ويلي فرم، ايڊوانسڊ سرچ، لاء هڪ صلاحڪار ۽ مشير جي طور تي نوڪري جي آڇ ڪئي هئي، جيڪا ھڻ قبول ڪئي.

==سنڌي ڪمپيوٽرائز ڪمپوزنگ==
سال 1987ع ۾، ڀرڳڙي هڪ دوست جي سهڪار سان هڪ ڊيسڪ ٽاپ پبلشنگ ڪاروبار سيٽ اپ ڪرڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو. هن مقصد لاء، هن هڪ ميڪنٽاش ذاتي ڪمپيوٽر ۽ هڪ ليزر پرنٽر خريد ڪيو. جڏھن ھو سامان پهچڻ لاء انتظار ڪري رھيو ھو، سندس ڀاڱيدار، جنھن کي سهوليت سيٽ اپ ڪرڻي ھئي، چيائين ته هو ذاتي exigencies جي ڪري ائين نه ڪري سگهيو. جڏھن سامان نيٺ آڪٽوبر 1987ع جي آس مھيا ڪيو ويو، ڀرڳڙي ان ۾ ڦاسي پيو. ان کان پوء هو ته هن ذاتي ڪمپيوٽرن تي سنڌي جي استعمال، خاص طور لفظ پروسيسنگ ۽ ڊيسڪ ٽاپ پبلشنگ جي مقصدن لاء لاء هڪ حل تي ڪم ڪرڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو.

نومبر، 1987ع ۾، چند هفتن لاء تجربا ڪرڻ کان پوء، ڀرڳڙي ڪاميابي سان هڪ صفحي تي سنڌيء ۾ ليزر پرنٽر تي طباعت ڪئي. سنڌي روزانه ھلالِ پاڪستان خبر ٻڌائي. جلد ئي، اخبار انعام شيخ جو لکيل هڪ ڪالم شايع ڪيو ۽ ڀرڳڙي جي ميڪنٽاش ڪمپيوٽر تي typeset. ڀرڳڙي به نقوش جي سنڌي ڀاڱي لاءِ typeset، ڪراچي ۾ هڪ ڪاليج جو رسالو. هي سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جو آغاز ھيو، جنهن ايندڙ ڪجهه سالن ۾ سنڌي ڇپائيء ۽ اشاعت جي صنعت ۾ انقلاب آندو ء اوائلي ترتيب وار ٽائپ سيٽنگ کان ڪمپيوٽر تي ٻڌل ٽائپ سيٽنگ جي نئين دور طرف وڌڻ جي اجازت ڏني.

مارچ، 1988 تائين، ڀرڳڙي سنڌي ڊيسڪٽاپ ڪمپوزنگ جی هڪ وڌيڪ مستحڪم نسخو سان آيو. جولاء، 1988ع ۾، ايپل لاء پاڪستان جي تقسيم ڪارن سرڪاري طور ڪراچي ۾ هڪ تقريب ۾ سنڌي ڊيسڪ ٽاپ ڪمپوزنگ جو اعلان ڪيو، ۽ ڀرڳڙي جي ڀاڱيدار جو اعتراف ڪيو.

روزاني ھلالِ پاڪستان هن نظام کي استعمال ڪرڻ واري پهرين سنڌي اخبار هئي. روزاني عوامي آواز چار ڪمپيوٽرن ۽ هڪ ليزر پرنٽر سان شايع ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. عبرت، ڪاوش، آفتاب، ۽ ٻين اخبارن ۽ رسالن پڻ ان جي پوئلڳي ڪئي.

سال 2000-2001ع ۾، ڀرڳڙي مائيڪروسافٽ سان سھڪار ڪئي ۽ سنڌي ٻوليء جي لاء هڪ يونيڪوڊ حل سان آيو. يونيڪوڊ معيار انٽرنيٽ تي سنڌي جي استعمال کي فعال بڻايو ۽ اهڙيء طرح عالمي طور سنڌي ڳالهائيندڙ ۾ رابطي جو ھڪ دور آڻي ڇڏيو. ڀرڳڙي مفت ۾ ورهائڻ لاء پنهنجي ويب سائيٽ تي سندس مشهور سنڌي انسٽالر اپلوڊ ڪيو. 

وڌيڪ لاءِ پڙهو تفصيلي مضمون: 
[[سنڌي ڪمپيوٽرائز ڪمپوزنگ]]

== ذاتي زندگي ==
سال 1969ع ۾، جڏھن ھو پنھنجي خاندان سان گڈ ڪوئيٽا ۾ گرمي جون موڪلون گذاري رھيو ھو، ڀرڳڙي ھڪ ڪشميري ڇوڪري، نرگس نالي سان مليو، جن سان ھن سال 1970ع ۾ شادي ڪئي. نرگس 25 اپريل، 2008ع تي وفات ڪئي.

ڀرڳڙي کي ٽي پٽ آھن؛ عبدالمصور، عبدالباسط ۽ عبدالباري ۽ ھڪ ڌيءُ عائشه آھي. ان سڀني جي شادي ٿيل آھي ۽ سياٽل ۾ رھن ٿا. ننڍي ۾ ننڍو پٽ، عبدالباري، پنھنجي سئوٽ سارہ ڀرڳڙيءَ سان پرڻيل آھي، ھن جا ٻه پٽ عبدالرحمان ۽ عبدالهادي آھن.

== ايوارڊ ==
ڀرڳڙي کي 26 نومبر، 2015ع تي سنڌ جي حڪومت کان لطيف ايوارڊ مليو ۽ اتر آمريڪا جي سنڌ واري تنظيم کان ڊاڪٽر فيروز احمد يادگار ايوارڊ ملیو.

== پڻ ڏسو ==
* [[ڀرڳڙي]]
* [[لاڙڪاڻو]]
* [[سنڌي]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:سنڌي شخصيتون]]
[[زمرو:سليڪان ويلي جا ماڻهو]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستاني شخصيتون]]
[[زمرو:جيوت ماڻهو]]
[[زمرو:سنڌ يونيورسٽي جا شاگرد]]
[[زمرو:1948ع جون پيدائشون]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس سان لاڳاپيل ماڻهو]]
[[زمرو:عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ]]
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'''سنڌي ڪمپيوٽرائز ڪمپوزنگ''' جو آغاز [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]] سال 1987ع ۾ ايپل جي مئڪنٽاش ڪمپيوٽر تي استعمال ٿيندڙ عربي ۽ فارسي ورڊ پروسيسنگ جي پروگرام ”الڪاتب“ ۾ تبديليون آڻي ڪيو. جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ سندس ليزر پرنٽر تي سنڌيءَ جو پهريون صفحو پرنٽ ٿي نڪتو جيڪو سنڌي ٻوليءَ جي ڪمپيوٽر ڪمپوزنگ جو پهريون قدم هو. اهڙي خوشيءَ جي خبر روزانه هلال پاڪستان سڄيءَ سنڌ کي ڏني. ان ڪاميابي بعد ساڳي اخبار ۾ پهريون سنڌي ڪمپيوٽر ذريعي ڪمپوز ٿيل ڪالم انعام شيخ جو ”ڪَکُ پن“ ڇپيو. ايئن سنڌي اشاعتي صنعت ۾ ڪمپيوٽر تي سنڌي ڪمپوزنگ جي ابتدا ٿي ۽ ڪمپازيٽرن جي جاءِ ڪمپيوٽرن ورتي. ان کان اڳ اهو (ڇپائي جو) ڪم ڪمپازيٽر (شيهي جي ٽائپ فريم ۾ سيٽ ڪري پريس لاءِ مضمون تيار ڪندڙ) ڪندا هئا، جيڪو انتهائي ڏکيو ۽ بي حد ٿڪائيندڙ توڙي صحت لاءِ هاڃيڪار عمل هو، جنهن ۾ شيهي (Lead) جي ٺهيل ٽائپ هوندي هئي ۽ هڪ هڪ حرف جو مختلف روپ خانن ۾ پيل هوندو هو. پوءِ ڪمپازيٽر هڪڙي ڪاٺ يا ميٽل جي سانچي يا فريم ۾ انهن کي هٿ سان سيٽ ڪري لفظ به لفظ جوڙي مضمون ترتيب ڏيندا هئا. مسلسل اهو ڪم ڪرڻ جي نتيجي ۾ ڪمپازيٽر اڪثر شيهي جي زهريلي اثر  (Lead Poisoning) جو شڪار ٿي ويندا هئا. ڄڻ ته سنڌي ڪمپيوٽر ڪمپوزنگ اهڙي هاڃيڪار پورهئي مان سندن جند آجي ڪرائي، نه رڳو اهو پر ان سان ڇپائيءَ جي ڪم ۾ تيزي، خوبصورتي ۽ چٽائي به آئي.

==شروعات==
عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي جن جي سنڌي ٻوليءَ سان لڳاءُ جو ئي نتيجو آهي، جو پاڻ ڪمپيوٽر سائنس ۾ ڪا ڊگري نه هوندي، نه وري ڪنهن مالي امداد جي، فقط ذاتي وسائل ڪتب آڻي سنڌي ٻوليءَ لاءِ اهو ڪم ڪري ڏيکاريو جيڪو ادارا، يونيورسٽيون ۽ ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ماهر وسائل باوجود به نه ڪري سگھيا. پنهنجي لڳاتار محنت سان مارچ 1988 تائين پاڻ عملي لحاظ کان سنڌي ٻوليءَ جي ڪمپيوٽر تي استعمال لاءِ مڪمل سرشتو جوڙي ورتائون، جنهن سان ڪمپيوٽر تي سنڌيءَ جو استعمال اوتري ئي سولائي سان ممڪن بڻيو جهڙو عربي، فارسي ۽ اردو وغيره لاءِ ان کان اڳ ۾ هو. هتي اهو ڄاڻڻ بي حد ضروري آهي ته ايم بي سنڌي ان پيج کان پوءِ نه بلڪه گھڻو اڳ جي ايجاد آهي.
پنهنجي اهڙي اَملهه ايجاد تي ڳالهائيندي عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي چوي ٿو ته منهنجي ان پورهئي ۾ دوستن، محبوبن، وڏڙن ۽ بزرگن جون دعائون ۽ محبتون ته ضرور شامل هيون،  پر ايم بي سنڌي ۾ دوستن جي ماهرانه يا غيرماهرانه صلاحيتن جو ڪو عمل دخل ڪونه هو ۽ اهو سمورو پورهيو مون اڪيلي سِر پنهنجي ٻوليءَ جو فرض سمجھندي پاڻ ڪيو آهي.

==ايپل ميڪ تي==
جولائي 1988ع ۾، ايپل ڪمپنيءَ جي ڊسٽريبيوٽر طرفان هاڻوڪي ميريٽ هوٽل ۾، جيڪو تڏهن هاليڊي ان سڏبو هو، هڪ تقريب منعقد ڪري سندس (محترم عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي صاحب جي) ان تاريخي ڪم کي عوام ۽ خواص آڏو متعارف ڪرايو. جنهنجي صدارت مرحوم علي احمد بروهي صاحب ڪئي ۽ اهڙي طرح سان سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جي باقاعده شروعات ٿي.
يادگيريون ونڊيندي محترم عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي ٻڌايو ته تقريب کان پوءِ رفريشمينٽ دؤران مرحوم علي احمد بروهي صاحب کيس کِلندي کِلندي چيو: ”ڀرڳڙي، جيڪڏهن تون اهو ڪم بنگالي ٻوليءَ لاءِ ڪرين ها ته بنگالي تنهنجا مُجسما ٺاهي، شهرن ۾ لڳائن ها. پر تو اِهو ڪم سنڌي ٻوليءَ لاءِ ڪيو آهي، فڪر نه ڪر، جلد ڪو تنهنجي ٽنگ مان جھلي، هيٺ گِهلي لاهيندُءِ.“
پوءِ هلال پاڪستان وارن اخبار جي جُزوي ٽائپسيٽنگ ڪمپيوٽر وسيلي شروع ڪئي، پر عوامي آواز پهرين اخبار هئي جنهن ڪمپوزنگ جو سڄو ڪم هن (سنڌي) سرشتي کي استعمال ڪندي ڪمپيوٽر وسيلي ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. اهو استعمال ۾ ايترو ته آسان هو جو انگريزي ٽائپنگ ڄاڻيندڙ ٻن ٽن ڏينهن ۾ رواني سان سنڌيءَ ۾ (ڪمپيوٽر تي) ٽائپنگ ڪرڻ سکي پئي ويا. بعد ۾ ڪاوش، آفتاب ۽ ٻين سنڌي اخبارن به ان سرشتي کي استعمال ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو ۽ پوءِ جلد ئي سڀ اخبارون، ڪتاب ۽ رسالا ڪمپيوٽر وسيلي ڇپجڻ لڳا. 1990ع واري ڏهاڪي تائين سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جو وڌ ۾ وڌ استعمال اشاعتي ۽ اخباري ادارا ئي ڪندا رهيا ۽ عام ماڻهن کي ان جي باري ۾ اڃا گھڻي ڄاڻ ڪانه هئي.
اگتي هلي جڏهن ڪمپيوٽر ادارن ۽ آفيسن مان ٿيندو عام ماڻهن جي دسترس ۾ آيو ۽ انٽرنيٽ ۽ ورلڊوائيڊ ويب عام ٿيڻ لڳا، تڏهن ماڻهن لاءِ ڪمپيوٽر باهمي رابطي توڙي فائلن جي ڏي وٺ جو ذريعو بڻيو ۽ تڏهن ئي پرسنل ڪمپيوٽر تي سنڌي ٻوليءَ جي ضرورت  شدت سان فردن فردن محسوس ٿيڻ لڳي.
==سنڌي ڪوڊنگ==
ڪمپيوٽر تي ڪنهن به ٻوليءَ جي استعمال لاءِ ان ٻوليءَ لاءِ هڪ ڪوڊ پيج گھربل هوندو آهي، جنهن ۾ ٻوليءَ ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ سڀني حرفن (اکرن) ۽ علامتن (نشانين) وغيره کي هڪ عددي ڪوڊ پوائنٽ ڏني ويندي آهي ته جيئن ڪمپيوٽر، جيڪو عددي حساب جي آڌار تي ڪم ڪندو آهي، سو ان ڪوڊ پوائنٽ وسيلي ان ٻوليءَ جي حرفن (اکرن) ۽ علامتن (نشانين) وغيره جي سڃاڻپ ڪري سگھي. هر ٻوليءَ جا ادارا پنهنجي ٻوليءَ جي ڪمپيوٽر تي ترويج لاءِ هڪ معياري ڪوڊ پيج جوڙي ان کي ڪمپيوٽر سان وابسته بين الاَقوامي ادارن کان منظور ڪرائي وٽن رجسٽر ڪرائيندا آهن. انهيءَ بنيادي ڪم کان پوءِ ئي ان ٻوليءَ جي ڪمپيوٽر تي استعمال جا امڪان پيدا ٿيندا آهن. بدقسمتي سان سنڌي ٻوليءَ لاءِ ڪنهن به حڪومتي اداري يا درسگاه وغيره ڪڏهن اهڙي ڪوشش ڪانه ورتي. جنهن صورت ۾ ٻوليءَ جو ڪم لنگوئسٽ يا ماهر لسانيات جو آهي جيڪي ٻوليءَ جي فني تقاضائن کي ڀليءَ ڀَت ڄاڻن ٿا، پر رابطي جي کوٽ توڙي عدم دلچسپيءَ جي ڪري سڀئي ڪم هن (محترم عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي صاحب) پاڻ سر انجام ڏنا. عين ممڪن آهي ته لسانيات جي حوالي سان ان ۾ ڪي پيچيدگيون رهيل هجن، جن جي اڀياس جي پڻ ضرورت آهي، اهو هڪ جدا موضوع آهي جيڪو هتي مطلوب ڪونهي.
محترم عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي ٻڌائي ٿو ته تڏهن معياري سنڌي ڪوڊ پيج نه هئڻ ڪري، سنڌيءَ کي ڪمپيوٽر تي استعمال ڪرڻ جو واحد طريقو اهو وڃي رهيو هو ته عربي فارسي ڪوڊپيج کي، هڪ قسم جي جُڳاڙ يعني Hack ذريعي، سنڌي لاءِ قابل استعمال بڻايو وڃي ۽ اهوئي طريقو مون پڻ استعمال ڪيو. جيئن ته ان قسم جو جُڳاڙ لامحاله ڪنهن معيار يعني Standard تي ٻڌل نه هوندو آهي، تنهنڪري ان ذريعي ڪتاب، رسالا وغيره ٽائپسيٽ ڪرڻ ته ممڪن هو پر اُسرندڙ انٽرنيٽ ٽيڪنالاجي ذريعي ٻولي جي بين الاقوامي سطح تي ڪمپيوٽر ۽ انٽرينٽ تي ترويج، ويب پيج جوڙڻ، اي ميل ۽ چيٽنگ وسيلي هڪ ٻئي سان رابطو وغيره وقت جون اهڙيون اهم ۽ اڻٽر ضرورتون هيون جن جو پورائو معياري سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ کانسواءِ ممڪن ڪونه هو. پوءِ خوشقسمتي سان هڪ يونيورسل ڪوڊ پيج ترتيب ڏنو ويو هو ته جيئن دنيا جي سڀني ٻولين جو ڪمپپيوٽر تي استعمال ٿي سگھي ۽ انهن ۾ سنڌي به شامل هئي. ان سان ڪوڊ پيج جو مسئلو ته حل ٿي ويو جيڪا بنيادي گھرج هئي، پر ٻوليءَ کي ڪمپيوٽر تي استعمال ڪرڻ لاءِ اڃا ٻيا گھڻا مرحلا طئي ڪرڻا هئا. ان لاءِ بين الاقوامي معيار مطابق فانٽ (Font) ۽ ٽائپفيس(Typeface) جوڙڻ، ڪمپيوٽر آپريٽنگ سسٽم ۾ ٻولي جي پروسيسنگ لاءِ سپورٽ هجڻ، ڪمپيوٽر تي لکڻ لاءِ ڪيبورڊ اينٽري سرشتو ۽ ان کي سسٽم ۾ نصب ڪرڻ وغيره اهڙا ناگزير عملي مرحلا هئا جن کان سواءِ ٻوليءَ جو ڪمپيوٽر تي عملي طرح استعمال ممڪن نه هو.
==مائڪرو سافٽ تي==
عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي ٻڌائي ٿو ته سن 2000ع ۾ تقريبًا ڇهن مهينن جي لڳاتار محنت کانپوءِ جڳ مشهور ڪمپيوٽر آپريٽنگ سسٽم (ونڊوز) ٺاهيندڙ ڪمپني مائڪروسافٽ جي متعلقه شعبي جي سربراه پال نيلسن سان روبرو ميٽنگن، توڙي ساڻن سوين اي ميلز جي ڏي وٺ بعد، آئون مائڪروسافٽ ونڊوز ۾ يونيڪوڊ جي آڌار تي، معياري سنڌي جو بنياد وجھڻ ۾ ڪامياب ٿيس ۽ ان جي استعمال کي ممڪن بڻايم ۽ سنڌيءَ کي سهڻا ۽ معياري فونٽ ڊزائن ڪيم، ته جيئن ٻوليءَ جي لکت کي جيترو ممڪن هجي خوبصورت بڻائي سگھجي.

==فونٽ ڊزائن==
فونٽ ڊزائن جي ڪم کي جيتوڻيڪ ڪافي دوستن اڳتي وڌايو آهي، جنهن جي ڪري هن وقت سنڌي ٻوليءَ جي لاءِ معياري فونٽس جو تعداد 100 کان وڌي ويو آهي. جن ڪمپيوٽر تي سنڌي ٻوليءَ جي استعمال کي خوبصورت بڻايو آهي.
پشتو ۽ اردو جو ڪمپيوٽر تي استعمال به سنڌيءَ سان گڏ ئي شروع ٿيو هو پر فرق اهو هو ته جتي ڪمپيوٽر جي لاءِ پشتو ۽ اردو جا پيڪيج سون ڊالرن ۾ وڪامجي رهيا هئا، اُتي محترم عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي صاحب سنڌي لاءِ ساڳئي قسم جو سافٽويئر، پنهنجي سنڌي ٻوليءَ جي پهرين ويبسائيٽ www.bhurgri.com تان مفت ورهائي (ڊائونلوڊ ڪرڻ لاءِ آڇي) رهيو هو.
==ايڪويهين صدي==
اهڙي طرح سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جي حوالي سان 21 هين صدي جي ابتدا ۾ هڪ نئين دؤر جو آغاز ٿيو ۽ دنيا جي ڪنڊ ڪڙڇ ۾ رهندڙ سنڌي پنهنجي ڪمپيوٽر ۾ سنڌي جي اهليت آساني سان شامل ڪري، تقريبًا هر اهو ڪم ڪري ٿي سگھيا، جيڪو ان کان اڳ ۾ صرف انگريزي ۽ ٻين ترقي يافته ٻولين ۾ ممڪن هو.
==ايم بي سنڌي==
MB SINDHI اهو حل آهي جنهن ذريعي ڪنهن به ڪمپيوٽر آپريٽنگ سسٽم (ونڊوز، ميڪنٽوش ۽ لِنڪس) ۾ سنڌي جي استعمال کي ممڪن بڻائجي ٿو، جنهن بعد انهن سڀني پروگرامن منجھه جيڪي يونيڪوڊ جي آڌار تي عربي رسم الخط  کي سپورٽ ڪن ٿا تن سڀني کي سنڌي لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگھجي ٿو. Microsoft Office جي ورڊ ۽ ٻين پروگرامن کان علاوه سوين ٻيا پروگرام به آهن جيڪي يونيڪوڊ عربي رسم الخط کي سپورٽ ڪن ٿا. هي (MB SINDHI) رڳو Microsoft Office Word تائين محدود نه آهي، بلڪه پوري ڪمپيوٽر آپريٽنگ سسٽم ۾ سنڌي جي استعمال کي ممڪن بڻائي ٿو، جنهن سان اڄ سنڌيءَ ۾ اي ميلز ، چيٽنگ، ويب پيج، فيس بوڪ تي پوسٽ وغيره ممڪن بڻيا آهن. MB SINDHI مڪمل ڪمپيوٽر ٽيڪنالاجي کي سنڌيءَ لاءِ قابل استعمال بڻائي ٿو. پڌرو هجي ته هي (MB SINDHI) ڪو ورڊ پروسيسنگ يا ڪمپوزنگ جو سافٽ ويئر يا پروگرام ڪونهي، پر اهو هڪ همه گير حل آهي جنهن ذريعي هر قسم جا پروگرام سنڌي لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگھجن ٿا، جن ۾ ڪمپوزنگ جا اعلىٰ پروگرام مائڪروسافٽ ورڊ، پبلشر، اڊوبي ان ڊيزائن، اوپن آفس جو رائٽر وغيره به اچي وڃن ٿا. حقيقت اِها آهي ته MB SINDHI ذريعي عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي بنيادي طرح ڪمپيوٽر ۽ ٽيڪنالاجي جي دنيا جا دروازا سنڌيءَ ٻوليءَ لاءِ کولي ڇڏيا آهن. هاڻي اسان پنهنجا سنڌي ٻوليءَ سان وابسط ڪم ڪمپيوٽر ٽيڪنالاجي جي استعمال سان به آساني برق رفتاريءَ سان ڪري سگھون ٿا.&lt;ref&gt;[http://shabirkumbhar.blogspot.com/2013/05/1987.html حال حاضر: سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جو تاريخي پسمنظر&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;

==ايم بي سٿ==
ايم بي سٿ جي ابتدا شروعات کان هلي رهي هئي پر اها هڪ غيرترتيبوار هئي. سڀ کان پهريان ايم بي سٿ جي ضرورت محسوس ڪندي عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي پنهنجي ويجھن ساٿين [[امر فياض]] ٻرڙي ۽ شبير ڪنڀار کي پنهنجي سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جون واڳون ڏئي اهو اعلان ڪيو ته هاڻي سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جون ايڊوانس ذميورايون اهي دوست نڀائيندا جيڪي نه صرف اپڊيٽ پروگرامنگ تي ڪم ڪري رهيا آهن پر سنڌي فانٽن جي هڪ معياري شڪل تي به هٿ ونڊين ٿا. آهستي آهستي هن سٿ ۾ ٻيا نوجوان به اچڻ لڳا آهن.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:سنڌي ڪمپيوٽرائز ڪمپوزنگ]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽرائز ڪمپوزنگ]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]]

{{حوالا}}
{{ويب|url=https://www.academia.edu/4556019|title=Development_of_Unicode_based_Sindhi_Typing_System|last=Bhatti|first=Zeeshan|website=https://www.academia.edu|archive-url=https://www.academia.edu/4556019/Development_of_Unicode_based_Sindhi_Typing_System}}{{حوالا}}</text>
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[[زمرو:اسٽرنگ (ڪمپيوٽر سائنس)]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا اسٽب]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جو ادب]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا لاحقا]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ايوارڊ]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي تنظيمون]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي ڪانفرنسون]]

# 
* [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي تاريخ]]
* [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جو خاڪو]] 
* [[لاجڪ گيٽس]]
* [[بولين الجبرا]] 
* [[روبوٽڪس]]
* [[ڪمپيوٽر پروگرامنگ]]
* [[سافٽ ويئر ڊيزائننگ]]
* [[نيٽ ورڪنگ]]

[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر]]
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* [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي تاريخ]]
* [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جو خاڪو]] 
* [[لاجڪ گيٽس]]
* [[بولين الجبرا]] 
* [[روبوٽڪس]]
* [[ڪمپيوٽر پروگرامنگ]]
* [[سافٽ ويئر ڊيزائننگ]]
* [[نيٽ ورڪنگ]]

[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر]]
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* [[ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جو خاڪو]] 
* [[لاجڪ گيٽس]]
* [[بولين الجبرا]] 
* [[روبوٽڪس]]
* [[ڪمپيوٽر پروگرامنگ]]
* [[سافٽ ويئر ڊيزائننگ]]
* [[نيٽ ورڪنگ]]

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    <title>ثناء جاويد</title>
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      <text bytes="11317" sha1="rmcgn6kah045lb6togs6d0n70es8kfd" xml:space="preserve">{{short description|Pakistani actress and model}}
{{Infobox person
| pre-nominals     = 
| name             = ثناء جاويد &lt;/br&gt; Sana Javed
| image            =
| caption          = 
| native_name      = 
| native_name_lang = urdu
| birth_name       = 
| birth_date       = {{birth-date and age|1993 |03| 02}}
| birth_place      = 
| death_date       = 
| death_place      = 
| nationality      = [[پاڪستاني]]
| years_active     = 2012–هاڻوڪو
| notable_works    = 
| television       = ''[[خاني]]'' (2017) &lt;br&gt; ''[[Zara Yaad Kar]]'' (2016) &lt;br&gt;''[[پيارے افضل]] l]]''
(2014) &lt;br&gt;''[[رسوايے]]'' (2019)
| other_names      = 
| citizenship      = 
| alma_mater       = [[يونيورسٽي آف ڪراچي]]
| occupation       = [[اداڪار]]
| marital status   = 
}}
'''ثناء جاويد''' ([[انگريزي]] :Sana Javed) هڪ اهم پاڪستاني اداڪار آهي. [1] [2] سانا بلاڪ بيڪر سيريز خاناني ۾ فيروز خان سان گڏ صنم علي خان جي اڳواڻي جو ڪردار ادا ڪيو. [3] هوء پنهنجي سماجي فلم سان گڏ پهرين فلم ٺاهي

== ڪيريئر ==
ثناء پنهنجي نمائش جو نمونو طور شروع ڪيو ۽ ٽي وي جي تجارتي فلمن ۾ ظاهر ٿيو، هن 2012 سيريز ميرا پيلا پيار ۾ حمايت ڪندڙ ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو ۽ ساڳئي سال ۾ شيراه الحق ۾ ننڍڙي نموني ڪئي.

هوء 2016 ۾ رومانڪ ڊراما زارا يعاد ڪر ۾ هڪ متضاد (مهنوار) ​​جي ڪردار سان اڳتي وڌڻ لاء گلاب جي سامهون زاهد احمد جي سامهون ٿي.

هوء 2017 ۾ ڊينڪ ٽيمور جي سامهون آئي سوشل-مزاحيه فلم مهرنيسيس وي لوب يو سان گڏ سندس فلم تيار ڪئي.

ساڳئي سال هوء بلال اشرف سان گڏ رينجرز ۾ اهم ڪردار لاء دستخط ڪئي هئي، جنهن مان ڪجهه سببن سبب پاڻ کي چونڊيو ويو. ان کان پوء، هن کي 2017 ع ۾ رومانياتي ڊراما خاني ۾ خاني طور تي اهم ڪردار ادا ڪرڻ لاء وڏن تسليم ۽ عوامي تعريف جو مظاهرو ڪيو. [1] 

== فلمون ==

{|class= &quot;wikitable&quot;
! Year
! Name !! Role !! Refs
|-
|2012
| ''[[Shehr-e-Zaat]]''
| Marium
|
|-
|2012–2013
|''[[Mera pehla pyar|Mera Pehla Pyar]]''
| Zaara
|&lt;ref&gt;{{citeweb|url=https://m.imdb.com/title/tt3810142/|work=[[IMDb]]|title=Mera Pehla Pyaar|accessdate= 25 March 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|2013–2014
| ''[[Pyarey Afzal]]''
| Lubna 
|&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.awamipolitics.com/actress-sana-javed-fans-following-increasing-due-to-pyaray-afzal-drama-15918.html|title=Actress Sana Javed fans Following Increasing Due to Pyaray Afzal Drama -|date=2014-04-17|access-date=2018-03-31|language=en-US|archive-date=2018-04-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180401004921/http://www.awamipolitics.com/actress-sana-javed-fans-following-increasing-due-to-pyaray-afzal-drama-15918.html|dead-url=yes|accessdate=2020-03-24|archivedate=2018-04-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180401004921/http://www.awamipolitics.com/actress-sana-javed-fans-following-increasing-due-to-pyaray-afzal-drama-15918.html}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|2013–2014
| ''[[Ranjish Hi Sahi (TV series)|Ranjish Hi Sahi]]''
| Tooba
| &lt;ref&gt;{{citeweb|url=https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2014/03/31/female-newcomers-ruling-pakistan-entertainment-industry/|work=pakistantoday.com.pk|title=female newcomers ruling pakistan entertainment industry|accessdate=25 March 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|2013
| ''Meenu Ka Susral''
| Meenu
| &lt;ref&gt;{{citeweb|url=https://www.arydigital.tv/videos/meenu-ka-susral-ep-105/|work=arydigital.tv|title=Meenu Ka Susral|accessdate= 25 March 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|2013
| ''[[Meri Dulari]]''
| Gul Pari
| &lt;ref&gt;{{citeweb|url=https://pakistani.pk/meri-dulari/|work=pakistani.pk|title=Meri Dulari|accessdate=25 March 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 2014
| ''[[Goya (TV series)|Goya]]''
| Mohini 
| &lt;ref&gt;{{citeweb|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1158455|work=dawn.com|title=Goya' – A fast-paced, well-plotted drama|accessdate=25 March 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 2014
| ''Chingari ''
|   Sania
| &lt;ref&gt;{{citeweb|url=https://pakistani.pk/chingari/|work=pakistani.pk|title=Chingari|accessdate=25 March 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|2015
| ''[[Dil Ka Kia Rung Karun]]''
| Aiza
|
|-
|2015
|''[[Shareek-e-Hayat]]''
| Sana
| 
|-
|2015
|''Koi Deepak ho''
|Sana
|
|-
|2015
| ''[[Paiwand (TV serial)|Paiwind]]''
| Samia 
| &lt;ref&gt;{{citeweb|url=https://arydigital.tv/paiwand/|work=arydigital|title=Paiwand|accessdate=25 March 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|2015–2016
| ''[[Maana Ka Gharana]]''
| Maana
| &lt;ref&gt;{{citeweb|url=http://www.thenewsteller.com/showbiz/ishaq-bacha-hay-bigra-hoa-nabeel-shaukat-sings-title-song-of-mana-ka-gharana/29593/|work=thenewsteller.com|title=Ishaq Bacha Hay Bigra Hoa’, Nabeel Shaukat sings title song of ‘Mana Ka Gharana’|accessdate=25 March 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|2015
| ''[[Aitraaz (TV serial)|Aitraaz]]''
| Komal 
|&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.brandsynario.com/imran-abbas-to-romance-sana-javed-in-pakistani-drama-aitraaz/|title=Imran Abbas to Romance Sana Javed in Pakistani Drama ‘Aitraaz’ - Brandsynario|work=Brandsynario|access-date=26 March 2018|archive-date=4 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004071139/http://www.brandsynario.com/imran-abbas-to-romance-sana-javed-in-pakistani-drama-aitraaz/|dead-url=yes|accessdate=24 March 2020|archivedate=4 October 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004071139/http://www.brandsynario.com/imran-abbas-to-romance-sana-javed-in-pakistani-drama-aitraaz/}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|2016
| ''[[Zara Yaad Kar]]''
| Mahnoor
|
|-
|2016
| ''[[Intezaar]]''
| Zoya
| &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://pakistani.pk/intezar/|title=Intezar A Plus Drama, Timings, Schedule And Cast|last=Shah|first=Saud|website=pakistani.pk|language=en-US|access-date=2018-03-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 2017–2018
| ''[[Khaani]]''
| Sanam Khan / Khaani
| &lt;ref&gt;{{citeweb|url=https://images.dawn.com/news/1178695|work=images.dawn.com|title=Sana Javed is making a comeback to television with Khaani|accessdate= 24 March 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|2018
|''[[Dino Ki Dulhaniya]]''
|Noor
|
|-
|2018–2019
|''[[Romeo Weds Heer]]''
| Heer
|
|-
|2019
|''[[Darr Khuda Say]]''
| Afreen Siddiqui
|
|-
|2019
| ''[[Ruswai (TV series)|Ruswai]]''
| Sameera
|
|-
|}
&lt;!--===Reality appearances===
{|class= &quot;wikitable&quot;
! Year !! Title !! Channel !! Notes
|-
|2016
| ''[[Iftar Mulaqat]]''
| [[Geo Kahani]] 
| In episode 8&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.trendinginsocial.com/tag/sana-javed-for-the-8th-episode-of-iftar-mulaqaat/|title=Sana Javed for the 8th episode of Iftar Mulaqaat Archives - Entertainment, Fashion &amp; Technology Updates|website=www.trendinginsocial.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-03-31}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|2017
|''[[Mazaaq Raat]]
|[[Dunya News]]
|To promote [[Mehrunisa V Lub U]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last=Talk Shows Central|title=Mazaaq Raat 28 June 2017 {{!}} Mehrunisa V Lub U Movie Cast - Dunya News|date=2017-06-28|url=https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=Jv6XIN-feUo|accessdate=2018-03-31}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|''[[Jago Pakistan Jago]]''
|[[Hum TV]]
|To promote her serial [[Maana Ka Gharana]] &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.stylechunk.com/sana-javed-danish-taimoor-jago-pakistan/|title=Sana Javed and Danish Taimoor in Jago Pakistan|website=www.stylechunk.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-03-31}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}--&gt;

===Film===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Year 
! Film 
! Role
! Director
! Notes
! Ref.
|-
| 2017
| ''[[Mehrunisa V Lub U]]'' 
| Mehrunisa
| [[Yasir Nawaz]]
| Debut film
| &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.brandsynario.com/mehrunisa-v-lub-u-teaser-ft-danish-taimoor-sana-javed-love/|title='Mehrunisa V Lub U' Teaser ft. Danish Taimoor &amp; Sana Javed is Out &amp; We Love it! - Brandsynario|work=Brandsynario|access-date=26 March 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1188596/sana-javed-set-star-alongside-danish-taimoor-debut-film/|title=Sana Javed set to star alongside Danish Taimoor in debut film - The Express Tribune|work=The Express Tribune|access-date=26 March 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

==حوالو==
&quot;Sana Javed – Biography, Age, Education, Relationship, Dramas, Movie&quot;. Reviewit.pk. Retrieved 26 March 2018.

&quot;Female newcomers ruling Pakistan entertainment industry&quot;. www.pakistantoday.com.pk. Retrieved 2018-03-26.

&quot;Sana Javed's strong character in 'Khaani' will surely inspire every woman&quot;. Daily Times. Retrieved 25 March 2018.

&quot;Sana Javed set to star alongside Danish Taimoor in debut film - The Express Tribune&quot;. The Express Tribune. 2016-09-27. Retrieved 2018-03-31.

&quot;Female newcomers ruling Pakistan entertainment industry&quot;. www.pakistantoday.com.pk. Retrieved 2018-03-26.

&quot;Sana Javed set to star alongside Danish Taimoor in debut film - The Express Tribune&quot;. The Express Tribune. 2016-09-27. Retrieved 2018-03-31.

Alveena Abid (2 August 2016). &quot;Sana Javed opts out of debut film 'Rangreza'&quot;. The Express Tribune. Retrieved 9 November 2017.

&quot;Sana Javed's strong character in 'Khaani' will surely inspire every woman - Daily Times&quot;. Daily Times. 2018-03-07. Retrieved 2018-04-12.

&quot;Mera Pehla Pyaar&quot;. IMDb. Retrieved 25 March 2018.

&quot;Actress Sana Javed fans Following Increasing Due to Pyaray Afzal Drama -&quot;. 2014-04-17. Retrieved 2018-03-31.

&quot;female newcomers ruling pakistan entertainment industry&quot;. pakistantoday.com.pk. Retrieved 25 March 2018.

&quot;Meenu Ka Susral&quot;. arydigital.tv. Retrieved 25 March 2018.

&quot;Meri Dulari&quot;. pakistani.pk. Retrieved 25 March 2018.

&quot;Goya' – A fast-paced, well-plotted drama&quot;. dawn.com. Retrieved 25 March 2018.

&quot;Chingari&quot;. pakistani.pk. Retrieved 25 March 2018.

&quot;Paiwand&quot;. arydigital. Retrieved 25 March 2018.

&quot;Ishaq Bacha Hay Bigra Hoa', Nabeel Shaukat sings title song of 'Mana Ka Gharana'&quot;. thenewsteller.com. Retrieved 25 March 2018.

&quot;Imran Abbas to Romance Sana Javed in Pakistani Drama 'Aitraaz' - Brandsynario&quot;. Brandsynario. Retrieved 26 March 2018.

Shah, Saud. &quot;Intezar A Plus Drama, Timings, Schedule And Cast&quot;. pakistani.pk. Retrieved 2018-03-26.

&quot;Sana Javed is making a comeback to television with Khaani&quot;. images.dawn.com. Retrieved 24 March 2018.

&quot;'Mehrunisa V Lub U' Teaser ft. Danish Taimoor &amp; Sana Javed is Out &amp; We Love it! - Brandsynario&quot;. Brandsynario. Retrieved 26 March 2018.

&quot;Sana Javed set to star alongside Danish Taimoor in debut film - The Express Tribune&quot;. The Express Tribune. Retrieved 26 March 2018.

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Salman, Ifrah (24 October 2017). &quot;Sana Javed and Ali Rehman Khan sizzle together in &quot;Qubool Hai&quot;&quot;. HIP. Retrieved 4 April 2018.

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&lt;br/&gt;
[[زمرو:1993 پيدائش]]
[[زمرو:ايڪيهين-صديءَ جون پاڪستاني اداڪارائون]]
[[زمرو:جيئرا ماڻهو]]
[[زمرو:1993ع جون پيدائشون]]
[[زمرو:جيوت ماڻهو]]</text>
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    <title>برطانوي عام چونڊون، 2024ع</title>
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{{Infobox election
| election_name = برطانيه جون عام چونڊون 2024ع
| country = برطانيه
| type = پارلیمنٹری
| ongoing = no
| previous_election = برطانيه جون عام چونڊون 2019ع
| previous_year = 2019ع
| election_date = 4 جولاء، 2024ع
| next_election = برطانيه جون اڳيون عام چونڊون
| next_year = &quot;اڳيان&quot;
| next_mps = 
| elected_mps = ایم پیز جی فھرست جیکا برطانيه جون عام چونڊون 2024ع م چوندجی آیا.
| seats_for_election = 650
| majority_seats = 326{{refn|group=n|Given that Sinn Féin [[members of Parliament]] (MPs) practise [[abstentionism]] and do not take their seats, while the Speaker and deputies do not vote, the number of MPs needed for a majority is in practice slightly lower.&lt;ref name=working&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/government-majority |title=Government majority |website=Institute for Government |date=20 December 2019 |access-date=4 July 2024 |archive-date=28 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128063642/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/government-majority |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Sinn Féin won 7 seats, and including the speaker and their 3 deputy speakers, meaning a majority requires 320 seats.}}
| opinion_polls = 
| registered = 
| turnout = 59.9% ({{decrease}} 7.4 [[percentage point|pp]])&lt;ref name=&quot;skynews&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://election.news.sky.com/elections/general-election-2024 |title=General Election 2024 |website=[[Sky News]] |access-date=5 July 2024 |archive-date=5 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240705033653/https://election.news.sky.com/elections/general-election-2024 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 1blank = Exit poll
&lt;!-- Labour --&gt;| image1 = {{CSS image crop|Image = Prime Minister Sir Keir Starmer Official Portrait (cropped).jpg|bSize = 140|cWidth = 120|cHeight = 160|oTop = 5|oLeft = 5}}
| image_size = 
| leader1 = [[Keir Starmer]] &lt;!-- not bolded in any case --&gt;
| party1 = ليبر پارٽي (برطانيه)
| leader_since1 = [[2020 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|4 April 2020]]
| leaders_seat1 = [[Holborn and St Pancras (UK Parliament constituency)|Holborn and&lt;br/&gt;St Pancras]]
| last_election1 = 202 seats, 32.1%
| seats1 = '''411'''{{efn|name=Speaker|The figure does not include [[Lindsay Hoyle]], the [[Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)|speaker of the House of Commons]], who was included in the Labour seat total by some media outlets. By longstanding convention, the speaker severs all ties to their affiliated party upon being elected as speaker.}}
| seat_change1 = {{Increase}} 209
| popular_vote1 = '''9,704,655'''
| percentage2 = 23.7%
| swing1 = {{Increase}} 1.6 [[Percentage point|pp]]
| image2 = {{CSS image crop|Image = Portrait of Prime Minister Rishi Sunak (cropped).jpg |bSize = 140|cWidth = 120|cHeight = 160|oTop = 0|oLeft = 10}}
| leader2 = [[رشي سوناڪ]]
| party2 = قدامت پسند پارٽي (برطانيه)
| leader_since2 = [[October 2022 Conservative Party leadership election|24 October 2022]]
| leaders_seat2 = [[Richmond and Northallerton (UK Parliament constituency)|Richmond and Northallerton]]
| last_election2 = 365 seats, 43.6%
| seats2 = 121
| seat_change2 = {{Decrease}} 244
| popular_vote2 = 6,827,311
| swing2 = {{Decrease}} 19.9 [[Percentage point|pp]]
| image3 = {{CSS image crop|Image = Ed Davey election infobox.jpg |bSize = 120|cWidth = 120|cHeight = 160|oTop = 0|oLeft = 0}}
| leader3 = [[Ed Davey]]
| party3 = لبرل ڊيموڪريٽس (برطانيه)
| leader_since3 = [[2020 Liberal Democrats leadership election|27 August 2020]]
| leaders_seat3 = [[Kingston and Surbiton (UK Parliament constituency)|Kingston and Surbiton]]
| last_election3 = 11 seats, 11.6%
| seats3 = 72
| seat_change3 = {{Increase}} 61
| popular_vote3 = 3,519,199
| percentage3 = 12.2%
| swing3 = {{Increase}} 0.7 [[Percentage point|pp]]
| map = 
| map_upright = 
| map_alt = 
| map_image = 2024 United Kingdom general election - Result.svg
| map_size = 360px
| map_caption = هڪ نقشو جيڪو چونڊن جا نتيجا پيش ڪري ٿو، هر تڪ مان پارٽي طرفان چونڊيل ايم پي. ليبر (لال)، قدامت پسند (نيرو) ۽ لبرل (زعفراني)
| map2_image = House of Commons (2024 election).svg
| map2_caption = اليڪشن کان پوءِ هائوس آف ڪامنز جو ٺهراءُ
| title = وزير اعظم
| posttitle = اليڪشن کان پوءِ وزير اعظم
| before_election = [[رشي سوناڪ]]
| before_party = ڪنزرويٽيو
| after_election = [[ڪيئر اسٽارمر]]
| after_party = ليبر
| outgoing_members = ایم پیز جی فھرست جیکا برطانيه جون عام چونڊون 2019ع م چوندجی آیا.
| percentage1 = '''33.7%'''
| reporting = 
| time_zone = 
| last_update = 
| seats_before3 = 15
| seats_before2 = 344
| seats_before1 = 205
}}
'''سال 2024ع برطانيه جون عام چونڊون''' خميس 4 جولاءِ تي پارليامينٽ جي 650 ميمبرن (ايم پيز) کي  [[هائوس آف ڪامنز يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم|هائوس آف ڪامنز]]، برطانيه جي پارليامينٽ جي هيٺين ايوان ۾ چونڊجي لاء منعقد ڪيون ويون. بریگزٽ کانپوءِ برطانيه ۾ هي پهرين عام چونڊون آهن. برسر اقتدار ڪنزرويٽو پارٽي، جنهن جي اڳواڻي وزير اعظم رشي سوناڪ ڪري رهيو هو، کير اسٽارمر جي اڳواڻي ۾ اپوزيشن ليبر پارٽي طرفان زبردست شڪست ڏني وئي. ليبر پارٽي هن اليڪشن ۾ 650 سيٽن مان 410 سيٽون حاصل ڪري هائوس آف ڪامنز ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪئي. هن پارٽيءَ جو اڳواڻ سر ڪيئر اسٽارمر، رشي سوناڪ جی جاءِ تي برطانيه جو وزيراعظم مقرر ٿيو.

اليڪشن 2005ع جي عام چونڊن کان پوءِ ليبر پارٽيءَ جي پهرين فتح هئي ۽ ڪنزرويٽو پارٽيءَ جي چوڏهن سالن جي دور کي پرائمري گورننگ پارٽي طور ختم ڪيو. ليبر 172 سيٽن جي اڪثريت حاصل ڪئي ۽ مجموعي طور تي 411 سيٽون حاصل ڪيون، سال 1997ع جي عام چونڊن کان پوء سيٽن جي حصيداري جي لحاظ کان پارٽي جو ٻيو نمبر بهترين نتيجو آهي. جڏهن ته، پارٽي جي ووٽ جو حصو %33.7 برطانوي چونڊ تاريخ ۾ ڪنهن به اڪثريت واري حڪومت جو ننڍڙو حصو هو. ليبر انگلينڊ ۾ 2005ع کان پوءِ پهريون ڀيرو سڀ کان وڏي پارٽي بڻجي وئي، اسڪاٽ لينڊ ۾ پهريون ڀيرو 2010ع کان پوءِ ويلز ۾ سڀ کان وڏي پارٽي جي حيثيت برقرار رکي.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc.co.uk2222&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/cn09xn9je7lt|title=UK general election results live: Labour set for landslide as results come in across country|date=4 July 2024|website=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240704043031/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/cn09xn9je7lt|archive-date=4 July 2024|access-date=4 July 2024|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; پارٽي آزاد اميدوارن کي پنجن حلقن ۾ وڃائي ڇڏيو، گهڻو ڪري اسرائيل۔حماس جنگ تي ان جي موقف کي منسوب ڪيو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/article/2024/jul/05/labour-loses-three-seats-to-pro-palestinian-candidates|title=Senior Labour figures admit stance on Gaza cost party seats|last=Stacey|first=Kiran|date=2024-07-05|work=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=2024-07-06|last2=|first2=|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪنزرويٽو پارٽي پنهنجي تاريخ ۾ سڀ کان وڏي شڪست جو تجربو ڪيو، 121 سيٽون گهٽجي ويون ۽ ووٽن جو حصو %23.7 تی ویو. اهو 244 سيٽون وڃائي چڪو آهي، جن ۾ ٻارهن ڪابينا جي وزيرن ۽ اڳوڻي وزيراعظم لز ٽرس شامل آھن.&lt;ref name=&quot;Axios22&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.axios.com/2024/07/05/liz-truss-former-uk-prime-minister-general-election-loss|title=Former Prime Minister Liz Truss loses seat in U.K. election|date=5 July 2024|website=Axios|access-date=5 July 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو ويلز ۾ پنهنجي سڀني سيٽن کي وڃائي ڇڏيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbc.co.uk32&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cd1xnzlzz99o|title=Rishi Sunak apologises after historic Tory defeat|date=5 July 2024|website=BBC News|access-date=5 July 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ننڍين پارٽين چونڊن ۾ سٺي ڪارڪردگي ڏيکاري، جزوي طور مخالف ڪنزرويٽو تاکتياتي ووٽنگ جي ڪري &lt;ref name=&quot;YouGov2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://yougov.co.uk/politics/articles/49886-one-in-five-voters-say-they-are-voting-tactically-at-the-2024-general-election|title=One in five voters say they are voting tactically at the 2024 general election|date=1 July 2024|website=YouGov|access-date=5 July 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ گڏيل ليبر ۽ ڪنزرويٽو ووٽ جو حصو 57.5 سيڪڙو تاريخ ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ هو. لبرل ڊيموڪريٽس، ايڊ ڊيوي جي اڳواڻي ۾، ​​مجموعي طور تي 72 سيٽون حاصل ڪري سڀ کان اهم حاصلات ڪيون. اهو پارٽي جو بهترين نتيجو هو&lt;ref name=&quot;historicfirsts2222&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://news.sky.com/story/historic-firsts-from-the-2024-general-election-in-numbers-and-charts-13163306|title=Historic firsts from the 2024 general election in numbers and charts|website=Sky News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240705185432/https://news.sky.com/story/historic-firsts-from-the-2024-general-election-in-numbers-and-charts-13163306|archive-date=5 July 2024|access-date=5 July 2024|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ ان کي پارليامينٽ ۾ ٽيون نمبر وڏي پارٽي بنايو، اها حيثيت هن اڳ ۾ رکي هئي پر 2015ع جي عام چونڊن ۾ وڃائي ڇڏيو. ريفارم برطانيه ٽيون نمبر سڀ کان وڌيڪ ووٽ حاصل ڪيو ۽ پنج سيٽون کٽيون، ۽ گرين پارٽي آف انگلينڊ ۽ ويلز چار سيٽون کٽيون، ٻنهي پارٽين لاءِ تاريخ ۾ بهترين پارلياماني نتيجا. ويلز ۾، پلائیڈ خائمرو Plaid Cymru چار سيٽون کٽيون. اسڪاٽ لينڊ ۾، اسڪاٽش نيشنل پارٽي 48 سيٽن مان 9 تائين گهٽجي وئي، ۽ ٽيون نمبر وڏي پارٽي جي حيثيت وڃائي وئي. 

ليبر راءِ شماري ۾ ڪنزرويٽو مٿان وڏي برتري سان اليڪشن ۾ داخل ٿيو ۽ پارٽي جي فتح جو امڪاني پيمانو مهم دوران بحث جو موضوع هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Walker 20242&quot;&gt;{{cite news |last=Walker |first=Peter |date=20 February 2024 |title=Another Canada 93? Tory Sunak critics fear extinction-level election result |url=https://theguardian.com/politics/2024/feb/20/canada-93-tory-sunak-critics-extinction-level-election-result |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240615124840/https://amp.theguardian.com/politics/2024/feb/20/canada-93-tory-sunak-critics-extinction-level-election-result |archive-date=15 June 2024 |access-date=14 June 2024 |work=The Guardian}}&lt;/ref&gt; معيشت، صحت، تعليم، بنيادي ڍانچي جي ترقي، اميگريشن ۽ توانائي پڻ مهم جا موضوع هئا. اليڪشن ويسٽ منسٽر حلقن جي 2023ع جي دوري جي جائزي کان پوءِ لاڳو ٿيل نئين حلقن جي حدن کي استعمال ڪندي پهرين وڙهندي هئي، پهرين عام چونڊون جنهن ۾ فوٽوگرافي جي سڃاڻپ جي ضرورت هئي ته برطانيه ۾ ذاتي طور تي ووٽ ڏيڻ جي ضرورت هئي، ۽ پهريون ڀيرو پارليامينٽ جي تحلیل ۽ ڪالنگ ايڪٽ 2022ع تحت سڏيو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-57090451|title=Boris Johnson pushes for power to call election at any time|date=12 May 2021|publisher=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220101085518/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-57090451|archive-date=1 January 2022|access-date=1 January 2022|quote=The government has set in motion its plan for prime ministers to regain the power to call general elections whenever they like.|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==پس منظر==
===اليڪشن کان اڳ ڪنزرويٽو پارٽي جو سياسي پس منظر===
بورس جانسن جي ماتحت ڪنزرويٽو پارٽي سال 2019ع جي عام چونڊن ۾ وڏي اڪثريت حاصل ڪئي ۽ نئين حڪومت برڪسٽ جو معاهدو پاس ڪيو. ڪووڊ-19جي وبائي مرض ۾ سرڪاري ادارا پبلڪ هيلٿ پابنديون، بشمول سماجي رابطي تي پابنديون ڏٺو جيڪي جانسن ۽ هن جا ڪجهه عملو بعد ۾ ڀڄي ويا. نتيجي ۾ پيدا ٿيندڙ سياسي اسڪينڊل (Partygate)، ڪيترن ئي تڪرارن مان هڪ آهي، جيڪو جانسن جي پريميئر شپ کي خاص ڪري، هن جي ذاتي شهرت کي نقصان پهچايو. صورتحال جولاءِ 2022ع ۾ ڪرس پنچر اسڪينڊل سان، جانسن جي استعيفيٰ جي ڪري وڌي وئي. هن ايندڙ سال ايم پي جي حيثيت سان استعيفيٰ ڏني، هڪ تحقيق کانپوءِ اتفاق راءِ سان معلوم ٿيو ته هن پارليامينٽ سان ڪوڙ ڳالهايو هو. لز ٽرس نتيجي ۾ قيادت جي چونڊ کٽي ۽ سيپٽمبر ۾ جانسن کي ڪامياب ڪيو. ٽرس 23 سيپٽمبر تي مني بجٽ ۾ وڏي پئماني تي ٽيڪس ڪٽ ۽ قرض وٺڻ جو اعلان ڪيو، جنهن تي وڏي پئماني تي تنقيد ڪئي وئي ۽ ان کان پوءِ تيزيءَ سان مالي عدم استحڪام جو سبب بڻيو، گهڻو ڪري رد ڪيو ويو. هن آڪٽوبر ۾ استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي، هن کي برطانوي تاريخ ۾ سڀ کان مختصر وقت جي وزير اعظم بڻايو. رشي سوناڪ آڪٽوبر ۾ ٽرس جي جا وٺڻ لاءِ بنيادي قيادت جي چونڊ کٽي ورتي. هن جي پريميئر شپ دوران، سوناڪ کي معيشت کي بهتر بڻائڻ ۽ قومي سياست کي مستحڪم ڪرڻ جو اعتبار ڏنو ويو هن جي اڳوڻن جي پريميئر شپ جي پٺيان، جيتوڻيڪ هن جا ڪيترائي واعدا ۽ پاليسي اعلان آخرڪار اڻپورا ٿي ويا. هن قدامت پسندن لاءِ وڌيڪ غير مقبوليت کي نه روڪيو، جيڪي سوناڪ جي چونڊن جي وقت تائين، 12 سالن تائين حڪومت ۾ هئا. حڪومت ۾ تبديلي جي حق ۾ عوامي راءِ 2022ع، 2023ع ۽ 2024ع برطانيه جي مڪاني چونڊن ۾ ڪنزرويٽوز جي خراب ڪارڪردگيءَ جي عڪاسي ڪئي وئي.
===اليڪشن کان اڳ ٻين پارٽين جو سياسي پس منظر===

==اليڪشن جي تاريخ==
==چونڊ نظام== 
==مهم== 
==بيٽنگ اسڪينڊل== 
==بحث مباحثا ۽ انٽرويو== 
==تصديق== 
==اميدوار== 
==راءِ شماري==
==نتيجا== 
==تجزيو== 
==چونڊن جي بعد== 
==پڻ ڏسو== 
==خارجي لنڪس==
{{Commons category|2024 United Kingdom general election}}

'''Great Britain manifestos'''
* [https://assets.nationbuilder.com/albaparty/pages/4130/attachments/original/1719345505/ALBA_Party_Manifesto_-_Election_2024.pdf?1719345505 Alba Party]
* [https://public.conservatives.com/static/documents/GE2024/Conservative-Manifesto-GE2024.pdf Conservative Party]
* [https://greenparty.org.uk/app/uploads/2024/06/Green-Party-2024-General-Election-Manifesto-Long-version-with-cover.pdf Green Party of England &amp; Wales]
* [https://labour.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Labour-Party-manifesto-2024.pdf Labour Party]
* [https://www.libdems.org.uk/fileadmin/groups/2_Federal_Party/Documents/PolicyPapers/Manifesto_2024/For_a_Fair_Deal_-_Liberal_Democrat_Manifesto_2024.pdf Liberal Democrat]
* Plaid Cymru [https://assets.nationbuilder.com/plaid2016/pages/10962/attachments/original/1718214059/Plaid_Cymru_Maniffesto_2024_ENGLISH.pdf?1718214059 English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240613213154/https://assets.nationbuilder.com/plaid2016/pages/10962/attachments/original/1718214059/Plaid_Cymru_Maniffesto_2024_ENGLISH.pdf?1718214059 |date=2024-06-13 }} [https://assets.nationbuilder.com/plaid2016/pages/11001/attachments/original/1718214453/Plaid_Cymru_Maniffesto_2024_CYMRAEG.pdf?1718214453 Welsh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240710202738/https://assets.nationbuilder.com/plaid2016/pages/11001/attachments/original/1718214453/Plaid_Cymru_Maniffesto_2024_CYMRAEG.pdf?1718214453 |date=2024-07-10 }}
* [https://assets.nationbuilder.com/reformuk/pages/253/attachments/original/1718625371/Reform_UK_Our_Contract_with_You.pdf Reform UK]
* [https://greens.scot/sites/default/files/SGP-Westminster-Manifesto-2024-web.pdf Scottish Greens] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709171028/https://greens.scot/sites/default/files/SGP-Westminster-Manifesto-2024-web.pdf |date=2024-07-09 }}
* [https://s3-eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/www.snp.org/uploads/2024/06/2024-06-17-SNP-UK-Election-Manifesto-2024.pdf Scottish National Party]
* [https://sdp.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/SDP_Manifesto_2024.pdf Social Democratic Party] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240720134238/https://sdp.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/SDP_Manifesto_2024.pdf |date=2024-07-20 }}
* [https://workerspartybritain.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/01_Manifesto_FINAL_mar.pdf Workers Party]

Northern Ireland manifestos
* [https://assets.nationbuilder.com/allianceparty/pages/11234/attachments/original/1718832706/2024WestminsterManifesto.pdf?1718832706 Alliance Party]
* [https://s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/my-dup/2024-Manifesto-Final.pdf Democratic Unionist Party]
* [https://vote.sinnfein.ie/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Sinn-Fein-Westminster-Election-Manifesto-2024.pdf Sinn Féin]
* [https://assets.nationbuilder.com/sdlp/pages/753/attachments/original/1719422488/SDLP_Manifesto_2024.pdf Social Democratic and Labour Party]
* [https://assets.nationbuilder.com/uup/pages/40/attachments/original/1719233594/General_Election_Manifesto_2024-compressed.pdf Ulster Unionist Party]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:2024 United Kingdom general election| ]]
[[Category:Ed Davey]]
[[Category:General elections to the Parliament of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of the Labour Party (UK)]]
[[Category:July 2024 events in the United Kingdom|General election]]
[[Category:Keir Starmer]]
[[Category:Landslide victories in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Nigel Farage]]
[[Category:Premiership of Rishi Sunak]]

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:سياست]]
[[زمرو:گڏيل بادشاھت]]</text>
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      <text bytes="93" sha1="idf2pqz2dizhsdie0ywkamqlomx990e" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:رياضيات]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جون ذيلي شاخون]]</text>
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      <text bytes="157" sha1="s7o8v2f8vns9vxokz4nyvv9jiynoqhi" xml:space="preserve">{{اصل مضمون}}
{{زمرو ڪامنز}}
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سافٽ ويئر]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جون ذيلي شاخون]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ</title>
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      <text bytes="6629" sha1="puj8dodb4b2jp34z2wcz6irk3wgtzp7" xml:space="preserve">{{WAM talk 2024}}
 {{Infobox company|name=عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ|logo=Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering logo.png|image=Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering.jpg|image_size=|native_name='''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ'''|type=خودمختيار ادارو|foundation=2019|founder=[[امر فياض ٻرڙو]]|location_city=[[حيدرآباد، سنڌ]]|location_country=[[پاڪستان]]|location=N-5، نيشنل هاءِ وي|origins=|key_people=[[سيد سردار علي شاهه]]، [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]]، [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]]، شبير ڪنڀار|area_served=[[ٻولي انجنيئرنگ]] جو [[سنڌي ٻولي]] سڀني [[ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]] ۾.|industry=[[ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]]|products=[[تحقيق]]، [[ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر]]|services=|revenue=|operating_income=|net_income=|num_employees=|parent=[[ثقافت]]، [[سياحت]] ۽ [[نوادرات]] [[وزارت (سرڪاري کاتو)] کاتو]]، [[سنڌ حڪومت]]|divisions=|subsid=|owner=[[سنڌ حڪومت]]|homepage={{URL|https://ambile.pk|ambile.pk}}|dissolved=|footnotes=}}

'''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ''' سنڌ حڪومت جي ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات کاتي جي انتظامي ڪنٽرول هيٺ هڪ خود مختيار ادارو آهي، جيڪو سنڌي ٻولي کي قومي ۽ بين الاقوامي ٻولين جي برابر آڻڻ لاءِ قائم ڪيو ويو آهي ته جيئن ڪمپيوٽر جي سڀني ڪمپيوٽيشنل پروسيسنگ ۽ نيچرل لينگويج پروسيسنگ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1919699/1-sindh-cabinet-decides-export-5m-tonnes-wheat/|title=Sindh cabinet decides to export 5m tonnes of wheat|date=February 28, 2019|website=The Express Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== قيام ==
سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جي باني [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]] جي خدمتن جي اعتراف ۾ سنڌ حڪومت سندس نالي سان انسٽيٽيوٽ قائم ڪيو آهي. انسٽيٽيوٽ بنيادي طور تي هڪ ٻوليءَ جي انجنيئر ۽ لسانيات جي ماهر [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل تصور تي شروع ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ صوبائي وزير ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات، سنڌ حڪومت، سيد سردار علي شاهه کي 21 فيبروري 2017 تي مادري ٻولين جي عالمي ڏينهن جي موقعي تي بريفنگ ڏني وئي. [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ. [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل پريزنٽيشن ۽ تصور کانپوءِ صوبائي وزير سيد سردار علي شاهه انسٽيٽيوٽ جو اعلان ڪيو. ان کان پوءِ سنڌ حڪومت مالي سال 2017-2018 جي ​​بجيٽ ۾ ترقياتي اسڪيم شامل ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://sindhculture.gov.pk/newd/index.php?option=com_k2&amp;view=item&amp;id=323:establishment-of-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering-at-hyderabad&amp;Itemid=1572&amp;lang=en|title=Establishment of Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering at Hyderabad|website=sindhculture.gov.pk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://openparliament.pk/govt-introduces-bills-on-education-public-finance-in-sindh-assembly/|title=Govt Introduces Bills on Education, Public Finance in Sindh Assembly|date=May 2, 2019|website=Open Parliament Pakistan &amp;#124; An initiative of FAFEN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== منصوبا ==
انسٽيٽيوٽ ڪيترائي منصوبا ٺاهيا آهن جن جو مقصد سنڌي ٻوليءَ کي اڳتي وڌائڻ ۽ لساني تحقيق کي فروغ ڏيڻ آهي. قابل ذڪر قدمن ۾ شامل آهن AMBILE 

Hamiz Ali Sindhi,

&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Optical character recognition، جيڪا اجازت ڏئي ٿي سنڌي متن جي صحيح ڊجيٽلائيزيشن، ۽ جاري سنڌي WordNet سسٽم، هڪ پروجيڪٽ جيڪو هڪ جامع ليڪسيڪل ڊيٽابيس ٺاهڻ جو منصوبو آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2477269/importance-of-sindhi-wordnet-highlighted|title=Importance of Sindhi WordNet highlighted|last=|first=|date=July 7, 2024|work=[[The Express Tribune]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://citynews.com.pk/shaheed-benazir-bhutto-university-students-visited-abdul-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering/28502/|title=Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University students visited Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering|date=July 6, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;قدرتي ٻولي پروسيسنگ لاءِ اداري هڪ فونٽ پڻ ٺاهيو آهي، جيڪو سنڌو لکت، خدا آبادي اسڪرپٽ، ۽ جديد فارسي-عربي اسڪرپٽ ڪوڊ فار انفارميشن جي مٽاسٽا جي علامتن کي ضم ڪري ٿو &lt;ref name=&quot;auto2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; محققن لاءِ هڪ واحد وسيلو ۾. اضافي طور تي، انسٽيٽيوٽ آن لائن ڪنورٽر اوزار ٺاهيا آهن جيڪي خودڪار طور تي عربي-فارسي لپي ۽ ديوناگري لپي جي وچ ۾ ترجمو ڪري، لساني رسائي کي بهتر بڻائي ٿو. ٻيو اهم پراجيڪٽ ڀٽي پيڊيا آهي، جيڪو هڪ ڊجيٽل پليٽ فارم آهي جيڪو سنڌ جي مشهور شاعر شاهه عبداللطيف ڀٽائيءَ جي شاعريءَ جي تحفظ ۽ نشر و اشاعت لاءِ وقف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.nation.com.pk/22-Sep-2021/sa-pays-glowing-tribute-to-shah-abdul-latif-bhitai poets&lt;/ref&gt;

== ھنڌ ==
ھي ادارو [[سنڌ ميوزيم]] ۽ [[سنڌي ٻولي جو با اختيار ادارو|سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، N-5 نيشنل هاءِ وي، قاسم آباد، حيدرآباد، سنڌ جي پٺيان قائم آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ]]
[[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]]</text>
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 {{Infobox company|name=عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ|logo=Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering logo.png|image=Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering.jpg|image_size=|native_name='''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ'''|type=خودمختيار ادارو|foundation=2019|founder=[[امر فياض ٻرڙو]]|location_city=[[حيدرآباد، سنڌ]]|location_country=[[پاڪستان]]|location=N-5، نيشنل هاءِ وي|origins=|key_people=[[سيد سردار علي شاهه]]، [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]]، [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]]، شبير ڪنڀار|area_served=[[ٻولي انجنيئرنگ]] جو [[سنڌي ٻولي]] سڀني [[ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]] ۾.|industry=[[ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]]|products=[[تحقيق]]، [[ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر]]|services=|revenue=|operating_income=|net_income=|num_employees=|parent=[[ثقافت]]، [[سياحت]] ۽ [[نوادرات]] [[وزارت (سرڪاري کاتو)] کاتو]]، [[سنڌ حڪومت]]|divisions=|subsid=|owner=[[سنڌ حڪومت]]|homepage={{URL|https://ambile.pk|ambile.pk}}|dissolved=|footnotes=}}

'''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ''' سنڌ حڪومت جي ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات کاتي جي انتظامي ڪنٽرول هيٺ هڪ خود مختيار ادارو آهي، جيڪو سنڌي ٻولي کي قومي ۽ بين الاقوامي ٻولين جي برابر آڻڻ لاءِ قائم ڪيو ويو آهي ته جيئن ڪمپيوٽر جي سڀني ڪمپيوٽيشنل پروسيسنگ ۽ نيچرل لينگويج پروسيسنگ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1919699/1-sindh-cabinet-decides-export-5m-tonnes-wheat/|title=Sindh cabinet decides to export 5m tonnes of wheat|date=February 28, 2019|website=The Express Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== قيام ==
سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جي باني [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]] جي خدمتن جي اعتراف ۾ سنڌ حڪومت سندس نالي سان انسٽيٽيوٽ قائم ڪيو آهي. انسٽيٽيوٽ بنيادي طور تي هڪ ٻوليءَ جي انجنيئر ۽ لسانيات جي ماهر [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل تصور تي شروع ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ صوبائي وزير ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات، سنڌ حڪومت، سيد سردار علي شاهه کي 21 فيبروري 2017 تي مادري ٻولين جي عالمي ڏينهن جي موقعي تي بريفنگ ڏني وئي. [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ. [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل پريزنٽيشن ۽ تصور کانپوءِ صوبائي وزير سيد سردار علي شاهه انسٽيٽيوٽ جو اعلان ڪيو. ان کان پوءِ سنڌ حڪومت مالي سال 2017-2018 جي ​​بجيٽ ۾ ترقياتي اسڪيم شامل ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://sindhculture.gov.pk/newd/index.php?option=com_k2&amp;view=item&amp;id=323:establishment-of-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering-at-hyderabad&amp;Itemid=1572&amp;lang=en|title=Establishment of Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering at Hyderabad|website=sindhculture.gov.pk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://openparliament.pk/govt-introduces-bills-on-education-public-finance-in-sindh-assembly/|title=Govt Introduces Bills on Education, Public Finance in Sindh Assembly|date=May 2, 2019|website=Open Parliament Pakistan &amp;#124; An initiative of FAFEN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== منصوبا ==
انسٽيٽيوٽ ڪيترائي منصوبا ٺاهيا آهن جن جو مقصد [[سنڌي ٻولي|سنڌي ٻوليءَ]] کي اڳتي وڌائڻ ۽ لساني تحقيق کي فروغ ڏيڻ آهي. قابل ذڪر قدمن ۾ شامل آهن امبيل (&lt;small&gt;AMBILE&lt;/small&gt;)، حميض علي سنڌي، آپٽيڪل اکر جي سڃاڻپ،&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا سنڌي متن جي صحيح ڊجيٽلائيزيشن اجازت ڏئي ٿي ۽ جاري سنڌي  &quot;ورڊ نيٽ سسٽم&quot;  (&lt;small&gt;WordNet&lt;/small&gt;)، هڪ پروجيڪٽ جيڪو هڪ جامع ليڪسيڪل ڊيٽابيس ٺاهڻ جو منصوبو آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2477269/importance-of-sindhi-wordnet-highlighted|title=Importance of Sindhi WordNet highlighted|last=|first=|date=July 7, 2024|work=[[The Express Tribune]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://citynews.com.pk/shaheed-benazir-bhutto-university-students-visited-abdul-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering/28502/|title=Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University students visited Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering|date=July 6, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; قدرتي ٻولي پروسيسنگ لاءِ اداري هڪ فونٽ پڻ ٺاهيو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌو لکت]]، [[خدا آبادي لپي|خدا آبادي اسڪرپٽ]] ۽ [[فارسي عربي لکت|جديد فارسي-عربي اسڪرپٽ]] ڪوڊ فار انفارميشن جي مٽاسٽا جي علامتن  کي, محققن لاءِ هڪ واحد وسيلو, ۾ ضم ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;auto2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; اضافي طور تي، انسٽيٽيوٽ آن لائن ڪنورٽر اوزار ٺاهيا آهن جيڪي خودڪار طور تي عربي-فارسي لپي ۽ ديوناگري لپي جي وچ ۾ ترجمو ڪري، لساني رسائي کي بهتر بڻائي ٿو. ٻيو اهم پراجيڪٽ ڀٽي پيڊيا آهي، جيڪو هڪ ڊجيٽل پليٽ فارم آهي جيڪو [[سنڌ]] جي مشهور شاعر [[شاھ عبداللطيف ڀٽائي|شاهه عبداللطيف ڀٽائيءَ]] جي شاعريءَ جي تحفظ ۽ نشر و اشاعت لاءِ وقف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.nation.com.pk/22-Sep-2021/sa-pays-glowing-tribute-to-shah-abdul-latif-bhitai poets&lt;/ref&gt; 

== ھنڌ ==
ھي ادارو [[سنڌ ميوزيم]] ۽ [[سنڌي ٻولي جو با اختيار ادارو|سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، N-5 نيشنل هاءِ وي، قاسم آباد، حيدرآباد، سنڌ جي پٺيان قائم آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ]]
[[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]]</text>
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    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2026-04-16T10:52:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
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      <text bytes="6871" sha1="e0llbme1iytiyuw46eka8179ems24m8" xml:space="preserve">{{WAM talk 2024}}
 {{Infobox company|name=عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ|logo=Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering logo.png|image=Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering.jpg|image_size=|native_name='''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ'''|type=خودمختيار ادارو|foundation=2019|founder=[[امر فياض ٻرڙو]]|location_city=[[حيدرآباد، سنڌ]]|location_country=[[پاڪستان]]|location=N-5، نيشنل هاءِ وي|origins=|key_people=[[سيد سردار علي شاهه]]، [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]]، [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]]، شبير ڪنڀار|area_served=[[ٻولي انجنيئرنگ]] جو [[سنڌي ٻولي]] سڀني [[ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]] ۾.|industry=[[ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]]|products=[[تحقيق]]، [[ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر]]|services=|revenue=|operating_income=|net_income=|num_employees=|parent=[[ثقافت]]، [[سياحت]] ۽ [[نوادرات]] [[وزارت (سرڪاري کاتو)] کاتو]]، [[سنڌ حڪومت]]|divisions=|subsid=|owner=[[سنڌ حڪومت]]|homepage={{URL|https://ambile.pk|ambile.pk}}|dissolved=|footnotes=}}

'''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ''' سنڌ حڪومت جي ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات کاتي جي انتظامي ڪنٽرول هيٺ هڪ خود مختيار ادارو آهي، جيڪو سنڌي ٻولي کي قومي ۽ بين الاقوامي ٻولين جي برابر آڻڻ لاءِ قائم ڪيو ويو آهي ته جيئن ڪمپيوٽر جي سڀني ڪمپيوٽيشنل پروسيسنگ ۽ نيچرل لينگويج پروسيسنگ ۾.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1919699/1-sindh-cabinet-decides-export-5m-tonnes-wheat/|title=Sindh cabinet decides to export 5m tonnes of wheat|date=February 28, 2019|website=The Express Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== قيام ==
سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جي باني [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]] جي خدمتن جي اعتراف ۾ سنڌ حڪومت سندس نالي سان انسٽيٽيوٽ قائم ڪيو آهي. انسٽيٽيوٽ بنيادي طور تي هڪ ٻوليءَ جي انجنيئر ۽ لسانيات جي ماهر [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل تصور تي شروع ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ صوبائي وزير ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات، سنڌ حڪومت، سيد سردار علي شاهه کي 21 فيبروري 2017 تي مادري ٻولين جي عالمي ڏينهن جي موقعي تي بريفنگ ڏني وئي. [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، حيدرآباد، سنڌ. [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل پريزنٽيشن ۽ تصور کانپوءِ صوبائي وزير سيد سردار علي شاهه انسٽيٽيوٽ جو اعلان ڪيو. ان کان پوءِ سنڌ حڪومت مالي سال 2017-2018 جي ​​بجيٽ ۾ ترقياتي اسڪيم شامل ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://sindhculture.gov.pk/newd/index.php?option=com_k2&amp;view=item&amp;id=323:establishment-of-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering-at-hyderabad&amp;Itemid=1572&amp;lang=en|title=Establishment of Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering at Hyderabad|website=sindhculture.gov.pk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://openparliament.pk/govt-introduces-bills-on-education-public-finance-in-sindh-assembly/|title=Govt Introduces Bills on Education, Public Finance in Sindh Assembly|date=May 2, 2019|website=Open Parliament Pakistan &amp;#124; An initiative of FAFEN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== منصوبا ==
انسٽيٽيوٽ ڪيترائي منصوبا ٺاهيا آهن جن جو مقصد [[سنڌي ٻولي|سنڌي ٻوليءَ]] کي اڳتي وڌائڻ ۽ لساني تحقيق کي فروغ ڏيڻ آهي. قابل ذڪر قدمن ۾ شامل آهن امبيل (&lt;small&gt;AMBILE&lt;/small&gt;)، حميض علي سنڌي، آپٽيڪل اکر جي سڃاڻپ،&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا سنڌي متن جي صحيح ڊجيٽلائيزيشن اجازت ڏئي ٿي ۽ جاري سنڌي  &quot;ورڊ نيٽ سسٽم&quot;  (&lt;small&gt;WordNet&lt;/small&gt;)، هڪ پروجيڪٽ جيڪو هڪ جامع ليڪسيڪل ڊيٽابيس ٺاهڻ جو منصوبو آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2477269/importance-of-sindhi-wordnet-highlighted|title=Importance of Sindhi WordNet highlighted|last=|first=|date=July 7, 2024|work=[[The Express Tribune]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://citynews.com.pk/shaheed-benazir-bhutto-university-students-visited-abdul-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering/28502/|title=Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University students visited Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering|date=July 6, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; قدرتي ٻولي پروسيسنگ لاءِ اداري هڪ فونٽ پڻ ٺاهيو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌو لکت]]، [[خدا آبادي لپي|خدا آبادي اسڪرپٽ]] ۽ [[فارسي عربي لکت|جديد فارسي-عربي اسڪرپٽ]] ڪوڊ فار انفارميشن جي مٽاسٽا جي علامتن  کي, محققن لاءِ هڪ واحد وسيلو, ۾ ضم ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;auto2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; اضافي طور تي، انسٽيٽيوٽ آن لائن ڪنورٽر اوزار ٺاهيا آهن جيڪي خودڪار طور تي عربي-فارسي لپي ۽ ديوناگري لپي جي وچ ۾ ترجمو ڪري، لساني رسائي کي بهتر بڻائي ٿو. ٻيو اهم پراجيڪٽ ڀٽي پيڊيا آهي، جيڪو هڪ ڊجيٽل پليٽ فارم آهي جيڪو [[سنڌ]] جي مشهور شاعر [[شاھ عبداللطيف ڀٽائي|شاهه عبداللطيف ڀٽائيءَ]] جي شاعريءَ جي تحفظ ۽ نشر و اشاعت لاءِ وقف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.nation.com.pk/22-Sep-2021/sa-pays-glowing-tribute-to-shah-abdul-latif-bhitai poets&lt;/ref&gt; 

== ھنڌ ==
ھي ادارو [[سنڌ ميوزيم]] ۽ [[سنڌي ٻولي جو با اختيار ادارو|سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، N-5 نيشنل هاءِ وي، [[قاسم آباد]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ|حيدرآباد]]، سنڌ جي پٺيان قائم آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ]]
[[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]]</text>
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      <text bytes="6890" sha1="dusutzycwbbaew7gbfyrdnsgn1z7nuj" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox company|name=عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ|logo=Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering logo.png|image=Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering.jpg|image_size=|native_name='''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ'''|type=خودمختيار ادارو|foundation=2019|founder=[[امر فياض ٻرڙو]]|location_city=[[حيدرآباد، سنڌ]]|location_country=[[پاڪستان]]|location=N-5، نيشنل هاءِ وي|origins=|key_people=[[سيد سردار علي شاهه]]، [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]]، [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]]، [[شبير ڪنڀار]]|area_served=[[ٻولي انجنيئرنگ]] جو [[سنڌي ٻولي]] سڀني [[ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]] ۾.|industry=[[ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]]|products=[[تحقيق]]، [[ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر]]|services=|revenue=|operating_income=|net_income=|num_employees=|parent=[[ثقافت]]، [[سياحت]] ۽ [[نوادرات]] [[وزارت (سرڪاري کاتو)] کاتو]]، [[سنڌ حڪومت]]|divisions=|subsid=|owner=[[سنڌ حڪومت]]|homepage={{URL|https://ambile.pk|ambile.pk}}|dissolved=|footnotes=}}
'''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ''' (AMBILE) [[سنڌ حڪومت]] جي ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات کاتي جي انتظامي ڪنٽرول هيٺ هڪ خود مختيار ادارو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌي ٻولي]] کي ڪمپيوٽر جي سڀني ڪمپيوٽيشنل پروسيسنگ ۽ نيچرل لينگويج پروسيسنگ ۾، قومي ۽ بين الاقوامي ٻولين جي برابر آڻڻ لاءِ قائم ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1919699/1-sindh-cabinet-decides-export-5m-tonnes-wheat/|title=Sindh cabinet decides to export 5m tonnes of wheat|date=February 28, 2019|website=The Express Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{WAM talk 2024}}
==قيام==
سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جي باني [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]] جي خدمتن جي اعتراف ۾ [[سنڌ حڪومت]] سندس نالي سان انسٽيٽيوٽ قائم ڪيو آهي. انسٽيٽيوٽ بنيادي طور تي هڪ ٻوليءَ جي انجنيئر ۽ لسانيات جي ماهر [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل تصور تي شروع ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ صوبائي وزير ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات، سنڌ حڪومت، سيد سردار علي شاهه کي 21 فيبروري 2017ع تي مادري ٻولين جي عالمي ڏينهن جي موقعي تي بريفنگ ڏني وئي. [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ]] جي [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل پريزنٽيشن ۽ تصور کانپوءِ صوبائي وزير سيد سردار علي شاهه انسٽيٽيوٽ جو اعلان ڪيو. ان کانپوءِ سنڌ حڪومت مالي سال 2017-2018ع جي ​​بجيٽ ۾ ترقياتي اسڪيم شامل ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://sindhculture.gov.pk/newd/index.php?option=com_k2&amp;view=item&amp;id=323:establishment-of-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering-at-hyderabad&amp;Itemid=1572&amp;lang=en|title=Establishment of Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering at Hyderabad|website=sindhculture.gov.pk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://openparliament.pk/govt-introduces-bills-on-education-public-finance-in-sindh-assembly/|title=Govt Introduces Bills on Education, Public Finance in Sindh Assembly|date=May 2, 2019|website=Open Parliament Pakistan &amp;#124; An initiative of FAFEN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== منصوبا ==
انسٽيٽيوٽ ڪيترائي منصوبا ٺاهيا آهن جن جو مقصد [[سنڌي ٻولي|سنڌي ٻوليءَ]] کي اڳتي وڌائڻ ۽ لساني تحقيق کي فروغ ڏيڻ آهي. قابل ذڪر قدمن ۾ شامل آهن امبيل (&lt;small&gt;AMBILE&lt;/small&gt;)، حميض علي سنڌي، آپٽيڪل اکر جي سڃاڻپ،&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا سنڌي متن جي صحيح ڊجيٽلائيزيشن اجازت ڏئي ٿي ۽ جاري سنڌي  &quot;ورڊ نيٽ سسٽم&quot;  (&lt;small&gt;WordNet&lt;/small&gt;)، هڪ پروجيڪٽ جيڪو هڪ جامع ليڪسيڪل ڊيٽابيس ٺاهڻ جو منصوبو آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2477269/importance-of-sindhi-wordnet-highlighted|title=Importance of Sindhi WordNet highlighted|last=|first=|date=July 7, 2024|work=[[The Express Tribune]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://citynews.com.pk/shaheed-benazir-bhutto-university-students-visited-abdul-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering/28502/|title=Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University students visited Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering|date=July 6, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; قدرتي ٻولي پروسيسنگ لاءِ اداري هڪ فونٽ پڻ ٺاهيو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌو لکت]]، [[خدا آبادي لپي|خدا آبادي اسڪرپٽ]] ۽ [[فارسي عربي لکت|جديد فارسي-عربي اسڪرپٽ]] ڪوڊ فار انفارميشن جي مٽاسٽا جي علامتن کي، محققن لاءِ هڪ واحد وسيلي، ۾ ضم ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;auto2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; اضافي طور تي، انسٽيٽيوٽ آن لائن ڪنورٽر اوزار ٺاهيا آهن جيڪي خودڪار طور تي عربي-فارسي لپي ۽ ديوناگري لپي جي وچ ۾ ترجمو ڪري، لساني رسائي کي بهتر بڻائي ٿو. ٻيو اهم پراجيڪٽ ڀٽي پيڊيا آهي، جيڪو هڪ ڊجيٽل پليٽ فارم آهي جيڪو [[سنڌ]] جي مشهور شاعر [[شاھ عبداللطيف ڀٽائي|شاهه عبداللطيف ڀٽائيءَ]] جي شاعريءَ جي تحفظ ۽ نشر و اشاعت لاءِ وقف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.nation.com.pk/22-Sep-2021/sa-pays-glowing-tribute-to-shah-abdul-latif-bhitai poets&lt;/ref&gt; 

== ھنڌ ==
ھي ادارو [[سنڌ ميوزيم]] ۽ [[سنڌي ٻولي جو با اختيار ادارو|سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، N-5 نيشنل هاءِ وي، [[قاسم آباد]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ|حيدرآباد]]، سنڌ جي پٺيان قائم آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ]]
[[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]]</text>
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      <text bytes="6890" sha1="k8qzo6tovm30hqlyk171iceu2pyyqso" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox company|name=عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ|logo=Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering logo.png|image=Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering.jpg|image_size=|native_name='''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ'''|type=خودمختيار ادارو|foundation=2019|founder=[[امر فياض ٻرڙو]]|location_city=[[حيدرآباد، سنڌ]]|location_country=[[پاڪستان]]|location=N-5، نيشنل هاءِ وي|origins=|key_people=[[سيد سردار علي شاهه]]، [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]]، [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]]، [[شبير ڪنڀار]]|area_served=[[ٻولي انجنيئرنگ]] جو [[سنڌي ٻولي]] سڀني [[ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]] ۾.|industry=[[ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]]|products=[[تحقيق]]، [[ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر]]|services=|revenue=|operating_income=|net_income=|num_employees=|parent=[[ثقافت]]، [[سياحت]] ۽ [[نوادرات]] [[وزارت (سرڪاري کاتو)|کاتو]]، [[سنڌ حڪومت]]|divisions=|subsid=|owner=[[سنڌ حڪومت]]|homepage={{URL|https://ambile.pk|ambile.pk}}|dissolved=|footnotes=}}
'''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ''' (AMBILE) [[سنڌ حڪومت]] جي ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات کاتي جي انتظامي ڪنٽرول هيٺ هڪ خود مختيار ادارو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌي ٻولي]] کي ڪمپيوٽر جي سڀني ڪمپيوٽيشنل پروسيسنگ ۽ نيچرل لينگويج پروسيسنگ ۾، قومي ۽ بين الاقوامي ٻولين جي برابر آڻڻ لاءِ قائم ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1919699/1-sindh-cabinet-decides-export-5m-tonnes-wheat/|title=Sindh cabinet decides to export 5m tonnes of wheat|date=February 28, 2019|website=The Express Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{WAM talk 2024}}

==قيام==
سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جي باني [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]] جي خدمتن جي اعتراف ۾ [[سنڌ حڪومت]] سندس نالي سان انسٽيٽيوٽ قائم ڪيو آهي. انسٽيٽيوٽ بنيادي طور تي هڪ ٻوليءَ جي انجنيئر ۽ لسانيات جي ماهر [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل تصور تي شروع ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ صوبائي وزير ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات، سنڌ حڪومت، سيد سردار علي شاهه کي 21 فيبروري 2017ع تي مادري ٻولين جي عالمي ڏينهن جي موقعي تي بريفنگ ڏني وئي. [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ]] جي [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل پريزنٽيشن ۽ تصور کانپوءِ صوبائي وزير سيد سردار علي شاهه انسٽيٽيوٽ جو اعلان ڪيو. ان کانپوءِ سنڌ حڪومت مالي سال 2017-2018ع جي ​​بجيٽ ۾ ترقياتي اسڪيم شامل ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://sindhculture.gov.pk/newd/index.php?option=com_k2&amp;view=item&amp;id=323:establishment-of-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering-at-hyderabad&amp;Itemid=1572&amp;lang=en|title=Establishment of Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering at Hyderabad|website=sindhculture.gov.pk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://openparliament.pk/govt-introduces-bills-on-education-public-finance-in-sindh-assembly/|title=Govt Introduces Bills on Education, Public Finance in Sindh Assembly|date=May 2, 2019|website=Open Parliament Pakistan &amp;#124; An initiative of FAFEN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== منصوبا ==
انسٽيٽيوٽ ڪيترائي منصوبا ٺاهيا آهن جن جو مقصد [[سنڌي ٻولي|سنڌي ٻوليءَ]] کي اڳتي وڌائڻ ۽ لساني تحقيق کي فروغ ڏيڻ آهي. قابل ذڪر قدمن ۾ شامل آهن امبيل (&lt;small&gt;AMBILE&lt;/small&gt;)، حميض علي سنڌي، آپٽيڪل اکر جي سڃاڻپ،&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا سنڌي متن جي صحيح ڊجيٽلائيزيشن اجازت ڏئي ٿي ۽ جاري سنڌي  &quot;ورڊ نيٽ سسٽم&quot;  (&lt;small&gt;WordNet&lt;/small&gt;)، هڪ پروجيڪٽ جيڪو هڪ جامع ليڪسيڪل ڊيٽابيس ٺاهڻ جو منصوبو آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2477269/importance-of-sindhi-wordnet-highlighted|title=Importance of Sindhi WordNet highlighted|last=|first=|date=July 7, 2024|work=[[The Express Tribune]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://citynews.com.pk/shaheed-benazir-bhutto-university-students-visited-abdul-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering/28502/|title=Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University students visited Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering|date=July 6, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; قدرتي ٻولي پروسيسنگ لاءِ اداري هڪ فونٽ پڻ ٺاهيو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌو لکت]]، [[خدا آبادي لپي|خدا آبادي اسڪرپٽ]] ۽ [[فارسي عربي لکت|جديد فارسي-عربي اسڪرپٽ]] ڪوڊ فار انفارميشن جي مٽاسٽا جي علامتن کي، محققن لاءِ هڪ واحد وسيلي، ۾ ضم ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;auto2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; اضافي طور تي، انسٽيٽيوٽ آن لائن ڪنورٽر اوزار ٺاهيا آهن جيڪي خودڪار طور تي عربي-فارسي لپي ۽ ديوناگري لپي جي وچ ۾ ترجمو ڪري، لساني رسائي کي بهتر بڻائي ٿو. ٻيو اهم پراجيڪٽ ڀٽي پيڊيا آهي، جيڪو هڪ ڊجيٽل پليٽ فارم آهي جيڪو [[سنڌ]] جي مشهور شاعر [[شاھ عبداللطيف ڀٽائي|شاهه عبداللطيف ڀٽائيءَ]] جي شاعريءَ جي تحفظ ۽ نشر و اشاعت لاءِ وقف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.nation.com.pk/22-Sep-2021/sa-pays-glowing-tribute-to-shah-abdul-latif-bhitai poets&lt;/ref&gt; 

== ھنڌ ==
ھي ادارو [[سنڌ ميوزيم]] ۽ [[سنڌي ٻولي جو با اختيار ادارو|سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، N-5 نيشنل هاءِ وي، [[قاسم آباد]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ|حيدرآباد]]، سنڌ جي پٺيان قائم آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ]]
[[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]]</text>
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'''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ''' (AMBILE) [[سنڌ حڪومت]] جي ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات کاتي جي انتظامي ڪنٽرول هيٺ هڪ خود مختيار ادارو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌي ٻولي]] کي ڪمپيوٽر جي سڀني ڪمپيوٽيشنل پروسيسنگ ۽ نيچرل لينگويج پروسيسنگ ۾، قومي ۽ بين الاقوامي ٻولين جي برابر آڻڻ لاءِ قائم ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1919699/1-sindh-cabinet-decides-export-5m-tonnes-wheat/|title=Sindh cabinet decides to export 5m tonnes of wheat|date=February 28, 2019|website=The Express Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{WAM talk 2024}}

==قيام==
سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جي باني [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]] جي خدمتن جي اعتراف ۾ [[سنڌ حڪومت]] سندس نالي سان انسٽيٽيوٽ قائم ڪيو آهي. انسٽيٽيوٽ بنيادي طور تي هڪ ٻوليءَ جي انجنيئر ۽ لسانيات جي ماهر [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل تصور تي شروع ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ صوبائي وزير ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات، سنڌ حڪومت، سيد سردار علي شاهه کي 21 فيبروري 2017ع تي مادري ٻولين جي عالمي ڏينهن جي موقعي تي بريفنگ ڏني وئي. [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ]] جي [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل پريزنٽيشن ۽ تصور کانپوءِ صوبائي وزير سيد سردار علي شاهه انسٽيٽيوٽ جو اعلان ڪيو. ان کانپوءِ سنڌ حڪومت مالي سال 2017-2018ع جي ​​بجيٽ ۾ ترقياتي اسڪيم شامل ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://sindhculture.gov.pk/newd/index.php?option=com_k2&amp;view=item&amp;id=323:establishment-of-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering-at-hyderabad&amp;Itemid=1572&amp;lang=en|title=Establishment of Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering at Hyderabad|website=sindhculture.gov.pk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://openparliament.pk/govt-introduces-bills-on-education-public-finance-in-sindh-assembly/|title=Govt Introduces Bills on Education, Public Finance in Sindh Assembly|date=May 2, 2019|website=Open Parliament Pakistan &amp;#124; An initiative of FAFEN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== منصوبا ==
انسٽيٽيوٽ ڪيترائي منصوبا ٺاهيا آهن جن جو مقصد [[سنڌي ٻولي|سنڌي ٻوليءَ]] کي اڳتي وڌائڻ ۽ لساني تحقيق کي فروغ ڏيڻ آهي. قابل ذڪر قدمن ۾ شامل آهن امبيل (&lt;small&gt;AMBILE&lt;/small&gt;)، حميض علي سنڌي، آپٽيڪل اکر جي سڃاڻپ،&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا سنڌي متن جي صحيح ڊجيٽلائيزيشن اجازت ڏئي ٿي ۽ جاري سنڌي  &quot;ورڊ نيٽ سسٽم&quot;  (&lt;small&gt;WordNet&lt;/small&gt;)، هڪ پروجيڪٽ جيڪو هڪ جامع ليڪسيڪل ڊيٽابيس ٺاهڻ جو منصوبو آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2477269/importance-of-sindhi-wordnet-highlighted|title=Importance of Sindhi WordNet highlighted|last=|first=|date=July 7, 2024|work=[[The Express Tribune]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://citynews.com.pk/shaheed-benazir-bhutto-university-students-visited-abdul-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering/28502/|title=Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University students visited Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering|date=July 6, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; قدرتي ٻولي پروسيسنگ لاءِ اداري هڪ فونٽ پڻ ٺاهيو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌو لکت]]، [[خدا آبادي لپي|خدا آبادي اسڪرپٽ]] ۽ [[فارسي عربي لکت|جديد فارسي-عربي اسڪرپٽ]] ڪوڊ فار انفارميشن جي مٽاسٽا جي علامتن کي، محققن لاءِ هڪ واحد وسيلي، ۾ ضم ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;auto2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; اضافي طور تي، انسٽيٽيوٽ آن لائن ڪنورٽر اوزار ٺاهيا آهن جيڪي خودڪار طور تي عربي-فارسي لپي ۽ ديوناگري لپي جي وچ ۾ ترجمو ڪري، لساني رسائي کي بهتر بڻائي ٿو. ٻيو اهم پراجيڪٽ ڀٽي پيڊيا آهي، جيڪو هڪ ڊجيٽل پليٽ فارم آهي جيڪو [[سنڌ]] جي مشهور شاعر [[شاھ عبداللطيف ڀٽائي|شاهه عبداللطيف ڀٽائيءَ]] جي شاعريءَ جي تحفظ ۽ نشر و اشاعت لاءِ وقف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.nation.com.pk/22-Sep-2021/sa-pays-glowing-tribute-to-shah-abdul-latif-bhitai poets&lt;/ref&gt; 

== ھنڌ ==
ھي ادارو [[سنڌ ميوزيم]] ۽ [[سنڌي ٻولي جو با اختيار ادارو|سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، N-5 نيشنل هاءِ وي، [[قاسم آباد]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ|حيدرآباد]]، سنڌ جي پٺيان قائم آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ]]
[[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]]
[[زمرو:تحقيق]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]]
[[زمرو:ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر]]</text>
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      <text bytes="7070" sha1="5ljv6bwip1wn3iaxk2xh15uulz7lqs3" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox company|name=عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ|logo=Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering logo.png|image=Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering.jpg|image_size=|native_name='''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ'''|type=خودمختيار ادارو|foundation=2019|founder=[[امر فياض ٻرڙو]]|location_city=[[حيدرآباد، سنڌ]]|location_country=[[پاڪستان]]|location=N-5، نيشنل هاءِ وي|origins=|key_people=[[سيد سردار علي شاهه]]، [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]]، [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]]، [[شبير ڪنڀار]]|area_served=[[ٻولي انجنيئرنگ]] جو [[سنڌي ٻولي]] سڀني [[ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]] ۾.|industry=[[ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]]|products=[[تحقيق]]، [[ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر]]|services=|revenue=|operating_income=|net_income=|num_employees=|parent=[[ثقافت]]، [[سياحت]] ۽ [[نوادرات]] [[وزارت (سرڪاري کاتو)|کاتو]]، [[سنڌ حڪومت]]|divisions=|subsid=|owner=[[سنڌ حڪومت]]|homepage={{URL|https://ambile.pk|ambile.pk}}|dissolved=|footnotes=}}
'''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ''' (AMBILE) [[سنڌ حڪومت]] جي ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات کاتي جي انتظامي ڪنٽرول هيٺ هڪ خود مختيار ادارو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌي ٻولي]] کي ڪمپيوٽر جي سڀني ڪمپيوٽيشنل پروسيسنگ ۽ نيچرل لينگويج پروسيسنگ ۾، قومي ۽ بين الاقوامي ٻولين جي برابر آڻڻ لاءِ قائم ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1919699/1-sindh-cabinet-decides-export-5m-tonnes-wheat/|title=Sindh cabinet decides to export 5m tonnes of wheat|date=February 28, 2019|website=The Express Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{WAM talk 2024}}

==قيام==
سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جي باني [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]] جي خدمتن جي اعتراف ۾ [[سنڌ حڪومت]] سندس نالي سان انسٽيٽيوٽ قائم ڪيو آهي. انسٽيٽيوٽ بنيادي طور تي هڪ ٻوليءَ جي انجنيئر ۽ لسانيات جي ماهر [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل تصور تي شروع ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ صوبائي وزير ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات، سنڌ حڪومت، سيد سردار علي شاهه کي 21 فيبروري 2017ع تي مادري ٻولين جي عالمي ڏينهن جي موقعي تي بريفنگ ڏني وئي. [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ]] جي [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل پريزنٽيشن ۽ تصور کانپوءِ صوبائي وزير سيد سردار علي شاهه انسٽيٽيوٽ جو اعلان ڪيو. ان کانپوءِ سنڌ حڪومت مالي سال 2017-2018ع جي ​​بجيٽ ۾ ترقياتي اسڪيم شامل ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://sindhculture.gov.pk/newd/index.php?option=com_k2&amp;view=item&amp;id=323:establishment-of-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering-at-hyderabad&amp;Itemid=1572&amp;lang=en|title=Establishment of Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering at Hyderabad|website=sindhculture.gov.pk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://openparliament.pk/govt-introduces-bills-on-education-public-finance-in-sindh-assembly/|title=Govt Introduces Bills on Education, Public Finance in Sindh Assembly|date=May 2, 2019|website=Open Parliament Pakistan &amp;#124; An initiative of FAFEN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== منصوبا ==
انسٽيٽيوٽ ڪيترائي منصوبا ٺاهيا آهن جن جو مقصد [[سنڌي ٻولي|سنڌي ٻوليءَ]] کي اڳتي وڌائڻ ۽ لساني تحقيق کي فروغ ڏيڻ آهي. قابل ذڪر قدمن ۾ شامل آهن امبيل (&lt;small&gt;AMBILE&lt;/small&gt;)، حميض علي سنڌي، آپٽيڪل اکر جي سڃاڻپ،&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا سنڌي متن جي صحيح ڊجيٽلائيزيشن اجازت ڏئي ٿي ۽ جاري سنڌي  &quot;ورڊ نيٽ سسٽم&quot;  (&lt;small&gt;WordNet&lt;/small&gt;)، هڪ پروجيڪٽ جيڪو هڪ جامع ليڪسيڪل ڊيٽابيس ٺاهڻ جو منصوبو آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2477269/importance-of-sindhi-wordnet-highlighted|title=Importance of Sindhi WordNet highlighted|last=|first=|date=July 7, 2024|work=[[The Express Tribune]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://citynews.com.pk/shaheed-benazir-bhutto-university-students-visited-abdul-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering/28502/|title=Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University students visited Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering|date=July 6, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; قدرتي ٻولي پروسيسنگ لاءِ اداري هڪ فونٽ پڻ ٺاهيو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌو لکت]]، [[خدا آبادي لپي|خدا آبادي اسڪرپٽ]] ۽ [[فارسي عربي لکت|جديد فارسي-عربي اسڪرپٽ]] ڪوڊ فار انفارميشن جي مٽاسٽا جي علامتن کي، محققن لاءِ هڪ واحد وسيلي، ۾ ضم ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;auto2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; اضافي طور تي، انسٽيٽيوٽ آن لائن ڪنورٽر اوزار ٺاهيا آهن جيڪي خودڪار طور تي عربي-فارسي لپي ۽ ديوناگري لپي جي وچ ۾ ترجمو ڪري، لساني رسائي کي بهتر بڻائي ٿو. ٻيو اهم پراجيڪٽ ڀٽي پيڊيا آهي، جيڪو هڪ ڊجيٽل پليٽ فارم آهي جيڪو [[سنڌ]] جي مشهور شاعر [[شاھ عبداللطيف ڀٽائي|شاهه عبداللطيف ڀٽائيءَ]] جي شاعريءَ جي تحفظ ۽ نشر و اشاعت لاءِ وقف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.nation.com.pk/22-Sep-2021/sa-pays-glowing-tribute-to-shah-abdul-latif-bhitai poets&lt;/ref&gt; 

== ھنڌ ==
ھي ادارو [[سنڌ ميوزيم]] ۽ [[سنڌي ٻولي جو با اختيار ادارو|سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، N-5 نيشنل هاءِ وي، [[قاسم آباد]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ|حيدرآباد]]، سنڌ جي پٺيان قائم آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ]]
[[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]]
[[زمرو:تحقيق]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]]
[[زمرو:ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس بلحاظ ملڪ]]</text>
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'''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ''' (AMBILE) [[سنڌ حڪومت]] جي ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات کاتي جي انتظامي ڪنٽرول هيٺ هڪ خود مختيار ادارو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌي ٻولي]] کي ڪمپيوٽر جي سڀني ڪمپيوٽيشنل پروسيسنگ ۽ نيچرل لينگويج پروسيسنگ ۾، قومي ۽ بين الاقوامي ٻولين جي برابر آڻڻ لاءِ قائم ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1919699/1-sindh-cabinet-decides-export-5m-tonnes-wheat/|title=Sindh cabinet decides to export 5m tonnes of wheat|date=February 28, 2019|website=The Express Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{WAM talk 2024}}

==قيام==
سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جي باني [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]] جي خدمتن جي اعتراف ۾ [[سنڌ حڪومت]] سندس نالي سان انسٽيٽيوٽ قائم ڪيو آهي. انسٽيٽيوٽ بنيادي طور تي هڪ ٻوليءَ جي انجنيئر ۽ لسانيات جي ماهر [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل تصور تي شروع ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ صوبائي وزير ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات، سنڌ حڪومت، سيد سردار علي شاهه کي 21 فيبروري 2017ع تي مادري ٻولين جي عالمي ڏينهن جي موقعي تي بريفنگ ڏني وئي. [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ]] جي [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل پريزنٽيشن ۽ تصور کانپوءِ صوبائي وزير سيد سردار علي شاهه انسٽيٽيوٽ جو اعلان ڪيو. ان کانپوءِ سنڌ حڪومت مالي سال 2017-2018ع جي ​​بجيٽ ۾ ترقياتي اسڪيم شامل ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://sindhculture.gov.pk/newd/index.php?option=com_k2&amp;view=item&amp;id=323:establishment-of-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering-at-hyderabad&amp;Itemid=1572&amp;lang=en|title=Establishment of Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering at Hyderabad|website=sindhculture.gov.pk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://openparliament.pk/govt-introduces-bills-on-education-public-finance-in-sindh-assembly/|title=Govt Introduces Bills on Education, Public Finance in Sindh Assembly|date=May 2, 2019|website=Open Parliament Pakistan &amp;#124; An initiative of FAFEN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== منصوبا ==
انسٽيٽيوٽ ڪيترائي منصوبا ٺاهيا آهن جن جو مقصد [[سنڌي ٻولي|سنڌي ٻوليءَ]] کي اڳتي وڌائڻ ۽ لساني تحقيق کي فروغ ڏيڻ آهي. قابل ذڪر قدمن ۾ شامل آهن امبيل (&lt;small&gt;AMBILE&lt;/small&gt;)، حميض علي سنڌي، آپٽيڪل اکر جي سڃاڻپ،&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا سنڌي متن جي صحيح ڊجيٽلائيزيشن اجازت ڏئي ٿي ۽ جاري سنڌي  &quot;ورڊ نيٽ سسٽم&quot;  (&lt;small&gt;WordNet&lt;/small&gt;)، هڪ پروجيڪٽ جيڪو هڪ جامع ليڪسيڪل ڊيٽابيس ٺاهڻ جو منصوبو آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2477269/importance-of-sindhi-wordnet-highlighted|title=Importance of Sindhi WordNet highlighted|last=|first=|date=July 7, 2024|work=[[The Express Tribune]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://citynews.com.pk/shaheed-benazir-bhutto-university-students-visited-abdul-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering/28502/|title=Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University students visited Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering|date=July 6, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; قدرتي ٻولي پروسيسنگ لاءِ اداري هڪ فونٽ پڻ ٺاهيو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌو لکت]]، [[خدا آبادي لپي|خدا آبادي اسڪرپٽ]] ۽ [[فارسي عربي لکت|جديد فارسي-عربي اسڪرپٽ]] ڪوڊ فار انفارميشن جي مٽاسٽا جي علامتن کي، محققن لاءِ هڪ واحد وسيلي، ۾ ضم ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;auto2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; اضافي طور تي، انسٽيٽيوٽ آن لائن ڪنورٽر اوزار ٺاهيا آهن جيڪي خودڪار طور تي عربي-فارسي لپي ۽ ديوناگري لپي جي وچ ۾ ترجمو ڪري، لساني رسائي کي بهتر بڻائي ٿو. ٻيو اهم پراجيڪٽ ڀٽي پيڊيا آهي، جيڪو هڪ ڊجيٽل پليٽ فارم آهي جيڪو [[سنڌ]] جي مشهور شاعر [[شاھ عبداللطيف ڀٽائي|شاهه عبداللطيف ڀٽائيءَ]] جي شاعريءَ جي تحفظ ۽ نشر و اشاعت لاءِ وقف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.nation.com.pk/22-Sep-2021/sa-pays-glowing-tribute-to-shah-abdul-latif-bhitai poets&lt;/ref&gt; 

== ھنڌ ==
ھي ادارو [[سنڌ ميوزيم]] ۽ [[سنڌي ٻولي جو با اختيار ادارو|سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، N-5 نيشنل هاءِ وي، [[قاسم آباد]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ|حيدرآباد]]، سنڌ جي پٺيان قائم آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ]]
[[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]]
[[زمرو:سنڌ]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]]
[[زمرو:ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس بلحاظ ملڪ]]</text>
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        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* حوالا */</comment>
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      <text bytes="7071" sha1="kfedpehui7ulfilj4kd5mfm7c6a4ucb" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox company|name=عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ|logo=Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering logo.png|image=Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering.jpg|image_size=|native_name='''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ'''|type=خودمختيار ادارو|foundation=2019|founder=[[امر فياض ٻرڙو]]|location_city=[[حيدرآباد، سنڌ]]|location_country=[[پاڪستان]]|location=N-5، نيشنل هاءِ وي|origins=|key_people=[[سيد سردار علي شاهه]]، [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]]، [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]]، [[شبير ڪنڀار]]|area_served=[[ٻولي انجنيئرنگ]] جو [[سنڌي ٻولي]] سڀني [[ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]] ۾.|industry=[[ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]]|products=[[تحقيق]]، [[ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر]]|services=|revenue=|operating_income=|net_income=|num_employees=|parent=[[ثقافت]]، [[سياحت]] ۽ [[نوادرات]] [[وزارت (سرڪاري کاتو)|کاتو]]، [[سنڌ حڪومت]]|divisions=|subsid=|owner=[[سنڌ حڪومت]]|homepage={{URL|https://ambile.pk|ambile.pk}}|dissolved=|footnotes=}}
'''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ''' (AMBILE) [[سنڌ حڪومت]] جي ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات کاتي جي انتظامي ڪنٽرول هيٺ هڪ خود مختيار ادارو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌي ٻولي]] کي ڪمپيوٽر جي سڀني ڪمپيوٽيشنل پروسيسنگ ۽ نيچرل لينگويج پروسيسنگ ۾، قومي ۽ بين الاقوامي ٻولين جي برابر آڻڻ لاءِ قائم ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1919699/1-sindh-cabinet-decides-export-5m-tonnes-wheat/|title=Sindh cabinet decides to export 5m tonnes of wheat|date=February 28, 2019|website=The Express Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{WAM talk 2024}}

==قيام==
سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جي باني [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]] جي خدمتن جي اعتراف ۾ [[سنڌ حڪومت]] سندس نالي سان انسٽيٽيوٽ قائم ڪيو آهي. انسٽيٽيوٽ بنيادي طور تي هڪ ٻوليءَ جي انجنيئر ۽ لسانيات جي ماهر [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل تصور تي شروع ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ صوبائي وزير ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات، سنڌ حڪومت، سيد سردار علي شاهه کي 21 فيبروري 2017ع تي مادري ٻولين جي عالمي ڏينهن جي موقعي تي بريفنگ ڏني وئي. [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ]] جي [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل پريزنٽيشن ۽ تصور کانپوءِ صوبائي وزير سيد سردار علي شاهه انسٽيٽيوٽ جو اعلان ڪيو. ان کانپوءِ سنڌ حڪومت مالي سال 2017-2018ع جي ​​بجيٽ ۾ ترقياتي اسڪيم شامل ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://sindhculture.gov.pk/newd/index.php?option=com_k2&amp;view=item&amp;id=323:establishment-of-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering-at-hyderabad&amp;Itemid=1572&amp;lang=en|title=Establishment of Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering at Hyderabad|website=sindhculture.gov.pk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://openparliament.pk/govt-introduces-bills-on-education-public-finance-in-sindh-assembly/|title=Govt Introduces Bills on Education, Public Finance in Sindh Assembly|date=May 2, 2019|website=Open Parliament Pakistan &amp;#124; An initiative of FAFEN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== منصوبا ==
انسٽيٽيوٽ ڪيترائي منصوبا ٺاهيا آهن جن جو مقصد [[سنڌي ٻولي|سنڌي ٻوليءَ]] کي اڳتي وڌائڻ ۽ لساني تحقيق کي فروغ ڏيڻ آهي. قابل ذڪر قدمن ۾ شامل آهن امبيل (&lt;small&gt;AMBILE&lt;/small&gt;)، حميض علي سنڌي، آپٽيڪل اکر جي سڃاڻپ،&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا سنڌي متن جي صحيح ڊجيٽلائيزيشن اجازت ڏئي ٿي ۽ جاري سنڌي  &quot;ورڊ نيٽ سسٽم&quot;  (&lt;small&gt;WordNet&lt;/small&gt;)، هڪ پروجيڪٽ جيڪو هڪ جامع ليڪسيڪل ڊيٽابيس ٺاهڻ جو منصوبو آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2477269/importance-of-sindhi-wordnet-highlighted|title=Importance of Sindhi WordNet highlighted|last=|first=|date=July 7, 2024|work=[[The Express Tribune]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://citynews.com.pk/shaheed-benazir-bhutto-university-students-visited-abdul-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering/28502/|title=Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University students visited Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering|date=July 6, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; قدرتي ٻولي پروسيسنگ لاءِ اداري هڪ فونٽ پڻ ٺاهيو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌو لکت]]، [[خدا آبادي لپي|خدا آبادي اسڪرپٽ]] ۽ [[فارسي عربي لکت|جديد فارسي-عربي اسڪرپٽ]] ڪوڊ فار انفارميشن جي مٽاسٽا جي علامتن کي، محققن لاءِ هڪ واحد وسيلي، ۾ ضم ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;auto2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; اضافي طور تي، انسٽيٽيوٽ آن لائن ڪنورٽر اوزار ٺاهيا آهن جيڪي خودڪار طور تي عربي-فارسي لپي ۽ ديوناگري لپي جي وچ ۾ ترجمو ڪري، لساني رسائي کي بهتر بڻائي ٿو. ٻيو اهم پراجيڪٽ ڀٽي پيڊيا آهي، جيڪو هڪ ڊجيٽل پليٽ فارم آهي جيڪو [[سنڌ]] جي مشهور شاعر [[شاھ عبداللطيف ڀٽائي|شاهه عبداللطيف ڀٽائيءَ]] جي شاعريءَ جي تحفظ ۽ نشر و اشاعت لاءِ وقف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.nation.com.pk/22-Sep-2021/sa-pays-glowing-tribute-to-shah-abdul-latif-bhitai poets&lt;/ref&gt; 

== ھنڌ ==
ھي ادارو [[سنڌ ميوزيم]] ۽ [[سنڌي ٻولي جو با اختيار ادارو|سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، N-5 نيشنل هاءِ وي، [[قاسم آباد]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ|حيدرآباد]]، سنڌ جي پٺيان قائم آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ]]
[[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]]
[[زمرو:ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر]]
[[زمرو:زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي تعليم]]</text>
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    <revision>
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        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* حوالا */</comment>
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'''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ''' (AMBILE) [[سنڌ حڪومت]] جي ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات کاتي جي انتظامي ڪنٽرول هيٺ هڪ خود مختيار ادارو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌي ٻولي]] کي ڪمپيوٽر جي سڀني ڪمپيوٽيشنل پروسيسنگ ۽ نيچرل لينگويج پروسيسنگ ۾، قومي ۽ بين الاقوامي ٻولين جي برابر آڻڻ لاءِ قائم ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1919699/1-sindh-cabinet-decides-export-5m-tonnes-wheat/|title=Sindh cabinet decides to export 5m tonnes of wheat|date=February 28, 2019|website=The Express Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{WAM talk 2024}}

==قيام==
سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جي باني [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]] جي خدمتن جي اعتراف ۾ [[سنڌ حڪومت]] سندس نالي سان انسٽيٽيوٽ قائم ڪيو آهي. انسٽيٽيوٽ بنيادي طور تي هڪ ٻوليءَ جي انجنيئر ۽ لسانيات جي ماهر [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل تصور تي شروع ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ صوبائي وزير ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات، سنڌ حڪومت، سيد سردار علي شاهه کي 21 فيبروري 2017ع تي مادري ٻولين جي عالمي ڏينهن جي موقعي تي بريفنگ ڏني وئي. [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ]] جي [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل پريزنٽيشن ۽ تصور کانپوءِ صوبائي وزير سيد سردار علي شاهه انسٽيٽيوٽ جو اعلان ڪيو. ان کانپوءِ سنڌ حڪومت مالي سال 2017-2018ع جي ​​بجيٽ ۾ ترقياتي اسڪيم شامل ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://sindhculture.gov.pk/newd/index.php?option=com_k2&amp;view=item&amp;id=323:establishment-of-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering-at-hyderabad&amp;Itemid=1572&amp;lang=en|title=Establishment of Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering at Hyderabad|website=sindhculture.gov.pk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://openparliament.pk/govt-introduces-bills-on-education-public-finance-in-sindh-assembly/|title=Govt Introduces Bills on Education, Public Finance in Sindh Assembly|date=May 2, 2019|website=Open Parliament Pakistan &amp;#124; An initiative of FAFEN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== منصوبا ==
انسٽيٽيوٽ ڪيترائي منصوبا ٺاهيا آهن جن جو مقصد [[سنڌي ٻولي|سنڌي ٻوليءَ]] کي اڳتي وڌائڻ ۽ لساني تحقيق کي فروغ ڏيڻ آهي. قابل ذڪر قدمن ۾ شامل آهن امبيل (&lt;small&gt;AMBILE&lt;/small&gt;)، حميض علي سنڌي، آپٽيڪل اکر جي سڃاڻپ،&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا سنڌي متن جي صحيح ڊجيٽلائيزيشن اجازت ڏئي ٿي ۽ جاري سنڌي  &quot;ورڊ نيٽ سسٽم&quot;  (&lt;small&gt;WordNet&lt;/small&gt;)، هڪ پروجيڪٽ جيڪو هڪ جامع ليڪسيڪل ڊيٽابيس ٺاهڻ جو منصوبو آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2477269/importance-of-sindhi-wordnet-highlighted|title=Importance of Sindhi WordNet highlighted|last=|first=|date=July 7, 2024|work=[[The Express Tribune]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://citynews.com.pk/shaheed-benazir-bhutto-university-students-visited-abdul-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering/28502/|title=Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University students visited Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering|date=July 6, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; قدرتي ٻولي پروسيسنگ لاءِ اداري هڪ فونٽ پڻ ٺاهيو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌو لکت]]، [[خدا آبادي لپي|خدا آبادي اسڪرپٽ]] ۽ [[فارسي عربي لکت|جديد فارسي-عربي اسڪرپٽ]] ڪوڊ فار انفارميشن جي مٽاسٽا جي علامتن کي، محققن لاءِ هڪ واحد وسيلي، ۾ ضم ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;auto2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; اضافي طور تي، انسٽيٽيوٽ آن لائن ڪنورٽر اوزار ٺاهيا آهن جيڪي خودڪار طور تي عربي-فارسي لپي ۽ ديوناگري لپي جي وچ ۾ ترجمو ڪري، لساني رسائي کي بهتر بڻائي ٿو. ٻيو اهم پراجيڪٽ ڀٽي پيڊيا آهي، جيڪو هڪ ڊجيٽل پليٽ فارم آهي جيڪو [[سنڌ]] جي مشهور شاعر [[شاھ عبداللطيف ڀٽائي|شاهه عبداللطيف ڀٽائيءَ]] جي شاعريءَ جي تحفظ ۽ نشر و اشاعت لاءِ وقف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.nation.com.pk/22-Sep-2021/sa-pays-glowing-tribute-to-shah-abdul-latif-bhitai poets&lt;/ref&gt; 

== ھنڌ ==
ھي ادارو [[سنڌ ميوزيم]] ۽ [[سنڌي ٻولي جو با اختيار ادارو|سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، N-5 نيشنل هاءِ وي، [[قاسم آباد]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ|حيدرآباد]]، سنڌ جي پٺيان قائم آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ]]
[[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]]
[[زمرو:ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي تعليم]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:55:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* حوالا */</comment>
      <origin>371795</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="7127" sha1="fw5g3uakkwh232f4rcybubcqxjy71zm" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox company|name=عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ|logo=Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering logo.png|image=Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering.jpg|image_size=|native_name='''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ'''|type=خودمختيار ادارو|foundation=2019|founder=[[امر فياض ٻرڙو]]|location_city=[[حيدرآباد، سنڌ]]|location_country=[[پاڪستان]]|location=N-5، نيشنل هاءِ وي|origins=|key_people=[[سيد سردار علي شاهه]]، [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]]، [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]]، [[شبير ڪنڀار]]|area_served=[[ٻولي انجنيئرنگ]] جو [[سنڌي ٻولي]] سڀني [[ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]] ۾.|industry=[[ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]]|products=[[تحقيق]]، [[ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر]]|services=|revenue=|operating_income=|net_income=|num_employees=|parent=[[ثقافت]]، [[سياحت]] ۽ [[نوادرات]] [[وزارت (سرڪاري کاتو)|کاتو]]، [[سنڌ حڪومت]]|divisions=|subsid=|owner=[[سنڌ حڪومت]]|homepage={{URL|https://ambile.pk|ambile.pk}}|dissolved=|footnotes=}}
'''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ''' (AMBILE) [[سنڌ حڪومت]] جي ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات کاتي جي انتظامي ڪنٽرول هيٺ هڪ خود مختيار ادارو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌي ٻولي]] کي ڪمپيوٽر جي سڀني ڪمپيوٽيشنل پروسيسنگ ۽ نيچرل لينگويج پروسيسنگ ۾، قومي ۽ بين الاقوامي ٻولين جي برابر آڻڻ لاءِ قائم ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1919699/1-sindh-cabinet-decides-export-5m-tonnes-wheat/|title=Sindh cabinet decides to export 5m tonnes of wheat|date=February 28, 2019|website=The Express Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{WAM talk 2024}}

==قيام==
سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جي باني [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]] جي خدمتن جي اعتراف ۾ [[سنڌ حڪومت]] سندس نالي سان انسٽيٽيوٽ قائم ڪيو آهي. انسٽيٽيوٽ بنيادي طور تي هڪ ٻوليءَ جي انجنيئر ۽ لسانيات جي ماهر [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل تصور تي شروع ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ صوبائي وزير ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات، سنڌ حڪومت، سيد سردار علي شاهه کي 21 فيبروري 2017ع تي مادري ٻولين جي عالمي ڏينهن جي موقعي تي بريفنگ ڏني وئي. [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ]] جي [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل پريزنٽيشن ۽ تصور کانپوءِ صوبائي وزير سيد سردار علي شاهه انسٽيٽيوٽ جو اعلان ڪيو. ان کانپوءِ سنڌ حڪومت مالي سال 2017-2018ع جي ​​بجيٽ ۾ ترقياتي اسڪيم شامل ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://sindhculture.gov.pk/newd/index.php?option=com_k2&amp;view=item&amp;id=323:establishment-of-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering-at-hyderabad&amp;Itemid=1572&amp;lang=en|title=Establishment of Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering at Hyderabad|website=sindhculture.gov.pk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://openparliament.pk/govt-introduces-bills-on-education-public-finance-in-sindh-assembly/|title=Govt Introduces Bills on Education, Public Finance in Sindh Assembly|date=May 2, 2019|website=Open Parliament Pakistan &amp;#124; An initiative of FAFEN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== منصوبا ==
انسٽيٽيوٽ ڪيترائي منصوبا ٺاهيا آهن جن جو مقصد [[سنڌي ٻولي|سنڌي ٻوليءَ]] کي اڳتي وڌائڻ ۽ لساني تحقيق کي فروغ ڏيڻ آهي. قابل ذڪر قدمن ۾ شامل آهن امبيل (&lt;small&gt;AMBILE&lt;/small&gt;)، حميض علي سنڌي، آپٽيڪل اکر جي سڃاڻپ،&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا سنڌي متن جي صحيح ڊجيٽلائيزيشن اجازت ڏئي ٿي ۽ جاري سنڌي  &quot;ورڊ نيٽ سسٽم&quot;  (&lt;small&gt;WordNet&lt;/small&gt;)، هڪ پروجيڪٽ جيڪو هڪ جامع ليڪسيڪل ڊيٽابيس ٺاهڻ جو منصوبو آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2477269/importance-of-sindhi-wordnet-highlighted|title=Importance of Sindhi WordNet highlighted|last=|first=|date=July 7, 2024|work=[[The Express Tribune]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://citynews.com.pk/shaheed-benazir-bhutto-university-students-visited-abdul-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering/28502/|title=Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University students visited Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering|date=July 6, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; قدرتي ٻولي پروسيسنگ لاءِ اداري هڪ فونٽ پڻ ٺاهيو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌو لکت]]، [[خدا آبادي لپي|خدا آبادي اسڪرپٽ]] ۽ [[فارسي عربي لکت|جديد فارسي-عربي اسڪرپٽ]] ڪوڊ فار انفارميشن جي مٽاسٽا جي علامتن کي، محققن لاءِ هڪ واحد وسيلي، ۾ ضم ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;auto2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; اضافي طور تي، انسٽيٽيوٽ آن لائن ڪنورٽر اوزار ٺاهيا آهن جيڪي خودڪار طور تي عربي-فارسي لپي ۽ ديوناگري لپي جي وچ ۾ ترجمو ڪري، لساني رسائي کي بهتر بڻائي ٿو. ٻيو اهم پراجيڪٽ ڀٽي پيڊيا آهي، جيڪو هڪ ڊجيٽل پليٽ فارم آهي جيڪو [[سنڌ]] جي مشهور شاعر [[شاھ عبداللطيف ڀٽائي|شاهه عبداللطيف ڀٽائيءَ]] جي شاعريءَ جي تحفظ ۽ نشر و اشاعت لاءِ وقف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.nation.com.pk/22-Sep-2021/sa-pays-glowing-tribute-to-shah-abdul-latif-bhitai poets&lt;/ref&gt; 

== ھنڌ ==
ھي ادارو [[سنڌ ميوزيم]] ۽ [[سنڌي ٻولي جو با اختيار ادارو|سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، N-5 نيشنل هاءِ وي، [[قاسم آباد]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ|حيدرآباد]]، سنڌ جي پٺيان قائم آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ]]
[[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]]
[[زمرو:ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ خاص تعليم جا ادارا]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي تعليم]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>371797</id>
      <parentid>371795</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:58:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* حوالا */</comment>
      <origin>371797</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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'''عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ''' (AMBILE) [[سنڌ حڪومت]] جي ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات کاتي جي انتظامي ڪنٽرول هيٺ هڪ خود مختيار ادارو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌي ٻولي]] کي ڪمپيوٽر جي سڀني ڪمپيوٽيشنل پروسيسنگ ۽ نيچرل لينگويج پروسيسنگ ۾، قومي ۽ بين الاقوامي ٻولين جي برابر آڻڻ لاءِ قائم ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1919699/1-sindh-cabinet-decides-export-5m-tonnes-wheat/|title=Sindh cabinet decides to export 5m tonnes of wheat|date=February 28, 2019|website=The Express Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{WAM talk 2024}}

==قيام==
سنڌي ڪمپيوٽنگ جي باني [[عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي]] جي خدمتن جي اعتراف ۾ [[سنڌ حڪومت]] سندس نالي سان انسٽيٽيوٽ قائم ڪيو آهي. انسٽيٽيوٽ بنيادي طور تي هڪ ٻوليءَ جي انجنيئر ۽ لسانيات جي ماهر [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل تصور تي شروع ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ صوبائي وزير ثقافت، سياحت ۽ نوادرات، سنڌ حڪومت، سيد سردار علي شاهه کي 21 فيبروري 2017ع تي مادري ٻولين جي عالمي ڏينهن جي موقعي تي بريفنگ ڏني وئي. [[سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ]] جي [[امر فياض ٻرڙو]] جي ڏنل پريزنٽيشن ۽ تصور کانپوءِ صوبائي وزير سيد سردار علي شاهه انسٽيٽيوٽ جو اعلان ڪيو. ان کانپوءِ سنڌ حڪومت مالي سال 2017-2018ع جي ​​بجيٽ ۾ ترقياتي اسڪيم شامل ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://sindhculture.gov.pk/newd/index.php?option=com_k2&amp;view=item&amp;id=323:establishment-of-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering-at-hyderabad&amp;Itemid=1572&amp;lang=en|title=Establishment of Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering at Hyderabad|website=sindhculture.gov.pk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://openparliament.pk/govt-introduces-bills-on-education-public-finance-in-sindh-assembly/|title=Govt Introduces Bills on Education, Public Finance in Sindh Assembly|date=May 2, 2019|website=Open Parliament Pakistan &amp;#124; An initiative of FAFEN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== منصوبا ==
انسٽيٽيوٽ ڪيترائي منصوبا ٺاهيا آهن جن جو مقصد [[سنڌي ٻولي|سنڌي ٻوليءَ]] کي اڳتي وڌائڻ ۽ لساني تحقيق کي فروغ ڏيڻ آهي. قابل ذڪر قدمن ۾ شامل آهن امبيل (&lt;small&gt;AMBILE&lt;/small&gt;)، حميض علي سنڌي، آپٽيڪل اکر جي سڃاڻپ،&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا سنڌي متن جي صحيح ڊجيٽلائيزيشن اجازت ڏئي ٿي ۽ جاري سنڌي  &quot;ورڊ نيٽ سسٽم&quot;  (&lt;small&gt;WordNet&lt;/small&gt;)، هڪ پروجيڪٽ جيڪو هڪ جامع ليڪسيڪل ڊيٽابيس ٺاهڻ جو منصوبو آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2477269/importance-of-sindhi-wordnet-highlighted|title=Importance of Sindhi WordNet highlighted|last=|first=|date=July 7, 2024|work=[[The Express Tribune]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://citynews.com.pk/shaheed-benazir-bhutto-university-students-visited-abdul-majid-bhurgri-institute-of-language-engineering/28502/|title=Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University students visited Abdul Majid Bhurgri Institute of Language Engineering|date=July 6, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; قدرتي ٻولي پروسيسنگ لاءِ اداري هڪ فونٽ پڻ ٺاهيو آهي، جيڪو [[سنڌو لکت]]، [[خدا آبادي لپي|خدا آبادي اسڪرپٽ]] ۽ [[فارسي عربي لکت|جديد فارسي-عربي اسڪرپٽ]] ڪوڊ فار انفارميشن جي مٽاسٽا جي علامتن کي، محققن لاءِ هڪ واحد وسيلي، ۾ ضم ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;auto2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.app.com.pk/domestic/sindhi-ocr-software-system-formally-launched-at-majid-bhurgri-institute/|title=Sindhi OCR software system formally launched at Majid Bhurgri Institute|date=May 12, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; اضافي طور تي، انسٽيٽيوٽ آن لائن ڪنورٽر اوزار ٺاهيا آهن جيڪي خودڪار طور تي عربي-فارسي لپي ۽ ديوناگري لپي جي وچ ۾ ترجمو ڪري، لساني رسائي کي بهتر بڻائي ٿو. ٻيو اهم پراجيڪٽ ڀٽي پيڊيا آهي، جيڪو هڪ ڊجيٽل پليٽ فارم آهي جيڪو [[سنڌ]] جي مشهور شاعر [[شاھ عبداللطيف ڀٽائي|شاهه عبداللطيف ڀٽائيءَ]] جي شاعريءَ جي تحفظ ۽ نشر و اشاعت لاءِ وقف آهي.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.nation.com.pk/22-Sep-2021/sa-pays-glowing-tribute-to-shah-abdul-latif-bhitai poets&lt;/ref&gt; 

== ھنڌ ==
ھي ادارو [[سنڌ ميوزيم]] ۽ [[سنڌي ٻولي جو با اختيار ادارو|سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي]]، N-5 نيشنل هاءِ وي، [[قاسم آباد]]، [[حيدرآباد، سنڌ|حيدرآباد]]، سنڌ جي پٺيان قائم آهي.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
[[زمرو:عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ]]
[[زمرو:سنڌي ٻولي]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]]
[[زمرو:ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ خاص تعليم جا ادارا]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي تعليم]]
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{{Infobox settlement 
| name = جي ايف-17 ٿنڊر&lt;br&gt;
JF-17 Thunder
| image = File:Pakistan Air Force Chengdu JF-17 Gu.jpg
| caption = پاڪستان ايئر فورس جي ايف-17 ٿنڊر بلاڪ 1
| type = سپرسونڪ ملٽي رول جنگي جهاز 
| national_origin = 
| manufacturer =  
| first_flight = 
| introduction = 
| retired = 
| status = 
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|other_name=ايف سي-1 شياؤ لونگ&lt;br&gt;
FC-1 Xiaolong|subdivision_type=قومي اصل ملڪ|subdivision_type1=ٺاهيندڙ|subdivision_type2=پيداوار|subdivision_type3=تعمير ٿيل تعداد|subdivision_type4=تعارف|subdivision_name4=12 مارچ 2007ع|subdivision_type5=پهرين پرواز|subdivision_name5=25 آگسٽ 2003ع|subdivision_type6=حالت|subdivision_name6=سروس ۾|established_title=بنيادي استعمال ڪندڙ|established_date=[[پاڪستان ائيرفورس]]|established_title1=ٻيو استعمال ڪندڙ|established_date1={{ubl |[[ميانمار ايئر فورس]] |[[نائيجيريا ايئر فورس]] |[[آذربائيجاني ايئر فورسز]] }}|established_title2=دلچسپي رکندڙ ملڪ|established_date2=[[بنگلاديش]]، [[انڊونيشيا]]، [[سعودي عرب]]|established_title3=|established_date3=|established_title4=|established_date4=|established_title5=|established_date5=|established_title6=|established_date6=|established_title7=|established_date7=|extinct_title=|extinct_date=|subdivision_name=[[پاڪستان]] / [[چين]]|subdivision_name1=[[پاڪستان ايروناٽيڪل ڪمپليڪس]] / [[چينگڊو ايئر ڪرافٽ انڊسٽري گروپ]]|subdivision_name2=چين ۾: جون 2007ع&lt;br /&gt;پاڪستان ۾: جنوري 2008ع|subdivision_name3=182 (اضافي 6 پروٽوٽائپ)}}
'''جي ايف-17 ٿنڊر''' (JF-17 Thunder؛ اردو: جے ایف-۱۷ گرج) هڪ چين-پاڪستاني سنگل انجن وارو هلڪو وزن وارو سپرسونڪ ملٽي رول جنگي جهاز آهي جيڪو [[پاڪستان]] جي [[پاڪستان ايروناٽيڪل ڪمپليڪس]] (&lt;small&gt;PAC&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ [[چين]] جي چينگدو ايئر ڪرافٽ ڪارپوريشن (&lt;small&gt;CAC&lt;/small&gt;) پاران گڏيل طور تي تيار ڪيو ويو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto19&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.pac.org.pk/jf-17|title=Pakistan Aeronautical Complex Kamra - JF-17 Thunder Aircraft|website=www.pac.org.pk|access-date=7 January 2020|archive-date=12 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712224651/https://www.pac.org.pk/jf-17|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; اهو چوٿين نسل جو فائٽر آهي ۽ [[پاڪستان ائيرفورس|پاڪستان ايئر فورس]] (&lt;small&gt;PAF&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ ٽئين نسل جي &lt;small&gt;'''اي-5'''&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;'''سي، ايف-7 پي/پي جي'''&lt;/small&gt;، ميراج &lt;small&gt;III&lt;/small&gt; ۽ ميراج &lt;small&gt;5&lt;/small&gt; جنگي جهاز جي متبادل طور تي ڊزائين ۽ تيار ڪيو ويو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;:92&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2498926/pakistan-signs-agreement-to-supply-jf-17-block-iii-fighter-jets-to-azerbaijan|title=Pakistan signs agreement to supply JF-17 Block-III fighter jets to Azerbaijan|date=26 September 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1226734|title=Pakistan's tool of war: PAF's rolling thunder|first=Ali|last=Osman|date=17 December 2015|website=DAWN.COM|access-date=19 April 2021|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422003037/https://www.dawn.com/news/1226734|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;'''جي ايف-17'''&lt;/small&gt; کي ڪيترن ئي ڪردارن لاءِ استعمال ڪري سگهجي ٿو. جنهن ۾ فضائي دفاع، زميني حملو، اينٽي شپ ۽ فضائي جاچ شامل آهن. پاڪستاني نالو &quot;جي ايف-17&quot; جو مطلب آهي &quot;جوائنٽ فائٽر-17&quot;، جن ۾ &quot;جوائنٽ فائٽر&quot; جهاز جي گڏيل پاڪستاني-چيني ترقي کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو ۽ &quot;-17&quot; جو مطلب آهي ته اهو آمريڪي [[ايف-16 فائٽنگ فالڪن|ايف-16 جيٽ]] جو جانشين آهي. چيني نالي &quot;ايف سي-1&quot; جو مطلب آهي &quot;فائٽر چائنا-1&quot;.

جي ايف-17 ٿنڊر مختلف قسم جا هٿيار استعمال ڪري سگهي ٿو, جنهن ۾ هوا کان هوا، هوا کان مٿاڇري ۽ اينٽي شپ ميزائل شامل آهن. گائيڊڊ ۽ ان گائيڊڊ بم. ۽ 23-ايم ايم جي ايس ايڇ-23-2 ٽوئن بيرل آٽو ڪينن. چيني گيزو ڊبليو ايس-13 يا روسي ڪليموف آر ڊي-93 (جي ايف-17 بلاڪ 1 ۽ 2) يا ڪليموف آر ڊي-93 ايم اي (&lt;small&gt;'''جي ايف-17 بلاڪ 3'''&lt;/small&gt;) آفٽر برننگ ٽربو فين انجن ذريعي طاقتور. ان جي وڌ ۾ وڌ رفتار &lt;small&gt;'''ماخ 1.6'''&lt;/small&gt; آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;diplomat 2019-032&quot;&gt;{{Cite magazine|last=Gady|first=Franz-Stefan|title=Report: JF-17 'Thunder' Block III Fighter Jet Production Is Underway|url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/03/report-jf-17-thunder-block-iii-fighter-jet-production-is-underway/|access-date=27 October 2020|magazine=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]]|language=en-US|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803154317/https://thediplomat.com/2019/03/report-jf-17-thunder-block-iii-fighter-jet-production-is-underway/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;'''جي ايف-17'''&lt;/small&gt; پاڪستان ايرفورس جي ريڙهه ۽ ڪم جو هارس آهي. تقريبن اڌ قيمت تي ايف-16 فائٽنگ فالڪن کي پورو ڪري ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=China's Expert Fighter Designer Knows Jets, Avoids America's Mistakes|url=http://www.isn.ethz.ch/Digital-Library/Articles/Detail/?id=192616|publisher=International Relations and Security Network (ISN)|access-date=4 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002224809/http://www.isn.ethz.ch/Digital-Library/Articles/Detail/?id=192616|archive-date=2 October 2015|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; بلاڪ II قسم جي قيمت 25 ملين آمريڪي ڊالر آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;diplomat 2019-033&quot;&gt;{{Cite magazine|last=Gady|first=Franz-Stefan|title=Report: JF-17 'Thunder' Block III Fighter Jet Production Is Underway|url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/03/report-jf-17-thunder-block-iii-fighter-jet-production-is-underway/|access-date=27 October 2020|magazine=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]]|language=en-US|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803154317/https://thediplomat.com/2019/03/report-jf-17-thunder-block-iii-fighter-jet-production-is-underway/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; جي ايف-17 کي 2007 ۾ پاڪستان ايئر فورس ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو هو.[[File:Pakistan JF-17 Thunder, Pakistan - Air Force JP7136023.jpg|thumb|انفراريڊ هومنگ - هوا کان هوا ۾ مار ڪندڙ - [[پي ايل-5 ميزائل|PL-5 ميزائل]] سان ليس - پاڪستان ايئر فورس جو JF-17 ]]
&lt;small&gt;'''JF-17'''&lt;/small&gt; ايئر فريم جو &lt;small&gt;'''%58'''&lt;/small&gt;، جنهن ۾ ان جو فرنٽ فيوزليج، ونگز ۽ عمودي اسٽيبلائيزر شامل آهن، پاڪستان ۾ تيار ڪيو ويندو آهي، جڏهن ته &lt;small&gt;'''42'''&lt;/small&gt; سيڪڙو چين ۾ تيار ڪيو ويندو آهي، جنهن جي آخري اسيمبلي ۽ سيريل پيداوار پاڪستان ۾ ٿيندي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceA2&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Khan|first1=Bilal|title=JF-17 Block-2 and Block-3 Details Confirmed|url=http://quwa.org/2015/10/17/jf-17-block-2-and-block-3-details-confirmed/|access-date=30 April 2017|work=quwa.org|date=17 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507000654/http://quwa.org/2015/10/17/jf-17-block-2-and-block-3-details-confirmed/|archive-date=7 May 2017|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;2015ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾، پاڪستان 16 JF-17s پيدا ڪيا.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Express Tribune2&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Pakistan meets JF-17 production target|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1017904/another-milestone-pakistan-meets-jf-17-production-target/|access-date=30 April 2017|work=[[Express Tribune]]|date=29 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517004502/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1017904/another-milestone-pakistan-meets-jf-17-production-target/|archive-date=17 May 2017|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; سال &lt;small&gt;2016ع&lt;/small&gt; تائين، PAC وٽ هر سال 20 JF-17s پيدا ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت آهي. اپريل &lt;small&gt;2017ع&lt;/small&gt; تائين، PAC PAF لاءِ 70 بلاڪ 1 جهاز ۽ 33 بلاڪ 2 جهاز تيار ڪيا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=PAF No.14 'Tail choppers' Squadron re-equipped with JF-17 Thunder jets|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1315117|access-date=30 April 2017|work=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]|date=16 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170220025305/http://www.dawn.com/news/1315117|archive-date=20 February 2017|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;quwa.org2&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Khan|first1=Bilal|title=Pakistan Aeronautical Complex delivered 70 JF-17S to the Pakistan Air Force|url=http://quwa.org/2016/12/07/pakistan-aeronautical-complex-delivered-70-jf-17s-to-the-pakistan-air-force/|access-date=30 April 2017|work=quwa.org|date=7 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609031529/http://quwa.org/2016/12/07/pakistan-aeronautical-complex-delivered-70-jf-17s-to-the-pakistan-air-force/|archive-date=9 June 2017|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Khan|first1=Bilal|title=JF-17 Block-II production crosses 30 planes|url=http://quwa.org/2017/01/15/jf-17-block-ii-production-crosses-30-planes/|access-date=30 April 2017|work=quwa.org|date=15 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507071327/http://quwa.org/2017/01/15/jf-17-block-ii-production-crosses-30-planes/|archive-date=7 May 2017|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; سال &lt;small&gt;2016ع&lt;/small&gt; تائين،  پاڪستان ايئر فورس جا JF-17  ٿنڊر &lt;small&gt;'''19,000'''&lt;/small&gt; کان وڌيڪ آپريشنل پرواز گڏ ڪري چڪا هئا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Gady|first1=Franz-Stefan|title=Two-Seat Variant of China-Pakistan JF-17 Fighter Jet to Fly in 2016|url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/05/two-seat-variant-of-china-pakistan-jf-17-fighter-jet-to-fly-in-2016/|access-date=30 April 2017|work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]]|date=3 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309060126/https://thediplomat.com/2016/05/two-seat-variant-of-china-pakistan-jf-17-fighter-jet-to-fly-in-2016|archive-date=9 March 2017|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; سال &lt;small&gt;2017ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾، پي اي سي/سي اي سي هڪ ٻٽي سيٽ واري قسم کي ترقي ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو جن کي بهتر آپريشنل صلاحيت، ڪنورشن ٽريننگ ۽ ليڊ ان فائٽر ٽريننگ لاءِ &lt;small&gt;'''JF-17B'''&lt;/small&gt; جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/world/world-news/pakistan-china-jointly-launch-production-of-jf-17b-fighter-jets-2774819/|title=Pakistan, China jointly launch production of JF-17B fighter jets|date=28 April 2016|work=The Indian Express|access-date=8 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501155526/http://indianexpress.com/article/world/world-news/pakistan-china-jointly-launch-production-of-jf-17b-fighter-jets-2774819/|archive-date=1 May 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;JF-17B&lt;/small&gt; بلاڪ 2 قسم &lt;small&gt;2018ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾ پي اي سي ۾ سيريل پيداوار ۾ داخل ٿيو ۽ ڊسمبر &lt;small&gt;2020ع&lt;/small&gt; تائين &lt;small&gt;'''26'''&lt;/small&gt; جهاز پي اي ايف کي پهچايا ويا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/pac-kamra-rolls-out-final-14-jf-17b-fighters-for-pakistan-air-force|title=PAC Kamra rolls out final 14 JF-17B fighters for Pakistan Air Force|website=Janes.com|access-date=7 March 2021|archive-date=11 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111103242/https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/pac-kamra-rolls-out-final-14-jf-17b-fighters-for-pakistan-air-force|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڊسمبر &lt;small&gt;2020ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾، پاڪستان ايئر فورس هڪ فعال اليڪٽرانڪ طور تي اسڪين ٿيل ايري (&lt;small&gt;AESA&lt;/small&gt;) ريڊار، هڪ وڌيڪ طاقتور روسي ڪليموف &lt;small&gt;RD-93MA&lt;/small&gt; انجن، هڪ وڏو ۽ وڌيڪ ترقي يافته وائڊ اينگل هيڊ اپ ڊسپلي (&lt;small&gt;HUD&lt;/small&gt;)، اليڪٽرانڪ جوابي ماپ، هڪ اضافي هارڊ پوائنٽ، ۽ بهتر هٿيارن جي صلاحيت سان جهاز جي وڌيڪ ترقي يافته بلاڪ 3 ورزن جي سيريل پيداوار شروع ڪئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto52&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/767018-paf-launches-serial-production-of-latest-jf-17-thunder-block-iii|title=PAF launches serial production of latest JF-17 Thunder Block III|website=www.thenews.com.pk|date=31 December 2020|access-date=11 February 2021|archive-date=1 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210101043156/https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/767018-paf-launches-serial-production-of-latest-jf-17-thunder-block-iii|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

پاڪستان ايئر فورس جي ايف-17 جهازن فوجي ڪارروائي ڪئي آهي، هوائي کان هوائي ۽ هوائي کان زمين تي، جنهن ۾ سال &lt;small&gt;2014&lt;/small&gt;ع ۽ &lt;small&gt;2017ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾ دهشتگردي مخالف آپريشن دوران پاڪستان-افغانستان سرحد جي ويجهو اتر وزيرستان ۾ دهشتگردن جي جڳهن تي بمباري ڪرڻ، &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Fighter jets bomb militant hideouts in North Waziristan after Taliban attacks|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/661387/fighter-jets-bomb-militant-hideouts-in-north-waziristan-after-taliban-attacks/|access-date=30 April 2017|work=[[Express Tribune]]|date=21 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826031322/https://tribune.com.pk/story/661387/fighter-jets-bomb-militant-hideouts-in-north-waziristan-after-taliban-attacks/|archive-date=26 August 2017|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceA3&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Khan|first1=Bilal|title=JF-17 Block-2 and Block-3 Details Confirmed|url=http://quwa.org/2015/10/17/jf-17-block-2-and-block-3-details-confirmed/|access-date=30 April 2017|work=quwa.org|date=17 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507000654/http://quwa.org/2015/10/17/jf-17-block-2-and-block-3-details-confirmed/|archive-date=7 May 2017|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; هدايت يافته ۽ غير هدايت يافته (guided) هٿيارن جو استعمال ڪرڻ، سال &lt;small&gt;2017ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾ بلوچستان ۾ پاڪستان-ايران حد جي ويجهو هڪ مداخلت ڪندڙ ايراني فوجي ڊرون کي ڪيرائڻ، &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1340897|title=Iranian drone shot down by PAF, confirms FO|date=21 June 2017|access-date=7 March 2021|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308072512/https://www.dawn.com/news/1340897|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; سال &lt;small&gt;2019ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾ جمو ۽ ڪشمير جي هوائي حملي ۽ هندستان ۽ پاڪستان جي وچ ۾ هوائي جهڙپن دوران آپريشن سوئفٽ ريٽورٽ ۾&lt;ref name=&quot;auto82&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.keymilitary.com/article/operation-swift-retort-one-year|title=Operation Swift Retort one year on|access-date=1 March 2022|date=19 March 2020|first=Alan|last=Warnes|publisher=Key Publishing|archive-date=15 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115063708/https://www.keymilitary.com/article/operation-swift-retort-one-year|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;2024ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾ آپريشن مارگ بر سرمچار دوران، جن ۾ پاڪستان ايران جي [[سيستان ۽ بلوچستان صوبو|سيستان ۽ بلوچستان صوبي]] اندر بلوچ عليحدگي پسند گروپن کي نشانو بڻائي هوائي ۽ توپخاني جي حملي جو هڪ سلسلو شروع ڪيو. مارچ ۽ ڊسمبر &lt;small&gt;2024ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾، پي اي ايف جي ايف-&lt;small&gt;'''17'''&lt;/small&gt; جهازن کي [[افغانستان]] اندر پاڪستاني طالبان جي ٺڪاڻن خلاف سرحد پار هوائي حملي ۾ استعمال ڪيو ويو. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Hussain|first=Abid|title=Pakistan air strikes in Afghanistan spark Taliban warning of retaliation|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/12/25/pakistan-air-strikes-in-afghanistan-spark-taliban-warning-of-retaliation|access-date=26 January 2025|website=Al Jazeera|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[نائيجيريا]] جي هوائي فوج (&lt;small&gt;NAF&lt;/small&gt;) جي ايف-17 جهازن نائيجيريا ۾ دهشتگردي مخالف ۽ بغاوت مخالف آپريشن ۾ فوجي ڪارروائي ڏٺي آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto22&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2023/01/22/amao-naf-expects-delivery-of-27-fighter-jets-attack-helicopters-to-boost-fight-against-terrorism/|title=Amao: NAF Expects Delivery of 27 Fighter Jets, Attack Helicopters to Boost Fight against Terrorism – THISDAYLIVE|access-date=22 March 2023|archive-date=22 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322164348/https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2023/01/22/amao-naf-expects-delivery-of-27-fighter-jets-attack-helicopters-to-boost-fight-against-terrorism/|url-status=live|newspaper=[[This Day]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ميانمار]] جي فوج پڻ مختلف باغي گروپن خلاف پنهنجي &lt;small&gt;JF-17&lt;/small&gt; جهازن کي بار بار تعينات ڪيو آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Davis|first=Anthony|date=11 January 2023|title=Myanmar Air Force fiercely gunning to win the war|url=https://asiatimes.com/2023/01/myanmar-air-force-fiercely-gunning-to-win-the-war/|access-date=26 January 2025|website=Asia Times|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; مئي &lt;small&gt;2025ع&lt;/small&gt; جي هندستان-پاڪستان تڪرار دوران، پي اي ايف &lt;small&gt;JF-17&lt;/small&gt; جهازن کي هوا کان هوا ۽ هوا کان زمين تي ٻنهي ڪردارن ۾ جنگ ۾ تعينات ڪيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto14&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/5/14/did-pakistan-shoot-down-five-indian-fighter-jets-what-we-know | title=Did Pakistan shoot down five Indian fighter jets? What we know }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto16&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c1w3dln352vo | title=Kashmir: How China benefited from India-Pakistan hostilities | date=19 May 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto12&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://edition.cnn.com/2025/05/09/china/china-military-tech-pakistan-india-conflict-intl-hnk | title=China has spent billions developing military tech. Conflict between India and Pakistan could be its first major test | date=9 May 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==ترقي==

=== پس منظر ===
جي ايف-17 کي بنيادي طور تي پي اي ايف جي هڪ سستي، غير منظور ٿيل، چوٿين نسل جي، هلڪي وزن واري، گھڻ-رول جنگي جهاز جي ضرورت کي پورو ڪرڻ لاءِ ڊزائين ۽ تيار ڪيو ويو هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|work=[[Aviation Week]]|title=Pakistan expands fighter force|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=defense&amp;id=news/awst/2010/12/20/AW_12_20_2010_p31-277626.xml&amp;headline=Pakistan%20Expands%20Fighter%20Force|date=22 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105212255/http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=defense&amp;id=news%2Fawst%2F2010%2F12%2F20%2FAW_12_20_2010_p31-277626.xml&amp;headline=Pakistan%20Expands%20Fighter%20Force|archive-date=5 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; ته جيئن ٽئين نسل جي نانچانگ اي-5 سي بمبارن، چينگدو ايف-7 پي/پي جي انٽرسيپٽرز، ميراج III ملٽي-رول جنگي جهاز ۽ ميراج 5 اسٽرائڪ جهاز جي وڏي بيڙي جي متبادل طور تي، جنهن جي قيمت 500 ملين آمريڪي ڊالر هئي جيڪا پاڪستان ۽ چين جي وچ ۾ برابر ورهايل هئي. &lt;ref name=&quot;fighter-planes.com2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.fighter-planes.com/info/jf17_thunder.htm|title=Joint Fighter-17 (JF-17) Thunder|publisher=Fighter Planes|access-date=19 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901205431/http://www.fighter-planes.com/info/jf17_thunder.htm|archive-date=1 September 2009|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; جهاز جو مقصد وڌيڪ مهانگو مغربي ويڙهاڪن جي قيمت-مؤثر ۽ مقابلي واري متبادل جي طور تي برآمد جي صلاحيت پڻ هئي. هن جهاز جي ترقي يانگ وي جي سربراهي ۾ هئي، جنهن کي چين جو &quot;ايس ڊيزائنر&quot; سمجهيو ويندو هو، جنهن چينگدو جي-20 پڻ ٺاهيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=China's Expert Fighter Designer Knows Jets, Avoids America's Mistakes|journal=International Relations and Security Network|url=http://www.css.ethz.ch/content/specialinterest/gess/cis/center-for-securities-studies/en/services/digital-library/articles/article.html/192616|access-date=18 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221005150/http://www.css.ethz.ch/content/specialinterest/gess/cis/center-for-securities-studies/en/services/digital-library/articles/article.html/192616|archive-date=21 December 2016|url-status=live}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221005150/http://www.css.ethz.ch/content/specialinterest/gess/cis/center-for-securities-studies/en/services/digital-library/articles/article.html/192616 |date=21 December 2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

سال 1989ع تائين، آمريڪا جي اقتصادي پابندين جي ڪري، پاڪستان پروجيڪٽ سيبر II کي ڇڏي ڏنو هو، هڪ ڊيزائن اسٽڊي جنهن ۾ آمريڪي جهاز ٺاهيندڙ گرومن ۽ چين شامل هئا، ۽ چينگدو ايف-7 کي ٻيهر ڊزائين ۽ اپ گريڊ ڪرڻ جو فيصلو ڪيو هو. &lt;ref name=&quot;Pakistan considers new fighter plan2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Pakistan Considers new Fighter Plan|work=[[Flight International]]|date=14–20 March 1990|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1990/1990%20-%200672.html?search=Sabre%20II|access-date=18 October 2009|archive-date=21 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021154725/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1990/1990%20-%200672.html?search=Sabre%20II}}&lt;/ref&gt; سال1988ع ۾، چين ۽ گرومن سپر 7 جو نو مهينن جو ابتدائي ڊيزائن مطالعو ڪيو، جيڪو چينگدو ايف-7 جو اپ گريڊ هو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Grumman to upgrade Chinese F-7Ms2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Grumman to upgrade Chinese F-7Ms|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1988/1988%20-%203360.html|date=26 November 1988|work=Flight International|access-date=15 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021140123/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1988/1988%20-%203360.html|archive-date=21 October 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; سال 1989ع جي تيانانمن اسڪوائر احتجاج جي سياسي نتيجي کان پوءِ جڏهن چين تي پابنديون لڳايون ويون ته گرومن منصوبي کي ڇڏي ڏنو. گرومن جي چينگدو سپر 7 منصوبي کي ڇڏڻ کان پوءِ، منصوبي کي ڇڏي ڏنو ويو ۽، ان جي جاءِ تي، فائٽر چائنا-1 (ايف سي-1) منصوبو 1991ع ۾ شروع ڪيو ويو. سال &lt;small&gt;1995&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، پاڪستان ۽ چين هڪ نئين فائٽر جي گڏيل ڊيزائن ۽ ترقي لاءِ هڪ مفاهمت جي ياداشت (MoU) تي دستخط ڪيا ۽ ايندڙ ڪجهه سالن ۾ منصوبي جي تفصيلن تي ڪم ڪيو. جون 1995ع ۾، ميڪوئان &quot;ڊيزائن سپورٽ&quot; مهيا ڪرڻ لاءِ منصوبي ۾ شامل ٿيو، ان ۾ سي اي سي پاران ڪيترن ئي انجنيئرن جي سيڪنڊمينٽ پڻ شامل هئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;21 June 1995 flightglobal.com2&quot;&gt;{{citation|title=Mikoyan joins Chengdu on fighter|work=[[Flight International]]|date=21 June 1995|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/mikoyan-joins-chengdu-on-fighter-25623/|access-date=27 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714212115/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/mikoyan-joins-chengdu-on-fighter-25623/|archive-date=14 July 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== ايف سي-1 منصوبي جو آغاز ===
[[File:Pakistan Air Force Pakistan JF-17 Thunder Bidini-1.jpg|thumb|left|&lt;small&gt;2011&lt;/small&gt; جي ازمير ايئر شو لاءِ ازمير ترڪي ۾ هڪ پي اي ايف جي ايف-17 بلاڪ 1]]
آڪٽوبر &lt;small&gt;1995&lt;/small&gt; ۾ رپورٽ موجب سال جي آخر تائين پاڪستان کي  ايف سي-1 جي ايويونڪس فراهم ڪرڻ ۽ ان کي ضم ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ ڪمپني چونڊڻي هئي جنهن جي &lt;small&gt;1999&lt;/small&gt; تائين پيداوار شروع ٿيڻ جي اميد هئي. چيو ويندو هو ته ايويونڪس ۾ ريڊار، انرٽيل نيويگيشن سسٽم، هيڊ اپ ڊسپلي ۽ ملٽي فنڪشن ڊسپلي شامل آهن. مقابلي واريون بوليون ٿامسن-سي ايس ايف کان ريڊار ڊاپلر ملٽي ٽارگيٽ (&lt;small&gt;RDY&lt;/small&gt;) جي هڪ قسم &lt;small&gt;SAGEM&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;ROSE&lt;/small&gt; اپ گريڊ پروجيڪٽ ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ ساڳي ايويونڪس پيڪيج ۽ مارڪوني اليڪٽرانڪ سسٽم ان جي بليو هاڪ ريڊار سان آيون. ڪمپني جي پي اي ايف سان لاڳاپن جي ڪري &lt;small&gt;FIAR&lt;/small&gt; جي (هاڻي &lt;small&gt;SELEX&lt;/small&gt; گيليلو) گريفو &lt;small&gt;S7&lt;/small&gt; ريڊار جي چونڊ ٿيڻ جي اميد هئي. &lt;ref name=&quot;18 October 1995 flightglobal.com2&quot;&gt;{{citation|title=Pakistan nears FC-1 avionics decision|work=[[Flight International]]|date=18 October 1995|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/pakistan-nears-fc-1-avionics-decision-21419/|access-date=21 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725044013/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/pakistan-nears-fc-1-avionics-decision-21419/|archive-date=25 July 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; فيبروري &lt;small&gt;1998&lt;/small&gt; ۾ پاڪستان ۽ چين ايئر فريم ڊولپمينٽ کي ڍڪڻ واري ارادي جي خط تي دستخط ڪيا. روس جي ڪليموف فائٽر کي طاقت ڏيڻ لاءِ &lt;small&gt;RD-33&lt;/small&gt; ٽربوفين انجن جو هڪ قسم پيش ڪيو. &lt;ref name=&quot;04/03/98 flightglobal.com2&quot;&gt;{{citation|title=China/Pakistan signal intent to resume FC-1 development work|work=[[Flight International]]|date=4 March 1998|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/chinapakistan-signal-intent-to-resume-fc-1-development-33894/|access-date=28 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725051043/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/chinapakistan-signal-intent-to-resume-fc-1-development-33894/|url-status=live|archive-date=25 July 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; اپريل &lt;small&gt;1999&lt;/small&gt; ۾ ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ڊينيل سپر 7, اڳ ۾ رپورٽ ٿيل آر-ڊارٽر جي بدران, کي ٽي-ڊارٽر بيونڊ-ويزوئل-رينج (&lt;small&gt;BVR&lt;/small&gt;) ايئر-ٽو-ايئر ميزائل (&lt;small&gt;AAM&lt;/small&gt;) سان هٿياربند ڪرڻ جي آڇ ڪئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/denel-proposes-advanced-darter-derivatives-50571/|title=Denel proposes advanced Darter derivatives|last=Lewis|first=Paul|date=28 April 1999|work=Flight International|access-date=31 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725033628/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/denel-proposes-advanced-darter-derivatives-50571/|archive-date=25 July 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڳ ۾ &lt;small&gt;1987&lt;/small&gt; ۾ پراٽ ۽ وٽني سپر-&lt;small&gt;7&lt;/small&gt; منصوبي کي چين يا پاڪستان ۾ مقامي پيداوار سان ٽي انجن آپشن؛ &lt;small&gt;PW1212&lt;/small&gt;، &lt;small&gt;F404&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;PW1216&lt;/small&gt; پيش ڪيا. رولز رائس پنهنجو &lt;small&gt;RB199-127/128&lt;/small&gt; ٽربوفين انجن پيش ڪيو. هي منصوبو &lt;small&gt;1989&lt;/small&gt; ۾ ختم ڪيو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.airforceworld.com/pla/fc-1-jf-17-thunder-fighter-china.htm|title=FC-1 JF-17 western engine options|date=15 June 2012|work=Air Force World|access-date=15 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624042701/http://www.airforceworld.com/pla/fc-1-jf-17-thunder-fighter-china.htm|archive-date=24 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

جون &lt;small&gt;1999&lt;/small&gt; ۾ چينگدو &lt;small&gt;FC-1/سپر 7&lt;/small&gt; کي گڏيل طور تي ترقي ۽ پيداوار جو معاهدو دستخط ڪيو ويو. &lt;small&gt;GEC&lt;/small&gt;-مارڪوني پاران هڪ مربوط ايويونڪس سوٽ فراهم ڪرڻ لاءِ بولي کي ڇڏي ڏيڻ کان پوءِ &lt;small&gt;FIAR&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;Thomson-CSF&lt;/small&gt; ترتيب وار &lt;small&gt;Grifo S7&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;RC400&lt;/small&gt; ريڊار تي ٻڌل ڪيترائي ايويونڪس سوئيٽ تجويز ڪيا. جيتوڻيڪ اڳ ۾ اميد هئي ته &lt;small&gt;PAF&lt;/small&gt; جي سپر 7 کي پنهنجي نئين بليو هاڪ ريڊار لانچ ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;14 July 1999 flightglobal.com2&quot;&gt;{{citation|title=China and Pakistan agree on Super 7 fighter development work|work=[[Flight International]]|date=14 July 1999|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/china-and-pakistan-agree-on-super-7-fighter-development-53912/|access-date=27 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526190707/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/china-and-pakistan-agree-on-super-7-fighter-development-53912/|archive-date=26 May 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;  &lt;ref name=&quot;23 June 1999 flightglobal.com2&quot;&gt;{{citation|title=Marconi abandons FC-1 fighter bid|work=[[Flight International]]|date=23 July 1999|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/marconi-abandons-fc-1-fighter-bid-53136/|access-date=27 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526184233/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/marconi-abandons-fc-1-fighter-bid-53136/|archive-date=26 May 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; ملڪ جي &lt;small&gt;1998&lt;/small&gt; جي ايٽمي هٿيارن جي تجربن کان پوءِ پاڪستان تي پابندين جي ڪري ايندڙ &lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt; مهينن دوران ڊيزائن جو ڪم تمام سست رفتاري سان اڳتي وڌيو. &lt;small&gt;PAF&lt;/small&gt; کي مغربي ايويونڪس جي ترسيل کي روڪيو ويو. &lt;small&gt;2001&lt;/small&gt; جي شروعات ۾ &lt;small&gt;PAF&lt;/small&gt; جو فيصلو جهاز تي ڊيزائن جي ڪم کي جاري رکڻ جي قابل بڻايو ته ايئر فريم کي ايويونڪس کان ڌار ڪيو وڃي جيئن ته ايئر فريم ترقي ڪئي وئي &lt;small&gt;PAF&lt;/small&gt; پاران ڪنهن به نئين ايويونڪس گهرجن کي ايئر فريم ۾ وڌيڪ آساني سان ضم ڪري سگهجي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Page 33, AFM magazine, issue July 20042&quot;&gt;{{citation|first=Alan|last=Warnes|title=Pakistan's Vision: Bridging The Capabilities Gap|work=[[Air Forces Monthly]]|date=July 2004|page=33}}&lt;/ref&gt;

پروٽوٽائپ جي پيداوار سيپٽمبر 2002 ۾ شروع ٿي. نومبر 2002 ۾ ايئر شو چائنا ۾ FC-1/Super 7 جو هڪ مڪمل سائيز جو ميڪ اپ ڏيکاريو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;12/11/02 flightglobal.com2&quot;&gt;{{citation|title=Airshow China&amp;nbsp;– FC-1 mock-up revealed|work=[[Flight International]]|date=12 November 2002|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/airshow-china-fc-1-mock-up-revealed-157719/|access-date=21 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021150219/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/airshow-china-fc-1-mock-up-revealed-157719/|url-status=live|archive-date=21 October 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪليموف &lt;small&gt;RD-93&lt;/small&gt; ٽربوفين انجن جو پهريون بيچ جيڪو پروٽوٽائپ کي طاقت ڏيندو هو، &lt;small&gt;2002&lt;/small&gt; ۾ پڻ پهچايو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Janes2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=CAC FC-1 Xiaolong|work=[[Jane's All the World's Aircraft]]|publisher=[[Jane's Information Group]]|date=10 March 2009|url=http://www.janes.com/articles/Janes-All-the-Worlds-Aircraft/CAC-FC-1-Xiaolong-China.html|access-date=29 July 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; چائنا نيشنل ايرو-ٽيڪنالاجي امپورٽ اينڊ ايڪسپورٽ ڪارپوريشن (&lt;small&gt;CATIC&lt;/small&gt;) جي هڪ آفيسر جي مطابق, &lt;small&gt;JF-17&lt;/small&gt; جي گهٽ قيمت ڪجهه  آن بورڊ سسٽم جي ڪري آهي جيڪا چينگدو J-10 جي سسٽم مان ترتيب ڏنل آهن. آفيسر چيو ته، &quot;ٽيڪنالاجي جي منتقلي (جي-10 کان جي ايف-17 ڏانهن هوائي جهاز جي نظام کي منتقل ڪرڻ) JF-17 کي تمام گهڻو قيمتي بڻائي ٿو&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Chinese Jets Today at Bygone Price|url=http://fr.viadeo.com/fr/groups/detaildiscussion/?containerId=002159fj8yppl5m1&amp;forumId=002n6x9ycdkb9g5&amp;action=messageDetail&amp;messageId=0021ygdepj3uehk1|date=23 November 2010|work=AviationWeek.com|publisher=Viadeo|access-date=21 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111101518/http://fr.viadeo.com/fr/groups/detaildiscussion/?containerId=002159fj8yppl5m1&amp;forumId=002n6x9ycdkb9g5&amp;action=messageDetail&amp;messageId=0021ygdepj3uehk1|archive-date=11 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;JF-17 and J-10: 21st Century Jets at Yesterday's Price2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://aviationweek.com/awin/jf-17-and-j-10-21st-century-jets-yesterday-s-price|title=JF-17 and J-10: 21st Century Jets at Yesterday's Price|date=18 November 2010|work=[[Aviation Week]]|access-date=24 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111101518/http://aviationweek.com/awin/jf-17-and-j-10-21st-century-jets-yesterday-s-price|archive-date=11 January 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪمپيوٽر جي مدد سان ٺهيل ڊيزائن سافٽ ويئر جي استعمال &lt;small&gt;JF-17&lt;/small&gt; جي ڊيزائن جي مرحلي کي مختصر ڪري ڇڏيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Fisher|first=Richard Jr.|title=China's Aviation Sector: Building Toward World Class Capabilities|url=http://www.strategycenter.net/research/pubID.226/pub_detail.asp|publisher=International Assessment and Strategy Center|access-date=27 May 2010|date=20 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531214709/http://www.strategycenter.net/research/pubID.226/pub_detail.asp|archive-date=31 May 2010|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== پرواز جي جاچ ۽ ٻيهر ڊيزائننگ ===
پهريون پروٽوٽائپ (&lt;small&gt;PT-01&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;small&gt;31&lt;/small&gt; مئي &lt;small&gt;2003&lt;/small&gt;ع تي رول آئوٽ ڪيو ويو&lt;ref name=&quot;FC-1/JF-17, sinodefence.com2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|work=Sino Defence|title=FC-1/JF-17 Multirole Fighter Aircraft|url=http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/fc1.asp|access-date=11 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204083919/http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/fc1.asp|archive-date=4 December 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;29 July 2003 flightglobal.com2&quot;&gt;{{citation|first=Brendan|last=Sobie|title=Chengdu puts back Super-7 flight tests|work=[[Flight International]]|date=29 July 2003|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/chengdu-puts-back-super-7-flight-tests-169377/|access-date=28 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714203308/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/chengdu-puts-back-super-7-flight-tests-169377/|archive-date=14 July 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ چينگدو فلائيٽ ٽيسٽ سينٽر ڏانهن منتقل ڪيو ويو، جئين ته پهرين پرواز لاءِ تيار ڪيو وڃي. اهو شروعاتي طور تي جون ۾ مڪمل ٿيڻ جو منصوبو هو. پر [[سارس ڪووي 2|سارس وائرس]] جي وبا جي خدشن جي ڪري ان ۾ دير ٿي وئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Page 33, AFM magazine, issue July 20043&quot;&gt;{{citation|first=Alan|last=Warnes|title=Pakistan's Vision: Bridging The Capabilities Gap|work=[[Air Forces Monthly]]|date=July 2004|page=33}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;29 July 2003 flightglobal.com3&quot;&gt;{{citation|first=Brendan|last=Sobie|title=Chengdu puts back Super-7 flight tests|work=[[Flight International]]|date=29 July 2003|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/chengdu-puts-back-super-7-flight-tests-169377/|access-date=28 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714203308/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/chengdu-puts-back-super-7-flight-tests-169377/|archive-date=14 July 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن نقطي جي چوڌاري، نالي &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''سپر-7'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; کي &quot;&lt;small&gt;'''JF-17'''&lt;/small&gt;&quot; (&lt;small&gt;جوائنٽ فائٽر-17&lt;/small&gt;) سان تبديل ڪيو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;29 July 2003 flightglobal.com&quot;&gt;{{citation|first=Brendan|last=Sobie|title=Chengdu puts back Super-7 flight tests|work=[[Flight International]]|date=29 July 2003|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/chengdu-puts-back-super-7-flight-tests-169377/|access-date=28 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714203308/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/chengdu-puts-back-super-7-flight-tests-169377/|archive-date=14 July 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; 27 جون 2003ع تي چينگدو جي وينجيانگ ايئرپورٽ تي گهٽ رفتار واري ٽيڪسي جي آزمائش شروع ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Janes3&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=CAC FC-1 Xiaolong|work=[[Jane's All the World's Aircraft]]|publisher=[[Jane's Information Group]]|date=10 March 2009|url=http://www.janes.com/articles/Janes-All-the-Worlds-Aircraft/CAC-FC-1-Xiaolong-China.html|access-date=29 July 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; پهرين پرواز آگسٽ &lt;small&gt;2003&lt;/small&gt;ع جي آخر ۾، &lt;ref name=&quot;FC-1/JF-17, sinodefence.com3&quot;&gt;{{cite web|work=Sino Defence|title=FC-1/JF-17 Multirole Fighter Aircraft|url=http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/fc1.asp|access-date=11 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204083919/http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/fc1.asp|archive-date=4 December 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;9 September 2003 flightglobal.com2&quot;&gt;{{citation|title=Sino-Pakistani fighter flies|work=[[Flight International]]|date=9 September 2003|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/sino-pakistani-fighter-flies-170984/|access-date=28 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714143119/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/sino-pakistani-fighter-flies-170984/|archive-date=14 July 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوٽائپ جي سرڪاري پهرين پرواز سيپٽمبر جي شروعات ۾ ٿي. پروٽوٽائپ کي پاڪستان ايئر فورس جي نئين نامزدگي &lt;small&gt;'''JF-17'''&lt;/small&gt; سان نشان لڳايو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Page 33, AFM magazine, issue July 20044&quot;&gt;{{citation|first=Alan|last=Warnes|title=Pakistan's Vision: Bridging The Capabilities Gap|work=[[Air Forces Monthly]]|date=July 2004|page=33}}&lt;/ref&gt; مارچ &lt;small&gt;2004&lt;/small&gt;ع تائين، &lt;small&gt;'''سي اي سي'''&lt;/small&gt; پهرين پروٽوٽائپ جون لڳ ڀڳ &lt;small&gt;20&lt;/small&gt; ٽيسٽ پروازون ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;23 March 2004 flightglobal.com2&quot;&gt;{{citation|title=Flight testing the FC-1/JF-17|work=[[Flight International]]|date=23 March 2004|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/flight-testing-the-fc-1jf-17-179194/|access-date=22 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102181806/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/flight-testing-the-fc-1jf-17-179194/|archive-date=2 January 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; 7 اپريل &lt;small&gt;2004&lt;/small&gt;ع تي، پي اي ايف جي ٽيسٽ پائلٽ، راشد حبيب ۽ محمد احسان الحق پهريون ڀيرو &lt;small&gt;'''پي ٽي-01'''&lt;/small&gt; پروٽوٽائپ اڏايو. ٽئين پروٽوٽائپ (&lt;small&gt;PT-03&lt;/small&gt;) جي پهرين پرواز &lt;small&gt;9&lt;/small&gt; اپريل &lt;small&gt;2004&lt;/small&gt;ع تي ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Page 33, AFM magazine, issue July 20045&quot;&gt;{{citation|first=Alan|last=Warnes|title=Pakistan's Vision: Bridging The Capabilities Gap|work=[[Air Forces Monthly]]|date=July 2004|page=33}}&lt;/ref&gt; مارچ 2004ع تائين، پاڪستان ايئر فورس ۾ لڳ ڀڳ 200 JF-17 جهاز شامل ڪرڻ جو ارادو رکيو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/2004/2004-09%20-%200138.html?search=Pakistan%20JF-17|title=PAC readies for assembly ramp up|work=Flight International|access-date=21 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514003434/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/2004/2004-09%20-%200138.html?search=Pakistan%20JF-17|archive-date=14 May 2013|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Model of JF-17 on display with two SD-10 and four PL-5E missiles mounted on wings.jpg|thumb|چين ۾ نمائش ۾ JF-17 ٿنڊر جو ماڊل]]


ٽئين پروٽوٽائپ کان پوءِ، ڊيزائن ۾ ڪيتريون ئي بهتريون تيار ڪيون ويون ۽ وڌيڪ جهازن ۾ شامل ڪيون ويون. &lt;small&gt;'''RD-93'''&lt;/small&gt; انجن پاران گهڻي دونھين جي اخراج جي ڪري، انجن ۾ هوا جي انٽيڪ کي وڌايو ويو. ٽيسٽنگ ۾ مليل ڪنٽرول مسئلن جي نتيجي ۾ ونگ ليڊنگ ايج روٽ ايڪسٽينشن (LERX) ۾ تبديليون آندي ويون. &lt;ref name=&quot;FC-1/JF-17, sinodefence.com4&quot;&gt;{{cite web|work=Sino Defence|title=FC-1/JF-17 Multirole Fighter Aircraft|url=http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/fc1.asp|access-date=11 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204083919/http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/fc1.asp|archive-date=4 December 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; عمودي ٽيل فن کي ٽپ ۾ هڪ وڌايل اليڪٽرانڪ وارفيئر سامان رکڻ لاءِ وڌايو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Jane's Sino-Pakistani fighter improved2&quot;&gt;{{citation|first=Robert|last=Hewson|title=Sino-Pakistani fighter improved|work=[[Jane's Information Group]]|url=http://www.janes.com/defence/air_forces/news/jdw/jdw051205_1_n.shtml|access-date=27 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070228002942/http://www.janes.com/defence/air_forces/news/jdw/jdw051205_1_n.shtml|archive-date=28 February 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; ٻيهر ڊزائين ڪيل جهاز ۾ وڌ ۾ وڌ ٽيڪ آف وزن ٿورو وڌي ويو هو ۽ چيني ذريعن کان حاصل ڪيل ايونڪس جي وڌندڙ مقدار کي شامل ڪيو ويو. تنهن هوندي به پاڪستان ايئر فورس پنهنجي جهاز لاءِ مغربي ايونڪس چونڊيو. سال &lt;small&gt;2005&lt;/small&gt;ع جي آخر کان &lt;small&gt;2007&lt;/small&gt;ع تائين پاڪستان ايئر فورس جهازن جي ترسيل کي ملتوي ڪيو. پاڪستان برطانوي، فرانسيسي ۽ اطالوي ايونڪس سوئٽس جو جائزو ورتو. جنهن جي فاتح جي 2006ع ۾ حتمي شڪل ڏيڻ جي اميد هئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;27 September 2005 flightglobal.com2&quot;&gt;{{citation|first=Brendan|last=Sobie|title=Test flaws prompt rethink on China's FC-1 light fighter look|work=[[Flight International]]|date=27 September 2005|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2005/09/27/201773/test-flaws-prompt-rethink-on-chinas-fc-1-light-fighter.html|access-date=21 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624173043/http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2005/09/27/201773/test-flaws-prompt-rethink-on-chinas-fc-1-light-fighter.html|archive-date=24 June 2008|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;'''PT-04'''&lt;/small&gt;، چوٿون پروٽوٽائپ ۽ ڊيزائن تبديلين کي شامل ڪرڻ وارو پهريون، اپريل 2006ع ۾ رول آئوٽ ڪيو ويو ۽ 28 اپريل 2006ع تي پنهنجي پهرين پرواز ڪئي.&lt;ref name=&quot;08/05/06 flightglobal.com2&quot;&gt;{{citation|first=Graham|last=Warwick|title=Pictures: China's Chengdu FC-1 fighter performs first flight with JSF-style engine inlets|work=[[Flight International]]|date=8 May 2006|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/pictures-china39s-chengdu-fc-1-fighter-performs-first-flight-with-jsf-style-engine-206499/|access-date=28 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222204945/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/pictures-china39s-chengdu-fc-1-fighter-performs-first-flight-with-jsf-style-engine-206499/|url-status=live|archive-date=22 February 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Liu Jianchao's press conference on 16 May 20062&quot;&gt;{{citation|title=Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Liu Jianchao's press conference on May 16, 2006|publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China]]|date=17 May 2006|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/xwfw/s2510/t252967.htm|access-date=25 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102091409/http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/xwfw/s2510/t252967.htm|archive-date=2 November 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Liu Jianchao's press conference on 16 May 2006&quot;&gt;{{citation |title=Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Liu Jianchao's press conference on May 16, 2006 |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China]] |date=17 May 2006 |url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/xwfw/s2510/t252967.htm |access-date=25 September 2009 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102091409/http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/xwfw/s2510/t252967.htm | archive-date=2 November 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:JF-17 Thunder (4826622681).jpg|thumb|JF-17 and their DSI air intakes.]]
The modified air intakes replaced conventional intake ramps{{mdash}}whose function is to divert turbulent [[boundary layer]] airflow away from the inlet and prevent it entering the engine{{mdash}}with a [[diverterless supersonic inlet]] (DSI) design.&lt;ref name=&quot;08/05/06 flightglobal.com&quot;&gt;{{citation |first=Graham |last=Warwick |title= Pictures: China's Chengdu FC-1 fighter performs first flight with JSF-style engine inlets |work=[[Flight International]]|date=8 May 2006 |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/pictures-china39s-chengdu-fc-1-fighter-performs-first-flight-with-jsf-style-engine-206499/ |access-date=28 July 2009 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222204945/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/pictures-china39s-chengdu-fc-1-fighter-performs-first-flight-with-jsf-style-engine-206499/ |url-status=live | archive-date=22 February 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; The DSI uses a combination of forward-swept inlet cowls and a three-dimensional compression surface to divert the boundary layer airflow at high sub-sonic and supersonic speeds. According to [[Lockheed Martin]], the DSI design prevents most of the boundary layer air from entering the engine at speeds up to two times the [[speed of sound]], reduces weight by removing the need for complex mechanical intake mechanisms,&lt;ref name=&quot;Code One Magazine article on DSI&quot;&gt;{{citation |first=Eric |last=Hehs |title=JSF Diverterless Supersonic Inlet  |work=Code One magazine |date=July 2000 |url=http://www.codeonemagazine.com/archives/2000/articles/july_00/divertless_1.html |access-date=28 July 2009 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091124032509/http://www.codeonemagazine.com/archives/2000/articles/july_00/divertless_1.html | archive-date=24 November 2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and is [[stealth technology|stealthier]] than a conventional intake.&lt;ref name=&quot;08/05/06 flightglobal.com&quot;/&gt; In 1999, developmental work on the DSI with the aim of improving aircraft performance commenced. The JF-17 design was finalised in 2001.&lt;ref name=&quot;APP&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.app.com.pk/en_/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=255649&amp;Itemid=2 |title=50th indigenously produced JF-17 Thunder rolls-out at PAC Kamra |work=Associated Press of Pakistan |date=18 December 2013 |access-date=26 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006115146/http://www.app.com.pk/en_/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=255649&amp;Itemid=2 |archive-date=6 October 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Multiple models underwent wind tunnel tests; it was found that the DSI reduced weight, cost, and complexity while improving performance.&lt;ref name=&quot;Code One Magazine article on DSI&quot;/&gt;

For the avionics and weapons qualification phase of the flight testing, PT-04 was fitted with a fourth-generation avionics suite that incorporates [[sensor fusion]], an electronic warfare suite, enhanced man-machine interface, [[FADEC|Digital Electronic Engine Control]] (DEEC) for the RD-93 turbofan engine, FBW flight controls, day/night precision surface attack capability, and multi-mode, pulse-Doppler radar for BVR air-to-air attack capability.&lt;ref name=&quot;PakTribune1&quot;&gt;{{citation|title=4th Prototype JF-17 'Thunder' aircraft successfully completed inaugural flight |work=PakTribune (Pakistani news website) |url=http://www.paktribune.com/news/index.shtml?143355 |access-date=23 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090624150009/http://www.paktribune.com/news/index.shtml?143355 |archive-date=24 June 2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The sixth prototype, PT-06, made its maiden flight on 10 September 2006.&lt;ref name=&quot;cnair&quot;&gt;{{citation |first=Hui |last=Tong |title=FC-1/JF-17 Thunder Dragon/Thunder |url=http://cnair.top81.cn/J-10_J-11_FC-1.htm |access-date=2 August 2009 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615002254/http://cnair.top81.cn/J-10_J-11_FC-1.htm | archive-date=15 June 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Following a competition in 2008, [[Martin-Baker]] was selected over a Chinese firm for the supply of fifty PK16LE ejection seats.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.martin-baker.co.uk/getdoc/62678197-340b-46f4-84b5-2d801b21a11a/MB_Escape_20.aspx|title=JF-17 Signing|date=September 2008|work=Escape (newsletter)|publisher=Martin-Baker|page=1|access-date=9 June 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403190614/http://www.martin-baker.co.uk/getdoc/62678197-340b-46f4-84b5-2d801b21a11a/MB_Escape_20.aspx | archive-date=3 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Production===
[[File:13-143 JF-17 PAKISTAN AIR FORCE LBG (18888092161).jpg|thumb|A PAF JF-17 Block 1 at the [[Paris–Le Bourget Airport|Le Bourget Airport]], Paris, France for the 2015 [[Paris Air Show]] ]]
On 2 March 2007, the first consignment of two small-batch-production (SBP) aircraft arrived in a dismantled state in Pakistan. They flew for the first time on 10 March 2007 and took part in a public aerial demonstration during a [[Pakistan Day]] parade on 23 March 2007. The PAF intended to induct 200 JF-17 by 2015 to replace all its Chengdu F-7, Nanchang A-5, and Dassault Mirage III/5 aircraft. In preparation for the [[Aerial refueling|in-flight refuelling]] of JF-17s, the PAF has upgraded several Mirage IIIs with IFR probes for training purposes.&lt;ref name = &quot;The News, JF-17 engine row resolved: Air chief&quot;&gt;{{citation |first=Mayed |last=Ali |title = JF-17 engine row resolved: Air chief | newspaper = [[The News International]]|date= 31 March 2007 | place = [[Pakistan|PK]] |url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=6854  | access-date =23 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070901221604/http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=6854 |archive-date = 1 September 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; A dual-seat, combat-capable trainer was originally scheduled to begin flight testing in 2006;&lt;ref name=&quot;JF-17 Thunder Detailed Specifications, PAC Kamra&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pac.org.pk/jf-17|title=Pakistan Aeronautical Complex Kamra – JF-17 Thunder Aircraft|work=pac.org.pk|access-date=6 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111101519/http://www.pac.org.pk/jf-17|archive-date=11 January 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; in 2009 Pakistan reportedly decided to develop the training model into a specialised attack variant.&lt;ref name=&quot;IASC Chinese Dimensions of the 2007 Dubai Airshow&quot;&gt;{{citation |first= Richard Jr. |last= Fisher |title= Chinese Dimensions of the 2007 Dubai Airshow |publisher= International Assessment and Strategy Center (IASC) |date= 20 January 2008 |url= http://www.strategycenter.net/research/pubID.179/pub_detail.asp |access-date= 6 August 2009 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090715131717/http://www.strategycenter.net/research/pubID.179/pub_detail.asp |archive-date= 15 July 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://aviationweek.com/defense/avic-pakistan-working-jf-17-two-seater |title=Avic, Pakistan Working on JF-17 Two-Seater |last=Perrett |first=Bradley |date=15 February 2012 |access-date=15 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007185528/http://aviationweek.com/defense/avic-pakistan-working-jf-17-two-seater |archive-date=7 October 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In November 2007, the PAF and PAC conducted flight evaluations of aircraft fitted with a variant of the NRIET KLJ-10 radar developed by China's Nanjing Research Institute for Electronic Technology (NRIET), and the LETRI [[SD-10 (missile)|SD-10]] active radar homing AAM.&lt;ref name=&quot;Jane's&amp;nbsp;— Chinese, French weapons for JF-17&quot;&gt;{{citation |first=Reuben F. |last=Johnson |title=Pakistan considers mix of Chinese, French weapons for its JF-17s |publisher=[[Jane's Information Group]] |date=29 November 2007 |url=http://www.janes.com/news/defence/jdw/jdw071129_1_n.shtml |access-date=28 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225164219/http://www.janes.com/news/defence/jdw/jdw071129_1_n.shtml |archive-date=25 February 2008 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2005, PAC began manufacturing JF-17 components; production of sub-assemblies commenced on 22 January 2008.&lt;ref name=&quot;paf.gov.pk, Manufacturing of JF-17 Thunder Sub-Assemblies Commence at PAC, Kamra&quot;&gt;{{citation |title=Manufacturing of JF-17 Thunder Sub-Assemblies Commence at PAC, Kamra |publisher=[[Pakistan Air Force]] }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Dawn.com, Sub-assembly of Thunder aircraft begins at Kamra&quot;&gt;{{citation|first=Yaqoob |last=Malik |title=Sub-assembly of Thunder aircraft begins at Kamra |publisher=[[Dawn News]] |date=23 January 2008 |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/286032/sub-assembly-of-thunder-aircraft-begins-at-kamra |access-date=23 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714154912/http://www.dawn.com/news/286032/sub-assembly-of-thunder-aircraft-begins-at-kamra |archive-date=14 July 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The PAF was to receive a further six pre-production aircraft in 2005, for a total of 8 out of an initial production run of 16 aircraft. [[Initial operating capability]] was to be achieved by the end of 2008.&lt;ref name = &quot;Jane's, January 2008, JF-17 production commences&quot;&gt;{{citation |first=Gareth |last=Jennings |title=JF-17 production commences |publisher=[[Jane's Information Group]] |date=24 January 2008 |url=http://www.janes.com/news/defence/air/jdw/jdw080124_2_n.shtml |access-date=23 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606051629/http://www.janes.com/news/defence/air/jdw/jdw080124_2_n.shtml |archive-date=6 June 2009 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Final assembly of the JF-17 in Pakistan began on 30 June 2009; PAC expected to complete production of four to six aircraft that year. They planned to produce twelve aircraft in 2010 and fifteen to sixteen aircraft per year from 2011; this could increase to twenty-five aircraft per year.&lt;ref name=&quot;01/07/09 flightglobal.com&quot;&gt;{{citation |first=Siva | last = Govindasamy | title= Pakistan begins domestic final assembly of JF-17 |work= [[Flight International]] | date = 1 July 2009 |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/pakistan-begins-domestic-final-assembly-of-jf-17-329056/ |access-date=23 August 2009 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103224634/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/pakistan-begins-domestic-final-assembly-of-jf-17-329056/ |url-status=live | archive-date=3 January 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 29 December 2015, PAC announced the rollout of the 16th JF-17 Thunder fighter manufactured in the calendar year 2015, taking total number of manufactured aircraft to more than 66. Later, a PAF spokesperson said that in light of the interest shown by various countries, it has been decided that production capacity of JF-17 Thunder at PAC Kamra will be expanded.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Express Tribune&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Pakistan meets JF-17 production target|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1017904/another-milestone-pakistan-meets-jf-17-production-target/|access-date=30 April 2017|work=[[Express Tribune]]|date=29 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517004502/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1017904/another-milestone-pakistan-meets-jf-17-production-target/|archive-date=17 May 2017|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Russia signed an agreement in August 2007 for re-export of 150 RD-93 engines from China to Pakistan for the JF-17.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Russian engines will fly to Pakistan|url=http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/792862|newspaper=Kommersant|access-date=27 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714154851/http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/792862|archive-date=14 July 2014|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2008, the PAF reported it was not fully satisfied with the RD-93 engine and that it would only power the first 50 aircraft; it was alleged that arrangements for a new engine, reportedly the [[Snecma M53#Variants|Snecma M53-P2]], may have been made.&lt;ref name=&quot;New engine, Snecma M53 - defensenews.com&quot;&gt;{{cite news |title=100 Countries Expected To Attend IDEAS 2008 |newspaper=The Daily Star |date=22 November 2008 |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/print_news.php?nid=64342 |access-date=2 January 2014 |archive-date=2 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102172647/http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/print_news.php?nid=64342 |accessdate=6 April 2026 |archivedate=2 January 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102174747/http://www.webcitation.org/6VHeCImPZ }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Mikhail Pogosyan]], head of the MiG and Sukhoi design bureaus, recommended the Russian defence export agency [[Rosoboronexport]] block RD-93 engine sales to China to prevent export competition from the JF-17 against the MiG-29.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|location=RU |url=http://en.ria.ru/military_news/20100705/159699935.html |title=Russian combat aircraft makers fear competition with China |agency=RIA Novosti |access-date=29 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727082025/http://en.ria.ru/military_news/20100705/159699935.html |archive-date=27 July 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{citation |url=http://english.pravda.ru/russia/economics/06-07-2010/114138-russian_fighter_jets-0 |title=Russia's Iconic MiG and Sukhoi Fighters Enter Competition with Chinese Clones |work=[[Pravda]] |date=6 July 2010 |access-date=6 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709180639/http://english.pravda.ru/russia/economics/06-07-2010/114138-russian_fighter_jets-0 |archive-date=9 July 2010 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; At the 2010 [[Farnborough Airshow]], the JF-17 was displayed internationally for the first time; aerial displays at the show were intended but were cancelled due to a late attendance decision as well as licence and insurance costs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://archive.defensenews.com/article/20100719/DEFFEAT06/7190326/Farnborough-Debut-Heralds-JF-17-Export-Drive |title=Farnborough Debut Heralds JF-17 Export Drive |last=Ansari |first=Usman |date=19 July 2010 |work=Defence News |access-date=25 May 2011 |archive-date=3 January 2015 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150103041128/http://archive.defensenews.com/article/20100719/DEFFEAT06/7190326/Farnborough-Debut-Heralds-JF-17-Export-Drive }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to a Rosoboronexport official at the Airshow China 2010, held on 16–21 November 2005 in [[Zhuhai]], China, Russia and China had signed a contract worth $238 million for 100 RD-93 engines with options for another 400 engines developed for the FC-1.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Russia to sell additional RD-93 jet engines to China |url=http://en.ria.ru/military_news/20101116/161360534.html |date=16 November 2010 |publisher=Rianovosti |access-date=21 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021164151/http://en.ria.ru/military_news/20101116/161360534.html |archive-date=21 October 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to media reports, Pakistan planned to increase production of JF-17s by 25% in 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Pakistan to boost JF-17 production by 25% in '16|url=http://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/dubai-airshow-2015/pakistan-to-boost-jf-17-production-by-25-in-16|access-date=20 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918010628/http://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/dubai-airshow-2015/pakistan-to-boost-jf-17-production-by-25-in-16|archive-date=18 September 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Further development===
[[File:PAK Kamra JF-17 Thunder at PAris Air Show, June 2019 (2).jpg|thumb|JF 17 Thunder in [[Flag of Pakistan|Pakistan Flag Livery]] at [[Paris Air Show]] ]]
Pakistan negotiated with British and Italian defence firms regarding avionics and radars for the JF-17 development. Radar options include the Italian Galileo Avionica's Grifo S7,&lt;ref name=&quot;Grifo&quot;&gt;{{Citation |url=http://www.selex-sas.com/datasheets_ga/Grifofamily.pdf | type = datasheet | title = Selex | contribution = Italian Grifo family | publisher = Sensors and Airborne Systems| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070325204544/http://www.selex-sas.com/datasheets_ga/Grifofamily.pdf | archive-date=25 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; the French Thomson-CSF's RC400 (a variant of the [[RDY (Radar Doppler Multitarget)|RDY-2]]),&lt;ref name=&quot;defensenews.com Pakistan Surmounts Sanctions To Revive Airpower&quot;/&gt; and the British company SELEX Galileo's Vixen 500E AESA radar.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thunder Storm, Usman Ansari&quot;&gt;{{citation | last =Ansari | first = Usman | title= Thunder Storm&amp;nbsp;– Pakistan's hopes for the JF-17 Thunder fighter | work=Combat Aircraft magazine | volume = 8 |issue= 4 |url=http://usmanansari.com/id16.html |access-date=11 December 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907034554/http://usmanansari.com/id16.html | archive-date=7 September 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Self-published inline|certain=y|date=July 2021}} In 2010, the PAF had reportedly selected ATE Aerospace Group to integrate French-built avionics and weapons systems over rival bids from Astrac, Finmeccanica and a [[Thales Group|Thales]]-[[Sagem]] joint venture. Fifty JF-17s were to be upgraded and an optional fifty from 2013 onwards, at a cost of up to {{USD|1.36 billion}}. The RC-400 radar, [[MICA (missile)|MICA]] AAMs, and several air-to-surface weapons are believed to be in the contract. The PAF also held talks with South Africa for the supply of Denel A-darter AAMs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= http://aviationweek.com/awin/french-led-jf-17-upgrade-likely-raise-eyebrows |title= French-Led JF-17 Upgrade Likely To Raise Eyebrows |work= [[Aviation Week]] |access-date= 2 January 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160111101518/http://aviationweek.com/awin/french-led-jf-17-upgrade-likely-raise-eyebrows |archive-date= 11 January 2016 |url-status= live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= http://aviationweek.com/awin/will-westernized-jf-17-thunder-attract-new-delhi-s-ire |title= Will Westernized JF-17 Thunder Attract New Delhi's Ire? |work= [[Aviation Week]] |access-date= 2 January 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160111101518/http://aviationweek.com/awin/will-westernized-jf-17-thunder-attract-new-delhi-s-ire |archive-date= 11 January 2016 |url-status= live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In April 2010, after eighteen months of negotiations, the deal was reportedly suspended; reports cited French concerns about Pakistan's financial situation, the protection of sensitive French technology, and by Indian [[lobbying]], which operates many French-built aircraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2010/04/02/paris-bloque-un-contrat-d-equipement-francais-d-avions-de-chasse-pakistanais_1327919_3216.html |title=Paris bloque un contrat d'équipement français d'avions de chasse pakistanais |trans-title=Paris blocks a contract of French equipment for Pakistani fighter aircraft |last=Follorou |first=Jacques |date=2 April 2010 |work=Le Monde |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406012337/http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2010/04/02/paris-bloque-un-contrat-d-equipement-francais-d-avions-de-chasse-pakistanais_1327919_3216.html |archive-date=6 April 2010 |url-status=live }} [https://translate.google.com/translate?js=y&amp;prev=_t&amp;hl=en&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;layout=1&amp;eotf=1&amp;u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lemonde.fr%2Fasie-pacifique%2Farticle%2F2010%2F04%2F02%2Fparis-bloque-un-contrat-d-equipement-francais-d-avions-de-chasse-pakistanais_1327919_3216.html&amp;sl=fr&amp;tl=en Google English translation.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313032215/http://translate.google.com/translate?js=y&amp;prev=_t&amp;hl=en&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;layout=1&amp;eotf=1&amp;u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lemonde.fr%2Fasie-pacifique%2Farticle%2F2010%2F04%2F02%2Fparis-bloque-un-contrat-d-equipement-francais-d-avions-de-chasse-pakistanais_1327919_3216.html&amp;sl=fr&amp;tl=en |date=13 March 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{citation|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/850170/planned-french-arms-sale-to-pakistan-held-up |title=France says arms sale to Pakistan held up |newspaper=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] |date=2 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215070013/http://www.dawn.com/news/850170/planned-french-arms-sale-to-pakistan-held-up |archive-date=15 February 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt; France wanted the PAF to purchase several [[Dassault Mirage 2000|Mirage 2000-9]] fighters from the [[United Arab Emirates Air Force]], which would overlap with the upgraded JF-17.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.rfi.fr/contenu/20100403-contrat-militaire-le-pakistan-bloque-paris|title=Un contrat militaire avec le Pakistan bloqué par Paris |trans-title=A contract with the Pakistan military blocked by Paris | date= 3 April 2010 | publisher = Radio France Internationale | language= fr| access-date= 5 April 2010|location= France|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514191726/http://www.rfi.fr/contenu/20100403-contrat-militaire-le-pakistan-bloque-paris |archive-date=14 May 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; In July 2010, the PAF's Chief of Air Staff, [[Air Chief Marshal]] [[Rao Qamar Suleman]], said such reports were false, stating: &quot;I have had discussions with French Government officials who have assured me that this is not the position of their government...someone was trying to cause mischief{{mdash}}to put pressure on France not to supply the avionics we want&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal| last= Warnes| first= Alan|date=July 2010 |title=On the edge&amp;nbsp;– JF-17s, Tankers and AWACS|journal=Air Forces Monthly | type = magazine  |location= United Kingdom |issue=July 2010|page= 54|quote=Reports in late March that the French Government was refusing to allow the sale of a Thales avionics system was denied by the CAS: 'I saw the report quoting unnamed sources or any French government official. I have had discussions with French Government officials who have assured me that this is not the position of their government. I think someone is trying to cause mischief&amp;nbsp;– to put pressure on France not to supply the avionics we want.'}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 18 December 2013, production of Block 2 JF-17s began at PAC's Kamra facility.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=JF-17 Thunder Block 2 Will be Ready till June 2014 |url=http://pakarmedforces.com/2013/12/jf-17-thunder-block-2-will-be-ready-till-june-2014.html |date=19 December 2013 |publisher=Pakistan Armed Forces News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714134056/http://pakarmedforces.com/2013/12/jf-17-thunder-block-2-will-be-ready-till-june-2014.html |archive-date=14 July 2014 |accessdate=6 April 2026 |archivedate=14 July 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714134056/http://pakarmedforces.com/2013/12/jf-17-thunder-block-2-will-be-ready-till-june-2014.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; These have an air-to-air refuelling capability, improved avionics, enhanced load carrying capacity, data link, and electronic warfare capabilities.&lt;ref name=&quot;dipl 01&quot;/&gt; Block 2 construction was planned to run until 2016, after which the manufacturing of further developed Block III aircraft was planned.&lt;ref name=&quot;dawn&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Production of improved version of JF-17 aircraft launched |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1075055 |date=19 December 2013 |work=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140605015123/http://www.dawn.com/news/1075055 |archive-date=5 June 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In December 2015, it was announced that the 16th Block II aircraft had been handed over resulting in standing up of the 4th squadron.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fourth&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Fourth JF-17 Thunder squadron complete as PAC rolls out 16th aircraft|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1229177/|work=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]|date=28 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406230211/https://www.dawn.com/news/1229177|archive-date=6 April 2017|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 17 June 2015, Jane's Defence Weekly confirmed&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=15 November 2011|title=Bogey: JF-17 'Thunder' crash jolts plans to sell aircraft|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/291604/paf-aircraft-crashes-in-attock|access-date=15 September 2020|website=The Express Tribune|language=en|archive-date=5 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210705115509/https://tribune.com.pk/story/291604/paf-aircraft-crashes-in-attock|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; that JF-17 Block III will have an AESA radar, a helmet-mounted display (HMD) and possibly an internal infrared search and tracking (IRST) system.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url = http://www.janes.com/article/52308/paris-air-show-2015-jf-17-fighter-flying-with-indigenous-chinese-turbofan | title = Paris Air Show 2015: JF-17 fighter flying with indigenous Chinese turbofan | last=Fisher |first=Richard Jr. | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160421064512/http://www.janes.com/article/52308/paris-air-show-2015-jf-17-fighter-flying-with-indigenous-chinese-turbofan | archivedate=21 April 2016 | work = Jane's Defence Weekly | date = 17 June 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt; A two-seat version was also reportedly to be produced in Block III.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=PAF to induct JF17 Thunder Block III in 2016|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/5411-paf-to-induct-jf17-thunder-block-iii-in-2016|access-date=27 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513171122/http://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/5411-paf-to-induct-jf17-thunder-block-iii-in-2016|archive-date=13 May 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Unconfirmed reports claim that Block III will also have a better flight management system.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Pakistan's JF-17 Thunder fighter jet impresses at Paris Air Show|url=http://techgenmag.com/2015/06/pakistans-jf-17-thunder-fighter-plane/|access-date=27 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503022238/http://techgenmag.com/2015/06/pakistans-jf-17-thunder-fighter-plane/|archive-date=3 May 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Selex ES has promoted its next-generation cockpit as a possible upgrade of JF-17 Block III; this cockpit includes a new mission computer, an enhanced head-up display and contemporary multi-function displays, plus the capability for the pilot to use a single, large-area display instead.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Selex advances M-345 cockpit development|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/selex-advances-m-345-cockpit-development-417972/|access-date=27 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530175651/https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/selex-advances-m-345-cockpit-development-417972/|archive-date=30 May 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In July 2020, despite Indian protests, Russian state-owned United Engine Corporation developed a new engine designated ''RD-93MA'' for the JF-17 fighter being built by Pakistan.&lt;ref name=&quot;Russian engine&quot;&gt;{{cite news |author=&lt;!--Staff writer(s)/no by-line.--&gt; |date=9 July 2020 |title=Russia confirms progress on new jet engine. Is it for Pak JF-17 fighter? |url=http://www.theweek.in/news/world/2020/07/09/russia-confirms-progress-on-new-jet-engine-is-it-for-pak-jf-17-fighter.html|url-status=live |work= TheWeek Magazine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127072811/https://www.theweek.in/news/world/2020/07/09/russia-confirms-progress-on-new-jet-engine-is-it-for-pak-jf-17-fighter.html |archive-date= 27 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==ڊيزائن==
[[File:JF-17 block 1 front view.jpg|upright|thumb|اڳيون ڏيک]]

=== مکيه فريم ===
ايئر فريم نيم مونوڪوڪ ڍانچي جو آهي جيڪو بنيادي طور تي ايلومينيم مصر مان ٺهيل آهي. ڪجهه نازڪ علائقن ۾ اعليٰ طاقت وارو اسٽيل ۽ ٽائيٽينيم مصر جزوي طور تي اختيار ڪيا ويا آهن. ايئر فريم 4,000 فلائيٽ ڪلاڪن يا 25 سالن جي سروس لائف لاءِ ٺاهيو ويو آهي. پهرين اوور هال 1,200 فلائيٽ ڪلاڪن تي ٿيڻ وارو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;JF-17 Thunder Detailed Specifications, PAC Kamra2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pac.org.pk/jf-17|title=Pakistan Aeronautical Complex Kamra – JF-17 Thunder Aircraft|work=pac.org.pk|access-date=6 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111101519/http://www.pac.org.pk/jf-17|archive-date=11 January 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; JF-17s بلاڪ 2 وزن گهٽائڻ لاءِ ايئر فريم ۾ جامع مواد جو وڌيڪ استعمال شامل ڪري ٿو. ريٽريبل انڊر ڪيريج ۾ ٽرائي سائيڪل جو انتظام آهي. هڪ واحد اسٽيئربل نوز ويل ۽ ٻه مکيه انڊر ڪيريج سان. هائيڊولڪ بريڪ ۾ هڪ خودڪار اينٽي اسڪڊ سسٽم آهي. انليٽس جي پوزيشن ۽ شڪل حملي جي اعليٰ زاوين سان لاڳاپيل مشقن دوران جيٽ انجن کي گهربل هوا جي وهڪري ڏيڻ لاءِ ٺهيل آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;JF-17 Thunder Detailed Specifications, PAC Kamra3&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pac.org.pk/jf-17|title=Pakistan Aeronautical Complex Kamra – JF-17 Thunder Aircraft|work=pac.org.pk|access-date=6 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111101519/http://www.pac.org.pk/jf-17|archive-date=11 January 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

وچ ۾ لڳل ونگ ڪراپڊ ڊيلٽا ترتيب جا آهن. ونگ روٽ جي ويجهو &lt;small&gt;LERX&lt;/small&gt; آهن. جيڪي هڪ وورٽيڪس پيدا ڪن ٿا. جيڪو  حملي جي اعليٰ زاوين سان لاڳاپيل مشقن دوران ونگ کي اضافي لفٽ فراهم ڪري ٿو. هڪ روايتي ٽرائي-پلين ايمپينيج ترتيب شامل ڪئي وئي آهي. آل-موونگ اسٽيبليٽرز، سنگل عمودي اسٽيبلائيزر، رڊر، ۽ ٽوئن وينٽرل فينز سان. فلائيٽ ڪنٽرول سسٽم (&lt;small&gt;FCS&lt;/small&gt;) ۾ روايتي ڪنٽرول شامل آهن. ياو ۽ رول محور ۾ استحڪام وڌائڻ سان ۽ پچ محور ۾ هڪ ڊجيٽل فلائي بائي وائر (&lt;small&gt;FBW&lt;/small&gt;) سسٽم موڙ جي ڪارڪردگي کي وڌائڻ لاءِ مينيوورنگ دوران ليڊنگ-ايج فليپس ۽ ٽريلنگ ايج فليپس خودڪار طريقي سان ترتيب ڏنل آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;JF-17 Thunder Detailed Specifications, PAC Kamra4&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pac.org.pk/jf-17|title=Pakistan Aeronautical Complex Kamra – JF-17 Thunder Aircraft|work=pac.org.pk|access-date=6 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111101519/http://www.pac.org.pk/jf-17|archive-date=11 January 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; سيريل پروڊڪشن جهاز جي FCS ۾ رپورٽ ڪئي وئي آهي ته پچ محور ۾ هڪ ڊجيٽل ڪواڊروپلڪس (ڪواڊ-ريڊنڊنٽ) FBW سسٽم آهي. ۽ رول ۽ ياو محور ۾ هڪ ڊپلڪس (ڊبل-ريڊنڊنٽ) FBW سسٽم آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;cnair2&quot;&gt;{{citation|first=Hui|last=Tong|title=FC-1/JF-17 Thunder Dragon/Thunder|url=http://cnair.top81.cn/J-10_J-11_FC-1.htm|access-date=2 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615002254/http://cnair.top81.cn/J-10_J-11_FC-1.htm|archive-date=15 June 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

3,400 lb (1,500 ڪلوگرام) تائين آرڊيننس، سامان، ۽ ايندھن کي هارڊ پوائنٽس جي هيٺان نصب ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جن مان ٻه ونگ-ٽپس تي آهن، چار ونگ هيٺ آهن ۽ هڪ فيوزليج هيٺ آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;JF-17 Thunder Detailed Specifications, PAC Kamra5&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.pac.org.pk/jf-17|title=Pakistan Aeronautical Complex Kamra – JF-17 Thunder Aircraft|work=pac.org.pk|access-date=6 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111101519/http://www.pac.org.pk/jf-17|archive-date=11 January 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== ڪاڪ پِٽ ===
[[File:JF-17 Block 1 cockpit.jpg|thumb|JF-17 Block 1 HUD]]
The aircraft has three large Multifunction Colour Displays (MFD) and smart Heads-Up Display (HUD) with built-in symbol generation capability. A [[center stick]] is used for [[Flight dynamics|pitch and roll]] control while [[Aircraft rudder|rudder pedals]] control yaw. A throttle is located to the left of the pilot. The cockpit incorporates [[HOTAS|hands-on-throttle-and-stick]] (HOTAS) controls. The pilot sits on a Martin-Baker Mk-16LE [[zero-zero ejection seat]]. The cockpit incorporates an [[electronic flight instrument system]] (EFIS) and a wide-angle, holographic head-up display (HUD), which has a minimum total field of view of 25 degrees. The EFIS comprises three color multi-function displays, providing basic flight information, tactical information, and information on the engine, fuel, electrical, hydraulics, flight control, and environment control systems. The HUD and MFD can be configured to show any available information. Each MFD is {{cvt|20.3|cm|inch|1}} wide and {{cvt|30.5|cm|inch|1}} tall and is arranged side by side in [[page orientation|portrait orientation]]. The central MFD is placed lowest to accommodate a control panel between it and the HUD.&lt;ref name=&quot;JF-17 Thunder Detailed Specifications, PAC Kamra&quot;/&gt;

===Avionics===
[[File:JF-17 cockpit.webp|thumb|JF-17 Block 1 cockpit avionics display]]
The avionics software incorporates the concept of [[open architecture]]. Instead of the military-optimised [[Ada (programming language)|Ada programming language]], the software is written using the popular [[C++|C++ programming language]], enabling the use of the numerous civilian programmers available.&lt;ref name=&quot;defenseindustrydaily.com article&quot;&gt;{{citation|title=Stuck in Sichuan: Pakistani JF-17 Program Grounded? No|date=January 2007|url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/stuck-in-sichuan-pakistani-jf17-program-grounded-02984/|work=Defense Industry Daily|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020051016/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/stuck-in-sichuan-pakistani-jf17-program-grounded-02984/|archive-date=20 October 2013|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The aircraft also includes a health and usage monitoring system, and automatic test equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;JF-17 Thunder Detailed Specifications, PAC Kamra&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.teradyne.com/atd/resource/docs/spectrum/spectrum_9100-series/ds_S9100_090905.pdf |title=8011-Ai760Datasheet.qxd |access-date=21 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407021927/http://www.teradyne.com/atd/resource/docs/spectrum/spectrum_9100-series/ds_S9100_090905.pdf|archive-date=7 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Dubious|date=May 2021}}

The JF-17 has a [[defensive aids system]] (DAS) composed of various integrated sub-systems. A [[radar warning receiver]] (RWR) provides data such as direction and proximity of enemy radars, and an [[electronic warfare]] (EW) suite housed in a fairing at the tip of the tail fin interferes with enemy radars. The EW suite is also linked to a [[Missile Approach Warning]] (MAW) system to defend against radar-guided missiles. The MAW system uses several optical sensors across the airframe to detect the rocket motors of missiles across a 360-degree coverage.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thunder Storm, Usman Ansari&quot;/&gt;{{Self-published inline|certain=y|date=July 2021}} Data from the MAW system, such as direction of inbound missiles and the time to impact, is shown on cockpit displays and the HUD. A countermeasures dispensing system releases [[flare (countermeasure)|decoy flares]] and [[Chaff (countermeasure)|chaff]] to help evade hostile radar and missiles. The DAS systems will also be enhanced by integration of a self-protection radar-jamming pod that will be carried externally on a [[hardpoint]].&lt;ref name=&quot;JF-17 Thunder Detailed Specifications, PAC Kamra&quot;/&gt;

The first forty-two PAF production aircraft are equipped with the [[KLJ-7|NRIET KLJ-7]] radar,&lt;ref name=&quot;Milavia.net 2007 news report&quot;&gt;{{citation |date=23 March 2007 |title=JF-17 Arrived in Pakistan |work=[[Air Forces Monthly]] |publisher=MILAVIA.net |url=http://www.milavia.net/news/2007/jf-17-arrived-in-pakistan.html |access-date=31 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218082338/http://www.milavia.net/news/2007/jf-17-arrived-in-pakistan.html |archive-date=18 December 2007 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Jane's Avionics KLJ-7&quot;&gt;{{citation |title=KLJ-7/10 Fire Control Radar (FCR) (China), Airborne radar systems |work=Jane's Avionics |publisher=[[Jane's Information Group]] |date=19 January 2009 |url=http://www.janes.com/articles/Janes-Avionics/KLJ-710-Fire-Control-Radar-FCR-China.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101002180132/http://www.janes.com/articles/Janes-Avionics/KLJ-710-Fire-Control-Radar-FCR-China.html | archive-date=2 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; a variant of the KLJ-10 radar developed by China's Nanjing Research Institute of Electronic Technology (NRIET) and also used on the Chengdu J-10. Multiple modes can manage the surveillance and engagement of up to forty air, ground, and sea targets; the [[Track while scan|track-while-scan]] mode can track up to ten targets at BVR and can engage two simultaneously with [[Air-to-air missile#Radar guidance|radar-homing AAMs]]. The operation range for targets with a [[radar cross-section]] (RCS) of {{Convert|5|m2|sqft|abbr=on}} is stated to be ≥ {{Convert|105|km|miles|abbr=on}} in look-up mode and ≥ {{Convert|85|km|miles|abbr=on}} in look-down mode.&lt;ref name=&quot;Jane's Avionics KLJ-7&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Jane's, NRIET outlines fighter radar improvements&quot;&gt;{{citation |title=China's NRIET outlines fighter radar improvements |work=Jane's Defence Weekly |publisher=[[Jane's Information Group]] |date=7 April 2008 |url=http://www.janes.com/articles/Janes-Defence-Weekly-2008/China-s-NRIET-outlines-fighter-radar-improvements.html |access-date=6 August 2009 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120820152019/http://articles.janes.com/articles/Janes-Defence-Weekly-2008/China-s-NRIET-outlines-fighter-radar-improvements.html | archive-date=20 August 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt; A [[forward looking infrared]] (FLIR) pod for low-level navigation and [[infra-red search and track]] (IRST) system for passive targeting can also be integrated;&lt;ref name=&quot;JF-17 Thunder Detailed Specifications, PAC Kamra&quot;/&gt; the JF-17 Block 2 is believed to incorporate an IRST.{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}} In April 2016, Air Marshal Muhammad Ashfaque Arain said that, &quot;JF-17 needs a targeting pod, as the jets' usefulness in current operations was limited due to lack of precision targeting. To fulfill this gap the Air Force was interested in buying the Thales-made Damocles, a third-generation targeting pod; which was a priority.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|date=7 April 2016|title=Interview: Pakistan wants air force upgrade for prolonged militant fight|newspaper=Reuters|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/pakistan-airforce-militants-idINKCN0X418O|url-status=dead|access-date=27 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420160318/http://in.reuters.com/article/pakistan-airforce-militants-idINKCN0X418O|archive-date=20 April 2016|accessdate=6 April 2026|archivedate=20 April 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420160318/http://in.reuters.com/article/pakistan-airforce-militants-idINKCN0X418O}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2017, [[ASELSAN|Aselsans]] ASELPOD was tested and successfully integrated with the JF-17 and Pakistan has subsequently purchased at least eight [[targeting pod]]s from Aselsan.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=JF-17 Tests Turkish Targeting Pod|url=http://www.defense-aerospace.com/articles-view/release/3/195015/pakistan-tests-aselsan-targeting-pod-on-jf_17-fighter.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206235159/http://www.defense-aerospace.com/articles-view/release/3/195015/pakistan-tests-aselsan-targeting-pod-on-jf_17-fighter.html|archive-date=6 December 2018|access-date=6 December 2018|website=defense-aerospace.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; This integration has significantly enhanced the JF-17 platform's ability to launch precision strikes.

A helmet-mounted sight (HMS) developed by [[Luoyang]] Electro-Optics Technology Development Centre of [[Aviation Industry Corporation of China|AVIC]] was developed in parallel with the JF-17; it was first tested on Prototype 04 in 2006.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://jczs.news.sina.com.cn/p/2006-09-01/1123394592.html|title=图文：枭龙04飞行员新头盔_新浪军事_新浪网|work=sina.com.cn|access-date=6 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111101520/http://jczs.news.sina.com.cn/p/2006-09-01/1123394592.html|archive-date=11 January 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.strategycenter.net/research/pubID.219/pub_detail.asp |title=International Assessment and Strategy Center &gt; Research &gt; October Surprises in Chinese Aerospace |publisher=Strategycenter.net |date=30 December 2009 |access-date=21 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813161423/http://www.strategycenter.net/research/pubID.219/pub_detail.asp |archive-date=13 August 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt; It was dubbed as EO HMS, (Electro-Optical Helmet Mounted Sight) and was first revealed to the public in 2008 at the 7th [[Zhuhai Airshow]], where a partial mock-up was on display.{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}} The HMS tracks the pilot's head and eye movements to guide missiles towards the pilot's visual target.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thunder Storm, Usman Ansari&quot;/&gt;{{Self-published inline|certain=y|date=July 2021}} An externally carried day/night [[laser designator]] [[targeting pod]] may be integrated with the avionics to guide [[laser-guided bomb]]s (LGBs).&lt;ref name=&quot;JF-17 Thunder Detailed Specifications, PAC Kamra&quot;/&gt; An extra [[hardpoint]] may be added under the starboard air intake, opposite the cannon, for such pods. To reduce the numbers of targeting pods required, the aircraft's [[tactical data link]] can transmit target data to other aircraft not equipped with targeting pods.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thunder Storm, Usman Ansari&quot;/&gt;{{Self-published inline|certain=y|date=July 2021}} The communication systems comprise two [[VHF]]/[[UHF]] radios; the VHF radio has the capacity for [[VHF Data Link|data linking]] for communication with ground control centers, [[airborne early warning and control]] aircraft and combat aircraft with compatible data links for [[network-centric warfare]], and improved [[situation awareness]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=VHF air-ground Digital Link |url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_en/301800_301899/30184101/01.03.01_40/en_30184101v010301o.pdf |publisher=etsi.org |access-date=5 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206100741/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_en/301800_301899/30184101/01.03.01_40/en_30184101v010301o.pdf |archive-date=6 December 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The aircraft uses [[Ring laser gyroscope|RLGs]] along with [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] for navigation. The aircraft is equipped with an [[Identification friend or foe|IFF]] [[Transponder]] which allows it to differentiate between friendly aircraft and enemy aircraft. The [[Air combat maneuvering instrumentation|ACMI]] aids in aerial combat for manoeuvring.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

===Engine===
The first two blocks of JF-17 is powered by a single Russian RD-93 [[turbofan]] engine, which is a variant of the [[Klimov RD-33]] engine used on the [[MiG-29]] fighter. The engine gives more [[thrust]] and significantly [[Thrust specific fuel consumption|lower specific fuel consumption]] than [[turbojet]] engines fitted to older combat aircraft being replaced by the JF-17. The advantages of using a single engine are a reduction in maintenance time and cost when compared to twin-engined fighters. A [[thrust-to-weight ratio]] of 0.99 can be achieved with full internal fuel tanks and no external payload. The engine's air supply is provided by two bifurcated air inlets (see [[JF-17 Thunder#Airframe and cockpit|airframe]] section).&lt;ref name=&quot;stuck-in-sichuan&quot;&gt;[http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/stuck-in-sichuan-pakistani-jf17-program-grounded-02984/ &quot;Pakistan &amp; China's JF-17 Fighter Program.&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020051016/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/stuck-in-sichuan-pakistani-jf17-program-grounded-02984/ |date=20 October 2013 }} ''Defense Industry Daily'', 14 November 2011&lt;/ref&gt;

The RD-93 is known to produce smoke trails.&lt;ref name=&quot;stuck-in-sichuan&quot;/&gt; The [[Guizhou Aircraft Industry Corporation|Guizhou Aero Engine Group]] has been developing a new turbofan engine, the [[Guizhou WS-13|WS-13 ''Taishan'']], since 2000 to replace the RD-93. It is based on the RD-33 and incorporates new technologies to boost performance and reliability. A thrust output of {{Convert|80 to 86.36|kN|lb-f|abbr=on}}, a lifespan of 2,200 hours, and a thrust-to-weight ratio of 8.7 are expected. An improved version of the WS-13, developing a thrust of around {{Convert|100|kN|lb-f|abbr=on}} (22,450&amp;nbsp;lb), is also reportedly under development.&lt;ref name=&quot;October Surprises in Chinese Aerospace&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.strategycenter.net/research/pubID.219/pub_detail.asp |title=October Surprises in Chinese Aerospace |publisher=International Assessment and Strategy Center |date=30 December 2009 |first=Richard Jr. |last=Fisher |access-date=25 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813161423/http://www.strategycenter.net/research/pubID.219/pub_detail.asp |archive-date=13 August 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt; During the 2015 [[Paris Air Show]], it was announced that flight testing of a JF-17 equipped with the WS-13 engine had begun.&lt;ref name=&quot;janes.com&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/article/52308/paris-air-show-2015-jf-17-fighter-flying-with-indigenous-chinese-turbofan|title=Paris Air Show 2015: JF-17 fighter flying with indigenous Chinese turbofan|work=Jane's|access-date=6 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421064512/http://www.janes.com/article/52308/paris-air-show-2015-jf-17-fighter-flying-with-indigenous-chinese-turbofan|archive-date=21 April 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2015, a representative of PAC said that Pakistan would continue to use the RD-93 engine on their fighters.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/11/pakistan-to-stick-with-russian-engine-for-jf-17-fighter-jet/ |title=Pakistan to Stick With Russian Engine for JF-17 Fighter Jet |last1=Gady |first1=Franz-Stefan |date=25 November 2015 |website=thediplomat.com |publisher=IHS |access-date=24 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125095855/https://thediplomat.com/2015/11/pakistan-to-stick-with-russian-engine-for-jf-17-fighter-jet/ |archive-date=25 November 2015 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Local media reports in January 2016 said that Russia was planning to sell engines for JF-17 directly to Pakistan.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation|title=Moscow makes a move when US loosens the noose|date=25 January 2016|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1033922/moscow-makes-a-move-when-us-loosens-the-noose/|access-date=9 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204051408/http://tribune.com.pk/story/1033922/moscow-makes-a-move-when-us-loosens-the-noose/|archive-date=4 February 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to a PAC representative, Pakistan is looking to collaborate with Russia in developing and repairing engines.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

===Fuel system===
The fuel system comprises internal fuel tanks located in the wings and fuselage with a capacity of {{Convert|2330|kg|lb|abbr=on}}; they are refuelled through a single point pressure refuelling system (see [[Aircraft fuel system#Turbine fuel system|turbine fuel systems]]). Internal fuel storage can be supplemented by external fuel tanks. One {{convert|800|litre|impgal|adj=on}} [[drop tank]] can be mounted on the aircraft's centerline hard point under the fuselage and two 800-litre or {{convert|1110|litre|impgal|adj=on}} drop tanks can be mounted on the two inboard under-wing hardpoints.&lt;ref name=&quot;JF-17 Thunder Detailed Specifications, PAC Kamra&quot;/&gt; The fuel system is compatible with [[Aerial refueling|in-flight refuelling (IFR)]], allowing tanker aircraft to refuel inflight, and increasing its range and loitering time significantly. All production aircraft for the PAF are to be fitted with IFR probes.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thunder Storm, Usman Ansari&quot;/&gt;{{Self-published inline|certain=y|date=July 2021}} In June 2013, PAF Air Chief Marshal [[Tahir Rafique Butt]] said ground tests on the JF-17's refuelling probes had been successfully completed and the first mid-air refuelling operations would commence that summer.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Bokhari|first=Farhan|title=Pakistani JF-17 to start mid-air refuelling by end of summer|journal=[[Jane's Defence Weekly]]|date=10 June 2013|url=http://www.janes.com/article/13613/pakistani-jf-17-to-start-mid-air-refuelling-by-end-of-summer|access-date=21 June 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107021555/http://www.janes.com/article/13613/pakistani-jf-17-to-start-mid-air-refuelling-by-end-of-summer | archive-date=7 November 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:JF-17 Thunder (4826622777).jpg|thumb|JF-17 Thunder with its weapons]]
[[File:Pakistan Air Force, 12-139, Chengdu JF-17 Thunder (49579395248).jpg|thumb|Thunder with weapons]]

===Armaments===

The JF-17 can be armed with up to {{convert|3400|lb|kg|abbr=on}} of air-to-air and [[air-to-ground weaponry]], and other equipment mounted externally on the aircraft's seven hardpoints.&lt;ref name=&quot;JF-17 Thunder Detailed Specifications, PAC Kamra&quot;/&gt; One hardpoint is located under the fuselage between the main landing gear, two are underneath each wing, and one is at each wing-tip. All seven hardpoints communicate via a [[MIL-STD-1760]] data-bus architecture with the Stores Management System,&lt;ref name=&quot;JF-17 Thunder Detailed Specifications, PAC Kamra&quot;/&gt; which is stated to be capable of integration with weaponry of any origin.&lt;ref name=&quot;defensenews.com Pakistan Surmounts Sanctions To Revive Airpower&quot;&gt;{{citation|first=Usman |last=Ansari |title=Pakistan Surmounts Sanctions To Revive Airpower |work=[[Defense News]] |date=9 February 2009 |url=http://www.defensenews.com/story.php?i=3938427 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230020953/http://theasiandefence.blogspot.com/2009/02/pakistan-surmounts-western-sanctions-to.html |archive-date=30 December 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Internal armament comprises one {{Convert|23|mm|inch|abbr=on}} GSh-23-2 twin-barrel cannon mounted under the [[port (nautical)|port side]] air intake, which can be replaced with a {{Convert|30|mm|inch|abbr=on}} [[GSh-30-2]] twin-barrel cannon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FC-1/JF-17, sinodefence.com&quot;&gt;{{cite web | work=Sino Defence | title= FC-1/JF-17 Multirole Fighter Aircraft |url=http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/fc1.asp |access-date=11 December 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204083919/http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/fc1.asp | archive-date=4 December 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.milavia.net/aircraft/fc-1/fc-1_specs.htm|title=MILAVIA Aircraft – Chengdu FC-1/JF-17 Thunder Specifications|first=Niels | last = Hillebrand|work=milavia.net|access-date=6 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031225/http://www.milavia.net/aircraft/fc-1/fc-1_specs.htm|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The wing-tip hard-points are typically occupied by short range infra-red homing AAMs. Many combinations of ordnance and equipment such as [[targeting pods]] can be carried on the under-wing and under-fuselage hard-points. Underwing hard-points can be fitted with [[Hard point#Ejector racks|multiple ejector racks]], allowing each hard-point to carry two {{Convert|500|lb|kg|abbr=on}} unguided bombs or LGBs{{mdash}}[[Mk.82]] or [[GBU-12]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Thunder Storm, Usman Ansari&quot;/&gt;{{Self-published inline|certain=y|date=July 2021}} Active radar homing BVR AAMs can be integrated with the radar and data-link for mid-course updates. The aircraft can carry the [[PL-12|PL-12/SD-10]] along with the [[PL-5]]E and [[PL-9]]C Short range, infra-red homing missiles. The more advanced [[PL-10]]E High-Off Bore Sight missiles were integrated into the aircraft in April 2021, operated Within Visual Range using the HMD/S. With the Block 3 variant of the JF-17, the ability to fit and operate the [[PL-15]]E, the most advanced BVR missile developed by China for export with a claimed operating range of 145&amp;nbsp;km, is also integrated.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Pakistan's Production of Latest JF-17 Block 3 Variant Reaches 30 Units |url=https://defencesecurityasia.com/en/pakistans-production-of-latest-jf-17-block-3-fighter-jets-nears-30-units-2/ |publisher=Defence Security Asia |date=19 October 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Unguided air-to-ground weaponry includes rocket pods, [[Unguided bomb|gravity bombs]] and [[Matra Durandal]] anti-runway munitions. [[Precision-guided munition]]s such as LGBs and [[Precision-guided munition#Satellite-guided weapons|satellite-guided bombs]] are also compatible with the JF-17, as are other guided weapons such as [[anti-ship missile]]s and [[anti-radiation missile]]s.&lt;ref name=&quot;JF-17 Thunder Detailed Specifications, PAC Kamra&quot;/&gt; Pakistan planned to bring the Brazilian [[MAR-1]] anti-radiation missile into service on its JF-17 fleet in 2014.&lt;ref name=&quot;janes mar1&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Hewson|first=Robert|date=17 April 2013|title=Mectron's MAR-1 to be operational in Pakistan next year|url=http://www.janes.com/article/12017/mectron-s-mar-1-to-be-operational-in-pakistan-next-year|journal=[[Jane's Defence Weekly]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928072717/http://www.janes.com/article/12017/mectron-s-mar-1-to-be-operational-in-pakistan-next-year|archive-date=28 September 2013|access-date=26 September 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==آپريشنل تاريخ==
===پاڪستان===
[[File:Pakistan Air Force JF-17 Thunder flies in front of the 26,660 ft high Nanga Parbat.jpg|thumb|پاڪستان ايئر فورس جو &lt;small&gt;'''JF-17'''&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;'''ٿنڊر'''&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;'''26,660'''&lt;/small&gt; فٽ اچي [[نانگا پربت]] جبل جي سامهون اڏامي رهيو آهي.]]
سنگل سيٽ، سنگل انجن JF-17s جي ننڍي بيچ جي پيداوار جون 2006ع ۾ چين ۾ شروع ٿي. پهرين ٻه ننڍي بيچ تيار ڪيل جهاز 2 مارچ 2007ع تي پهچايا ويا ۽ پهرين 10 مارچ تي پاڪستان ۾ اڏام ڪئي. انهن 23 مارچ &lt;small&gt;2007&lt;/small&gt;ع تي [[اسلام آباد]] ۾ پاڪستان ڊي جوائنٽ سروسز پريڊ جي حصي طور هڪ فضائي نمائش ۾ حصو ورتو. مارچ 2008ع تائين ٻيا ڇهه ننڍي بيچ تيار ڪيل جهاز پهچايا ويا. انهن کي پي اي ايف پاران وڏي پيماني تي پرواز جي جانچ ۽ جائزو ورتو ويو. 2009ع ۾ چين کان ٻه سيريل پروڊڪشن جهاز پهچايا ويا ۽ پهريون پاڪستاني تيار ڪيل جهاز 23 نومبر &lt;small&gt;2009&lt;/small&gt;ع تي هڪ تقريب ۾ پي اي ايف کي پهچايو ويو. 

18 فيبروري 2010ع تي، پهرين جي ايف-17 اسڪواڊرن، نمبر 26 بليڪ اسپائڊرز، کي سرڪاري طور تي 14 فائٽر جهازن جي شروعاتي طاقت سان پاڪستان ايئر فورس ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو. انهن جهازن پهريون ڀيرو ڏکڻ وزيرستان ۾ دهشتگردي مخالف آپريشن ۾ خدمت ڪيا، جنهن دوران مختلف قسمن جي هٿيارن جو جائزو ورتو ويو. انهن 29 اپريل کان پي اي ايف جي هاءِ مارڪ 2010ع مشق ۾ حصو ورتو، جتي انهن کي بليو فورس پاران ريڊ لينڊ جي سطح جي هدفن تي هوا کان سطح جي صحيح هٿيارن سان حملو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو.

11 اپريل 2011ع تي، نمبر 26 بليڪ اسپائڊرز اسڪواڊرن لاءِ هڪ ٻيهر سامان جي تقريب ٿي، جنهن دوران اهو چيو ويو ته جي ايف-17 &quot;پي اي ايف جي آپريشنل تصورن ۾ انقلاب آڻي ڇڏيو آهي&quot;. پوءِ ايئر چيف مارشل راؤ قمر سليمان نمبر 26 اسڪواڊرن جي ٻيهر ليس ٿيڻ ۽ نمبر 16 اسڪواڊرن ۾ JF-17 ٿنڊر جي اضافي جي رپورٽ ڏني. هن جهاز جي شڪل ۾ ٽيڪنالاجي جي ڪاميابي حاصل ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ڪرڻ ۾ چينين جي تعاون ۽ مدد جو پڻ شڪريو ادا ڪيو. 

آپريشن ضرب عضب 2014-2016 دوران، JF-17 کي ٽي ٽي پي جي ٺڪاڻن تي هوائي حملا ڪرڻ لاءِ بار بار مقرر ڪيو ويو، جنهن ۾ سوين دهشتگرد مارجي ويا. 

سيپٽمبر 2015 ۾، سامونڊي حملي جو ڪم ڪندڙ نمبر 2 اسڪواڊرن کي F7s جي جاءِ تي JF-17s سان ٻيهر ليس ڪيو ويو. نمبر 16 اسڪواڊرن &quot;بليڪ پينٿرز&quot; کي پڻ JF-17 سان ليس ڪيو ويو آهي. 

19 جون 2017 تي، اهو اطلاع مليو ته هڪ JF-17 پاڪستان جي ضلع پنگجور ۾ ڪم ڪندڙ هڪ ايراني UAV کي ماري ڇڏيو. 

فيبروري 2019 ۾، پي اي ايف جي ايف-17 جهازن پاڪستان جي هندستان خلاف جوابي هوائي حملي ۾ حصو ورتو، جنهن دوران نمبر 16 اسڪواڊرن جي ٻن ٿنڊر جهازن ايم ڪي 83 آر اي ڪي سان هندستاني زميني هدفن کي نشانو بڻايو. رپورٽن مطابق، مارچ 2021 تائين، جي ايف-17 جهاز پنج ايئر بيس تي ٻڌل ست فائٽر اسڪواڊرن ۾ ڪم ڪري رهيا آهن.

batch production of the single-seat, single-engine JF-17s began in China in June 2006. The first two small-batch-produced aircraft were delivered on 2 March 2007 and first flew in Pakistan on 10 March.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://archive.thenews.com.pk/TodaysPrintDetail.aspx?ID=6854&amp;Cat=13&amp;dt=3/21/2007 |title=JF-17 engine row resolved: Air chief |work=The News International |access-date=21 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070901221604/http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=6854 |archive-date = 1 September 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; They took part in an aerial display on 23 March 2007 as part of the [[Pakistan Day Parade|Pakistan Day Joint Services Parade]] in Islamabad.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=6815 |title=PAF to seek more Chinese aircraft, says air chief |work=The News International |access-date=21 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509043607/http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=6815 |archive-date = 9 May 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;PakTribune&quot;&gt;[http://www.paktribune.com/news/index.shtml?172945 JF-17 Thunder main focus of attention at Pak Day fly-past] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927200857/http://www.paktribune.com/news/index.shtml?172945 |date=27 September 2007 }}. ''Pak Tribune'', 24 March 2007.&lt;/ref&gt; Another six small-batch-produced aircraft were delivered by March 2008.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2008\03\15\story_15-3-2008_pg7_6 |title=Six more JF-17 Thunder fighter jets inducted into PAF |date=15 March 2008 |work=Daily Times |access-date=21 March 2010
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118100559/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2008%5C03%5C15%5Cstory_15-3-2008_pg7_6 | archive-date=18 January 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt; These were extensively flight-tested and evaluated by the PAF.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.app.com.pk/en_/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=70263&amp;Itemid=1 |title=PAF to start serial production of JF-17 fighter aircraft soon |publisher=App.com.pk |access-date=21 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330212502/http://www.app.com.pk/en_/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=70263&amp;Itemid=1 |archive-date=30 March 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; Two serial production aircraft were delivered from China in 2009 and the first Pakistani-manufactured aircraft was delivered to the PAF in a ceremony on 23 November 2009.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://news.rediff.com/interview/2009/nov/23/pak-china-unveil-first-combat-jet.htm |title=Pak, China unveil first JF-17 combat jet |work=Rediff.com |date=23 November 2009 |access-date=21 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100301092221/http://news.rediff.com/interview/2009/nov/23/pak-china-unveil-first-combat-jet.htm |archive-date=1 March 2010 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 18 February 2010, the first JF-17 squadron, [[No. 26 Squadron (Pakistan Air Force)|No. 26 ''Black Spiders'']], was officially inducted into the PAF with an initial strength of 14 fighter planes.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.app.com.pk/en_/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=96657&amp;Itemid=2 |title=First Squadron of JF-17 Thunder inducted in PAF |publisher=App.com.pk |access-date=21 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222163116/http://www.app.com.pk/en_/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=96657&amp;Itemid=2 |archive-date=22 December 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticle08.asp?xfile=data/international/2010/February/international_February910.xml&amp;section=international |title=PAF Inducts First Squadron of JF-17 Thunder Jet |publisher=Khaleejtimes.com |date=19 February 2010 |access-date=21 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513110350/http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticle08.asp?xfile=data%2Finternational%2F2010%2FFebruary%2Finternational_February910.xml&amp;section=international |archive-date=13 May 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; These aircraft first saw service in the [[Operation Rah-e-Nijat|anti-terrorist operation in South Waziristan]], during which various types of weapons were evaluated.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|first=Zia |last=Tanouli |language=Urdu |work=Daily Express (Pakistan) |title=جے ایف-١٧ میں باقاعدہ طور پر شامل پی اے ایف |url=http://www.express.com.pk/images/NP_LHE/20100218/Sub_Images/1100859721-1.gif |access-date=20 February 2010 |quote=(Translated) No.26 Squadron established in Kamra with 14 aircraft initially inducted. According to top PAF sources, fourteen aircraft were evaluated thoroughly with different kinds of weapons during the anti-terror operation in Waziristan. First squadron established in Kamra due to security concerns, will be transferred to Peshawar later. With induction of first JF-17 squadron, the two A-5 squadrons will be grounded today. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924005230/http://www.express.com.pk/images/NP_LHE/20100218/Sub_Images/1100859721-1.gif |archive-date=24 September 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt; They took part in the PAF's ''High Mark 2010'' exercise from 29 April, where they were used by the ''Blue Force'' to attack ''Red Land'' surface targets with precision air-to-surface weapons.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.awaztoday.com/News_JF-17-Thunder-comes-of-age-at-High-Mark-drill_1_4855_Political-News.aspx |title=JF-17 Thunder comes of age at High Mark drill |date=29 March 2010 |work=Newspaper article |publisher=Awaz Today |access-date=3 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714184851/http://www.awaztoday.com/News_JF-17-Thunder-comes-of-age-at-High-Mark-drill_1_4855_Political-News.aspx |archive-date=14 July 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://news.rediff.com/report/2010/feb/18/pak-inducts-jf17-jet-developed-with-china.htm |title=Pakistan inducts JF-17 jets developed with China |work=Rediff.com |date=18 February 2010 |access-date=29 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528235257/http://news.rediff.com/report/2010/feb/18/pak-inducts-jf17-jet-developed-with-china.htm |archive-date=28 May 2010 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 11 April 2011, a re-equipment ceremony for No. 26 ''Black Spiders'' Squadron took place, during which it was stated that the JF-17 had &quot;revolutionized the PAF's operational concepts&quot;. Then Air Chief Marshal [[Rao Qamar Suleman]] reported the re-equipping of No. 26 squadron and the addition of the JF-17 Thunder to the [[No. 16 Squadron (Pakistan Air Force)|No. 16 Squadron]]. He also thanked the contribution and support of the Chinese in helping to acquire a technological breakthrough in the shape of the aircraft.&lt;ref name=&quot;Daily Times Pakistan&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://archives.dailytimes.com.pk/national/12-Apr-2011/paf-re-equips-no-26-squadron-with-jf-17-thunder-aircraft |title=PAF re-equips No 26 Squadron with JF-17 thunder aircraft |date=12 April 2011 |newspaper=Daily Times (Pakistan) |access-date=12 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714174246/http://archives.dailytimes.com.pk/national/12-Apr-2011/paf-re-equips-no-26-squadron-with-jf-17-thunder-aircraft |archive-date=14 July 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

During [[Operation Zarb-e-Azb]] 2014–2016, JF-17 were deployed frequently to carry out airstrikes against [[Pakistani Taliban|TTP]] hideouts, killing hundreds of terrorists.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=AFP |first=Dawn com {{!}} |date=19 December 2014 |title=Top Uzbek commander among 17 terrorists killed in Khyber air strikes |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1151682 |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://dunyanews.tv/en/Pakistan/245286-Operation-ZarbeAzb-30-militants-killed-in-fresh |access-date=18 February 2024 |website=dunyanews.tv |title=Operation Zarb-e-Azb: 30 militants killed in fresh airstrikes in Dattakhel |date=14 February 2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In September 2015, the No. 2 Squadron tasked with sea strikes was re-equipped with JF-17s replacing the F7s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=JF-17 Thunder inducted in Multi Role Squadron|url=http://dailytimes.com.pk/pakistan/12-Apr-16/jf-17-thunder-inducted-in-multi-role-squadron|access-date=12 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414020258/http://dailytimes.com.pk/pakistan/12-Apr-16/jf-17-thunder-inducted-in-multi-role-squadron|archive-date=14 April 2016|url-status=live|date=12 April 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; The No. 16 Squadron &quot;Black Panthers&quot; has also been equipped with the JF-17.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=JF-17 Block-2 Update from &quot;The Thunder City|url=http://pafwallpapers.com/blog/2015/06/jf-17-block-2-update/|access-date=8 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220185954/http://pafwallpapers.com/blog/2015/06/jf-17-block-2-update/|archive-date=20 February 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 19 June 2017, it was reported that a JF-17 shot down an [[Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force|Iranian]] [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|UAV]] operating in [[Pakistan|Pakistan's]] [[Panjgur District|Pangjur District]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://nation.com.pk/national/21-Jun-2017/jf-17-shoots-down-iran-s-spy-drone|title=JF-17 shoots down Iran's spy drone|work=[[The Nation (Pakistan)|The Nation]]|access-date=21 June 2017|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621032625/http://nation.com.pk/national/21-Jun-2017/jf-17-shoots-down-iran-s-spy-drone|archive-date=21 June 2017|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In February 2019, PAF JF-17s took part in Pakistan's [[2019 Jammu and Kashmir airstrikes|retaliatory airstrikes]] against India during which two Thunders of the [[No. 16 Squadron PAF|No. 16 Squadron]] struck Indian ground targets with [[Mark 83|Mk. 83 REKs]].&lt;ref name=&quot;kaiser&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://pakistanpolitico.com/pulwama-two-years-on/|website=PakistanPolitico.com|first= Kaiser | last = Tufail | author-link= Kaiser Tufail |title=Pulwama: Two years on|date=18 February 2021|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=8 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208104607/https://pakistanpolitico.com/pulwama-two-years-on/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;tufail&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://defencejournal.com/2019/07/10/pulwama-from-bluster-to-a-whimper/|website=DefenceJournal.com|first= Kaiser | last = Tufail | author-link= Kaiser Tufail |title=Pulwama-From bluster to whimper|date=10 July 2019|access-date=3 December 2022|archive-date=28 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028163732/https://defencejournal.com/2019/07/10/pulwama-from-bluster-to-a-whimper/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto8&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.keymilitary.com/article/operation-swift-retort-one-year|title=Operation Swift Retort one year on|access-date=1 March 2022|date=19 March 2020|first=Alan|last=Warnes|publisher=Key Publishing|archive-date=15 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115063708/https://www.keymilitary.com/article/operation-swift-retort-one-year|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to reports,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Lennon |first=Brad |date=4 March 2019 |title=Crisis may be easing, but nuclear threat still hangs over India and Pakistan |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/03/01/asia/india-pakistan-military-balance-intl/index.html |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=CNN |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519161150/https://www.cnn.com/2019/03/01/asia/india-pakistan-military-balance-intl/index.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Gady |first=Franz-Stefan |title=Has Pakistan's JF-17 'Thunder' Block II Fighter Jet Engaged in its First Dogfight? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/02/has-pakistans-jf-17-thunder-block-ii-fighter-jet-engaged-in-its-first-dogfight/ |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US |archive-date=16 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516080001/https://thediplomat.com/2019/02/has-pakistans-jf-17-thunder-block-ii-fighter-jet-engaged-in-its-first-dogfight |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; as of March 2021, JF-17s are operational in seven fighter squadrons based at five airbases.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.scramble.nl/planning/orbats/pakistan/pakistan-air-force|title=Orbats|website=www.scramble.nl|access-date=20 April 2021|archive-date=2 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202214748/https://www.scramble.nl/planning/orbats/pakistan/pakistan-air-force|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In March 2023, the first batch of JF-17 Block 3 aircraft were inducted into the PAF.

During the [[2025 India–Pakistan standoff|May 2025 India–Pakistan conflict]], the PAF publicly showcased, for the first time, a JF-17 Block 3 fighter aircraft equipped with [[PL-15#Variants|PL-15E]] long-range [[beyond-visual-range missile|beyond-visual-range]] [[air-to-air missile]]s (BVRAAMs).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=5 May 2025 |title=Update: Pakistan shows JF-17 Block III fitted with PL-15 missiles for first time |url=https://www.janes.com/osint-insights/defence-news/air/update-pakistan-shows-jf-17-block-iii-fitted-with-pl-15-missiles-for-first-time |access-date=8 May 2025 |website=Jane |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the conflict, the PAF deployed JF-17s and [[J-10CE]]s in combat in both the air-to-air and air-to-ground roles.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto14&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto16&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto12&quot;/&gt; Pakistan claimed that its JF-17 successfully targeted and destroyed an Indian [[S-400 missile system|S-400 missile defence system]] at [[Adampur Airport|Adampur Air Force Station]] in [[Punjab]] on 10 May 2025 using two [[CM-400AKG]] long-range supersonic [[air-to-surface missile]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/1310766-how-paf-destroyed-india-s-2-s400-air-defence-systems | title=How PAF destroyed India's 2 S400 air defence systems | date=12 May 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto17&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://defencesecurityasia.com/en/first-strike-in-the-hypersonic-era-pakistan-claims-jf-17-launched-cm-400akg-took-out-indias-s-400/ | title=(VIDEO) First Strike in the Hypersonic Era: Pakistan Claims JF-17-Launched CM-400AKG Took Out India's S-400 | date=11 May 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://dunyanews.tv/en/Pakistan/883212-pak-jf17-thunder-strike-destroys-indian-s400-air-defence-system | title=Pak JF-17 Thunder strike destroys Indian S400 air defence system | date=10 May 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://arynews.tv/jf-17-thunder-destroys-indias-s-400-defence-system-10-05-2025/ | title=Watch: JF-17 Thunder taking off to destroy India's S-400 defence system | date=10 May 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt; On 11 May, the PAF, in a press briefing said that it had targeted the 96L6E Cheese Board radar of the S-400 system, one of the units of the combined air defence system.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Did Modi inadvertently confirm Pakistan's S-400 claim? |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2545624/did-modi-inadvertently-confirm-pakistans-s-400-claim |last=Ahmad |first=Zeeshan |date=13 May 2025 |website=The Express Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt; India's [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Ministry of External Affairs]] dismissed the claim, stating that all Indian S-400 squadrons are still functional.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pakistan's claim of destroying India's S-400 missile systems false: Indian military|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/pakistans-claim-of-destroying-indias-s-400-missile-systems-false-indian-military/article69560019.ece|access-date=10 May 2025 |website=The Hindu|date=10 May 2025 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Indian Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] visited the Adampur Air Force Station on 13 May 2025, and posed in front of an S-400 Launcher, which the [[Indian media]] claimed to be fully operational. According to Indian media, his visit served as a rebuttal to Pakistan's claims, reinforcing that the missile system was intact and operational.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=13 May 2025 |title=PM Modi poses in front of S-400 missile system at Adampur Air Base days after Pakistan claimed it was destroyed |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/pm-modi-poses-in-front-of-s-400-missile-system-at-adampur-air-base-days-after-pakistan-claimed-it-was-destroyed/articleshow/121134748.cms |access-date=13 May 2025 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=13 May 2025 |title=Modi fact-checks Pakistan, visits Adampur, releases video &amp; photo with S-400 in background|url=https://theprint.in/defence/modi-fact-checks-pakistan-visits-adampur-releases-video-photo-with-s-400-in-background/2624167/|access-date=13 May 2025 |work=The Print|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Pakistan Air Force JF-17 at Paris Air Show 2015.jpg|thumb|Pakistan Air Force JF-17 at [[Paris Air Show]] 2015]]

'''Exercises'''&lt;br&gt;

The PAF has deployed the JF-17 Thunder in a number of bilateral and multinational air exercises since the 2010s. PAF JF-17s have participated in joint air exercises with the People’s Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) under the Shaheen exercise series since at least 2014, focusing on air combat training and interoperability.{{citation needed|date=January 2026}} In 2019 and again in 2021, PAF JF-17s took part in the Turkish Air Force–hosted multinational exercise Anatolian Eagle, operating alongside aircraft from several participating air forces.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Anatolian Eagle 2019: Pakistani JF-17s among participants |url=https://theaviationist.com/2019/07/15/pakistani-jf-17-thunders-and-turkish-elint-sigint-c-160d-transall-among-the-highlights-of-anatolian-eagle-exercise/
 |website=The Aviationist |access-date=4 January 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Anatolian Eagle 2021 exercise |url=https://www.eurasiareview.com/12072021-anatolian-eagle-2021-exercise-pakistan-improving-defense-synergies-oped/
 |website=Eurasia Review |access-date=4 January 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2022, PAF JF-17s participated in the Saudi-led multinational air exercise Spears of Victory at King Abdulaziz Air Base, flying alongside Royal Saudi Air Force Tornados, Typhoons and F-15s, as well as allied aircraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=PAF participates in Spears of Victory exercise in Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/2590236/pakistan
 |website=Arab News |access-date=4 January 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; JF-17s continued participation in subsequent editions of Spears of Victory, including 2023 and 2025, with later deployments featuring the Block-III variant.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=PAF JF-17 Block-III participates in Spears of Victory 2023 |url=https://www.facebook.com/ConnectedPakistan/posts/pakistan-air-forces-jf-17-thunder-block-iii-fighter-jets-have-touched-down-in-az/1213837260779670/
 |website=Connected Pakistan |access-date=4 January 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=PAF excels in Saudi-led Spears of Victory 2025 |url=https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2025/02/14/paf-excels-in-saudi-led-air-combat-drills-jf-17-block-iii-earns-global-praise/
 |website=Pakistan Today |access-date=4 January 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2025, PAF JF-17 Block-III fighters were also deployed to Azerbaijan for the bilateral air exercise Indus Shield Alpha, marking one of the type’s longest overseas deployments.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=PAF JF-17s arrive in Azerbaijan for Indus Shield Alpha |url=https://dunyanews.tv/index.php/en/Pakistan/912872
 |website=Dunya News |access-date=4 January 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Airshows'''&lt;br&gt;

The JF-17 Thunder has participated in international airshows since 2010 as part of export promotion and military diplomacy efforts by the PAF.&lt;ref name=&quot;ISPR-2010&quot;&gt;Inter Services Public Relations, Pakistan Air Force press releases on JF-17 international exposure, 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; Early public appearances took place at airshows in Pakistan and China, followed by displays at major international aerospace exhibitions, including the Paris Air Show in 2011 and 2015,&lt;ref&gt;Paris Air Show official exhibitor catalogues, 2011 &amp; 2015.&lt;/ref&gt; the Dubai Airshow in 2013, 2017, 2021, and 2025&lt;ref&gt;Dubai Airshow official exhibitor lists, 2013, 2017, 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; and the Farnborough International Airshow in 2014 and 2016, primarily as static displays.&lt;ref&gt;Farnborough International Airshow exhibitor catalogues, 2014 &amp; 2016.&lt;/ref&gt; The aircraft has also featured at the China International Aviation &amp; Aerospace Exhibition, including static and flying displays, with later editions showcasing the Block III variant.&lt;ref&gt;China International Aviation &amp; Aerospace Exhibition (Zhuhai) official programmes; Global Times aviation coverage.&lt;/ref&gt; In 2019, 2022, and 2025, PAF JF-17s participated in the Royal International Air Tattoo (RIAT), in static and air displays.&lt;ref&gt;Royal International Air Tattoo aircraft participation lists, 2019 &amp; 2022.&lt;/ref&gt; The aircraft was also displayed at the [[World Defense Show]] in 2024.&lt;ref&gt;[[World Defense Show]] 2024 exhibitor directory; Saudi Ministry of Defense releases.&lt;/ref&gt;

===Myanmar===
In July 2015, Myanmar ordered 16 Block 2 JF-17s from [[Pakistan]] and [[China]] for approximately $560 million.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ainonline.com/aviation-news/defense/2017-06-15/jf-17-myanmar-seen-flying-china|title=JF-17 for Myanmar Seen Flying in China|first=Chen|last=Chuanren|website=Aviation International News}}&lt;/ref&gt; In late 2015, [[Myanmar]] ordered 16 [[Klimov RD-33|RD-93]] spare engines from [[Russia]], which were received in 2018 and 2019.&lt;ref name=SIPRI&gt;{{cite web|url=http://armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/page/trade_register.php|title=SIPRI Trade Register|publisher=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]]|access-date=15 September 2020|archive-date=14 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100414022558/http://armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/page/trade_register.php|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;  On 17 December 2018, [[Jane's Information Group|Jane's]] disclosed that the [[Myanmar Air Force]] had received the first batch of JF-17s.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://www.janes.com/article/85253/myanmar-shows-off-thunder-fighters |title=Myanmar shows off Thunder fighters |work=[[Jane's Defence Weekly]] |last=Jennings |first=Gareth |access-date=17 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217202527/https://www.janes.com/article/85253/myanmar-shows-off-thunder-fighters/ |archive-date=17 December 2018 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; An official Myanmar Air Force video released on Air Force day showcased a number of JF-17s, both on static display and in the air.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IRdQ0ctfkHE|title=YouTube|website=YouTube|access-date=21 December 2018|archive-date=30 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030023536/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IRdQ0ctfkHE|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Unreliable source?|date=July 2021}} As per reports, the [[Myanmar Air Force]] is in possession 11 JF-17 Block 2s.[https://www.asiapacificdefensejournal.com/2023/09/myanmar-raises-issue-of-grounded-jf-17.html]

In May 2022, a PAF cargo plane supplied spare parts for the JF-17s of the Myanmar Air Force. In June 2022, it was reported that a team of 15 PAF personnel were scheduled to visit [[Meiktila Air Base]] in Myanmar to provide technical support for the Myanmar Air Force JF-17s, including setting up of a JF-17 simulator at Meiktila Air Base to train pilots of the Myanmar Air Force and to address technical issues relating to JF-17s that Myanmar Air Force was facing.

However, the [[Myanmar Air Force]] has faced significant challenges with its JF-17 fleet.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Irrawaddy |first=The |date=2022-11-25 |title=Technical Problems Ground Myanmar’s JF-17 Fighter Jets Bought From China |url=https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/technical-problems-ground-myanmars-jf-17-fighter-jets-bought-from-china.html |access-date=2026-02-14 |website=The Irrawaddy |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; By late 2022, the entire fleet of 11 aircraft was grounded due to severe technical malfunctions and structural issues, including cracks in the airframe (particularly wingtips and hardpoints), poor accuracy and maintenance problems with the Chinese-made KLJ-7 radar, malfunctions in the Weapon Mission Management Computer that reduced launch zones for beyond-visual-range missiles, unreliable avionics, and issues with the Russian RD-93 engines.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Myanmar raises issue of grounded JF-17 Thunder fighter aircraft to Pakistan |url=https://www.asiapacificdefensejournal.com/2023/09/myanmar-raises-issue-of-grounded-jf-17.html |access-date=2026-02-14 |website=Asia Pacific Defense Journal}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Farid |first=Ayesha |date=2025-05-18 |title=Myanmar’s JF-17 Fighter Jets Grounded Amid Conflict and Maintenance Woes |url=https://www.bdmilitary.com/analysis/geopolitics-diplomacy/myanmars-jf-17-fighter-jets-grounded-amid-conflict-and-maintenance-woes/1082/ |access-date=2026-02-14 |website=Bangladesh Military Forces |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; These problems rendered the aircraft unfit for combat operations, forcing the air force to rely on other platforms like MiG-29s, Yak-130s, and K-8s.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

The grounding was exacerbated by post-2021 military coup sanctions, which restricted access to spare parts for Western-sourced components in the avionics and electronics. Myanmar lacked the local expertise to maintain or repair the complex systems, and initial attempts by Pakistani technicians in September 2022 to set up a simulator at Pathein air base and resolve issues were only partially successful.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;

In September 2023, Myanmar raised the issue directly with Pakistani leadership, including Prime Minister Shehbaz Sharif and Armed Forces chief General Asim Munir, expressing displeasure over the aircraft's performance. The Chinese government also intervened diplomatically due to its role in the JF-17's development. As a result, Myanmar reportedly decided not to accept the remaining five aircraft from the original order and explored newer JF-17 variants as a potential resolution.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;

===Nigeria===
[[File:Nigerian JF-17 fighter aircraft.png|thumb|[[Nigerian Air Force]] JF-17 Block 2]]
In December 2014, during the [[International Defence Exhibition and Seminar]] in Karachi, Nigeria was reportedly buying between 25 and 40 JF-17s from [[Pakistan]]. [[Nigerian Air Force]] (NAF) chief [[Air Marshal]] [[Adesola Nunayon Amosu]] had visited Pakistan earlier in October 2014.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nigeria&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=IDEAS 2014: Nigeria 'close to signing up' for JF-17 |url=http://www.janes.com/article/46579/ideas-2014-nigeria-close-to-signing-up-for-jf-17 |date=2 December 2014 |work=Farhan Bokhari |publisher=Janes |access-date=2 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226110403/http://www.janes.com/article/46579/ideas-2014-nigeria-close-to-signing-up-for-jf-17 |archive-date=26 December 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Nigeria became the second customer in 2016 by placing an order for three planes. However, as the news reports value the deal at US$25 million, it is not clear if the item is misreported.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Nigeria to become first JF-17 export operator|url=http://www.janes.com/article/57080/nigeria-to-become-first-jf-17-export-operator|access-date=7 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160128011517/http://www.janes.com/article/57080/nigeria-to-become-first-jf-17-export-operator|archive-date=28 January 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=FG to spend N65bn on warplanes, weapons, others|url=http://www.punchng.com/fg-to-spend-n65bn-on-warplanes-weapons-others/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106072634/http://www.punchng.com/fg-to-spend-n65bn-on-warplanes-weapons-others/|archive-date=6 January 2016|newspaper=[[The Punch]]|accessdate=6 April 2026|archivedate=6 January 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106072634/http://www.punchng.com/fg-to-spend-n65bn-on-warplanes-weapons-others/}}&lt;/ref&gt; A June 2016 article in [[Jane's]] re-affirmed NAF budget for 3 JF-17, 10 [[PAC Super Mushshak|Super Mushshak]], and 2 [[Mi-35M]] aircraft in 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Nigeria waiting for US to approve Super Tucano sale|url=http://www.janes.com/article/61029/nigeria-waiting-for-us-to-approve-super-tucano-sale|access-date=8 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608130937/http://www.janes.com/article/61029/nigeria-waiting-for-us-to-approve-super-tucano-sale|archive-date=8 June 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; With a confirmation from the Nigerian Air Force shortly after.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://quwa.org/2017/01/04/official-2016-nigerian-budget-confirms-jf-17-order/|title=Official 2016 Nigerian Budget Confirms JF-17 Order|last1=Khan|first1=Bilal|date=4 January 2017|work=quwa.org|access-date=30 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510134827/http://quwa.org/2017/01/04/official-2016-nigerian-budget-confirms-jf-17-order/|archive-date=10 May 2017|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In October 2018 Pakistan approved of the sale and local Nigerian production of three JF-17s for US$184.3 million. The aircraft are rumoured to be of a later version than the initially agreed sale, providing more advanced systems.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Binnie |first1=Jeremy |title=Pakistan approves Nigerian JF-17 production |url=https://www.janes.com/article/84043/pakistan-approves-nigerian-jf-17-production |website=IHS Jane's 360 |access-date=29 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181025144735/https://www.janes.com/article/84043/pakistan-approves-nigerian-jf-17-production |archive-date=25 October 2018 |location=London |date=25 October 2018 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Jamal |first1=Sana |title=Pakistan to sell three JF-17s to Nigeria for $184.3m |url=https://gulfnews.com/news/asia/pakistan/pakistan-to-sell-three-jf-17s-to-nigeria-for-184-3m-1.2294035 |website=Gulf News |access-date=29 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181026143150/https://gulfnews.com/news/asia/pakistan/pakistan-to-sell-three-jf-17s-to-nigeria-for-184-3m-1.2294035 |archive-date=26 October 2018 |location=Islamabad |date=26 October 2018 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 30 December 2020 the [[Pakistan Aeronautical Complex]] rolled out the three JF-17A Block 2s for Nigeria.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.defenseworld.net/news/28266/JF_17_Thunder_Jets_Spotted_in_Nigerian_AF_Colors__Ready_for_Delivery |title=JF-17 Thunder Jets Spotted in Nigerian AF Colors, Ready for Delivery |work=defenceworld.net |date=7 November 2020 |access-date=11 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=4 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204082056/https://www.defenseworld.net/news/28266/JF_17_Thunder_Jets_Spotted_in_Nigerian_AF_Colors__Ready_for_Delivery |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; They were delivered to Makurdi Air Base in March 2021 aboard Pakistan Air Force Ilyushin Il-78MP freighters and were formally inducted into the Nigerian Air Force on 21 May 2021.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=24 March 2021 |title=First of 3 Pakistani JF-17 Jets Arrive in Nigeria |url=https://www.defenseworld.net/news/29198/First_of_3_Pakistani_JF_17_Jets_Arrive_in_Nigeria#.YFxkX68zaUk |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210325024056/https://www.defenseworld.net/news/29198/First_of_3_Pakistani_JF_17_Jets_Arrive_in_Nigeria#.YFxkX68zaUk |archive-date=25 March 2021 |access-date=25 March 2021 |website=www.defenseworld.net}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;fg_waldron_2021-05-21&quot; /&gt;

The NAF initially indicated that it might order another 35–40 aircraft if the type met its requirements.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=JF-17 Thunder Jets Spotted in Nigerian AF Colors, Ready for Delivery |url=https://www.defenseworld.net/news/28266/JF_17_Thunder_Jets_Spotted_in_Nigerian_AF_Colors__Ready_for_Delivery |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204082056/https://www.defenseworld.net/news/28266/JF_17_Thunder_Jets_Spotted_in_Nigerian_AF_Colors__Ready_for_Delivery |archive-date=4 December 2020 |access-date=22 March 2021 |website=www.defenseworld.net}}&lt;/ref&gt; In January 2023 the Chief of the Air Staff, Air Marshal [[Isiaka Oladayo Amao]], confirmed that the JF-17s had been used in anti-terrorism and anti-insurgency operations inside Nigeria.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto2&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2023/01/22/amao-naf-expects-delivery-of-27-fighter-jets-attack-helicopters-to-boost-fight-against-terrorism/ |title=Amao: NAF Expects Delivery of 27 Fighter Jets, Attack Helicopters to Boost Fight against Terrorism – THISDAYLIVE |access-date=22 March 2023 |archive-date=22 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322164348/https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2023/01/22/amao-naf-expects-delivery-of-27-fighter-jets-attack-helicopters-to-boost-fight-against-terrorism/ |url-status=live |newspaper=[[This Day]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; In early December 2025 the three aircraft were reportedly deployed to the [[Benin Republic]], where they conducted airstrikes against rebel forces during an attempted coup.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=8 December 2025 |title=Nigerian Air Force deploys JF-17 jets to foil Benin coup attempt |url=https://timesofislamabad.com/08-Dec-2025/nigerian-air-force-deploys-jf-17-jets-to-foil-benin-coup-attempt |access-date=9 December 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Azerbaijan===
In January 2008, Azerbaijan engaged in talks with Pakistan over JF-17's possible sale to Azerbaijan.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://apa.az/en/azerbaijan-army-azerbaijani-armed-forces/-43234 |title=Azerbaijan to buy JF-17 {{sic|aircra|fts|nolink=y}} from Pakistan |date=29 January 2008 |access-date=11 January 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210111145843/https://apa.az/en/azerbaijan-army-azerbaijani-armed-forces/-43234 |archive-date=11 January 2021 |work=[[Azeri Press Agency]] |language=en |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2015, the [[Azerbaijani Air Forces]] negotiated with China for several dozen JF-17s worth approximately {{USD|16 to 18 million}} each.&lt;ref name=&quot;news.am&quot;&gt;{{Citation|title=China supplies FC-1 multipurpose fighters to Azerbaijan|url=http://news.am/eng/news/8954.html|newspaper=News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402124131/http://news.am/eng/news/8954.html|place=AM|access-date=28 February 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2018, Pakistani Armed Forces actively discussed military and defence cooperation with Azerbaijan, culminating in the latter expressing an interest in purchasing the JF-17 Thunder fighter jet.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |first=Shahid |last=Hussain |url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/05/pakistan-and-azerbaijan-deepening-a-mutually-beneficial-relationship/ |title=Pakistan and Azerbaijan: Deepening a Mutually Beneficial Relationship |date=19 May 2020 |access-date=11 January 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200519204003/https://thediplomat.com/2020/05/pakistan-and-azerbaijan-deepening-a-mutually-beneficial-relationship/ |archive-date=19 May 2020 |work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]] |language=en |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 22 February 2024, Azerbaijan had signed a contract worth US$1.6 billion with Pakistan for the purchase of an unspecified number of JF-17 Block 3 multi-role combat aircraft for the Azerbaijani Air Forces including aircraft, training, and ordnance.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=22 February 2024 |title=Pakistan signs largest ever fighter jet sale deal with Azerbaijan |url=https://www.azernews.az/nation/222206.html |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Azernews.Az |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto9&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=AzeMedia |date=22 February 2024 |title=Pakistan has signed the largest deal in history with Azerbaijan for the sale of fighter jets |url=https://aze.media/pakistan-has-signed-the-largest-deal-in-history-with-azerbaijan-for-the-sale-of-fighter-jets/ |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Aze.Media |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto10&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://pakobserver.net/pakistan-seals-1-6-billion-deal-with-azerbaijan-to-sell-jf-17-fighter-jets/|title=Pakistan seals $1.6 billion deal with Azerbaijan to sell JF-17 fighter jets|date=22 February 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 25 September 2024, the JF-17 Block 3 was showcased to the President of Azerbaijan on the sidelines of 2024 Azerbaijan International Defence Exhibition (AIDEX).&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |date=25 September 2024 |title=JF-17C multirole aircrafts presented to President Ilham Aliyev |url=https://azertag.az/en/xeber/jf_17c_multirole_aircrafts_presented_to_president_ilham_aliyev-3196886 |work=Azertac}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 6 June 2025, the Government of Pakistan announced that it had secured a contract for the supply of 40 JF-17 Block 3 aircraft from Azerbaijan for $4.6 billion, which builds on an initial agreement signed between Pakistan and Azerbaijan in February 2024, valued at $1.6 billion, for an unspecified number of JF-17 Block 3 fighter jets, alongside training and armaments.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto11&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.aeronewsjournal.com/2025/06/jf-17-thunder-breakthrough-azerbaijan.html | title=JF-17 Thunder Breakthrough Azerbaijan Secures $4.6 Billion Deal for 40 Pakistani-Chinese Block III Fighters | date=8 June 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto18&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/pauliddon/2025/06/08/how-armenia-might-respond-to-azerbaijans-jf-17-fighter-acquisition/ | title=How Armenia Might Respond to Azerbaijan's JF-17 Fighter Acquisition | website=[[Forbes]] }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto15&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://defence-industry.eu/azerbaijan-signs-record-4-6-billion-deal-for-40-jf-17-thunder-fighter-jets-from-pakistan/|title=Azerbaijan signs $4.6 billion deal for JF-17 fighters|date=8 June 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto7&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.turkiyetoday.com/region/azerbaijan-expands-jf-17-fighter-jet-order-to-40-units-in-46b-defense-deal-3202511 | title=Azerbaijan expands JF-17 fighter jet order to 40 units in $4.6B defense deal }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto13&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.turdef.com/article/pakistan-confirms-inking-of-deal-with-azerbaijan-for-jf-17 | title=Pakistan Confirms Inking of Deal with Azerbaijan for JF-17 &amp;#124; TURDEF | date=7 June 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Deliveries of the initial tranche began in October 2025, with the aircraft arriving at Nasosnaya Air Base and undergoing familiarization before formal induction. On 8 November 2025, five JF-17s (four single-seat and one twin-seat), flown by Azeri fighter pilots, participated in Azerbaijan’s Victory Day parade in Baku, marking their first public appearance in Azerbaijani service. In addition, open-source images circulated showing a total of nine JF-17 Block III aircraft present in Azerbaijan around the same period without any national markings, consistent with jets observed during early post-delivery handling and marking transitions.&lt;ref name=&quot;azeri1&quot;&gt;{{cite web |first=Greg |last=Waldron |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/fixed-wing/azerbaijan-confirms-jf-17-fighter-acceptance-with-baku-flypast/165245.article |title=Azerbaijan becomes fourth JF-17 operator with five appearing in Baku military parade |website=Flightglobal.com |date=11 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://president.az/en/articles/view/70546 |title=Military Parade dedicated to the fifth anniversary of Victory in Patriotic War was held in Baku |work=The Official Website of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan |date=8 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Potential customers===

==== Bangladesh ====
In January 2025, [[Bangladesh]] announced an interest in purchasing the JF-17C Block 3.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2522416/bangladesh-shows-interest-in-jf-17 | title=Bangladesh shows interest in JF-17 | date=15 January 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://arynews.tv/bangladesh-army-delegation-meets-pakistan-air-chief-expresses-interest-in-jf-17/ | title=Bangladesh army delegation meets Pakistan Air Chief, expresses interest in JF-17 | date=15 January 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In January 2026, it was reported that Bangladesh was in formal talks with Pakistan for the purchase of an unspecified number of JF-17C Block 3 fighters.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/1/9/why-is-pakistan-selling-its-jf-17-fighter-jets-to-bangladesh-and-others&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/pakistan-eyes-defence-pact-with-bangladesh-sale-jf-17-jets-2026-01-07/&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://www.flightglobal.com/fixed-wing/bangladesh-explores-jf-17-acquisition-to-replace-ageing-fighters/165876.article&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Indonesia ====
''[[Reuters]]'' reported that Pakistan is in discussion with Indonesia on selling the JF-17s to the latter. In January 2026, Indonesia’s Defence Minister Sjafrie Sjamsoeddin held talks in Islamabad with PAF Chief, Air Chief Marshal Zaheer Ahmed Baber Sidhu, during which a potential defence cooperation package—including the possible acquisition of around 40 JF-17 fighter aircraft, armed drones, and associated training—was discussed, though no binding agreement was announced at the time.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReutersJF17Indonesia2026&quot;&gt;{{cite web |first1=Saad |last1=Sayeed |first2=Ananda |last2=Teresia |first3=Ariba |last3=Shahid |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/pakistan-indonesia-closing-jets-drones-defence-deal-sources-say-2026-01-12/ |title=Exclusive: Pakistan and Indonesia closing in on jets and drones defence deal, sources say |website=Reuters.com |date=13 January 2026 |access-date=15 January 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Iraq ====
[[Iraq]] has expressed interest in acquiring the JF-17C Thunder multirole combat aircraft from Pakistan as part of efforts to modernise the [[Iraqi Air Force]]. During an official visit to Baghdad on 10 January 2026, Pakistan’s Air Chief Marshal Zaheer Ahmed Baber Sidhu met with Lieutenant General Staff Pilot Mohanad Ghalib Mohammed Radi Al-Asadi, Commander of the Iraqi Air Force, where discussions covered bilateral air force cooperation. During the meeting, the Iraqi Air Force Commander indicated interest in the JF-17C fighter aircraft and Super Mushshak trainer aircraft in the context of training, capacity building, and defence cooperation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Pakistan says Iraq expressed ‘keen interest’ in JF-17 jets at air chiefs meeting |work=Arab News |date=10 January 2026 |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/2628855/pakistan}}
&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Iraq eyes JF-17 fighter jets as Pakistani air chief visits Baghdad |work=The Express Tribune |date=10 January 2026 |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2586411/iraq-eyes-jf-17-fighter-jets-as-pakistani-air-chief-visits-baghdad}}
&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Iraq seeks JF-17 Thunder jets during Pakistani air chief’s visit |work=Business Recorder |date=10 January 2026 |url=https://www.brecorder.com/news/40401540/iraq-seeks-jf-17-thunder-jets}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Libya ====
It was reported on 22 December 2025 that Pakistan reached a $4-4.6 billion deal with the [[Libyan National Army]], commanded by Khalifa Haftar, which controls eastern [[Libya]], for the supply of 16 JF-17s and other military equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;libya1&quot;&gt;{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Iddon |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/pauliddon/2025/12/28/why-it-took-pakistan-so-long-to-sell-jf-17-fighters-to-an-arab-country/ |title=Why It Took Pakistan So Long To Sell JF-17 Fighters To An Arab Country |website=Forbes.com |date=28 December 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;libya2&quot;&gt;{{cite web |first=Liu |last=Zhen |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/military/article/3337888/china-pakistan-warplane-deal-libyan-faction-may-help-expand-beijings-influence |title=China-Pakistan warplane deal with Libyan faction ‘may help expand Beijing’s influence’ |website=SCMP.com|date=27 December 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;libya3&quot;&gt;{{cite web |first1=Ariba |last1=Shahid |first2=Asif |last2=Shahzad |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/pakistan-strikes-4-billion-deal-sell-weapons-libyan-force-officials-say-2025-12-22/ |title=Pakistan strikes $4 billion deal to sell weapons to Libyan force, officials say |website=Reuters.com |date=22 December 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Morocco ====
Morocco has shown interest in the JF-17, having invited a sales team to showcase it in the Marrakech Air Show 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=JF-17 to Star in Marrakech Air Show|url=http://www.defensa.com/frontend/defensa/caza-chino-pakistani-jf-17-thunder-estrella-marrakech-air-show-vn17700-vst164|url-status=live|access-date=9 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202010633/http://www.defensa.com/frontend/defensa/caza-chino-pakistani-jf-17-thunder-estrella-marrakech-air-show-vn17700-vst164|archive-date=2 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Marrakech Air Show Invites Pakistan to Showcase JF −17 Thunder Fighter Jet|url=http://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2015/12/174608/marrakech-air-show-invites-pakistan-to-showcase-jf-17-thunder-fighter-jet/|url-status=live|access-date=9 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222014010/http://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2015/12/174608/marrakech-air-show-invites-pakistan-to-showcase-jf-17-thunder-fighter-jet/|archive-date=22 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to a local analyst, a potential acquisition by Morocco may be complicated by incompatible technologies; the JF-17 Block I and Block II have broadly different electronics suites and air-to-air &amp; air-to-surface munitions than its current Western-sourced aircraft, such as the [[Dassault Mirage F1|Mirage F-1 (MF2000)]], [[Northrop F-5|F-5E/F Tiger II]] and [[Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet|Alpha Jet]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Pakistan looks to market the JF-17 Thunder to Morocco|url=http://quwa.org/2016/04/25/pakistan-looks-market-jf-17-thunder-morocco/|url-status=live|access-date=26 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426114618/http://quwa.org/2016/04/25/pakistan-looks-market-jf-17-thunder-morocco/|archive-date=26 April 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Morocco has been engaged with Pakistan in January 2026 on the JF-17.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2026/01/276273/morocco-shows-interest-in-pakistani-jf-17-jets-as-talks-advance/&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Saudi Arabia ====
In January 2014, the [[Royal Saudi Air Force]] was reportedly examining potential technology transfer and co-production opportunities for the JF-17. Saudi Deputy Minister of Defence Prince [[Salman bin Sultan]] toured the JF-17 project during a visit to Pakistan.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|date=23 January 2014|title=Saudi eyeing Pakistan's JF-17 fighter jet, modeled from U.S. F-16|work=World Tribune|url=http://www.worldtribune.com/2014/01/23/saudi-eyeing-pakistans-jf-17-fighter-jet-modeled-from-u-s-f-16/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140706041729/http://www.worldtribune.com/2014/01/23/saudi-eyeing-pakistans-jf-17-fighter-jet-modeled-from-u-s-f-16/|archive-date=6 July 2014|accessdate=6 April 2026|archivedate=6 July 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140706041729/http://www.worldtribune.com/2014/01/23/saudi-eyeing-pakistans-jf-17-fighter-jet-modeled-from-u-s-f-16/}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|date=24 January 2014|title=Saudi Arabia May Buy Pakistani-Chinese Fighter Jets|work=The Diplomat|url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/01/saudi-arabia-may-buy-pakistani-chinese-fighter-jets/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726081849/https://thediplomat.com/2014/01/saudi-arabia-may-buy-pakistani-chinese-fighter-jets/|archive-date=26 July 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=Khan|first1=Bilal|date=8 November 2016|title=Saudi Arabia Reportedly Interested in the JF-17 Thunder|url=http://quwa.org/2016/11/08/saudi-arabia-reportedly-interested-in-the-jf-17-thunder/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109084500/http://quwa.org/2016/11/08/saudi-arabia-reportedly-interested-in-the-jf-17-thunder/|archive-date=9 November 2016|website=Quwa Defence News &amp; Analysis Group}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, by 2023, this interest seems to have fallen through, with Saudi Arabia now interested in joining the Anglo-Italian-Japanese [[Global Combat Air Programme]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|date=11 August 2023|title=Saudi Arabia pushes to join fighter jet project with UK, Italy and Japan|work=Financial Times|url=https://www.ft.com/content/80e9bda9-f415-4076-9037-bd6b96e1169f|access-date=19 August 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[Reuters]]'' reported in January 2026 that Pakistan are in discussion with Saudi Arabia to convert around US$ 2 billion of Saudi loans to Pakistan into a provision of JF-17s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |first1=Ariba |last1=Shahid |first2=Saad |last2=Sayeed |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/pakistan-saudi-talks-jf-17-jets-for-loans-deal-sources-say-2026-01-07/ |title=Exclusive: Pakistan, Saudi in talks on JF-17 jets-for-loans deal, sources say |website=Reuters.com |date=8 January 2026 |access-date=8 January 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;However It is reported that the US government has discouraged Saudi Arabia from aquisition of both JF-17's and [[TAI TF Kaan|TF Kaan's]], instead proposing sale of [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II|F-35]]'s to the Saudi Arabian Air Force. &lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2498926/pakistan-signs-agreement-to-supply-jf-17-block-iii-fighter-jets-to-azerbaijan | title=Pakistan signs agreement to supply JF-17 Block-III fighter jets to Azerbaijan | date=26 September 2024 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Other countries ====

Countries including [[Egypt]], [[Jordan]], [[Kuwait]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Khan|first=Bilal|date=7 August 2016|title=Pakistan offers JF-17 &amp; Super Mushshak to Kuwait|url=https://quwa.org/2016/08/07/pakistan-offers-jf-17-super-mushshak-kuwait/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422190117/https://quwa.org/2016/08/07/pakistan-offers-jf-17-super-mushshak-kuwait/|archive-date=22 April 2020|website=Quwa - Defence News &amp; Analysis}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Peru]],&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Here's Why Pakistan's JF-17 Is A Viable Alternative To The American F-16|url=https://wonderfulengineering.com/heres-why-pakistans-jf-17-is-a-viable-alternative-to-the-american-f-16/|website=Wonderful Engineering|date=21 March 2019|quote=As of right now, Saudi Arabia, Albania, Morocco, Bulgaria, Malaysia, Egypt, Sudan, Iraq, Oman, Lebanon, Argentina, Algeria, Jordan, and Peru are evaluating the JF-17 Block III|access-date=23 July 2020|archive-date=23 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723081234/https://wonderfulengineering.com/heres-why-pakistans-jf-17-is-a-viable-alternative-to-the-american-f-16/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[South Africa]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Siddiqui|first=Naveed|title=Pakistan, South Africa sign agreements to increase defense cooperation|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1323145|website=Dawn|date=27 March 2017|access-date=2 May 2020|archive-date=30 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030023533/https://www.dawn.com/news/1323145|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Uruguay]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Demerly |first=Tom |date=9 November 2017 |title=Shopping for Fighters: Is the Chinese/Pakistani JF-17 Thunder the Real &quot;Joint Strike Fighter&quot;? |url=https://theaviationist.com/2017/11/09/shopping-for-fighters-is-the-chinesepakistani-jf-17-thunder-the-real-joint-strike-fighter/ |access-date=11 May 2025 |website=The Aviationist |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; and [[Venezuela]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Gady |first=Franz-Stefan |title=Confirmed: Sino-Pak JF-17 Fighter Jet Has its First Buyer |url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/06/confirmed-sino-pak-jf-17-fighter-jet-has-its-first-buyer/#:~:text=Numerous%20air%20forces%20are%20toying,the%20Philippines,%20Venezuela%20and%20Zimbabwe. |access-date=11 May 2025 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; have shown interest in the JF-17.&lt;ref name=&quot;defenseindustrydaily.com article&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|date=15 March 2008|title=PAF gets six JF-17 Thunder aircraft|work=Dawn|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/293840/paf-gets-six-jf-17-thunder-aircraft|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810045150/http://www.dawn.com/news/293840/paf-gets-six-jf-17-thunder-aircraft|archive-date=10 August 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In February 2026, reports appeared that the [[Somali Air Force]] was in talks to acquire 24 Block III JF-17s.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.somaliguardian.com/news/somalia-news/somalia-in-talks-to-buy-24-jf-17-fighter-jets-from-pakistan/; {{cite news|title=Somalia in High-Level Talks to Acquire 24 JF-17 Thunder Block III Fighter Jets from Pakistan in US$900 Million Air Power Revival|work=Defence Security Asia|date=19 February 2026 |url=https://defencesecurityasia.com/en/somalia-jf17-thunder-block-iii-pakistan-us900-million-air-force-revival/|access-date=22 February 2026}}; {{cite news |title=Soomaaliya oo diyaarado casri ah kasoo iibsanaysa Pakistan |work=Hiiraan Online |date=10 February 2026 |url=https://www.hiiraan.com/news/2026/Feb/wararka_maanta09-192820.htm |access-date=22 February 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; Somalia's air force has been inactive for many years. 

===Former interests===

==== Argentina ====
At the 2013 [[Paris Air Show]], officials from Argentine aerospace conglomerate [[Fábrica Argentina de Aviones]] (FAdeA) revealed that the firm had held multiple discussions with Chinese officials over a potential co-production of the FC-1/JF-17, for the [[Argentine Air Force]] (FAA); this was regarded as the first formal effort by Argentina to possibly procure, or co-produce the aircraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author-first1=Richard D |author-last1=Fisher Jr|date=23 June 2013|url=http://www.janes.com/article/23497/argentine-officials-confirm-joint-production-talks-over-china-s-fc-1-fighter |title=Argentine officials confirm joint-production talks over China's FC-1 fighter - IHS Jane's 360 |website=www.janes.com |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106081623/http://www.janes.com/article/23497/argentine-officials-confirm-joint-production-talks-over-china-s-fc-1-fighter |archive-date=6 November 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; FAdeA officials said that the co-produced FC-1 could be classified as the &quot;Pulqui-III&quot;, with regard to FAdeA's [[Pulqui II|Pulqui-II]] fighter.&lt;ref name=&quot;ja23j13&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author-first1=Richard D |author-last1=Fisher Jr|date=23 June 2013|title=Argentine officials confirm joint-production talks over China's FC-1 fighter|newspaper=Jane's|url=http://www.janes.com/article/23497/argentine-officials-confirm-joint-production-talks-over-china-s-fc-1-fighter|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106081623/http://www.janes.com/article/23497/argentine-officials-confirm-joint-production-talks-over-china-s-fc-1-fighter|archive-date=6 November 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2015, following a three-day visit by [[President of Argentina|Argentine president]] [[Cristina Fernández de Kirchner]] to [[China]], Argentina announced that it would consider purchasing around 20 JF-17s from [[Chengdu Aircraft Industry Group|CAIG]]; however the deal did not materialise.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.defenseworld.net/news/12186/China_To_Supply_20_Thunder_Fighter_Jets_To_Argentina#.VOJbj_7P3IU |title=China to Supply 20 Thunder Fighter Jets to Argentina |website=www.defenseworld.net |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216210452/http://www.defenseworld.net/news/12186/China_To_Supply_20_Thunder_Fighter_Jets_To_Argentina#.VOJbj_7P3IU |archive-date=16 February 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|publisher=Nikkei|title=Argentina turns to China for arms supply|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/Argentina-turns-to-China-for-arms-supply|access-date=1 March 2022|date=9 April 2015|first=Kamilia|last=Lahrichi|archive-date=10 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200210140006/https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/Argentina-turns-to-China-for-arms-supply|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The primary reason for Argentine interest was reportedly the aircraft's lesser requirement for parts of British origin, as the United Kingdom had barred any sale of military equipment consisting of British-manufactured parts to Argentina since the [[Falklands War|1982 Falklands War]].&lt;ref name=&quot;defensenews.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url = https://www.defensenews.com/global/the-americas/2021/09/28/could-britain-stop-argentina-from-buying-the-jf-17-warplane/|title = Could Britain stop Argentina from buying the JF-17 warplane?|date = 28 September 2021|access-date = 11 January 2022|archive-date = 30 September 2021|archive-url = https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20210930015257/https://www.defensenews.com/global/the%2Damericas/2021/09/28/could%2Dbritain%2Dstop%2Dargentina%2Dfrom%2Dbuying%2Dthe%2Djf%2D17%2Dwarplane/|url-status = live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://aircosmosinternational.com/article/no-kai-fa-50-for-argentina-under-the-post-1982-embargo-2970 |title=No KAI FA-50 for Argentina under the post-1982 embargo |website=aircosmosinternational.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129073505/https://aircosmosinternational.com/article/no-kai-fa-50-for-argentina-under-the-post-1982-embargo-2970 |archive-date=29 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Likewise, Argentina's earlier efforts to procure other aircraft, namely, the [[Dassault Mirage F1|Mirage F1M]], the [[IAI Kfir]], the [[Saab JAS 39 Gripen|JAS 39 Gripen]] and the [[KAI T-50 Golden Eagle|KAI FA-50]] were scuttled due to diplomatic pressure from the United Kingdom, given the aforementioned aircraft were found to contain British-origin parts.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=UK shoots down Argentine FA-50 deal|publisher=Flightglobal|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/defence/uk-shoots-down-argentine-fa-50-deal/140925.article|date=3 November 2020|access-date=1 March 2022|first=Greg|last=Waldron|archive-date=9 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509165523/https://www.flightglobal.com/defence/uk-shoots-down-argentine-fa-50-deal/140925.article|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;en.mercopress.com&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Argentina's purchase of Korean fighters falls through: UK's arms embargo|url=https://en.mercopress.com/2021/06/23/argentina-s-purchase-of-korean-fighters-falls-through-uk-s-arms-embargo|access-date=1 March 2022|date=21 June 2021|archive-date=11 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111121032/https://en.mercopress.com/2021/06/23/argentina-s-purchase-of-korean-fighters-falls-through-uk-s-arms-embargo|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;defensenews.com&quot;/&gt;

In September 2021, the [[Government of Argentina|Argentine government]] presented a draft budget for the fiscal year of 2022, which contained a request of USD $664 million for the acquisition of future fighter aircraft for the FAA.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dubois |first=Gastón |date=21 September 2021 |title=The Argentine Ministry of Defense clarifies about the JF-17 Thunder |url=https://www.aviacionline.com/2021/09/the-argentine-ministry-of-defense-clarifies-about-the-jf-17-thunder/ |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=Aviacionline.com |language=es |archive-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111015136/https://www.aviacionline.com/2021/09/the-argentine-ministry-of-defense-clarifies-about-the-jf-17-thunder/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; However, multiple media outlets misinterpreted this action, erroneously reporting that the request for funds were for acquiring the JF-17 Block-III.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/world/2021/09/22/argentina-hasnt-selected-jf-17-fighter-govt-clarifies-budget-request.html|title=Argentina hasn't selected JF-17 fighter? Govt clarifies budget request|website=[[The Week (Indian magazine)|The Week]] |access-date=1 March 2022|date=22 September 2021|archive-date=11 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111015142/https://www.theweek.in/news/world/2021/09/22/argentina-hasnt-selected-jf-17-fighter-govt-clarifies-budget-request.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Argentina's [[Ministry of Defense (Argentina)|Ministry of Defense]] (''Ministerio de Defensa'') later clarified that the JF-17 had not been selected, asserting that the FAA was still evaluating five other aircraft as possible options.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

In May 2022, a delegation of the FAA evaluated the JF-17 Thunder in China.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Dubois |first1=Gastón |title=Argentine Air Force delegation evaluated the JF-17 Thunder in China |url=https://www.aviacionline.com/2022/05/argentine-air-force-delegation-evaluated-the-jf-17-thunder-in-china/ |website=Aviacionline |date=21 May 2022 |access-date=31 May 2022 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531011548/https://www.aviacionline.com/2022/05/argentine-air-force-delegation-evaluated-the-jf-17-thunder-in-china/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

However, in October 2023, the United States approved the transfer of 24 second-hand [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon variants|F-16 Block-15 MLU]] fighters previously owned by the [[Royal Danish Air Force]] to Argentina, countering the Chinese offer; reportedly, the deal did not necessitate an approval from the United Kingdom.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://aviationweek.com/defense-space/aircraft-propulsion/us-approves-proposed-f-16-transfer-argentina|title=U.S. Approves Proposed F-16 Transfer To Argentina|website=aviationweek.com|date=12 October 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; Following the inauguration of the [[Javier Milei|Javier Milei administration]] in Argentina in 2023, the decision to select the F-16 had reportedly materialised, leaving the JF-17 out of the contest.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.airdatanews.com/argentina-chose-the-f-16-fighter-for-its-air-force-reports/|title=Argentina chose the F-16 fighter for its Air Force – reports|website=www.airdatanews.com|date=30 January 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Bolivia ==== 
The JF-17 was a candidate for the replacement of retired [[Lockheed T-33]] aircraft of the [[Bolivian Air Force]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.airway1.com/bolivia-air-force-is-looking-for-fighter-jets/|title=Bolivia Air Force is looking for fighter jets|work=Air Data News |date=29 May 2021|access-date=28 June 2021|archive-date=28 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628054044/https://www.airway1.com/bolivia-air-force-is-looking-for-fighter-jets/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Congo ====
In March 2023, it was reported that China was pitching the JF-17 to the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://mil.in.ua/en/news/congo-is-considering-buying-jf-17-thunder-fighter-jets-from-china/ |title=Congo is considering buying JF-17 Thunder fighter jets from China |access-date=22 March 2023 |archive-date=22 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322162400/https://mil.in.ua/en/news/congo-is-considering-buying-jf-17-thunder-fighter-jets-from-china/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.brusselstimes.com/412442/drc-china-offers-kinshasa-its-fighter-planes |title=DRC: China offers Kinshasa its fighter planes |access-date=22 March 2023 |archive-date=22 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322162400/https://www.brusselstimes.com/412442/drc-china-offers-kinshasa-its-fighter-planes |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.defensemirror.com/news/33835/China_Offers_JF_17_Jet_to_Congo_Kinshasa__Competing_with_Russian_Su_27 |title=China Offers JF-17 Jet to Congo-Kinshasa, Competing with Russian Su-27 |access-date=22 March 2023 |archive-date=22 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322162400/https://www.defensemirror.com/news/33835/China_Offers_JF_17_Jet_to_Congo_Kinshasa__Competing_with_Russian_Su_27 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.africaintelligence.com/central-africa/2023/03/14/kinshasa-eyes-chinese-fighter-jets-after-buying-beijing-s-drones,109923322-bre |title=DRC : Kinshasa eyes Chinese fighter jets after buying Beijing's drones - 14/03/2023 |date=14 March 2023 |access-date=22 March 2023 |archive-date=22 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322162519/https://www.africaintelligence.com/central-africa/2023/03/14/kinshasa-eyes-chinese-fighter-jets-after-buying-beijing-s-drones,109923322-bre |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Malaysia ====
[[Malaysia]] had periodically indicated that it may be interested in purchasing the JF-17 for the [[Royal Malaysian Air Force]] (RMAF), as part of its efforts to replace its [[Mikoyan MiG-29|MIG-29 fleet]]; reports of Malaysian interest in the JF-17 emerged in 2015, although this was later denied.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Ansari |first=Usman |date=21 December 2015 |title=Malaysia Denies Interest in JF-17, But Export Hopes Remain |url=https://www.defensenews.com/industry/2015/12/21/malaysia-denies-interest-in-jf-17-but-export-hopes-remain/ |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=Defense News |language=en }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Baker |first=Benjamin David |title=The Sino-Pakistani JF-17 Might Have Another Buyer in Asia |url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/12/the-sino-pakistani-jf-17-might-have-another-buyer-in-asia/ |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US |archive-date=10 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110121257/https://thediplomat.com/2015/12/the-sino-pakistani-jf-17-might-have-another-buyer-in-asia/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In March 2019, then-visiting [[Prime Minister of Malaysia|Malaysian PM]] [[Mahathir Mohamad|Mahathir bin Mohammad]] was accorded an aerial-display of the JF-17's at the 2019 [[Pakistan Day Parade]]; he was also briefed about the fighter by the PAF.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Mahathir Mohamad receives briefing on JF-17 before leaving Islamabad |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/447749-malaysian-leader-mahathir-mohamad-receives-briefing-on-jf-17-thunder |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=www.thenews.com.pk |date=23 March 2019 |language=en |archive-date=10 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110121254/https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/447749-malaysian-leader-mahathir-mohamad-receives-briefing-on-jf-17-thunder |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=23 March 2019 |title=Malaysian PM Mahathir shows interest in JF-17 Thunder as he concludes Pakistan visit |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1936123/malaysian-pm-mahathir-shows-interest-jf-17-thunder-concludes-pakistan-visit |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=The Express Tribune |language=en |archive-date=1 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701072047/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1936123/malaysian-pm-mahathir-shows-interest-jf-17-thunder-concludes-pakistan-visit |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In June 2021, the RMAF formally released a tender for the supply of 18 light combat-aircraft — dubbed as the &quot;Fighter Lead In Trainer-Light Combat Aircraft&quot; (FLIT/LCA), in an effort to supplant its ageing [[BAE Systems Hawk|BAE Hawk 108/208]] light-combat aircraft and its [[Aermacchi MB-339|MB-339CM]] trainer-aircraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Malaysia puts pen to paper for LCA tender {{!}} Shephard |url=https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/air-warfare/malaysia-puts-pen-paper-lca-tender/None |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=www.shephardmedia.com |language=en }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=22 June 2021 |title=Malaysia to Formally Launch Fighter Lead In Trainer-Light Combat Aircraft (FLIT/LCA) Tender |url=https://militaryleak.com/2021/06/22/malaysia-to-formally-launch-fighter-lead-in-trainer-light-combat-aircraft-tender/ |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=MilitaryLeak |language=en-US |archive-date=10 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110121328/https://militaryleak.com/2021/06/22/malaysia-to-formally-launch-fighter-lead-in-trainer-light-combat-aircraft-tender/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The RMAF later issued a [[Request for proposal|Request for Proposal]] (RFP) to nine different aircraft-manufacturing conglomerates in July, with a submission-deadline of September 2021 (this would later be extended to October 2021).&lt;ref name=&quot;theedgemarkets.com&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.theedgemarkets.com/article/six-companies-bidding-rmaf-lca-contract|title=Six companies bidding for RMAF LCA contract|date=18 October 2021|access-date=10 January 2022|archive-date=10 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110121306/https://www.theedgemarkets.com/article/six-companies-bidding-rmaf-lca-contract|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The JF-17 was widely regarded to be a leading contender in the FLIT/LCA procurement initiative, along with the [[HAL Tejas]] and the [[KAI T-50 Golden Eagle|KAI FA-50]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.blogbeforeflight.net/2021/06/malaysia-launches-tender-flit-lca.html|title=Malaysia formally launches tender for new trainer, light combat aircraft|access-date=10 January 2022|archive-date=10 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110121301/https://www.blogbeforeflight.net/2021/06/malaysia-launches-tender-flit-lca.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

However, in October 2021, the JF-17 was revealed to have abstained from participating in the FLIT/LCA tender; later reports confirmed that only six companies had responded to the RFP issued by the RMAF - the [[KAI T-50 Golden Eagle|KAI FA-50]] ([[Korea Aerospace Industries]]), the [[HAL Tejas]] ([[Hindustan Aeronautics Limited]]), the [[Hongdu JL-10|HAIC L-15]] ([[China National Aero-Technology Import &amp; Export Corporation]]), the [[Alenia Aermacchi M-346 Master|Aermacchi M-346]] ([[Leonardo S.p.A.]]), the [[TAI Hürjet]] ([[Turkish Aerospace Industries]]) and the [[Mikoyan MiG-35]] ([[Rosoboronexport]]).&lt;ref name=&quot;theedgemarkets.com&quot;/&gt; The JF-17's unprecedented absence from the FLIT/LCA essentially ended all speculations regarding its participation in Malaysia.&lt;ref name=&quot;theedgemarkets.com&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Malaysia begins evaluating proposals to replace fleet of Hawk Mk 108/208s |url=https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/malaysia-begins-evaluating-proposals-to-replace-fleet-of-hawk-mk-108208s |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=Janes.com |language=en |archive-date=10 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110121256/https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/malaysia-begins-evaluating-proposals-to-replace-fleet-of-hawk-mk-108208s |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Socka |first=Sherman |date=1 December 2021 |title=LETTER {{!}} RMAF purchase of Light Combat Aircraft to bolster defence industry |url=https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/601324 |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=Malaysiakini |archive-date=10 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110121301/https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/601324 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Venckunas |first=Valius |title=Reports on Malaysian fighter jet tender: Tejas in, JF-17 out |url=https://www.aerotime.aero/articles/29226-reports-on-malaysian-fighter-jet-tender-tejas-in-jf-17-out |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=www.aerotime.aero |date=20 October 2021 |language=en |archive-date=18 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220518000844/https://www.aerotime.aero/articles/29226-reports-on-malaysian-fighter-jet-tender-tejas-in-jf-17-out |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In December 2021, the JF-17 was reportedly re-offered to the RMAF, with an estimated price-discount of about 30%; however, these reports remain unconfirmed.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Gumelar |first=Tri Agung |title=Saingi HAL Tejas di Malaysia, China Turunkan Harga Jet Tempur JF-17 Thunder hingga 30 Persen - Zona Jakarta |url=https://zonajakarta.pikiran-rakyat.com/teknologi/pr-183202048/saingi-hal-tejas-di-malaysia-china-turunkan-harga-jet-tempur-jf-17-thunder-hingga-30-persen |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=zonajakarta.pikiran-rakyat.com |language=id |archive-date=10 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110124301/https://zonajakarta.pikiran-rakyat.com/teknologi/pr-183202048/saingi-hal-tejas-di-malaysia-china-turunkan-harga-jet-tempur-jf-17-thunder-hingga-30-persen |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The RMAF eventually declined to purchase the JF-17 and proceeded instead to order 18 FA-50 Block 20 jets in March 2023.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/Defense/Malaysia-buys-South-Korea-fighter-jets-as-ASEAN-arms-market-grows|title=Malaysia buys South Korea fighter jets as ASEAN arms market grows|website=asia.nikkei.com|date=7 March 2023|access-date=24 March 2023|archive-date=24 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324012111/https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/Defense/Malaysia-buys-South-Korea-fighter-jets-as-ASEAN-arms-market-grows|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Qatar ====
[[Qatar]] has shown interest in the JF-17 since 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.defenseworld.net/news/17482/Qatar_Plans_To_Buy_Pak_JF_17_Fighter_Jet__Super_Mushshak_Trainer#.YEEFyWgzbIU|title=Qatar Plans To Buy Pak JF-17 Fighter Jet, Super Mushshak Trainer|website=www.defenseworld.net|date=27 October 2016 |access-date=4 March 2021|archive-date=6 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506212945/https://www.defenseworld.net/news/17482/Qatar_Plans_To_Buy_Pak_JF_17_Fighter_Jet__Super_Mushshak_Trainer#.YEEFyWgzbIU|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; In December 2019, at Qatar's invitation, PAF JF-17s participated in Qatar's National Day Flypast in Doha alongside [[Qatar Air Force]] [[Rafale]]s and [[Mirage 2000-5]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.defenseworld.net/news/26031/Flypast_during_Qatar_National_Day_Hints_at_Doha_s_Interest_in_Pakistani_JF_17|title=Flypast during Qatar National Day Hints at Doha's Interest in Pakistani JF-17|website=www.defenseworld.net|date=19 December 2019 |access-date=4 March 2021|archive-date=5 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305192401/https://www.defenseworld.net/news/26031/Flypast_during_Qatar_National_Day_Hints_at_Doha_s_Interest_in_Pakistani_JF_17|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the offer seems to have fallen through, with Qatar ordering a mix of [[Eurofighter Typhoon]]s and [[McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle|F15E]]s.

==== Sri Lanka ====
In June 2015, Pakistani media suggested that an export order had been confirmed with the [[Sri Lanka Air Force]]; claims were made that the JF-17's first sales contract had been signed with the Sri Lanka Air Force at the 51st Paris Air Show.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|date=23 June 2015|title=Sri Lanka revealed as first foreign buyer of JF-17|newspaper=Want China Times|url=http://www.wantchinatimes.com/news-subclass-cnt.aspx?id=20150622000035&amp;cid=1101|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623183730/http://www.wantchinatimes.com/news-subclass-cnt.aspx?id=20150622000035&amp;cid=1101|archive-date=23 June 2015|accessdate=6 April 2026|archivedate=23 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623183730/http://www.wantchinatimes.com/news-subclass-cnt.aspx?id=20150622000035&amp;cid=1101}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last=Iqbal|first=Wasim|date=22 June 2015|title=Sri Lanka purchasing JF-17 Thunder Jets|newspaper=Business Recorder|url=http://www.brecorder.com/top-stories/0/1198806/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623170033/http://www.brecorder.com/top-stories/0/1198806/|archive-date=23 June 2015|accessdate=6 April 2026|archivedate=23 June 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623170033/http://www.brecorder.com/top-stories/0/1198806/}}&lt;/ref&gt; Other sources claimed that Myanmar is the first buyer of Pakistani JF-17s.&lt;ref name=&quot;Myanmar2&quot;&gt;{{cite news|date=9 July 2015|title=Myanmar first country to purchase JF-17 Thunder from Pakistan|newspaper=Dunya News|url=http://dunyanews.tv/index.php/en/Pakistan/288360-Myanmar-first-country-to-purchase-JF17-Thunder-fr|access-date=21 July 2015|archive-date=30 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030023524/https://dunyanews.tv/en/Pakistan/288360-Myanmar-first-country-to-purchase-JF17-Thunder-fr|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Reportedly, the order would cover around 18–24 aircraft and deliveries set to begin in 2017. During a state visit by [[Nawaz Sharif]] in January 2016, Sri Lanka reportedly signed an agreement to buy eight JF-17s from Pakistan;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|first=Franz-Stefan | last = Gady|title=Sri Lanka to Buy 8 Sino-Pak JF-17 Fighter Jets|url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/01/sri-lanka-to-buy-eight-sino-pak-jf-17-fighter-jets/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160109213252/https://thediplomat.com/2016/01/sri-lanka-to-buy-eight-sino-pak-jf-17-fighter-jets/|archive-date=9 January 2016|access-date=7 January 2016|work=The Diplomat}}&lt;/ref&gt; however, the Sri Lankan government has issued denials.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|date=7 January 2016|title=Government says no JF-17 deal with Pakistan|work=Columbo Gazette|url=http://colombogazette.com/2016/01/07/government-says-no-jf-17-deal-with-pakistan/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126211056/http://colombogazette.com/2016/01/07/government-says-no-jf-17-deal-with-pakistan/|archive-date=26 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; The alleged deal was said to involve 10–12 aircraft, each valued at US$35 million, for a total of US$400 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Following Myanmar, Pakistan is Eager to Sell More JF-17s|url=http://defense-update.com/20160111_jf17.html|url-status=live|access-date=7 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213105004/http://defense-update.com/20160111_jf17.html|archive-date=13 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; Reportedly, any such sale was scuppered by Indian diplomatic pressure.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Indian pressure stalls Pakistani JF-17 sale to Sri Lanka|url=http://www.janes.com/article/57111/indian-pressure-stalls-pakistani-jf-17-sale-to-sri-lanka|url-status=live|access-date=7 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213040939/http://www.janes.com/article/57111/indian-pressure-stalls-pakistani-jf-17-sale-to-sri-lanka|archive-date=13 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Revealed: Why Sri Lanka Backed Off the Sino-Pakistani JF-17 Thunder|url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/01/revealed-why-sri-lanka-backed-off-the-sino-pakistani-jf-17-thunder/|url-status=live|access-date=9 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215193957/https://thediplomat.com/2016/01/revealed-why-sri-lanka-backed-off-the-sino-pakistani-jf-17-thunder/|archive-date=15 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|date=27 October 2013|title=Pakistan to sell JF-17 fighter jets to SL-report|work=The Daily Mirror (Sri Lanka)|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/top-story/37722-pakistan-to-sell-jf-17-fighter-jets-to-sl-report.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140523103143/http://www.dailymirror.lk/top-story/37722-pakistan-to-sell-jf-17-fighter-jets-to-sl-report.html|archive-date=23 May 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, in 2021, the Sri Lankan government decided to overhaul their Kfirs instead rather than buying new aircraft, which would cost around $40 million per unit compared to $49 million in total for overhauling all five Kfirs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Fernando|first=Asiri|date=6 January 2021|title=Govt. green-lights $ 49 m fighter jet overhaul as No. 10 Squadron turns 25|url=http://www.ft.lk/news/Govt--green-lights---49-m-fighter-jet-overhaul-as-No--10-Squadron-turns-25/56-711240|url-status=live|access-date=9 January 2021|website=Daily FT|language=English|archive-date=11 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411075224/http://www.ft.lk/news/Govt--green-lights---49-m-fighter-jet-overhaul-as-No--10-Squadron-turns-25/56-711240}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Zimbabwe ====
The [[Air Force of Zimbabwe]] reportedly planned to purchase twelve JF-17s in 2004, as part of a $240 million deal with China. No such sales have materialised.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rotberg2009&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first=Robert I. | last = Rotberg|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V70fPqj0YO4C&amp;pg=PA174|title=China into Africa: Trade, Aid, and Influence|date=1 October 2009|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|isbn=978-0-8157-0175-0|page=174|access-date=15 November 2015|archive-date=11 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111101518/https://books.google.com/books?id=V70fPqj0YO4C&amp;pg=PA174|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{citation|last=Shinn|first=David H.|title=Africa and China's Global Activism|url=http://www.ndu.edu/inss/symposia/pacific2006/shinnpaper.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616192046/http://www.ndu.edu/inss/symposia/pacific2006/shinnpaper.pdf|publisher=Elliott School of International Affairs, The George Washington University|archive-date=16 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2010, China was reportedly in talks about the JF-17 with five or six countries, some of which had sent pilots to China to undergo test flights.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Asian fighter requirements continue to grow|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/singapore-2010-asian-fighter-requirements-continue-to-337453/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021185036/http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/singapore-2010-asian-fighter-requirements-continue-to-337453/|archive-date=21 October 2014|access-date=21 March 2010|work=Flight International}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==مختلف قسمون==
===تجرباتي قسمون===
تاريخي پيداوار جي ترتيب ۾: 
* '''PT-01''' — انٽيڪس تي اسپلٽر پليٽن سان پهريون ايئر فريم ترتيب پروٽوٽائپ. 31 مئي 2003 تي جاري ڪيو ويو. پهرين پرواز 25 آگسٽ 2003 تي.&lt;ref name=&quot;FC-1/JF-17, sinodefence.com5&quot;&gt;{{cite web|work=Sino Defence|title=FC-1/JF-17 Multirole Fighter Aircraft|url=http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/fc1.asp|access-date=11 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204083919/http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/fc1.asp|archive-date=4 December 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* '''PT-02''' — انٽيڪس تي اسپلٽر پليٽن سان پهريون ايئر فريم ترتيب پروٽوٽائپ. 
* '''PT-03''' — انٽيڪس تي اسپلٽر پليٽن سان پهريون ايئر فريم ترتيب پروٽوٽائپ. اپريل 2004 ۾ پهرين پرواز. 
* '''PT-04''' — ڊائيورٽرليس سپرسونڪ انليٽس (DSI) ۽ تبديل ٿيل عمودي اسٽيبلائيزر سان ٻيو ايئر فريم ترتيب پروٽوٽائپ. 10 مئي 2006 تي پهرين پرواز. PT-04 ۾ DSI، وسيع LERX، وڌايل وينٽرل فين، ۽ هڪ ڊگهو، گهٽ سوئپ ٿيل عمودي اسٽيبلائيزر شامل ڪيو ويو جنهن جي چوٽي تي مستطيل فيئرنگ آهي جنهن ۾ اليڪٽرانڪ جنگي سامان ۽ ميزائل اپروچ وارننگ سينسرز تي بيس تي ننڍا بلسٽر فيئرنگ شامل آهن. PT-04 پروٽوٽائپ بنيادي طور تي ايويونڪس ۽ هٿيارن جي قابليت جي ٽيسٽن لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.paktribune.com/news/index.shtml?143355 |title=4th Prototype JF-17 Thunder aircraft successfully completed inaugural flight |date=11 May 2006 |work=Pakistan Tribune |access-date=21 May 2011 |location=Islamabad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090624150009/http://www.paktribune.com/news/index.shtml?143355 |archive-date=24 June 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;APP2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.app.com.pk/en_/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=5629&amp;itemid=5 |title=JF-17 Thunder arrives in Pakistan |date=12 March 2007 |work=[[Associated Press of Pakistan]] |access-date=30 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022192508/http://www.app.com.pk/en_/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=5629&amp;itemid=5 |archive-date=22 October 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
*'''PT-05''' — ٻيو ايئر فريم ترتيب پروٽوٽائپ DSI ۽ تبديل ٿيل عمودي اسٽيبلائيزر سان.
*'''PT-06''' — ٻيو ايئر فريم ترتيب پروٽوٽائپ DSI ۽ تبديل ٿيل عمودي اسٽيبلائيزر سان.

===Production variants===
In chronological production order:

*'''JF-17 Block 1''' {{mdash}} Single-seat variant of the JF-17 Thunder. Production in China began in June 2006&lt;ref name=&quot;FC-1/JF-17, sinodefence.com&quot; /&gt; and in Pakistan in 2007. The first three Chinese weapons to be integrated are the [[PL-5|PL-5E II]] AAM, the [[SD-10 (missile)|SD-10]] AAM, and the [[C-802A|C-802AK]] anti-ship missile. Block 1 aircraft had performed &quot;better than expected&quot; according to PAF [[Air Commodore]] Junaid. Production of Block 1 was completed on 18 December 2013 when the fiftieth aircraft{{mdash}}58% of which was produced in Pakistan{{mdash}}was delivered.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | first1 = Dave | last1 = Allport | first2 = Alan | last2 = Warnes|date=September 2010|title= JF-17 Thunders in First Public Static Display | journal=Air Forces Monthly|issue= 269|page= 8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Pakistan Rolls Out 50th JF-17, Block II Production To Commence |url=http://www.defensenews.com/article/20131218/DEFREG03/312180023/Pakistan-Rolls-Out-50th-JF-17-Block-II-Production-Commence |date=18 December 2013 |work=Defense News |access-date=29 June 2014 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20131220054215/http://www.defensenews.com/article/20131218/DEFREG03/312180023/Pakistan-Rolls-Out-50th-JF-17-Block-II-Production-Commence |archive-date=20 December 2013 |accessdate=6 April 2026 |archivedate=20 December 2013 |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20131220054215/http://www.defensenews.com/article/20131218/DEFREG03/312180023/Pakistan-Rolls-Out-50th-JF-17-Block-II-Production-Commence }}&lt;/ref&gt; A Block 1 JF-17 costs approximately US$15&amp;nbsp;million per unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;JF-17 Thunder Detailed Specifications, PAC Kamra&quot; /&gt;
*'''JF-17 Block 2''' {{mdash}} Single-seat variant of the JF-17 Thunder. Production began on 18 December 2013 and initial testing began on 9 February 2015.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/article/49991/block-2-jf-17-makes-first-flight-ahead-of-block-3-improvements|title=Block 2 JF-17 makes first flight ahead of Block 3 improvements|work=janes.com|access-date=3 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160119230215/http://www.janes.com/article/49991/block-2-jf-17-makes-first-flight-ahead-of-block-3-improvements|archive-date=19 January 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Block 2 aircraft make use of composites in the airframe for reduced weight, air-to-air refuelling capability,&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|last=Roblin|first=Sebastien|date=10 August 2019|title=Meet the JF-17 Block III Fighter: The Jet China is Helping Pakistan Build to Fight India|url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/meet-jf-17-block-iii-fighter-jet-china-helping-pakistan-build-fight-india-72751|access-date=23 July 2021|website=The National Interest|language=en|archive-date=8 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108002901/https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/meet-jf-17-block-iii-fighter-jet-china-helping-pakistan-build-fight-india-72751|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; improved radar and avionics, enhanced load carrying capacity, data link, and electronic warfare capabilities.&lt;ref name=&quot;dipl 01&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2013/12/pakistan-begins-producing-block-ii-jf-17-aircraft/ |title=Pakistan Begins Producing Block-II JF-17 Aircraft |last1=Panda |first1=Ankit |date=27 December 2013 |website=thediplomat.com |publisher=The Diplomat |access-date=23 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726080602/https://thediplomat.com/2013/12/pakistan-begins-producing-block-ii-jf-17-aircraft/ |archive-date=26 July 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;dawn&quot; /&gt; Chairman of PAC, Air Marshal Javaid Ahmed said: &quot;We will hand over 16 Block 2 JF-17s to the PAF every year&quot;, and that the manufacturing plant has the capacity to produce 25 units in a year.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Pakistan looks to boost military export with revamped JF-17 |url=http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2014/12/07/business/pakistan-looks-to-boost-military-export-with-revamped-jf-17-2/ |date=7 December 2014 |work=Pakistan Today |access-date=2 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102172819/http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2014/12/07/business/pakistan-looks-to-boost-military-export-with-revamped-jf-17-2/ |archive-date=2 January 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt; According to local media, PAC rolled out the 16th Block 2 aircraft in December 2015 enabling the JF-17's 4th squadron formation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fourth&quot; /&gt; A Block 2 JF-17 costs approximately US$25 million per unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;SkyWars&quot;&gt;{{citation | url = http://www.dawn.com/news/631303/sky-wars-pakistan-india-and-china | title = Sky Wars: Pakistan, India and China | first = Adnan | last = Rehmat | date = 24 May 2011 | work = Dawn | access-date = 29 June 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140714122325/http://www.dawn.com/news/631303/sky-wars-pakistan-india-and-china | archive-date = 14 July 2014 | url-status = live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
*'''JF-17B Block 2''' {{mdash}} Dual-seat variant of the JF-17 Thunder. First flight in Chengdu, China on 27 April 2017.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.arabianaerospace.aero/publications/128/issue1/volume1/|title=Military Flight Training MENA 2021|website=www.arabianaerospace.aero|access-date=19 February 2021|archive-date=16 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210216154514/https://www.arabianaerospace.aero/publications/128/issue1/volume1/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;JF-17B&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Siddiqui|first1=Naveed|title=JF-17B fighter jet takes maiden test flight|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1329803/jf-17b-fighter-jet-takes-maiden-test-flight|access-date=28 April 2017|work=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]|date=28 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428142207/https://www.dawn.com/news/1329803/jf-17b-fighter-jet-takes-maiden-test-flight|archive-date=28 April 2017|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Serial production in China and Pakistan from 2018 to 2020. A total of 26 aircraft built - first four at Chengdu and remaining 22 at Kamra.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto4&quot; /&gt; Its multi-roles include use as a (i) JF-17 conversion trainer; (ii) Lead-In Fighter Trainer (LIFT); (iii) ground-attack aircraft; and (iv) reconnaissance aircraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1093514/paf-to-induct-dual-seater-jf-17b-fighter-jet-in-april-2017/|title=PAF to induct dual-seater JF-17B fighter jet in April 2017|date=28 April 2016|work=[[Express Tribune]]|access-date=8 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503202439/http://tribune.com.pk/story/1093514/paf-to-induct-dual-seater-jf-17b-fighter-jet-in-april-2017/|archive-date=3 May 2016|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Apart from the dual-seat, larger dorsal spine, and a more swept-back tail, another difference between the JF-17B and the JF-17 is that the JF-17B carries fuel in its vertical stabiliser, which the JF-17 does not.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.airinternational.com/article/pride-pakistan|title=Pride of Pakistan|website=www.airinternational.com|access-date=2 March 2021|archive-date=10 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310041201/https://www.airinternational.com/article/pride-pakistan|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The JF-17B houses integral fuel tanks like the F-16. Each wing houses 550 Ib while the vertical tail houses 210 lb, which, together with the internal fuel load, totals 4,910 Ib of fuel. Together with the three external fuel drop-tanks, the aircraft can carry a total 10,000 Ib fuel load.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot; /&gt; The JF-17B Block 2s will be retrofitted with the NRIET/CETC [[KLJ-7#KLJ-7A|KLJ-7A]] Air-cooled Airborne Fire-Control [[Active Electronically Scanned Array]] (AESA) radar (license-manufactured at the Avionics Production Factory (APF) at PAC, Kamra).&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot; /&gt;
*'''JF-17C Block 3'''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.janes.com/osint-insights/defence-news/air/adex-2024-azerbaijani-jf-17-delivery-announced | title=ADEX 2024: Azerbaijani JF-17 delivery announced | date=26 September 2024 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://quwa.org/pakistan-defence-industry/pakistan-promotes-the-jf-17c-thunder-to-bangladesh-01-20-2025/ | title=Pakistan Promotes the JF-17C Thunder to Bangladesh - Quwa | date=20 January 2025 }}&lt;/ref&gt; {{mdash}} Single-seat variant of the JF-17 Thunder. First flight in Chengdu, China on 15 December 2019. Two prototypes underwent flight tests as of December 2020, one in China and the other in Pakistan. Went into serial production at PAC Kamra on 30 December 2020.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/767018-paf-launches-serial-production-of-latest-jf-17-thunder-block-iii|title=PAF launches serial production of latest JF-17 Thunder Block III|website=www.thenews.com.pk|date=31 December 2020 |access-date=11 February 2021|archive-date=1 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210101043156/https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/767018-paf-launches-serial-production-of-latest-jf-17-thunder-block-iii|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Projected to feature further advancements such as a NRIET/CETC [[KLJ-7#KLJ-7A|KLJ-7A]] Air-cooled Airborne Fire-Control [[Active Electronically Scanned Array]] (AESA) radar (license-manufactured at the Avionics Production Factory (APF) at PAC, Kamra),&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot; /&gt; a three-axis digital fly-by-wire flight control system,&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot; /&gt; an infrared search and track (IRST) system,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.eastpendulum.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/2016-11-01-Airshow-China-2016-le-radar-AESA-KLJ-7A-06.jpg |title=2016-11-01-Airshow-China-2016-le-radar-AESA-KLJ-7A-06.jpg |format=JPG |access-date=20 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107221746/http://www.eastpendulum.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/2016-11-01-Airshow-China-2016-le-radar-AESA-KLJ-7A-06.jpg |archive-date=7 November 2016 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Warnes|first1=Alan|title=Rolling Thunder|url=https://asianmilitaryreview.com/2017/02/rolling-thunder-jf-17/|access-date=30 April 2017|work=Asian Military Review|date=1 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208182445/http://asianmilitaryreview.com/2017/02/rolling-thunder-jf-17/|archive-date=8 February 2017|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; a helmet-mounted display and sight (HMD/S) system produced jointly by Pakistan and China,&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot; /&gt; a missile approach warning system (MAWS) similar to the one used on the Chinese [[Chengdu J-10|J-10]]C, [[J-16]], and [[Chengdu J-20|J-20]], a new, larger, and thinner holographic wide-angle head-up display (HUD) similar to the one used on the J-10C and J-20, an enhanced electronic warfare management system,&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot; /&gt; a chin-mounted hardpoint,&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot; /&gt; use of more composites for further weight reduction, eventual replacement of the [[Klimov RD-33#RD-93|Klimov RD-93MA]] [[afterburning turbofan]] by the [[Guizhou WS-13]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; with an increased thrust, and a better thrust-to-weight ratio.&lt;ref name=&quot;dawn&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nigeria&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AW17March2015&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Warnes|first1=Alan|title=Block 2 JF-17 makes first flight ahead of Block 3 improvements|journal=[[Jane's Defence Weekly]]|date=17 March 2015|url=http://www.janes.com/article/49991/block-2-jf-17-makes-first-flight-ahead-of-block-3-improvements|access-date=24 March 2015|location=Kamra|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322152346/http://www.janes.com/article/49991/block-2-jf-17-makes-first-flight-ahead-of-block-3-improvements|archive-date=22 March 2015|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot; /&gt; The KLJ-7A can simultaneously track 15 targets and engage 4 targets.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Khan|first1=Bilal|title=KLJ-7A: Proposed AESA Radar for the JF-17 Block-III|url=http://quwa.org/2016/10/31/klj-7a-proposed-aesa-radar-jf-17-block-iii/|access-date=30 April 2017|work=quwa.org|date=31 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507114147/http://quwa.org/2016/10/31/klj-7a-proposed-aesa-radar-jf-17-block-iii/|archive-date=7 May 2017|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; PAF officials have described the JF-17 Block 3 as a &quot;fourth generation plus&quot; fighter jet. The first PAC-produced JF-17 Block 3 aircraft are expected to roll out of the production line in late 2021.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot; /&gt; The PAF has placed an order for 50 JF-17 Block 3 aircraft, deliveries of which were expected to start from early 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;paknikkei&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/Pakistan-to-boost-air-strike-power-with-50-enhanced-fighter-jets|title=Pakistan to boost air strike power with 50 enhanced fighter jets|access-date=1 March 2022|date=6 February 2022|publisher=Nikkei|first=Adnan|last=Aamir|archive-date=6 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206084243/https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/Pakistan-to-boost-air-strike-power-with-50-enhanced-fighter-jets|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Gady|first1=Franz-Stefan|title=Pakistan to Order 50 More Fighter Jets in 2017|url=https://thediplomat.com/2017/02/pakistan-to-order-50-more-fighter-jets-in-2017/|access-date=30 April 2017|work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]]|date=8 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170411054055/https://thediplomat.com/2017/02/pakistan-to-order-50-more-fighter-jets-in-2017/|archive-date=11 April 2017|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; 10 JF-17 Block 3 production aircraft were photographed after their rollout at PAC Kamra in early January 2022. The first batch of JF-17 Block 3 aircraft were inducted into the PAF in March 2023.

'''Under-Development'''

*'''JF-17 Block 4 or (PFX-Alpha)''' {{mdash}} The JF-17 Block 4 or JF-17 (PFX Alpha) is an under-development 4.5+ generation version of the JF-17 Thunder under the PAF &quot;PFX&quot; program, where &quot;PFX&quot; stands for &quot;Pakistan Fighter Experimental.&quot; Also known as the JF-17 Operational Capability Upgrade (OCU), the project aims to enhance the JF-17 beyond the capabilities of the current JF-17C Block 3, which is the most advanced variant of the fighter.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.janes.com/osint-insights/defence-news/air/pakistan-unveils-jf-17-pfx-fighter | title=Pakistan unveils JF-17 PFX fighter | date=26 November 2024 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Pakistan Reveals 'JF-17 PFX' Program |url=https://quwa.org/daily-news/pakistan-reveals-jf-17-pfx-program-2/ |publisher=Quwa |date=2 March 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Development Program for JF-17 PFX (Pakistan Fighter Experimental) Unveiled |url=https://defencesecurityasia.com/en/development-program-for-jf-17-pfx-pakistan-fighter-experimental-unveiled/ |publisher=Defence Security Asia |date=6 September 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; The PFX-Alpha focuses on improving the radar, avionics, and integrating new air-to-air and air-to-surface munitions, including indigenous weapons. It will feature an indigenously-developed passive Infrared Search and Track (IRST) sensor and an electronic warfare (EW) suite with AESA radar-jamming capability. The overall goal of the PFX program is to provide the PAF with a next-generation fighter, with the PFX-Alpha serving as a key step toward indigenization and reducing external dependence. While no official timeline has been announced, a PAF official stated in an interview with [[Geo News]] at IDEAS 2024 that the jet is expected to fly within the next 4 to 5 years.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wec3sH9WMQ8 |title=JF-17 PFX: Upcoming Innovation &amp; New Chapter in Pakistan Air Force - IDEAS 2024 {{!}} Breaking News |date=21 November 2024 |last=Geo News |access-date=23 July 2025 |via=YouTube}}&lt;/ref&gt; At the [[Royal International Air Tattoo|RIAT]] 2025 air show, Pakistan showcased a [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules|C-130H Hercules]] with a custom paint job featuring artwork of various PAF aircraft; notably, the PFX was depicted highest on the tail, symbolising the Air Force’s strong commitment to the program.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=18 July 2025 |title=PAF Showcases JF-17, C-130 at RIAT 2025 in the UK |url=https://theneutral.pk/paf-to-display-jf-17-thunder-c-130-hercules-at-riat-2025/ |access-date=23 July 2025 |website=theneutral.pk |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==آپريٽرز==
&lt;!--READ FIRST: This section is for cited entries only. Please do not add entries into this list without a citation from a reliable source. All entries without a citation will be removed. Thank you.--&gt;
[[File:JF-17 operators.png|thumb|400px|موجوده JF-17 آپريٽر ملڪن (نيري رنگ ۾) سان نقشو]]

=== موجوده آپريٽر ===
'''{{AZE}}'''&lt;br&gt;
* آذربائيجاني ايئر فورس: 5 پهچايا ويا، 35 آرڊر تي&lt;ref name=&quot;azeri1&quot; /&gt;
&lt;ref name=&quot;azeri2&quot;&gt;{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Iddon |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/pauliddon/2025/11/17/from-azerbaijan-to-uae-iran-is-surrounded-by-more-advanced-air-forces/ |title=From Azerbaijan To UAE, Iran Is Surrounded By More Advanced Air Forces |website=Forbes.com |date=17 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |first=Gareth |last=Jennings |url=https://www.janes.com/osint-insights/defence-news/defence/azerbaijan-inducts-jf-17-fighters-from-pakistan |title=Azerbaijan inducts JF-17 fighters from Pakistan |website=Janes.com |date=10 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://news.defcros.com/azerbaijan-receives-jf-17-fighters-from-pakistan/ |title=Azerbaijan Receives JF-17 Fighters from Pakistan |website=news.defcros.com |date=12 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; 35 on order&lt;ref name=&quot;azeri2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://turdef.com/article/azerbaijan-shows-jf-17-block-iii-fighters-in-inventory |title=Azerbaijan Shows JF-17 Block III Fighters in Inventory |website=turdef.com |date=8 November 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://aze.media/jf-17-and-a-new-axis-of-partnership-the-largest-ever-defense-deal-between-pakistan-and-azerbaijan/ |title=JF-17 and a new axis of partnership: The largest-ever defense deal between Pakistan and Azerbaijan |website=aze.media |date=9 June 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;libya1&quot; /&gt;

'''{{flag|Myanmar}}''' [[ميانمار]]
* ميانمار جي ايئر فورس: 13 پهچايا ويا، 3 آرڊر تي&lt;ref&gt;
{{Cite web |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/download?ac=75345 |title=2021 World Air Forces |format=PDF |editor-last=Hoyle |editor-first=Craig |website=FlightGlobal |access-date=20 March 2025 |archive-date=8 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208041355/https://www.flightglobal.com/download?ac=75345 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/pakistan-team-sent-to-myanmar-to-repair-combat-aircraft/articleshow/98640757.cms | title=Pakistan team sent to Myanmar to repair combat aircraft | newspaper=The Economic Times | date=15 March 2023 | last1=Chaudhury | first1=Dipanjan Roy }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;libya2&quot;/&gt;
** ميڪٽيلا ايئر فورس بيس&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceB&quot;/&gt;

'''{{NGA}}'''
* نائيجيريا جي ايئر فورس: 3 پهچايا ويا&lt;ref name=&quot;fg_waldron_2021-05-21&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/defence/nigeria-inducts-jf-17s-as-it-awaits-super-tucanos/143851.article |title=Nigeria inducts JF-17s as it awaits Super Tucanos |first=Greg |last=Waldron |date=21 May 2021 |website=FlightGlobal |access-date=21 May 2021 |archive-date=21 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521191831/https://www.flightglobal.com/defence/nigeria-inducts-jf-17s-as-it-awaits-super-tucanos/143851.article |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;libya2&quot;/&gt;
** اين اي ايف بيس ماڪرودي&lt;ref&gt;
{{Cite web |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/defence/nigeria-gears-up-to-receive-jf-17s/141123.article |title=Nigeria gears up to receive JF-17s |first=Greg |last=Waldron |date=13 November 2020 |website=FlightGlobal |access-date=17 January 2021 |archive-date=21 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121054653/https://www.flightglobal.com/defence/nigeria-gears-up-to-receive-jf-17s/141123.article |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto3&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/nigeria-inducts-jf-17-fighters |title=Nigeria inducts JF-17 fighters |website=Janes.com |access-date=21 May 2021 |archive-date=21 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521191832/https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/nigeria-inducts-jf-17-fighters |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''{{PAK}}'''
* پاڪستان ايئر فورس: 161 پهچايا ويا، 27 آرڊر تي
** پي اي ايف بيس ڀولاري ([[ڄامشورو]]) 
*** نمبر 18 اسڪواڊرن شارپ شوٽرز (JF-17 OCU) (2020)&lt;ref name=&quot;SHEPHARD&quot;&gt;
{{Cite web|url=https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/air-warfare/pakistan-receives-chinese-jf-17-block-iii-fighter-jets-reports/ |title=Pakistan receives Chinese JF-17 Block III fighter jets, reports say| access-date=10 March 2023|work=SHEPHARD |date=10 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141819/https://timesofislamabad.com/03-Feb-2018/six-paf-squadrons-with-over-100-jf-17-fighter-jets-become-operational-fully |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/jf-17-no-f-35-stealth-jet-its-good-enough-pakistan-110461|title=The JF-17 Is No F-35 Stealth Jet, But It's Good Enough For Pakistan|first=Sebastien|last=Roblin|date=2 January 2020|website=The National Interest|access-date=7 January 2020|archive-date=30 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030023524/https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/jf-17-no-f-35-stealth-jet-its-good-enough-pakistan-110461|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceB&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Janes {{!}} Latest defence and security news|url=https://www.janes.com/defence-news|access-date=27 October 2020|website=Janes.com|language=en|archive-date=6 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200906153101/https://www.janes.com/defence-news/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;paknikkei&quot; /&gt;
** [[PAF Base Bholari]] (Jamshoro)&lt;ref name=&quot;Scramble.nl&quot; /&gt;
*** No. 18 Squadron ''Sharp Shooters'' (JF-17 OCU) (2020)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.scramble.nl/military-news/pakistan-inducts-14-jf-17bs-and-starts-block-iii-jf-17-thunder-production|title=Pakistan inducts 14 JF-17Bs and starts Block III JF-17 Thunder production|first=Hans van|last=Herk|website=www.scramble.nl|date=31 December 2020 |access-date=17 January 2021|archive-date=31 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201231094256/https://www.scramble.nl/military-news/pakistan-inducts-14-jf-17bs-and-starts-block-iii-jf-17-thunder-production|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://quwa.org/2021/01/02/pakistan-aeronautical-complex-delivers-new-jf-17b-batch-2/|title=Pakistan Aeronautical Complex Delivers New JF-17B Batch|date=2 January 2021|access-date=17 January 2021|archive-date=19 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119112738/https://quwa.org/2021/01/02/pakistan-aeronautical-complex-delivers-new-jf-17b-batch-2/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
** پي اي ايف بيس مسرور ([[ڪراچي]])
*** نمبر 2 اسڪواڊرن منهاسين (2015)&lt;ref&gt;
{{cite web |url=http://www.asian-defence.net/2015/09/pakistans-paf-re-equip-squadron-no-2.html |title=Pakistan's PAF Re-equip Squadron No 2 Minhas With JF-17 |work=Asian Defence |date=1 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121101129/http://www.asian-defence.net/2015/09/pakistans-paf-re-equip-squadron-no-2.html |archive-date=21 November 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
*** نمبر 8 اسڪواڊرن حيدرز (2024)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://defencesecurityasia.com/en/pakistan-jf17-fighter-aircrafts/ | title=Pakistan Establishes Second Squadron of JF-17 &quot;Thunder&quot; Block 3 Fighters | date=23 January 2024 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Scramble.nl&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.scramble.nl/planning/orbats/pakistan/pakistan-air-force | title=Orbats }}&lt;/ref&gt;
** پي اي ايف بيس منہاس (ڪامرا)
*** JF-17 TEF (ٽيسٽ ۽ تشخيص پرواز) (2007-2010)&lt;ref name=&quot;AFM, July 2011, JF-17 - Thunder from the East&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Warnes|first=Alan|date=July 2011|title=JF-17&amp;nbsp;– Thunder from the East|journal=Air Forces Monthly|issue=#280|pages=47–70}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*** نمبر 16 اسڪواڊرن بليڪ پينٿرز (2011)&lt;ref name=&quot;Daily Times Pakistan&quot; /&gt;
** پي اي ايف بيس مصحف ([[سرگوڌا]])  
*** CCS JF-17 اسڪواڊرن ڊيشنگ&lt;ref name=&quot;Scramble.nl&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.brecorder.com/top-news/1/219790-jf-17-thunder-aircraft-inducted-in-paf-combat-commanders-school.html|title=JF-17 Thunder aircraft inducted in PAF Combat Commanders' School|work=Business Recorder|date=26 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223224329/http://www.brecorder.com/top-news/1/219790-jf-17-thunder-aircraft-inducted-in-paf-combat-commanders-school.html|archive-date=23 December 2015|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
** پي اي ايف بيس [[پشاور]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://asiantribune.com/?q=node/16871 |title=Peshawar Base to station JF-17 Thunder Aircraft Squadron: Pak Air Chief |work=Asian Tribune |date=18 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514010004/http://asiantribune.com/?q=node%2F16871 |archive-date=14 May 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
*** نمبر 26 اسڪواڊرن بليڪ اسپائڊرز (2010)&lt;ref name=&quot;Daily Times Pakistan&quot; /&gt;
** پي اي ايف بيس رفيقي ([[شورڪوٽ]])&lt;ref name=&quot;Scramble.nl&quot; /&gt;
*** نمبر 14 اسڪواڊرن ٽيل چوپرز (2017)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1315117|title=PAF No.14 'Tail choppers' Squadron re-equipped with JF-17 Thunder jets|date=16 February 2017|website=DAWN.COM|access-date=10 July 2019|archive-date=5 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200605132631/https://www.dawn.com/news/1315117|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
** پي اي ايف بيس سمنگلي ([[ڪوئيٽا]])
*** نمبر 28 اسڪواڊرن فينڪس (2018)&lt;ref&gt;
{{Cite web|url=https://quwa.org/2018/02/28/pakistan-inaugurates-new-fighter-squadron-no-28-phoenix/|title=Pakistan inaugurates new fighter squadron – No. 28 &quot;Phoenix&quot;|date=28 February 2018|access-date=27 March 2021|archive-date=23 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123005402/https://quwa.org/2018/02/28/pakistan-inaugurates-new-fighter-squadron-no-28-phoenix/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/286805-paf-raises-new-multirole-squadron|title=PAF raises new multirole squadron equipped with JF-17 Thunder aircraft|website=www.thenews.com.pk|date=28 February 2018 |access-date=27 March 2021|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109025709/https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/286805-paf-raises-new-multirole-squadron|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

======موجوده آپريٽر======
'''{{flag|Libya}}'''
* ليبيا ايئر فورس: آرڊر تي 16&lt;ref name=&quot;libya1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;libya2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;libya3&quot; /&gt;

==حادثا ۽ واقعا==
سال 2003ع ۾ پنهنجي پهرين اڏام کان وٺي ۽ سال 2007ع ۾ آپريشنل ٿيڻ کان وٺي، پنج JF-17 جهاز حادثن ۾ تباهه ٿيا آهن:

* '''14''' نومبر 2011ع: هڪ JF-17 بلاڪ 1 جهاز ضلعي [[اٽڪ ضلعو|اٽڪ]]، [[پنجاب، پاڪستان|پنجاب]] جي جبلن ۾ ملا منصور علائقي ۾ معمول جي تربيتي پرواز دوران تباهه ٿي ويو، جڏهن پي ائ ايف بيس منهاس کان اڏام ڪري رهيو هو. پي ائ ايف جي  سرڪاري رپورٽ موجب، حادثو هڪ ٽيڪنيڪل خرابي جي ڪري ٿيو. خبرن ۾ ٻڌايو ويو آهي ته پائلٽ ٻاهر نڪري ويو پر پيراشوٽ نه کُلڻ سبب مرجي ويو ۽ زمين تي ڪو به شهري جاني نقصان نه ٿيو. پائلٽ جو لاش حادثي واري هنڌ کان ٻه ڪلوميٽر پري دريافت ٿيو. هي JF-17 جو پهريون ڄاتل سڃاتل حادثو هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Waldron |first=Greg |title=DUBAI: JF-17 crashes in Pakistan's Kamra |date=15 November 2011 |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/dubai-jf-17-crashes-in-pakistans-kamra/103081.article |access-date=20 March 2025 |website=FlightGlobal |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308054649/https://www.flightglobal.com/dubai-jf-17-crashes-in-pakistans-kamra/103081.article |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=16 December 2011|title=PAF pilot dies as a plane crashed in Attock {{!}} Pakistan {{!}} News {{!}} Newspaper {{!}} Daily {{!}} English {{!}} Online|url=https://www.nation.com.pk/14-Nov-2011/pilot-dies-in-paf-aircraft-crash|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216040156/https://nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/Politics/14-Nov-2011/Pilot-dies-in-PAF-aircraft-crash|archive-date=16 December 2011|url-status=live|access-date=16 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Military Flair Up Between India and Pakistan See Both Sides Blaming One Another|url=http://old.paktribune.com/news/JF-17-Thunder-crashes-in-Attock-pilot-killed-245092.html|access-date=16 September 2020|website=Paktribune|language=en|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182541/http://old.paktribune.com/news/JF-17-Thunder-crashes-in-Attock-pilot-killed-245092.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Pti|date=14 November 2011|title=Pakistan Air Force {{!}} Jet Crashes {{!}} Pilot {{!}} Punjab|url=https://www.oneindia.com/2011/11/14/pakistan-air-force-jet-crashes-pilot-killed.html|access-date=16 September 2020|website=oneindia.com|language=en|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182658/https://www.oneindia.com/2011/11/14/pakistan-air-force-jet-crashes-pilot-killed.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=15 November 2011|title=Bogey: JF-17 'Thunder' crash jolts plans to sell aircraft|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/291604/paf-aircraft-crashes-in-attock|access-date=18 September 2020|website=The Express Tribune|language=en|archive-date=5 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210705115509/https://tribune.com.pk/story/291604/paf-aircraft-crashes-in-attock|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;small&gt;27&lt;/small&gt; سيپٽمبر &lt;small&gt;2016&lt;/small&gt;ع: هڪ &lt;small&gt;'''JF-17'''&lt;/small&gt; جهاز [[عربي سمنڊ]] ۾ مشق &quot;هاءِ مارڪ&quot; دوران کري تباهه ٿي ويو. پائلٽ ڪاميابي سان ٻاهر نڪري ويو ۽ کيس سمنڊ مان بچايو ويو. مارٽن-بيڪر، جي ايف-17 جي ايجيڪشن سيٽن جو ٺاهيندڙ، پوء ٽوئيٽ ڪيو ته 15 سيپٽمبر 2020ع جو حادثو جي ايف-17 مان پهريون ايجيڪشن هو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=2 October 2016|title=JF-17 crashes into Arabian Sea|url=https://nation.com.pk/02-Oct-2016/jf-17-crashes-into-arabian-sea|access-date=15 September 2020|website=The Nation|language=en|archive-date=8 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108162416/https://nation.com.pk/02-Oct-2016/jf-17-crashes-into-arabian-sea|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Martin-Baker Tweet|url=https://twitter.com/mb_ejecteject/status/1305911717138960384|access-date=15 September 2020|website=Twitter|language=en|archive-date=15 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200915170202/https://twitter.com/MB_EjectEject/status/1305911717138960384|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* 15 سيپٽمبر 2020ع: هڪ پي اي ايف جي ايف-17 بلاڪ 1 جهاز پنڊي گهيب، ضلعي اٽڪ، پنجاب جي ويجهو معمول جي تربيتي پرواز دوران تباهه ٿي ويو. پائلٽ ڪاميابي سان ٻاهر نڪري ويو&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Siddiqui|first=Naveed|date=15 September 2020|title=PAF aircraft crashes in Attock during routine training, pilot ejects safely|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1579810|access-date=15 September 2020|website=DAWN.COM|language=en|archive-date=16 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916183607/https://www.dawn.com/news/1579810|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ زمين تي به ڪنهن جاني نقصان جي اطلاع نه ملي. جڏهن ته پي اي ايف جهاز جي سڃاڻپ نه ڪئي، مارٽن-بيڪر، جن جون سيٽون جي ايف-17 ۾ نصب ٿيل آهن، هڪ ٽوئيٽر پوسٽ ۾ چيو ته، &quot;پاڪستان ايئر فورس جو هڪ جي ايف-17 جهاز اڄ صبح معمول جي تربيتي مشن دوران ڪري تباهه ٿي ويو. پائلٽ ڪاميابي سان ٻاهر نڪري ويو&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Pakistan Air Force JF-17 Jet Crashes, Pilot Ejects|url=https://www.defenseworld.net/news/27851/Pakistan_Air_Force_JF_17_Jet_Crashes__Pilot_Ejects#.X2EQiBAzbIU|access-date=15 September 2020|website=defenseworld.net|date=15 September 2020|archive-date=17 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917084418/https://www.defenseworld.net/news/27851/Pakistan_Air_Force_JF_17_Jet_Crashes__Pilot_Ejects#.X2EQiBAzbIU|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Martin-Baker Tweet|url=https://twitter.com/mb_ejecteject/status/1305911717138960384|access-date=15 September 2020|website=Twitter|language=en|archive-date=15 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200915170202/https://twitter.com/MB_EjectEject/status/1305911717138960384|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Martin-Baker Tweet|url=https://twitter.com/mb_ejecteject/status/1305911717138960384|access-date=15 September 2020|website=Twitter|language=en|archive-date=15 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200915170202/https://twitter.com/MB_EjectEject/status/1305911717138960384|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* 6 آگسٽ 2021ع: هڪ پي اي ايف جي ايف-17 بي بلاڪ 2 جهاز ضلعي اٽڪ، پنجاب ۾ معمول جي تربيتي پرواز دوران ڪري تباهه ٿي ويو. ٻئي پائلٽ ڪاميابي سان ٻاهر نڪري ويا ۽ زمين تي ڪنهن به جاني نقصان جي اطلاع نه ملي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Siddiqui|first=Naveed|date=6 August 2021|title=PAF jet crashes during routine training mission near Attock|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1639113|access-date=9 August 2021|website=DAWN.COM|language=en|archive-date=9 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809145129/https://www.dawn.com/news/1639113|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Martin-Baker|date=9 August 2021|title=A Pakistan Air Force JF-17B aircraft crashed late last week on a training mission near Attock. Both aircrew ejected successfully from the twin seat aircraft using PK16LE Ejection Seats.|url=https://twitter.com/mb_ejecteject/status/1424674685984419841|url-status=live|access-date=11 August 2021|website=Twitter|language=en|archive-date=11 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811113709/https://twitter.com/mb_ejecteject/status/1424674685984419841}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=News &amp; Events|url=https://martin-baker.com/news-events/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815093830/https://martin-baker.com/news-events/|archive-date=15 August 2021|access-date=15 August 2021|website=Martin-Baker|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* 5 جون 2024ع: پنجاب جي ضلعي جهنگ ۾ هڪ پي اي ايف جي ايف-17 بلاڪ 2 جهاز معمول جي تربيتي پرواز دوران ڪري تباهه ٿي ويو. ٻڌايو پيو وڃي ته اهو جنگي جهاز نمبر 14 اسڪواڊرن &quot;ٽيل چوپرز&quot; جو حصو هو. پائلٽ ڪاميابي سان ٻاهر نڪري ويو. حادثي جي رپورٽ جهاز جي ايجيڪشن سيٽ ٺاهيندڙ، مارٽن بيڪر پاران ڏني وئي هئي.&lt;ref&gt;https://aviation-safety.net/wikibase/389360&lt;/ref&gt;

==بيان ڪيل خاصيتون==
پاڪستان ايروونٽيڪل ڪمپليڪس مارڪيٽنگ بروشر ۽ سرڪاري ويب سائيٽ مان ڊيٽا. 
===عام خاصيتون===
* عملو: 1 (سنگل سيٽ JF-17A/C) يا 2 (ڊبل سيٽ JF-17B) 
* ڊگھائي: 14.326 ميٽر (47 فوٽ 0 انچ) 
* پرن جو دائرو: 9.44 ميٽر (31 فوٽ 0 انچ) 
* اوچائي: 4.57 ميٽر (15 فوٽ 0 انچ) 
* پرن جو علائقو: 24.43 چورس ميٽر (263.0 چورس فوٽ) 
* خالي وزن: 7,965 ڪلوگرام (17,560 پائونڊ) 
* وڌ ۾ وڌ ٽيڪ آف وزن: 13,500 ڪلوگرام (29,762 پائونڊ) 
* ايندھن جي گنجائش: 
** اندروني: 3,000 ليٽر (2,449 ڪلوگرام)؛ 
** ٻاهرين (3 ڊراپ ٽينڪ): 1 × 800 ليٽر (180 امپ گيل) 
*** پيٽ جي هيٺان ڊراپ ٽينڪ؛ 2 × 800 L (180 imp gal) يا 1,100 L (240 imp gal) 
*** انڊر ونگ ڊراپ ٽينڪ 
* پاور پلانٽ: 1 × ڪليموف RD-93MA آفٽر برننگ ٽربو فين (91.2 kN (20,500 lbf) ٿرسٽ آفٽر برنر سان) FDEEC سان (پوئين انجن: 1 x ڪليموف RD-93 آفٽر برننگ ٽربو فين (84.4 kN (18,974 lbf) ٿرسٽ آفٽر برنر سان) # 
===ڪارڪردگي===
* وڌ ۾ وڌ رفتار: 1,910 ڪلوميٽر في ڪلاڪ (1,190 ميل في ڪلاڪ، 1,030 kn) 
* وڌ ۾ وڌ رفتار: ماخ 1.8 (Mach 1.8)
* ڪروز جي رفتار: 1,359 ڪلوميٽر في ڪلاڪ (844 ميل في ڪلاڪ، 734 kn) 
* اسٽال جي رفتار: 150 ڪلوميٽر في ڪلاڪ (93 ميل في ڪلاڪ، 81 kn) 
* جنگي رينج: 
** اندروني ايندھن تي 900 ڪلوميٽر (560 ميل، 490 ناٽيڪل ميل) 
** ڊراپ ٽينڪن سان 1,741 ڪلوميٽر (1,082 ميل، 940 ناٽيڪل ميل) 
* فيري رينج: 
** اندروني ايندھن تي 1,800 ڪلوميٽر (1,100 ميل، 970 ناٽيڪل ميل). 
** ڊراپ ٽينڪن سان 3,482 ڪلوميٽر (2,163 ميل، 1,880 ناٽيڪل ميل) 
* سروس جي حد: 16,916 ميٽر (55,500 فوٽ) 
* ڪشش ثقل g حدون: +8/-3 (فلائيٽ ڪنٽرول سسٽم پاران محدود) 
* چڙهڻ جي شرح: 300 ميٽر/سيڪنڊ (59,000 فوٽ/منٽ) 
* زور: RD-93 سان 1.07. # 
===هٿيار===
* توپون: 1 × 23 ملي ميٽر GSh-23 ٽوئن بيرل توپ 
* هارڊ پوائنٽس: 8 (2 × ونگ ٽِپ، 4 × انڊر-ونگ، 1 × انڊر-فيوزليج، 1 × چن) هر انڊر-ونگ هارڊ پوائنٽ تي ڊبل ايجيڪٽر ريڪ جي گنجائش سان. 
* پي لوڊ: 3,400 ڪلوگرام (7,500 پائونڊ) 
===ميزائل===
* هوا کان هوا ۾ مار ڪندڙ ميزائل: 
** PL-5EII — (انفراريڊ-هومنگ شارٽ رينج ميزائل)
** PL-10E — (انفراريڊ-هومنگ شارٽ رينج ميزائل) 
** R-Darter — (ريڊار-هومنگ بيونڊ بصري رينج ميزائل) 
** PL-12 (SD-10A) — (ريڊار-هائيڊڊ بصري رينج ميزائل) 
** PL-15/PL-15E — (ريڊار-هائيڊڊ بصري رينج ميزائل) 
* هوا کان مٿاڇري تي مار ڪندڙ ميزائل: 
** CM-102 — (اينٽي ريڊيئيشن ميزائل) 
** LD-10 — (تابڪاري مخالف ميزائل) 
** MAR-1 — (تابڪاري مخالف ميزائل) 
** رعد-II — (سبسونڪ زميني حملو/اينٽي شپ ڪروز ميزائل) 
** CM-400AKG — (سپرسونڪ ڊگهي فاصلي وارو هوا کان مٿاڇري تي مار ڪندڙ ميزائل)
* اينٽي شپ ميزائل
** C-601 — (اينٽي شپ ميزائل)
** سي-705 ڪي ڊي - (اينٽي شپ ميزائل) 
** سي-802 اي ڪي - (اينٽي شپ ميزائل) 
** رعد-II - (سبسونڪ لينڊ اٽيڪ/اينٽي شپ ڪروز ميزائل) 
** سي ايم-400 اي ڪي جي - (سپرسونڪ ڊگھي فاصلي وارو اينٽي شپ ميزائل) 
===بم===
* غير هدايت ٿيل بم: 
** 250 ڪلوگرام - پري ٽڪڙا ٿيل بم 
** ايم ڪي-82 - (جنرل پرپز بم) 
** ايم ڪي-83 - (جنرل پرپز بم) 
** ايم ڪي-84 - (جنرل پرپز بم) 
** HAFR-1/HAFR-2 - (اينٽي رن وي بم) 
** RPB-1 - (اينٽي رن وي بم)
* گائيڊ ٿيل بم:
** GBU-10 - (ليزر گائيڊ ٿيل بم) 
** GBU-12 - (ليزر گائيڊ ٿيل بم) 
** GBU-16 - (ليزر گائيڊڊ بم) 
** LT-2 — (ليزر گائيڊڊ بم) 
** H-2 SOW — (پريزيسن گائيڊڊ گلائيڊ بم)
** H-4 SOW — (پريزيسن گائيڊڊ گلائيڊ بم) 
** GB-6 — (پريزيسن گائيڊڊ اسٽيلٿ گلائيڊ بم)
** NORINCO GB-250A — (250 ڪلوگرام ايڪسٽينڊڊ رينج GPS/INS-گائيڊڊ بم) 
** CS/BBF1 — (فيول ايئر ايڪسپلوسو (FAE) يا ٿرموبارڪ بم)
** SCP-5 — (بنڪر بسٽر بم)
** NORINCO GB-500 — (500 ڪلوگرام ليزر گائيڊڊ بم) 
** LS-6 — (وڌايل رينج GPS/INS گائيڊڊ بم)
** GIDS تڪبير — (GPS/INS گائيڊڊ بم)
** GIDS رينج ايڪسٽينشن ڪٽ — (GPS/INS گائيڊڊ بم)

===ايويونڪس===
* ريڊار:
** KLJ-7A ايڪٽو اليڪٽرانڪ طور تي اسڪين ٿيل ايري (AESA)
** فائر ڪنٽرول ريڊار (FCR)
* ريڊار وارننگ رسيور (RWR):
** 1 × BM/KJ-8602A 
* ميزائل اپروچ وارننگ سسٽم (MAWS): 
** 4 × S740 شناخت دوست يا دشمن (IFF)
* سسٽم: JZ/YD 125
* ڊيٽا بس: ٽيڪٽيڪل ڊيٽا لنڪ: لنڪ-17
* ٻيا: 
** ٻاهرين پوڊ: 
*** Aselsan ASELPOD — ايڊوانسڊ ٽارگيٽنگ پوڊ (اليڪٽرو-آپٽيڪل ريڪنيسنس، نگراني ۽ ٽارگيٽنگ سسٽم)  WMD-7 — FLIR 
*** ڊي/نائيٽ ٽارگيٽنگ پوڊ KG600/KG700 — ايئر بورن اليڪٽرانڪ ڪائونٽر ميجر (ECM) / سيلف پروٽيڪشن 
**جامنگ پوڊ  
*** اندرا سسٽم ALQ-500P — ESM/ECM پوڊ 
* مقابلي جا طريقا: 
** چاف/فليئر ڊسپينسر ACMI:
*** SDT ACMI سسٽم
** ايجڪشن سيٽ: 
*** مارٽن-بيڪر PK16LE صفر-صفر ايجڪشن سيٽ
** ٻاهرين ايندھن جا ٽينڪ: 
*** وڌايل رينج/لوٽرنگ وقت لاءِ 3 ٻاهرين ڊراپ ٽينڪ تائين:
****  1 × 800 L (180 imp gal) پيٽ جي هيٺان ڊراپ ٽينڪ
**** 2 × 800 L (180 imp gal) يا 1,100 L (240 imp gal) انڊر ونگ ڊراپ ٽينڪ

==پڻ ڏسو==
{{Portal|پاڪستان|چين|هوابازي}}
* [[پاڪستان ائيرفورس|پاڪستان ايئر فورس]] 
* [[جنگي جهازن جي فهرست]]
* پاڪستان ايئر فورس جي  فعال جنگي جهازن جي فهرست

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}

===Bibliography===
* {{Cite book |last1=Medeiros |first1=Evan S |url=https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2005/RAND_MG334.pdf |title=A New Direction for China's Defense Industry |last2=Cliff |first2=Roger |last3=Crane |first3=Keith |last4=Mulvenon |first4=James C |date=2005 |publisher=[[RAND Corporation]] Project Air Force |isbn=978-0-8330-4079-4 |language=en |oclc=69995886}}

==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120906183937/http://www.cac.com.cn/product/product_display.aspx?id=1 Archived Factsheet FC-1 on Chengdu Aircraft Industry Corporation (CAC) website]
* [http://www.pac.org.pk/jf-17 Factsheet JF-17 on Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC) website]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jf-17 Thunder}}

[[زمرو:JF-17 ويڙهاڪ هوائي جهاز]]
[[زمرو:ويڙهاڪ هوائي جهاز|JF-17]] 
[[زمرو:پاڪستان ايئر فورس]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جا جنگي هٿيار]]
[[زمرو:سپر سونڪ هوائي جهاز]] 
[[زمرو:سنگل انجن وارو جيٽ جهاز]] 
[[زمرو:چين-پاڪستان فوجي لاڳاپا]] 
[[زمرو:وچين ونگ وارا هوائي جهاز]] 
[[زمرو:پاڪستان جا ويڙهاڪ هوائي جهاز]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان ايروناٽيڪل ڪمپليڪس]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان ايروناٽيڪل ڪمپليڪس]]
[[زمرو:بين الاقوامي ويڙهاڪ هوائي جهاز]]
[[زمرو:چوٿين نسل جي جيٽ ويڙهاڪ جهاز]]
[[زمرو:پهريون ڀيرو 2003 ۾ اڏامندڙ هوائي جهاز]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان ايرو ناٽيڪل ڪمپليڪس پاران تيار ڪيل ويڙهاڪ هوائي جهاز|JF-17]]
[[زمرو:واپس وٺڻ واري ٽرائي سائيڪل لينڊنگ گيئر سان هوائي جهاز]]</text>
      <sha1>21o333fabi6epc23bgkukhdtnjkadks</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>يهودين جي تاريخ</title>
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      <text bytes="204081" sha1="rthaybtmj6hnu609hnv1yqenzpremzb" xml:space="preserve">يهودي (&lt;small&gt;Jews&lt;/small&gt;) تاريخي اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه، ٻه لاڳاپيل بادشاهتن جيڪيون [[لوهه جو دور|لوهه جي دور]] ۾ [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سرزمين شام (ليونٽ)]] ۾ ظاهر ٿيون،  جي بني اسرائيل ۽ عبرانين مان پيدا ٿيا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|date=2001|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|isbn=978-0-684-86912-4|edition=1st Touchstone|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken2&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229|date=April 9, 2023}} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; بني اسرائيل جو پهريون ذڪر، 1213-1203 ق.م. جو مرنيپتا اسٽيل تي لکيل آهي؛ بعد ۾ مذهبي ادب بني اسرائيلن جي ڪهاڻي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 1500 ق.م. تائين ٻڌائي ٿو. روايتي طور تي، اسرائيل جو نالو عبراني بزرگ [[يعقوب عليہ السلام|يعقوب]] سان شروع ٿيو آهي، جيڪو نالي لاءِ هڪ داستاني ايٽولوجي فراهم ڪري ٿو - هڪ فرشتي سان وڙهڻ کان پوءِ، يعقوب جو نالو اسرائيل رکيو ويو، جنهن جو مطلب آهي &quot;اهو جيڪو خدا سان ويڙهي ٿو&quot;. سامريه ۾ قائم اسرائيل جي بادشاهت 720 ق.م. ڌاري نيو-آشوري سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Broshi|first=Maguen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174|title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2001|isbn=978-1-84127-201-6|page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ 586 ق.م. ڌاري يهودين جي بادشاهت نيو-بابلي سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Faust|first=Avraham|title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period|date=August 29, 2012|publisher=Society of Biblical Literature|isbn=978-1-58983-641-9|pages=1|doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي آبادي جو هڪ حصو [[بابل]] ڏانهن جلاوطن ڪيو ويو. آشور ۽ بابل ۾ قيد ٿيل يهودين کي ڊائاسپورا جي شروعات جي نمائندگي ڪندڙ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.

{{short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt;
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{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 063.jpg|thumb|يهودي روايت موجب، يعقوب، جيڪو ريمبران جي هن تصوير ۾ ملائڪ سان وڙهندي ڏيکاريو ويو آهي، اسرائيل جي قبيلن جو پيءُ هو. ]][[هخامنشي سلطنت]] طرفان هن علائقي کي فتح ڪرڻ کان پوءِ، جلاوطن يهودين کي واپس اچڻ ۽ مندر کي ٻيهر تعمير ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي؛ اها واقعا ٻئي مندر جي دور جي شروعات جي نشاندهي ڪن ٿا. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Jonathan|last1=Stökl|first2=Caroline|last2=Waerzegger|title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context|date=2015|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|pages=7–11, 30, 226}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia Judaica|edition=2nd|volume=3|page=27}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيترن ئي صدين جي پرڏيهي حڪمراني کانپوءِ، سيليوسڊ سلطنت جي خلاف مڪابي بغاوت هڪ آزاد هاشموني بادشاهت جو سبب بڻي، &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Peter Fibiger|last1=Bang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&amp;pg=PAPA184|title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean|first2=Walter|last2=Scheidel|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-518831-8|pages=184–187}}&lt;/ref&gt; پر ان رياست کي بتدريج [[رومي سلطنت]] ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Abraham|last=Malamat|url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=A History of the Jewish People|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1976|isbn=978-0-674-39731-6|pages=223–239}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي-رومن جنگيون، پهرين ۽ ٻي صدي عيسوي ۾ رومن جي خلاف ناڪام بغاوتن جو هڪ سلسلو، [[يروشلم]] ۽ ٻئي مندر جي تباهي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Zissu|first=Boaz|title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE|date=2018|isbn=978-90-04-34986-5|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|page=19|chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective|oclc=988856967}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ ڪيترن ئي يهودين کي نيڪالي ڏيڻ جو سبب بڻيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Erwin|last1=Fahlbusch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&amp;pg=PAPA15|title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity|first2=Geoffrey William|last2=Bromiley|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5|page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt; سر زمين شام فلسطين ۾ يهودي آبادي ايندڙ صدين دوران بتدريج گهٽجي وئي، يهودي ڊائاسپورا جي ڪردار کي وڌايو ۽ روحاني ۽ آبادي جي مرڪز کي خالي ٿيل يهوديا کان گليلي ۽ پوءِ بابل ڏانهن منتقل ڪيو، يهودين جون ننڍيون برادريون رومن سلطنت ۾ پکڙيل هيون. ساڳئي عرصي دوران، مشناه ۽ تلمود، مرڪزي يهودي متن، ترتيب ڏنا ويا. ايندڙ هزار سالن ۾، ڊائاسپورا برادريون ٽن وڏن نسلي ذيلي تقسيم ۾، جتي انهن جا ابا ڏاڏا آباد ٿيا هئا: وچ ۽ اوڀر يورپ ۾ اشڪنازي، [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|آئبيريا]] ۾ سيفاردي ۽ [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]] ۾ مزراهي طور گڏ ٿي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&amp;pg=PA87 &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity.&quot; p. 87.] Eban, Abba Solomon. &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews.&quot; Summit Books Syracuse, New York: 1984. p. 87.&lt;/ref&gt;  &lt;ref&gt;Dosick (2007), pp. 59–60.&lt;/ref&gt;

شروعاتي اسلامي فتحون اوڀرين رومي سمنڊ جي علائقن تي [[بازنطيني سلطنت|بازنطيني]] ڪنٽرول ختم ڪري ڇڏيو، نئين قائم ٿيل راشدون خلافت 7هين صدي دوران [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|ليونٽ]]، [[ميسوپوٽيميا]] ۽ اتر آفريڪا تي قبضو ڪيو ۽ 8هين صدي دوران [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|آئبيرين جزيره نما]] تي قبضو ڪيو. يهودي ثقافت مسلم [[اندلس]] ۾ هڪ سونهري دور مان لطف اندوز ٿي، يهودين کي سماج ۾ وڏي پيماني تي قبول ڪيو ويو ۽ انهن جي مذهبي، ثقافتي ۽ معاشي زندگي عدم برداشت واري الموحدين جي اچڻ کان اڳ ڦٽي نڪتي. سال 1492ع ۾ ڪيٿولڪ حڪمران، راڻي ازابيل اول ۽ بادشاهه فرڊيننڊ II پاران يهودين کي اسپين ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ڪيو ويو، جنهن کان پوءِ اهي وڏي تعداد ۾ [[عثماني سلطنت]] ۽ [[اٽلي]] ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي. 12هين ۽ 15هين صدي جي وچ ۾، اشڪنازي يهودين وچ يورپ ۾ انتهائي ظلم جو تجربو ڪيو، جنهن جي ڪري انهن جي [[پولينڊ]] ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. &lt;ref&gt;Mosk (2013), p. 143. &quot;Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Harshav, Benjamin (1999). ''The Meaning of Yiddish''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. &quot;From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the centre of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt;هين صدي ۾ هسڪاله دانشورانه تحريڪ جو عروج ڏٺو ويو. &lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt;هين صدي جي شروعات ۾، يهودي يهودين کي پابندين وارن قانونن کان آزاد ڪرڻ ۽ وسيع يورپي سماج ۾ ضم ڪرڻ لاءِ مهم هلائڻ شروع ڪئي.

19هين صدي ۾، جڏهن اولهائين يورپ ۾ يهودين کي قانون جي سامهون برابري ڏني پئي وئي، ته آبادڪاري جي ميدان ۾ يهودين کي وڌندڙ ظلم، قانوني پابندين ۽ وڏي پيماني تي قتل عام جو سامنا ڪرڻ پيو. 1870 ۽ 1880 جي ڏهاڪن دوران، يورپ ۾ يهودي آبادي فلسطين ۾ يهودي رياست کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان عثماني شام ڏانهن هجرت تي وڌيڪ سرگرم بحث ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. صهيوني تحريڪ سرڪاري طور تي سال 1897ع ۾ قائم ڪئي وئي هئي. سال 1881ع ۽ 1924ع جي وچ ۾ [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] ڏانهن 20 لک کان وڌيڪ يهودين جي وڏي پيماني تي هجرت کي به شروع ڪيو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Lewin|first=Rhoda G.|date=1979|title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis|url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf|journal=Minnesota History|volume=46|issue=7|page=259|access-date=August 10, 2020|archive-date=July 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; يورپ ۽ آمريڪا جا يهودي سائنس، ثقافت ۽ معيشت جي شعبن ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪيا. عام طور تي سڀ کان وڌيڪ مشهور سمجهيا ويندڙن ۾ [[البرٽ آئنسٽائن|البرٽ آئن اسٽائن]] ۽ لڊوگ وٽگنسٽائن شامل هئا. هن وقت ڪيترائي [[نوبل انعام حاصل ڪندڙن جي فهرست|نوبل انعام يافته]] يهودي هئا، جيئن اڃا تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners|publisher=jinfo.org|access-date=October 7, 2011|archive-date=December 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سال &lt;small&gt;1933&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، [[جرمنيا|جرمني]] ۾ [[هٽلر|ايڊولف هٽلر]] ۽ نازي پارٽي جي اقتدار ۾ اچڻ سان، يهودين لاءِ صورتحال سخت ٿي وئي. معاشي بحران، نسل پرست يهودي مخالف قانون ۽ ايندڙ جنگ جي خوف سبب ڪيترائي ماڻهو [[يُورَپ|يورپ]] کان [[فلسطين|لازمي فلسطين]]، آمريڪا ۽ [[سوويت يونين]] ڏانهن ڀڄي ويا. سال 1939ع ۾، [[ٻين مھاڀاري جنگ|ٻي مهاڀاري جنگ]] شروع ٿي ۽ سال 1941ع تائين جرمني تقريبن سڄي يورپ تي قبضو ڪري ورتو. سال 1941ع ۾، سوويت يونين جي حملي کان پوءِ، آخري حل شروع ٿيو، هڪ غير معمولي پيماني تي هڪ وسيع منظم آپريشن، جنهن جو مقصد يهودي ماڻهن کي ختم ڪرڻ هو ۽ نتيجي ۾ يورپ ۽ اتر آفريڪا ۾ يهودين جو قتل عام ٿيو. پولينڊ ۾، سڀني ڪنسنٽريشن ڪيمپن ۾ گيس چيمبرن ۾ 30 لک يهودي قتل ڪيا ويا، جن ۾ صرف آشوٽز ڪيمپ ڪمپليڪس ۾ 10 لک شامل هئا. هي نسل ڪشي، جنهن ۾ تقريبن 60 لک يهودين کي طريقي سان ختم ڪيو ويو، هولوڪاسٽ جي نالي سان مشهور آهي. 

هولوڪاسٽ کان اڳ ۽ دوران، يهودين جي وڏي تعداد لازمي فلسطين ڏانهن هجرت ڪئي. 14 مئي 1948ع تي، برطانوي مينڊيٽ جي خاتمي تي، ڊيوڊ بين-گورين ارض اسرائيل (اسرائيل جي سرزمين) ۾ هڪ يهودي ۽ جمهوري رياست، [[اسرائيل]] جي رياست جي قيام جو اعلان ڪيو.

ان کان پوءِ فوري طور تي، سڀني پاڙيسري عرب رياستون اسرائيل تي حملو ڪيو، پر نئين ٺهيل اسرائيلي دفاعي فوج (IDF) مزاحمت ڪئي. سال 1949ع ۾ جنگ ختم ٿي وئي ۽ اسرائيل رياست جي تعمير شروع ڪئي ۽ سڄي يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر جي ملڪن مان ايندڙ يهودين جي وڏين لهرن کي جذب ڪيو. سال 2022ع تائين، اسرائيل هڪ پارلياماني جمهوريت آهي جنهن جي آبادي 96 لک ماڻهن جي آهي، جن مان 70 لک يهودي آهن. ([[غزه جي پٽي|غزا]] ۽ [[فلسطين جي رياست|مغربي ڪناري]] جي 35 لک آبادي کانسواء).

اسرائيل کان ٻاهر سڀ کان وڏي يهودي برادري آمريڪا ۾ آهي، جڏهن ته ٻيون وڏي برادريون [[فرانس]]، [[ڪينيڊا]]، [[ارجنٽائن]]، [[روس]]، [[گڏيل بادشاھت|برطانيه]]، [[آسٽريليا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] ۾ پڻ موجود آهن. هن وقت، يهودي نسل جون ٻه خودمختيار رياستون؛ اسرائيل ۽ روس ۾ يهودي خودمختيار اوبلاست آهن جيڪي انهن جي اختيار هيٺ آهن ته اهي پناهه گاهه طور ڪم ڪن.

==جائزو==
قديم يهودي تاريخ بائيبل ۽ غير بائيبل ذريعن، اپوڪرائيفا ۽ سوڊيپيگرافا، جوزيفس جي لکڻين، گريڪو-رومن ليکڪن ۽ چرچ جي پادرين، گڏوگڏ آثار قديمه جي دريافتن، لکتن، قديم دستاويزن، جهڙوڪ ايليفينٽائن ۽ فيوم مان پيپيري، مردار سمنڊ جا اسڪرول، بار ڪوخبا خط، باباٿا آرڪائيوز ۽ قاهره جينيزا دستاويزن، مان معلوم ٿئي ٿي، جيڪي زباني تاريخ ۽ مدراش ۽ تلمود ۾ تبصرن جي مجموعن سان گڏ آهن. 

ابتدائي جديد دور ۾ پرنٽنگ پريس جي آمد سان، يهودين جي تاريخ ۽ عبراني بائيبل جا شروعاتي ايڊيشن شايع ٿيا جيڪي يهودي مذهب جي تاريخ ۽ وڌندڙ طور تي، يهودين جي قومي تاريخن، يهودي قوم ۽ سڃاڻپ سان لاڳاپيل هئا، هڪ مسودي يا لکندڙ ڪلچر کان هڪ پرنٽنگ ڪلچر ڏانهن منتقلي هئي. يهودي مورخن پنهنجن اجتماعي تجربن جا احوال لکيا، پر سياسي، ثقافتي ۽ سائنسي يا فلسفياتي ڳولا لاءِ تاريخ کي پڻ وڌندڙ طور تي استعمال ڪيو. ليکڪن ثقافتي طور تي ورثي ۾ مليل متن جي هڪ مجموعي کي استعمال ڪيو ته جيئن فن جي حالت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ يا اڳتي وڌائڻ لاءِ هڪ منطقي داستان تيار ڪري سگهجي. جديد يهودي تاريخ نويسي يورپي نشاۃِ ثانيه ۽ روشن خيالي جي دور جهڙين دانشورانه تحريڪن سان جڙيل آهي، پر وچين دور جي آخر ۾ ۽ قديم زماني ۾ مختلف ذريعن ۾ اڳوڻين ڪمن تي ڌيان ڏنو. اڄ، يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ کي اڪثر ست دورن ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي:
# قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه رياست (&lt;small&gt;1200 ق.م. کان 586 ق.م.&lt;/small&gt;) 
# ٻيو مندر وارو دور (&lt;small&gt;516 ق.م. کان 70 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|editor-last=Goodman|editor-first=Martin|chapter=Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period|pages=36–52|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0003|isbn=0-19-928032-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# ربانڪ يا تلمودي دور (&lt;small&gt;70 کان 640 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|editor-last=Goodman|editor-first=Martin|chapter=Historiography on the Jews in the ‘Talmudic Period’ (70–640 ce)|pages=79–114|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0005|isbn=0-19-928032-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# وچين دور (&lt;small&gt;640 کان 1492 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# ابتدائي جديد دور (&lt;small&gt;1492-1750 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# جديد دور (&lt;small&gt;1750ع کان 20هين صدي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# [[صيهونيت]]، [[هولوڪاسٽ]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جو قيام (&lt;small&gt;19 کان 21هين صدي&lt;/small&gt;)
&lt;imagemap&gt;
File:Chronology of Israel eng.png|center|800px
default [[#Time periods in Jewish history|Jewish history]]
rect 658 156 833 176 [[Aliyah|Periods of massive immigration to Palestine]]
rect 564 156 647 175 [[Jewish diaspora|Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in exile]]
rect 460 156 554 175 [[Land of Israel|Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in the southern Levant, with full or partial independence]]
rect 314 156 452 175 [[Temple in Jerusalem|Periods in which a Jewish Temple existed]]
rect 196 156 309 175 [[#Time periods in Jewish history|Jewish history]]
rect 26 102 134 122 [[Book of Judges|Shoftim]]
rect 134 102 265 121 [[Books of Kings|Melakhim]]
rect 146 83 266 104 [[First Temple]]
rect 286 83 418 103 [[Second Temple]]
rect 341 103 392 121 [[Zugot]]
rect 393 103 453 121 [[Tannaim]]
rect 452 102 534 221 [[Amoraim]]
rect 534 102 560 121 [[Savoraim]]
rect 559 103 691 121 [[Geonim]]
rect 691 102 825 121 [[Rishonim]]
rect 825 100 940 120 [[Acharonim]]
rect 939 94 959 120 [[Aliyah|Aliyot]]
rect 957 65 975 121 [[Israel]]
rect 940 62 958 94 [[The Holocaust]]
rect 825 62 941 100 [[Jewish diaspora|Diaspora]]
rect 808 61 825 101 [[Alhambra decree|Expulsion from Spain]]
rect 428 62 808 103 [[Dispersion of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Roman exile]]
poly 226 82 410 82 410 92 428 92 428 61 226 62 [[Ten Lost Tribes|Assyrian Exile (Ten Lost Tribes)]]
rect 264 82 284 122 [[Babylonian captivity]]
rect 283 103 341 121 [[Second Temple of Jerusalem|Second Temple period]]
poly 26 121 17 121 17 63 225 63 226 81 145 82 145 101 26 101 [[Chronology of the Bible|Ancient Jewish History]]
rect 58 136 375 146 [[Chronology of the Bible]]
rect 356 122 373 135 [[Common Era]]
desc none
&lt;/imagemap&gt;

==قديم اسرائيل==
{{Main|يهوديت جي اصل}}
===شروعاتي بني اسرائيل===
{{Main|بني اسرائيل}}
[[File:Ruins atop Tel Megiddo with circular altar-like shrine and a series of temples on top of the other dating from the early bronze-age through the iron-age periods, Tel Meggido, Israel (19888642855).jpg|thumb|تل ميگيدو، هڪ ڪنعاني ۽ بعد ۾ اسرائيلي شهر جا کنڊر]]

ابتدائي يهودين ۽ انهن جي پاڙيسرين جي تاريخ، ميڊيٽرينين سمنڊ جي زرخيز هلال ۽ اوڀر ساحل تي مرڪز آهي. اها انهن ماڻهن سان شروع ٿئي ٿي جيڪا [[نيل درياھہ|نيل]] ۽ [[ميسوپوٽيميا]] جي وچ واري علائقي تي قبضو ڪيو هو. مصر ۽ بابل ۾ ثقافت جي قديم مرڪزن، عرب جي ريگستانن ۽ ايشيا ڪوچڪ جي ميدان جي اهي، ڪنعان جي زمين (تقريبن جديد اسرائيل، فلسطين، اردن ۽ لبنان سان ملندڙ جلندڙ) تهذيبن جي ميلاپ جو هنڌ هئي.

[[File:Map Israel Judea 926 BC-fr.svg|thumb|سال 926 ق.م. ۾ اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه جون بادشاهتون]]
اسرائيل جي نالي سان هڪ قوم جو سڀ کان پهريون رڪارڊ ٿيل ثبوت قديم مصر جي مرنيپتاه اسٽيلئ ۾ نظر اچي ٿو، جيڪو 3000 ق.م. جو  آهي. جديد آثار قديمه جي حساب موجب، اسرائيلي ۽ انهن جي ثقافت هڪ الڳ مونولئٽرسٽڪ ۽ پوء توحيد پرست (monotheistic) مذهب جي ترقي ذريعي ڪنعاني ماڻهن ۽ انهن جي ثقافتن مان نڪتل هئي، جيڪا هڪ قومي خدا &quot;يهواه&quot; تي مرڪوز هو. 

earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel appears in the [[Merneptah Stele]] of [[ancient Egypt]],

dated to {{cx|1200 BCE}}. According to the modern archaeological account,

the Israelites and their culture branched out of the [[Canaan]]ite peoples and their cultures through the development of a distinct [[monolatristic]]—and later [[monotheistic]]—religion centred on the national god [[Yahweh]].&lt;ref&gt;Mark Smith in &quot;The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel&quot; states &quot;Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000&amp;nbsp;BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period.&quot; (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) &quot;The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel&quot; (Eerdman's)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rendsberg, Gary (2008). &quot;Israel without the Bible&quot;. In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Gnuse |first1=Robert Karl |title=No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel |date=1997 |publisher=Sheffield Academic Press Ltd |isbn=1-85075-657-0 |location=England |pages=28, 31}}&lt;/ref&gt; اها عبراني ٻولي جي هڪ قديم شڪل ڳالهائيندا هئا، جيڪا اڄ بائيبل جي عبراني جي نالي سان مشهور آهي.&lt;ref&gt;Steiner, Richard C. (1997), &quot;Ancient Hebrew&quot;, in Hetzron, Robert (ed.), ''The Semitic Languages'', Routledge, pp. 145–173, {{ISBN|978-0-415-05767-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

پهرين صدي قبل مسيح جي وچ کان، يهودين کي روايتي طور تي پنهنجي تاريخ جي جيڪا سمجھ هئي، اها عبراني بائيبل ۾ بيان ڪيل روايتن جي چوڌاري مرڪوز هئي. هن خيال موجب، ابراهيم (اهو ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته هو يهودين جو حياتياتي پيشوا ۽ يهوديت جو پيءُ آهي) پهريون يهودي آهي.{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=3}} بعد ۾ اسحاق ابراهيم مان پيدا ٿيو ۽ يعقوب اسحاق مان پيدا ٿيو. هڪ ملائڪ سان ويڙهه کان پوءِ، يعقوب کي اسرائيل جو نالو ڏنو ويو. سخت ڏڪار کانپوءِ، يعقوب ۽ سندس ٻارهن پٽ مصر ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي ويا، جتي انهن آخرڪار اسرائيل جا ٻارهن قبيلا ٺاهيا. بعد ۾ بني اسرائيل کي مصر جي غلامي مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ موسيٰ طرفان ڪنعان آندو ويو. انهن آخرڪار يوشع جي اڳواڻي ۾ ڪنعان کي فتح ڪيو.

جديد عالم متفق آهن ته بائيبل بني اسرائيل جي اصليت جو مستند احوال فراهم نٿو ڪري. اتفاق راءِ ان ڳالهه جي حمايت ڪري ٿو ته آثار قديمه جا ثبوت وڏي پيماني تي اسرائيل جي اصليت کي ڪنعان ۾ ڏيکارين ٿا، مصر ۾ نه. اهو &quot;زبردست&quot; آهي ۽ &quot;مصر مان نڪرڻ يا سينائي ​​جي بيابان ذريعي 40 سالن جي زيارت لاءِ ڪا به گنجائش نه ٿو ڇڏي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dever-2002&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William G. |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8028-2126-3}} p. 99&lt;/ref&gt;

Many archaeologists have abandoned the archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus as &quot;a fruitless pursuit&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dever-2002&quot; /&gt; However, it is accepted that this narrative does have a &quot;historical core&quot; to it.&lt;ref&gt;For more about the historicity of Jewish history as it pertains to [[Oral Torah|rabbinic]] sources, see {{cite journal |first1=Reuven Chaim |last1=Klein |date=2023 |title=Are historical sections of the Talmud actually historical? Critical tools for understanding historical claims in rabbinic literature |url=https://www.academia.edu/127965994 |journal=Journal of Philological Pedagogy |volume=12 |publisher=Chandler School of Education |pages=42–75 |doi=10.17613/rjp5a-md343 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Faust|2015|loc=p.476: &quot;While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt..&quot;}}{{sfn|Redmount|2001|p=61|ps=: &quot;A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative.&quot;}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2001 |isbn=3-927120-37-5 |pages=98–99 |quote=After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible &quot;historical figures&quot; [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.}}&lt;/ref&gt; A century of research by archaeologists and Egyptologists has arguably found no evidence that can be directly related to the Exodus narrative of an Egyptian captivity and the escape and travels through the wilderness, leading to the suggestion that [[Iron Age]] Israel—the kingdoms of Judah and Israel—has its origins in Canaan, not in Egypt:&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |editor-last1=Finkelstein |editor-first1=Israel |editor-first2=Nadav |editor-last2=Naaman |title=From Nomadism to Monarchy: Archaeological and Historical Aspects of Early Israel |publisher=[[Israel Exploration Society]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-880317-20-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Compare: {{cite book |first=Ian |last=Shaw |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&amp;q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&amp;pg=PA313 |title=A Dictionary of Archaeology |author2=Robert Jameson |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-631-23583-5 |editor=Ian Shaw |edition=New |page=313 |quote=The Biblical account of the origins of the people of Israel (principally recounted in Numbers, Joshua and Judges) often conflicts with non-Biblical textual sources and with the archaeological evidence for the settlement of Canaan in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age. [...] Israel is first textually attested as a political entity in Egyptian texts of the late 13th century BCE and the Egyptologist Donald Redford argues that the Israelites must have been emerging as a distinct group within the Canaanite culture during the century or so prior to this. It has been suggested that the early Israelites were an oppressed rural group of Canaanites who rebelled against the more urbanized coastal Canaanites (Gottwald 1979). Alternatively, it has been argued that the Israelites were survivors of the decline in the fortunes of Canaan who established themselves in the highlands at the end of the late Bronze Age (Ahlstrom 1986: 27). Redford, however, makes a good case for equating the very earliest Israelites with a semi-nomadic people in the highlands of central Palestine whom the Egyptians called Shasu (Redford 1992:2689–80; although see Stager 1985 for strong arguments against the identification with the Shasu). These Shasu were a persistent thorn in the side of the Ramessid pharaohs' empire in Syria-Palestine, well-attested in Egyptian texts, but their pastoral lifestyle has left scant traces in the archaeological record. By the end of the 13th century BCE, however, the Shasu/Israelites were beginning to establish small settlements in the uplands, the architecture of which closely resembles contemporary Canaanite villages. |author-link=Israel, Israelites |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160406/https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&amp;q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&amp;pg=PA313 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The culture of the [[Israelite highland settlement|earliest Israelite settlements]] is Canaanite, their cult-objects are those of the Canaanite god [[El (deity)|El]], the pottery remains in the local Canaanite tradition, and the alphabet used is early Canaanite. The almost sole marker distinguishing the &quot;Israelite&quot; villages from Canaanite sites is an absence of pig bones, although whether this can be taken as an ethnic marker or is due to other factors remains a matter of dispute.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Killebrew |first=Ann E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC |title=Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E. |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-58983-097-4 |location=Atlanta |page=176 |quote=Much has been made of the scarcity of pig bones at highland sites. Since small quantities of pig bones do appear in Late Bronze Age assemblages, some archaeologists have interpreted this to indicate that the ethnic identity of the highland inhabitants was distinct from Late Bronze Age indigenous peoples (see Finkelstein 1997, 227–230). Brian Hesse and Paula Wapnish (1997) advise caution, however, since the lack of pig bones at Iron I highland settlements could be a result of other factors that have little to do with ethnicity. |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=January 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117055402/https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to the [[Historicity of the Bible|Biblical narrative]], the [[Land of Israel]] was organized into a confederacy of twelve tribes ruled by a series of [[Biblical judges|Judges]] for several hundred years.

=== Ancient Israel and Judah ===
{{Main|History of ancient Israel and Judah}}
[[File:LMLK, Ezekiah seals.jpg|thumb|A stamped bulla ([[LMLK seal]]) of [[Hezekiah]], &quot;Of Hezekiah (son of) Ahaz King of Judah&quot;, [[Israel Museum]]]]
Two Israelite kingdoms emerged during Iron Age II: [[Israel and Judah]]. The Bible portrays Israel and Judah as the successors of an earlier [[United Kingdom of Israel]], although [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)#Archaeological record|its historicity is disputed]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Zachary |date=April 22, 2016 |title=Debating the United Monarchy: Let's See How Far We've Come |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146107916639208 |journal=Biblical Theology Bulletin |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=59–69 |doi=10.1177/0146107916639208 |issn=0146-1079 |s2cid=147053561 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lipschits |first1=Oded |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |title=The Jewish Study Bible |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-997846-5 |editor1-last=Berlin |editor1-first=Adele |edition=2nd |pages=2107–2119 |language=en |chapter=The history of Israel in the biblical period |quote=As this essay will show, however, the premonarchic period long ago became a literary description of the mythological roots, the early beginnings of the nation and the way to describe the right of Israel on its land. The archeological evidence also does not support the existence of a united monarchy under David and Solomon as described in the Bible, so the rubric of &quot;united monarchy&quot; is best abandoned, although it remains useful for discussing how the Bible views the Israelite past. [...] Although the kingdom of Judah is mentioned in some ancient inscriptions, they never suggest that it was part of a unit {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} Israel and Judah. There are no extrabiblical indications of a united monarchy called &quot;Israel.&quot; |editor2-last=Brettler |editor2-first=Marc Zvi |access-date=August 19, 2022 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160917/https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Historians and archaeologists agree that the northern [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] existed from {{circa|900 BCE}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|169–195}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Wright |first1=Jacob L. |date=July 2014 |title=David, King of Judah (Not Israel) |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301164250/http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |archive-date=March 1, 2021 |access-date=May 15, 2021 |website=The Bible and Interpretation}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that the [[Kingdom of Judah]] existed from {{Abbr|ca.|circa}} 700 BCE.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 |date=April 9, 2023 }} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Tel Dan Stele]], discovered in 1993, shows that the kingdom, at least in some form, existed by the middle of the 9th century BCE, but it does not indicate the extent of its power.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kcVmBAEo5rcC&amp;pg=PA333 |title=Ahab Agonistes: The Rise and Fall of the Omri Dynasty |date=April 28, 2007 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-567-25171-8 |quote=The Tel Dan inscription generated a good deal of debate and a flurry of articles when it first appeared, but it is now widely regarded (a) as genuine and (b) as referring to the Davidic dynasty and the Aramaic kingdom of Damascus. |access-date=August 19, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Cline |first=Eric H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uGzRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA61 |title=Biblical Archaeology: A Very Short Introduction |date=September 28, 2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-971162-8 |quote=Today, after much further discussion in academic journals, it is accepted by most archaeologists that the inscription is not only genuine but that the reference is indeed to the House of David, thus representing the first allusion found anywhere outside the Bible to the biblical David. |access-date=August 19, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Mykytiuk |first=Lawrence J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eprY1Qd0veAC&amp;pg=PA113 |title=Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200-539 B.C.E. |date=January 1, 2004 |publisher=Society of Biblical Lit |isbn=978-1-58983-062-2 |quote=Some unfounded accusations of forgery have had little or no effect on the scholarly acceptance of this inscription as genuine.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Biblical tradition tells that the Israelite monarchy was established in 1037 BCE under [[Saul]], who was anointed by the prophet Samuel,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Who Was the First King of Israel? |url=https://shopisrael.com/blogs/about-israel/first-king-of-israel |access-date=February 5, 2025 |website=Shop Israel |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and continued under [[David]] and his son, [[Solomon]]. David greatly expanded the kingdom's borders and [[Siege of Jebus|conquered Jerusalem]] from the [[Jebusites]], turning it into the national, political and religious capital of the kingdom. Solomon, his son, later built the [[First Temple]] on [[Moriah|Mount Moriah]] in Jerusalem. Upon his death, traditionally dated to c. 930 BCE, a civil war erupted between the ten northern Israelite tribes, and the tribes of [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] ([[Tribe of Simeon|Simeon]] was absorbed into Judah) and [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]] in the south. The kingdom then split into the Kingdom of Israel in the north, and the Kingdom of Judah in the south.

The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two kingdoms and soon developed into a regional power.{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|pp=146-147|loc=Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power}} During the days of the [[Omride Dynasty|Omride dynasty]], it controlled [[Samaria]], [[Galilee]], the upper [[Jordan Valley]], the [[Sharon plain|Sharon]] and large parts of the [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |first=Israel |last=Finkelstein |title=The forgotten kingdom : the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |isbn=978-1-58983-910-6 |pages=74 |oclc=949151323}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Samaria (ancient city)|Samaria]], the capital, was home to one of the largest Iron Age palaces in the Levant.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |title=The Forgotten Kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-58983-911-3 |pages=65–66; 73; 78; 87–94 |oclc=880456140}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |date=November 1, 2011 |title=Observations on the Layout of Iron Age Samaria |url=https://doi.org/10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |journal=Tel Aviv |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=194–207 |doi=10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |issn=0334-4355 |s2cid=128814117 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; The kingdom of Israel was destroyed {{cx|720 BCE}}, when it was [[Samerina|conquered]] by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Kingdom of Judah, with its capital in [[Jerusalem]], controlled the [[Judaean Mountains]], the [[Shephelah]], the [[Judaean Desert]] and parts of the [[Negev]]. After the fall of Israel, Judah became a [[client state]] of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In the 7th century BCE, the kingdom's population increased greatly, prospering under [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] [[Vassal state|vassalage]], despite [[Hezekiah#Assyrian invasion|Hezekiah's revolt]] against the Assyrian king [[Sennacherib]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |editor-last=Ben-Sasson |editor-first=Haim Hillel |editor-link=H. H. Ben-Sasson |page=142 |quote=Sargon's heir, Sennacherib (705–681), could not deal with Hezekiah's revolt until he gained control of Babylon in 702 BCE.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Mesad Hashavyahu ostracon.jpg|thumb|The [[Yavne-Yam ostracon]], a [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|Paleo-Hebrew]] inscription documenting administration in [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]]]
Large parts of the Hebrew Bible were written during this period. This includes the earliest portions of [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]],{{sfn|Kelle|2005|p=9}} [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]],{{sfn|Brettler|2010|pp=161–162}} [[Book of Amos|Amos]]{{sfn|Radine|2010|pp=71–72}} and [[Book of Micah|Micah]],{{sfn|Rogerson|2003a|p=690}} along with [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]],{{sfn|O'Brien|2002|p=14}} [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]],{{sfn|Gelston|2003c|p=715}} most of [[Deuteronomy]],{{sfn|Rogerson|2003b|p=154}} the first edition of the [[Deuteronomistic history]] (the books of [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]/[[Book of Judges|Judges]]/[[Books of Samuel|Samuel]]/[[Books of Kings|Kings]]),{{sfn|Campbell|O'Brien|2000|p=2 and fn.6}} and [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]].{{sfn|Gelston|2003a|p=710}}

With the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 605 BCE, a power struggle emerged between [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt|Egypt]] and the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] for control of the [[Levant]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bickerman |first=E. J. |title=Nebuchadnezzar And Jerusalem |date=January 1, 2007 |work=Studies in Jewish and Christian History (2 vols) |pages=961–974 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789047420729/Bej.9789004152946.i-1242_044.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004152946.i-1242.280 |isbn=978-90-474-2072-9 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to Judah's rapid decline. In 601 BCE, King [[Jehoiakim]] of Judah, who had recently submitted to Babylon, rebelled against the empire. He was soon succeeded by his son, Jehoiachin, who continued his father's policy and faced a Babylonian invasion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; In March 597 BCE,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Galil |first=Gershon |date=1991 |title=The Babylonian Calendar and the Chronology of the Last Kings of Judah |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42611193 |journal=Biblica |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=367–378 |jstor=42611193 |issn=0006-0887 |quote=All the scholars, without exception, establish the date of the surrender of Jehoiachin, king of Judah, as the second day of Adar, the seventh year of Nebuchadnezzar II, king of Babylon (March 16, 597 BC), following the Babylonian chronicle ... This unique date is undoubtedly the most precise in Israelite history during the biblical period.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jehoiachin surrendered to the Babylonians and was taken captive to Babylon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; This defeat is documented in the [[Babylonian Chronicles]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BCE) |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030154541/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |archive-date=October 30, 2014 |access-date=October 30, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle) – Livius |url=https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505195611/https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html |archive-date=May 5, 2019 |access-date=March 26, 2020 |website=www.livius.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Zedekiah]], Jehoiachin's uncle, was then installed as king by the Babylonians.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt;

In 587 or 586 BCE, [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], responding to a second revolt in Judah, [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|besieged and destroyed Jerusalem]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Shalom |first1=N. |last2=Vaknin |first2=Y. |last3=Shaar |first3=R. |last4=Ben-Yosef |first4=E. |last5=Lipschits |first5=O. |last6=Shalev |first6=Y. |last7=Gadot |first7=Y. |last8=Boaretto |first8=E. |date=2023 |title=Destruction by fire: Reconstructing the evidence of the 586 BCE Babylonian destruction in a monumental building in Jerusalem |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305440323001036 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=157 |article-number=105823 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2023.105823 |bibcode=2023JArSc.157j5823S |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; The [[First Temple]] was razed, and its sacred vessels were seized as spoils.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bedford |first=Peter Ross |title=Introduction |date=2001 |work=Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah |pages=1–39 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s004.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004498051_004 |isbn=978-90-04-49805-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; The destruction was followed by a mass exile: the surviving inhabitants of the city, including other segments of the population, were carried off to Mesopotamia,&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt; marking the onset of the era known in Jewish history as the &quot;[[Babylonian Captivity]]&quot;. Zedekiah himself was captured, blinded, and transported to Babylon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt; Others [[History of the Jews in Egypt|fled to Egypt]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} The people of Judah lost their statehood, and, for those in exile, their homeland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001b&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bedford |first=Peter Ross |title=Living Without the Jerusalem Temple—In Judah and Babylonia |date=January 1, 2001 |work=Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah |page=42 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s005.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004498051_005 |isbn=978-90-04-49805-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Following the dissolution of the monarchy, the former kingdom was annexed as a province of the Babylonian Empire.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt;

=== Babylonian captivity (c. 587–538 BCE)&lt;!--[[Exilic]] redirects directly here.--&gt; ===
{{Main|Babylonian captivity}}
[[File:Tissot The Flight of the Prisoners.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Deportation and exile of the ancient [[Kingdom of Judah|Judeans]] to [[Babylon]] and the destruction of Jerusalem and [[Solomon's temple]]]]During the several decades between the fall of Judah and their [[return to Zion]] under Persian rule, Jewish history enters an obscure phase. Many Jews were exiled across [[Babylonia]], [[Elam]], and [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], while others remained in [[Yehud (Babylonian province)|Judea under Babylonian rule]]. [[Jeremiah]] refers to communities in Egypt, including settlements in [[Migdol]], [[Tahpanhes]], [[Noph]], and [[Pathros]]. Moreover, a Jewish military colony existed at [[Elephantine]], established before the exile, where they built their own shrine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001b&quot; /&gt; Deuteronomy was expanded and earlier scriptures were edited during the exilic period. The first edition of [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]], the [[Book of Ezekiel]], the majority of [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]], and what is referred to in research as &quot;[[Book of Isaiah|Second Isaiah]]&quot; were all written during this time period as well.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}

==هيڪل سليماني جي ٻيهر تعمير==
===&lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Post-exilic_period&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;هخامنشي دور (332 کان 538ع)&lt;!--&quot;Post-exilic period&quot;, &quot;Post-Exilic period&quot;, &quot;Post-exilic&quot;, &quot;Post-Exilic&quot;, Postexilic, &quot;Pre-exilic period&quot;, &quot;Pre-Exilic period&quot;, &quot;Pre-Exilic&quot; and &quot;Pre-exilic&quot; redirect here--&gt;===
[[File:109.Ezra Reads the Law to the People.jpg|thumb|[[عزير عليہ السلام|عزير]] ماڻهن کي [[توريت|تورات]] پڙهي ٻڌائي رهيو آهي. گستاو ڊور پاران پينٽنگ]]
عزير جي ڪتاب جي مطابق، [[سائرس اعظم|سائرس]] [[سائرس اعظم|اعظم]]، هخامنشي سلطنت جو بادشاهه، بابل جي فتح کان هڪ سال پوءِ،&lt;ref&gt;''Harper's Bible Dictionary'', ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper &amp; Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103&lt;/ref&gt; سال 538 ق.م ۾ بابلي جلاوطني جو خاتمو آندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Biu.ac.il22&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html|access-date=March 15, 2014|publisher=Biu.ac.il}}&lt;/ref&gt; واپس ڪندڙ يهودين جي اڳواڻي زربابل، [[داؤد عليہ السلام|دائود]] جي شاهي نسل مان هڪ شهزادو ۽ جوشوا، مندر جي اڳوڻي اعليٰ پادرين مان اولاد ڪئي، جنهن ٻئي مندر جي تعمير جي نگراني ڪيا، جيڪا سال &lt;small&gt;521&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;516&lt;/small&gt; ق.م. جي وچ ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Biu.ac.il2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html|access-date=March 15, 2014|publisher=Biu.ac.il}}&lt;/ref&gt;۽ هخامنشي سلطنت جي حصي جي طور تي، يهودين جي اڳوڻي بادشاهت، مختلف حدن سان، هڪ ننڍڙو علائقو ڍڪيندي، يهودين جو صوبو بڻجي وئي.&lt;ref&gt;Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew Yehuda, or &quot;Judah&quot;, and &quot;medinata&quot; the word for province&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Grabbe|first=Lester L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-MnE5T_0RbMC&amp;q=gave+the+Jews+permission+to+return+to+Yehud+province+and+to+rebuild+the&amp;pg=PA355|title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah|volume=1|publisher=T&amp;T Clark|year=2004|isbn=978-0-567-08998-4|page=355}}&lt;/ref&gt; همعصر عالم بتدريج واپسي جي عمل ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا، جيڪي 6هين صدي ق.م. جي آخر ۽ 5هين صدي ق.م. جي شروعات تائين وڌائي وئي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last=Lipschits|first=Oded|title=Judah in the Biblical Period|chapter=Between Archaeology and Text: A Reevaluation of the Development Process of Jerusalem in the Persian Period|date=March 18, 2024|page=374|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110487442-020/html|access-date=July 1, 2024|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110487442-020|isbn=978-3-11-048744-2}}&lt;/ref&gt; فارسي يهودين جي آبادي بادشاهت جي دور کان تمام گهٽجي وئي. آثار قديمه جا سروي پنجين ۽ چوٿين صدي ق.م. دوران تقريبن &lt;small&gt;'''30,000'''&lt;/small&gt; جي آبادي ڏيکارن ٿا. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|date=2001|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|isbn=0-684-86912-8|edition=1st Touchstone|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

آخري توريت کي وڏي پيماني تي فارسي دور (&lt;small&gt;539&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;کان 333&lt;/small&gt; ق.م يا &lt;small&gt;450-350&lt;/small&gt; ق.م.) جي پيداوار طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو،{{Sfn|Frei|2001|p=6}} هي اتفاق راءِ هڪ روايتي يهودي نظريي جو گونج آهي ته [[عزير عليہ السلام|عزير عليه السلام]]، بابل کان واپسي تي يهودي برادري جا اڳواڻ، تورات جي اشاعت ۾ هڪ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{sfn|Romer|2008|p=2 and fn.3}}

ٽي نبي، جيڪا يهودي روايت ۾ آخري سمجهيا وڃن ٿا هن دور ۾ سرگرم هئا: حجائي، زڪريا ۽ ملاڪي.&lt;ref&gt;[[Jerusalem Bible]] (1966), ''Haggai'', ''Zechariah'', ''Malachi'' in ''Introduction to the Prophets'', London: Darton, Longman &amp; Todd, pp. 1138–1140&lt;/ref&gt; بني اسرائيل جي آخري نبي جي وفات کانپوءِ ۽ اڃا تائين فارسي حڪمراني هيٺ، يهودي ماڻهن جي قيادت اڳواڻن جي پنجن مسلسل نسلن جي زگوٽ (جوڙن) جي هٿن ۾ منتقل ٿي وئي. اهي پهرين فارسين جي دور ۾ ۽ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾ ترقي ڪيا ۽ نتيجي طور تي، انهن مان ٻه گروه، فريسي ۽ صدوقي ٺهيا. فارسين جي دور ۾ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾، يهودي سڪا يهوديه ۾ يهودي سڪن جي طور تي ٺاهيا ويا.

=== Hellenistic period (c. 332–110 BCE) ===
{{Main|Hellenistic Judaism}}
[[File:Jews Byzantine Greek Alexander Manuscript (cropped).JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Alexander the Great]], clad as a [[Byzantine emperor]], receives a delegation of Jewish [[rabbi]]s. Miniature from the 14th-century ''Alexander Romance'']]

In 332 BCE, [[Alexander the Great]] of [[Macedon]] defeated the Persians. After Alexander's death and the division of his empire among his generals, the [[Seleucid Kingdom]] was formed.

The Alexandrian conquests spread Greek culture to the Levant. During this time, currents of Judaism were influenced by [[Hellenistic philosophy]] developed from the 3rd century BCE, notably the [[Jewish diaspora]] in [[Alexandrian Jews|Alexandria]], culminating in the compilation of the [[Septuagint]]. An important advocate of the symbiosis of Jewish theology and Hellenistic thought is [[Philo]].

=== Hasmonean dynasty (110–63 BCE) ===
{{Main|Hasmonean dynasty}}
[[File:John Hyrcanus.jpg|thumb|JUDAEA, Hasmoneans. John Hyrcanus I (Yehohanan). 135–104 BCE. Æ Prutah (13mm, 2.02&amp;nbsp;gm, 12h). &quot;Yehohanan the High Priest and the Council of the Jews&quot; (in Hebrew) in five lines within wreath / Double cornucopiae adorned with ribbons; pomegranate between horns; small A to lower left. Meshorer Group B, 11; Hendin 457.]]

Triggered by anti-Jewish decrees from Seleucid king [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] and tensions between Hellenized and conservative Jews, the [[Maccabean Revolt]] erupted in Judea in 167 BCE under the leadership of [[Mattathias]]. His son, [[Judas Maccabeus]], recaptured Jerusalem in 164 BCE, purifying the Second Temple and reinstating sacrificial worship.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atkinson-2016&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Atkinson |first=Kenneth |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/949219870 |title=A History of the Hasmonean State: Josephus and Beyond |date=2016 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-66902-5 |series=T&amp;T Clark Jewish and Christian texts series |location=London; New York |pages=2, 23–28 |oclc=949219870}}&lt;/ref&gt; The successful revolt eventually led to the formation of an independent Jewish state under the [[Hasmonean dynasty]], which lasted from 165 to 63 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;See:

*[[William David Davies]]. ''The Hellenistic Age''. Volume 2 of Cambridge History of Judaism. Cambridge University Press, 1989. {{ISBN|978-0-521-21929-7}}. pp. 292–312.
*Jeff S. Anderson. ''The Internal Diversification of Second Temple Judaism: An Introduction to the Second Temple Period''. University Press of America, 2002. {{ISBN|978-0-7618-2327-8}}. pp. 37–38.
*Howard N. Lupovitch. ''Jews and Judaism in World History''. Taylor &amp; Francis. 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-415-46205-1}}. pp. 26–30.&lt;/ref&gt;

Initially governing as both political leaders and High Priests, the [[Hasmoneans]] later assumed the title of kings. They employed military campaigns and diplomacy to consolidate power.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atkinson-2016&quot; /&gt; Under the rule of [[Alexander Jannaeus]] and [[Salome Alexandra]], [[Hasmonean Judea]] reached its zenith in size and influence. However, internal strife erupted between Salome Alexandra's sons, [[Hyrcanus II]] and [[Aristobulus II]], leading to civil war and appeals to Roman authorities for intervention. Responding to these appeals, Pompey led a Roman campaign of conquest and annexation, which marked the end of Hasmonean sovereignty and ushered in Roman rule over Judea.&lt;ref&gt;Hooker, Richard. {{cite web |title=The Hebrews: The Diaspora |url=http://www.wsu.edu:8000/~dee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM |access-date=April 7, 2018 |archive-date=August 29, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829230214/http://www.wsu.edu:8000/%7Edee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM |url-status=dead}}  World Civilizations Learning Modules.  Washington State University, 1999.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Roman period (63 BCE – 135 CE) ===
{{Main|Herodian dynasty|History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Roman Palestine|Judaea (Roman province)|Jewish–Roman wars}}
[[File:Monnaie - Prutah, bronze, Jérusalem, Judée, Mattathias Antigonos - btv1b8480202s (1 of 2).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Hasmonean coinage|Hasmonean coin]] of [[Antigonus II Mattathias]], depicting the [[Temple menorah]]]]

Judea had been an independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmoneans, but it was [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BCE)|conquered and reorganized as a client state by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE]]. [[Roman expansion]] was going on in other areas as well, and it would continue for more than a hundred and fifty years. Later, [[Herod the Great]] was appointed &quot;King of the Jews&quot; by the [[Roman Senate]], supplanting the Hasmonean dynasty. Some of his offspring held various positions after him, known as the [[Herodian dynasty]]. Briefly, from 4 BCE to 6 CE, [[Herod Archelaus]] ruled the [[Tetrarchy (Judea)|tetrarchy of Judea]] as [[ethnarch]], the Romans denying him the title of King.

After the [[Census of Quirinius]] in 6 CE, the [[Roman province of Judaea]] was formed as a satellite of [[Roman Syria]] under the rule of a [[prefect]] (as was [[Roman Egypt]]) until 41 CE, then [[Procurator (Roman)|procurators]] after 44 CE. The empire was often callous and brutal in its treatment of its Jewish subjects, (see [[Anti-Judaism#Pre-Christian Roman Empire|Anti-Judaism in the pre-Christian Roman Empire]]). In 30 CE (or 33 CE), [[Jesus of Nazareth]], an itinerant [[rabbi]] from [[Galilee]], and the central figure of [[Christianity]], was put to death by [[crucifixion]] in Jerusalem under the Roman prefect of [[Judaea]], [[Pontius Pilate]].&lt;ref&gt;Charlesworth, James H. (2008). The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide. {{ISBN|978-1-4267-2475-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For a short time Judea was reunited and semi-independent under [[Agrippa the Great]] who had good relations with both the Roman aristocracy and local Jewish citizens. After his death Judea was again annexed by Rome and his less popular son [[Herod Agrippa II]] was made ethnarch.&lt;ref&gt;Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, livre XVIII, § V, 4, (132).&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:19 Shrine of the Book 005 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of the [[Second Temple]], following renovations by [[Herod the Great|Herod]] in the 1st century CE]]
[[File:Roberts Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans]] (1850 painting by [[David Roberts (painter)|David Roberts]])]]

Roman oppressive rule, combined with economic, religious, and ethnic tensions, eventually led to the outbreak of the [[First Jewish–Roman War]], also known as the Great Revolt, in 66 CE. Future emperor [[Vespasian]] quelled the rebellion in [[Galilee]] by 67 CE, capturing key strongholds.&lt;ref&gt;Jensen, M. H. (2014). The Political History in Galilee from the First Century BCE to the end of the Second Century CE. ''Galilee in the late Second Temple and Mishnaic periods. Volume 1. Life, culture and society'', pp. 69-70. &quot;According to Jewish War, Vespasian laid siege to and conquered all the major strongholds of Galilee [...] Since the entire campaign was short and lasted only for some months in the spring and summer of 67, there is no reason to believe that Galilee was entirely devastated when the Romans set their course south. However, the places that were conquered, were in a typical Roman fashion levelled more or less to the ground and many people sold of as slaves.&lt;/ref&gt; He was succeeded by his son [[Titus]], who led the brutal [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|siege of Jerusalem]], culminating in the city's fall in 70 CE. The Romans burned Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Weksler-Bdolah |first=Shlomit |title=Aelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman period: in light of archaeological research |publisher=Brill |year=2019 |isbn=978-90-04-41707-6 |page=3 |oclc=1170143447 |quote=The historical description is consistent with the archeological finds. Collapses of massive stones from the walls of the Temple Mount were exposed lying over the Herodian street running along the Western Wall of the Temple Mount. The residential buildings of the Ophel and the Upper City were destroyed by great fire. The large urban drainage channel and the Pool of Siloam in the Lower City silted up and ceased to function, and in many places the city walls collapsed. [...] Following the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, a new era began in the city's history. The Herodian city was destroyed and a military camp of the Tenth Roman Legion established on part of the ruins.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Reich |first=Ronny |date=2009 |title=The Sack of Jerusalem in 70 CE: Flavius Josephus' Description and the Archaeological Record |script-title=he:חורבן ירושלים בשנת 70 לסה&quot;נ: תיאורו של יוסף בן מתתיהו והממצא הארכאולוגי  |journal=Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv |script-journal=he:קתדרה: לתולדות ארץ ישראל ויישובה |issue=131 |pages=25–42 |issn=0334-4657 |jstor=23407359}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Roman victory was celebrated with a [[Roman triumph|triumph]] in Rome, showcasing Jewish artefacts like the [[Temple menorah|menorah]], which were then put on display in the new [[Temple of Peace, Rome|Temple of Peace]].&lt;ref&gt;Huitink, Luuk. &quot;Between Triumph and Tragedy: Josephus, Bellum Judaicum 7.121–157.&quot; ''Reading Greek, Hellenistic and Roman spolia. Objects, appropriation and cultural change, Euhormos: Greco-Roman Studies in Anchoring Innovation. Leiden: Brill'' (2023). pp. 215–216, 234&lt;/ref&gt; The Flavian dynasty leveraged this victory for political gain, erecting monuments in Rome and minting [[Judaea Capta coinage|Judaea Capta coins]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Overman |first1=J. Andrew |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781134518326 |title=The First Jewish Revolt |last2=Overman |first2=J. Andrew |date=September 2, 2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-51832-6 |chapter=The First Revolt and Flavian politics |doi=10.4324/9780203167441}}&lt;/ref&gt; The war concluded with the [[siege of Masada]] (73–74 CE). The Jewish population suffered widespread devastation, with displacement, enslavement, and Roman confiscation of Jewish-owned land.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Herr |first=Moshe David |title=The History of Eretz Israel: The Roman Byzantine period: the Roman period from the conquest to the Ben Kozba War (63 B.C.E-135 C.E.) |publisher=Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi |year=1984 |editor-last=Shtern |editor-first=Menahem |location=Jerusalem |page=288}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The destruction of the Second Temple marked a cataclysmic event in Jewish history, triggering far-reaching transformations within Judaism.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Maclean Rogers |first=Guy |title=For the Freedom of Zion: The Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66–74 CE |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-300-26256-8 |location=New Haven and London |pages=3–5 |oclc=1294393934}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=Judaism in a Time of Crisis: Four Responses to the Destruction of the Second Temple |date=November 28, 2017 |work=Neusner on Judaism |pages=399–413 |editor-last1=Hinnells |editor-first1=John |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781351152761-20 |access-date=May 22, 2022 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781351152761-20 |isbn=978-1-351-15276-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Karesh-2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Karesh |first=Sara E. |title=Encyclopedia of Judaism |publisher=Facts On File |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-78785-171-9 |oclc=1162305378 |quote=Until the modern period, the destruction of the Temple was the most cataclysmic moment in the history of the Jewish people. Without the Temple, the Sadducees no longer had any claim to authority, and they faded away. The sage Yochanan ben Zakkai, with permission from Rome, set up the outpost of Yavneh to continue develop of Pharisaic, or rabbinic, Judaism.}}&lt;/ref&gt; With the central role of sacrificial worship obliterated, religious practices shifted towards [[Jewish prayer|prayer]], [[Torah study]], and communal gatherings in [[synagogue]]s. According to Rabbinic tradition, Yohanan ben Zakkai secured permission from the Romans to establish a center for Torah study in [[Yavne]]h, which then served as a focal point for Jewish religious and cultural life for a generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stemberger-2003&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Stemberger |first=Guenter |title=The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism, 70–640 CE |date=2003 |work=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism |pages=78–79 |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470758014.ch5 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Wiley |language=en |doi=10.1002/9780470758014.ch5 |isbn=978-1-57718-058-6 |editor2-last=Avery-Peck |editor2-first=Alan J. |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-judaism/3F4F0A32983FC0DCDB414553888DC394 |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |volume=4 |page=268 |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488 |quote=Under the leadership of R. Yohanan ben Zakkai and his circle at Yavneh, Judaism sought to reconstitute itself and find a new equilibrium in the face of the disaster of 70.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=Religion (Judentum: Palästinisches Judentum &amp;#91;Forts.&amp;#93;) |date=September 26, 2016 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-083904-3 |editor-last1=Haase |editor-first1=Wolfgang |language=de |chapter=The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism: Yavneh (Jamnia) from A.D. 70 to 100 |pages=3–42 |doi=10.1515/9783110839043-002 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110839043-002/html}}&lt;/ref&gt; Judaism also underwent a significant shift away from its sectarian divisions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Shaye J. D. |date=1984 |title=The Significance of Yavneh: Pharisees, Rabbis, and the End of Jewish Sectarianism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507609 |journal=Hebrew Union College Annual |volume=55 |page=29 |jstor=23507609 |issn=0360-9049 |quote=The goal was not the triumph over other sects but the elimination of the need for sectarianism itself. [...] The destruction of the temple provided the impetus for this process: it warned the Jews of the dangers of internal divisiveness and it removed one of the major focal points of Jewish sectarianism.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Jodi |last=Magness |title=Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History?: On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-04-21744-7 |editor-first=Daniel R. |editor-last=Schwartz |chapter=Sectarianism before and after 70 CE |editor-first2=Zeev |editor-last2=Weiss |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VecxAQAAQBAJ&amp;q=diaspora+70+ce&amp;pg=PA189}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Sadducees]] and [[Essenes]], two prominent sects in the late Second Temple period, faded into obscurity,&lt;ref name=&quot;Karesh-2006&quot; /&gt; while the traditions of the [[Pharisees]], including their halakhic interpretations, the centrality of the [[Oral Torah]], and [[Jewish eschatology|belief in resurrection]] became the foundation of [[Rabbinic Judaism]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Stemberger-2003&quot; /&gt;[[File:Arch of Titus Menorah.png|upright=1.15|thumb|The sack of Jerusalem depicted on the inside wall of the [[Arch of Titus]] in [[Rome]]]]

=== Diaspora during the Second Temple period ===
{{Main|Jewish diaspora}}
The [[Jewish diaspora]] existed well before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and had been ongoing for centuries, with the dispersal driven by both forced expulsions and voluntary migrations.&lt;ref&gt;[[Erich S. Gruen]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=t1IR4WtFjGUC&amp;pg=PA3 Diaspora: Jews Amidst Greeks and Romans] [[Harvard University Press]], 2009 pp. 3–4, 233–234: 'Compulsory dislocation, .…cannot have accounted for more than a fraction of the diaspora. … The vast bulk of Jews who dwelled abroad in the Second Temple Period did so voluntarily.' (2)' .Diaspora did not await the fall of Jerusalem to Roman power and destructiveness. The scattering of Jews had begun long before-occasionally through forced expulsion, much more frequently through voluntary migration.'&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Martin |title=A History of Judaism |date=2018 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-18127-1 |location=Princeton Oxford |pages=21, 232}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Mesopotamia, a testimony to the beginnings of the Jewish community can be found in [[Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets|Joachin's ration tablets]], listing provisions allotted to the exiled Judean king and his family by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], and further evidence are the [[Al-Yahudu Tablets|Al-Yahudu tablets]], dated to the 6th-5th centuries BCE and related to the exiles from Judea arriving after the destruction of the [[First Temple]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Luke |date=February 3, 2017 |title=Ancient tablets reveal life of Jews in Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203 |newspaper=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt; though there is ample evidence for the presence of Jews in Babylonia even from 626 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;Zadok R. Judeans in Babylonia–Updating the Dossier. in U. Gabbay and Sh. Secunda. (eds.). ''Encounters by the Rivers of Babylon: Scholarly Conversations between Jews, Iranians and Babylonians in Antiquity'', Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 160. Tübingen: MohrSiebeck. pp. 109–110.&lt;/ref&gt; In Egypt, the [[Elephantine papyri and ostraca|documents from Elephantine]] reveal the trials of a community founded by a Persian Jewish garrison at two fortresses on the frontier during the 5th-4th centuries BCE, and according to [[Josephus]] the Jewish community in Alexandria existed since the founding of the city in the 4th century BCE by [[Alexander the Great]].&lt;ref&gt;Josephus Flavius, ''Against Appion''. 4.II&lt;/ref&gt; By 200 BCE, there were well established Jewish communities both in Egypt and Mesopotamia (&quot;[[History of the Jews in Iraq|Babylonia]]&quot; in Jewish sources) and in the two centuries that followed, Jewish populations were also present in [[Asia Minor]], [[Greece]], [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]], [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]], and, beginning in the middle of the 1st century BCE, in the city of [[Rome]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=E. Mary |last=Smallwood |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period, Volume 3 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-521-24377-3 |editor1=William David Davies |chapter=The Diaspora in the Roman period before AD 70 |editor2=Louis Finkelstein |editor3=William Horbury |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AW2BuWcalXIC&amp;q=Diaspora+before+70&amp;pg=PA168}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot; /&gt;

In the first centuries CE, as a result of the [[Jewish–Roman wars]],&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot;&gt;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת &quot;עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום&quot;, ע&quot;מ 95. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth – &quot;The People of Israel – the history of 4000 years – from the days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty&quot;, 1981, p. 95)&lt;/ref&gt; a large number of Jews were taken as captives, sold into slavery, or compelled to flee from the regions affected by the wars, contributing to the formation and expansion of Jewish communities across the [[Roman Empire]] as well as in Arabia and Mesopotamia. Jewish communities across Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Egypt were almost entirely obliterated due to the harsh Roman response to the Diaspora Revolt.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006b&quot; /&gt;

The [[New Testament]] Book of [[Acts]], as well as other [[Pauline epistles|Pauline]] texts, make frequent reference to the large populations of [[Hellenized Jews]] in the cities of the Roman world. These Hellenized Jews were affected by the diaspora only in its spiritual sense, absorbing the feeling of loss and homelessness that became a cornerstone of the Jewish creed, much supported by persecutions in various parts of the world. Of critical importance to the reshaping of Jewish tradition from the Temple-based religion to the rabbinic traditions of the Diaspora, was the development of the interpretations of the Torah found in the [[Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]].

==تالمود وارو دور==
===پھرين يهودي بغاوت (115 کان 117ع)===
During the [[Diaspora Revolt]] (115–117 CE), [[Jewish diaspora]] communities across several eastern provinces of the [[Roman Empire]] engaged in widespread rebellion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006a&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=June 22, 2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |pages=93–106 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=September 8, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Driven by messianic fervor and hopes for the [[Gathering of Israel|ingathering of exiles]] and the [[Third Temple|reconstruction of the Temple]], these communities may have sought to spark a broader movement possibly aimed at returning to [[Judea]] and rebuilding Jerusalem.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Smallwood |first=E. Mary |title=The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian |publisher=SBL Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-90-04-50204-8 |pages=394–397}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Horbury |first=William |title=Jewish War under Trajan and Hadrian |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-139-04905-4 |pages=276}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Barclay |first=John M. G. |title=Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: from Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE) |date=1998 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-08651-8 |edition= |location=Edinburgh |pages=241}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient sources describe the revolt as extremely brutal, with cases of cannibalism and mutilation, though modern scholars often consider these accounts to be exaggerated.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006a&quot; /&gt; The Roman suppression of the revolt was marked by severe measures, including [[ethnic cleansing]], leading to the near-total destruction of Jewish diaspora communities in [[Roman Libya|Libya]], [[Roman Cyprus|Cyprus]] and [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last1=Kerkeslager |first1=Allen |title=The Diaspora from 66 to c. 235 ce |date=2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |volume=4 |pages=62–63 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/diaspora-from-66-to-c-235-ce/5AECAD54BE6CA31C7968EED92D6CA36A |access-date=September 10, 2024 |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.004 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |last2=Setzer |first2=Claudia |last3=Trebilco |first3=Paul |last4=Goodblatt |first4=David}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006b&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=June 22, 2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |page=98 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=September 8, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; including the significant and influential community in [[Alexandria]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot; /&gt;

===بار ڪوخبا بغاوت (132 کان 136ع===
{{Main|بار ڪوخبا بغاوت}}
[[File:Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg|thumb|A tetradrachm minted during the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], featuring the former Second Temple, a ''lulav'', and the slogan 'to the freedom of Jerusalem']]
From 132 to 136 CE, Judaea was the center of the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], triggered by Hadrian's decision to establish the pagan colony of [[Aelia Capitolina]] on the ruins of Jerusalem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Eck |first=Werner |editor-first1=Werner |editor-last1=Eck |title=Bar Kokhba |date=July 30, 2015 |work=Oxford Classical Dictionary |url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-1056 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1056 |isbn=978-0-19-938113-5 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Early successes led to the establishment of a short-lived Jewish state in Judea under the leadership of [[Simon Bar Kokhba]], styled as ''[[Nasi (Hebrew title)|nasi]]'' or prince of Israel.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt; The [[Bar Kokhba revolt coinage|rebel state's coinage]] proclaimed &quot;Freedom of Israel&quot; and &quot;For the Freedom of Jerusalem&quot;, using [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|ancient Hebrew script]] for nationalistic symbolism.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-1999&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Eck |first=Werner |date=1999 |title=The Bar Kokhba Revolt: The Roman Point of View |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-studies/article/abs/bar-kokhba-revolt-the-roman-point-of-view/27E95F52A627562F93178F17A51D5FD4 |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |volume=89 |pages=76, 80 |doi=10.2307/300735 |jstor=300735 |issn=1753-528X |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt; However, the Romans soon amassed six legions and additional auxiliaries under [[Julius Severus]], who then brutally crushed the uprising. Historical accounts report the destruction of fifty major strongholds and 985 villages, resulting in 580,000 Jewish deaths and widespread famine and disease.&lt;ref name=&quot;Raviv-2021&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Raviv |first1=Dvir |last2=David |first2=Chaim Ben |date=2021 |title=Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account? |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=585–607 |doi=10.1017/S1047759421000271 |issn=1047-7594 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Archaeological research confirms the widespread destruction and depopulation of the Jewish heartland in [[Judea]] proper, where most of the Jewish population was either killed, sold into slavery, expelled, or forced to flee.&lt;ref name=&quot;Raviv-2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=A. H. M. |title=The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces |publisher=Oxford |year=1971 |edition=2nd |pages=277 |quote=This provoked the last Jewish war, which seems from our meager accounts [...] to have resulted in the desolation of Judaea and the practical extermination of its Jewish population.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Mor|2016|pp=483–484}}: &quot;Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the [[Sicaricon|sikarikon laws]] were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The Romans also suffered heavy losses.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-1999&quot; /&gt; Post-revolt, Jews were prohibited from entering Jerusalem, and Hadrian issued religious edicts,&lt;ref&gt;Hanan Eshel,[[iarchive:cambridgehis xxxx 1984 004 8494287/page/n1082|&lt;!-- pg=105 --&gt; 'The Bar Kochba revolt, 132-135,']] in William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, Steven T. Katz (eds.) ''The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period,'' pp. 105-127, p. 105.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Eshel |first=Hanan |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=T. Katz |editor-first=Steven |volume=4. The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period  |pages=105–127 |chapter=4: The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132 – 135 |oclc=7672733}}&lt;/ref&gt; including a ban on circumcision, later repealed by [[Antoninus Pius]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} The province of Judaea was renamed [[Syria Palaestina]] as a punitive act against the Jews, aimed at placating non-Jewish residents and erasing Jewish historical ties to the land.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, {{ISBN|0-674-39731-2}}, page 334: &quot;In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ariel Lewin. ''The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine''. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. &quot;It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land.&quot; {{ISBN|0-89236-800-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; Christians refused to participate in the revolt and from this point the Jews regarded Christianity as a separate religion.&lt;ref&gt;M. Avi-Yonah, ''The Jews under Roman and Byzantine Rule'', Jerusalem 1984 p. 143&lt;/ref&gt; The Jewish defeat marked the termination of efforts to reestablish a Jewish state until the modern era.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |title=An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History And Religion Of The Jews In The Time Of Nehemiah, The Maccabees, Hillel, And Jesus |date=2010 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-55248-8 |location=Edinburgh |page=78 |quote=It was the total defeat and the massive destruction of the 132–35 war which put paid to any hopes of a revived Jewish state for another 1800 years.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A rabbi of this period, [[Simeon bar Yochai]], is regarded as the author of the [[Zohar]], the foundational text for Kabbalistic thought. However, modern scholars believe it was written in Medieval Spain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |title=Zohar |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&amp;letter=Z#406 |access-date=May 19, 2014 |last=Jacobs |first=Joseph |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007024121/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&amp;letter=Z#406 |archive-date=October 7, 2011 |author2=Broydé, Isaac |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Late Roman period in the Land of Israel ===
{{further|Byzantine Palestine|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}}
The relations of the Jews with the Roman Empire in the region continued to be complicated. [[Constantine the Great and Judaism|Constantine I]] allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once a year on [[Tisha B'Av]] at the [[Western Wall]]. In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched [[Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus|yet another revolt]], provoking heavy retribution.&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lazare and Robert Wistrich, Antisemitism: Its History and Causes, University of Nebraska Press, 1995, I, pp. 46–47.&lt;/ref&gt; The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the [[Constantinian dynasty]]. In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]], the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who unlike his predecessors defied Christianity. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sasanian Persia, in keeping with his effort to foster religions other than Christianity, he ordered the Jewish Temple rebuilt.&lt;ref&gt;Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'', 23.1.2–3.&lt;/ref&gt; The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic [[Galilee earthquake of 363]] and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire. Divine intervention was the common view among Christian historians of the time.&lt;ref&gt;See [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html &quot;Julian and the Jews 361–363 CE&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520080932/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html |date=May 20, 2012 }} (Fordham University, The Jesuit University of New York) and [https://web.archive.org/web/20051020130904/http://www.gibsoncondo.com/~david/convert/history.html &quot;Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple&quot;].&lt;/ref&gt; Julian's support of Jews caused Jews to call him &quot;Julian the [[Hellenes (religion)|Hellene]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Falk |first1=Avner |title=A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews |year=1996 |pages=343 |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press |isbn=978-0-8386-3660-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z10-Xz9Kno4C&amp;q=julian&amp;pg=PA343 |access-date=August 3, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Julian's fatal wound in the Persian campaign and his consequent death had put an end to Jewish aspirations, and Julian's successors embraced Christianity through the entire timeline of Byzantine rule of Jerusalem, preventing any Jewish claims.

In 438 CE, when the Empress [[Licinia Eudoxia|Eudocia]] removed the ban on Jews' praying at the [[Temple Mount|Temple site]], the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call &quot;to the great and mighty people of the Jews&quot; which began: &quot;Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!&quot; However, the Christian population of the city, who saw this as a threat to their primacy, did not allow it and a riot erupted after which they chased away the Jews from the city.&lt;ref&gt;Avraham Yaari, ''Igrot Eretz Yisrael'' (Tel Aviv, 1943), p. 46.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Andrew S. Jacobs |title=Remains of the Jews: The Holy Land and Christian Empire in Late Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8O95ErDSZQgC&amp;pg=PA157 |year=2004 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-4705-9 |page=157 |access-date=April 19, 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of [[Samaritan Revolts|Samaritan insurrections]] broke out across the [[Palaestina Prima]] province. Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in almost the entire annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the Samaritan [[Samaritan Revolts|Revolt of 556]] was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered a brutal suppression of Israelite religion.

In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an [[Jewish revolt against Heraclius|alliance]] with the [[Sassanid Empire|Persians]], who invaded Palaestina Prima in 614, fought at their side, overwhelmed the [[Byzantine]] garrison in Jerusalem, and were given Jerusalem to be governed as an autonomy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Itineraria Phoenicia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&amp;q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&amp;pg=PA542 |author=Edward Lipiński |publisher=Peeters |pages=542–543 |year=2004 |isbn=978-90-429-1344-8 |access-date=March 11, 2014 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409161013/https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&amp;q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&amp;pg=PA542 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, their autonomy was brief: the [[Nehemiah ben Hushiel|Jewish leader]] in Jerusalem was shortly assassinated during a Christian revolt and though Jerusalem was reconquered by Persians and Jews within 3 weeks, it fell into anarchy. With the consequent withdrawal of Persian forces, Jews surrendered to Byzantines in 625 or 628 CE, but were massacred by Christian radicals in 629 CE, with the survivors fleeing to Egypt. The Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) control of the region was finally lost to the Muslim Arab armies in 637 CE, when [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] completed the conquest of Akko.

=== Jews of pre-Muslim Babylonia (219–638 CE) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in Iraq}}

After the fall of Jerusalem, Babylonia would become the focus of Judaism for more than a thousand years. The first Jewish communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by [[Jehoiachin]] in 597 BCE as well as after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; Many more Jews migrated to Babylon in 135 CE after the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] and in the centuries after.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; Babylonia, where some of the largest and most prominent Jewish cities and communities were established, became the centre of Jewish life up to the 13th century. By the 1st century, Babylonia already held a speedily growing&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; population of an estimated 1,000,000 Jews, which increased to an estimated 2 million&lt;ref name=&quot;Solomon Gryazel&quot;&gt;Solomon Gryazel, ''History of the Jews: From the destruction of Judah in 586 BCE to the present Arab Israeli conflict'', p. 137.&lt;/ref&gt; between the years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from Judea, making up about 1/6 of the world Jewish population at that era.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solomon Gryazel&quot; /&gt; It was there that they would write the Babylonian Talmud in the languages used by the Jews of ancient Babylonia: [[Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]]. The Jews established [[Talmudic Academies in Babylonia]], also known as the Geonic Academies (from &quot;Geonim&quot;, meaning &quot;splendour&quot; in Biblical Hebrew or &quot;geniuses&quot;), which became the centre for Jewish scholarship and the development of Jewish law in Babylonia from roughly 500 CE to 1038 CE. The two most famous academies were the [[Pumbedita Academy]] and the [[Sura Academy]]. Major yeshivot were also located at [[Nehardea]] and Mahuza.&lt;ref&gt;''Codex Judaica'', pp. 161–174, Kantor, Zichron Press, NY 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; The Talmudic [[Yeshiva]] Academies became a main part of Jewish culture and education, and Jews continued establishing Yeshiva Academies in Western and Eastern Europe, North Africa, and in later centuries, in America and other countries around the world where Jews lived in the Diaspora. Talmudic study in Yeshiva academies, most of them located in The United States and Israel, continues today.

These Talmudic [[Yeshiva]] academies of Babylonia followed the era of the [[Amoraim]] (expounders)—the sages of the Talmud who were active (both in Judah and in Babylon) during the end of the era of the sealing of the [[Mishnah]] and until the times of the sealing of the Talmud (220–500 CE), and following the [[Savoraim]] (reasoners)—the sages of beth midrash (Torah study places) in Babylon from the end of the era of the Amoraim (5th century) and until the beginning of the era of the [[Geonim]]. The Geonim were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura and Pumbedita, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of the worldwide Jewish community in the early medieval era, in contrast to the [[Resh Galuta]] (Exilarch) who wielded secular authority over the Jews in Islamic lands. According to traditions, the [[Resh Galuta]] were descendants of Judean kings, which is why the kings of [[Parthia]] would treat them with much honour.&lt;ref&gt;[מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס. רותת &quot;עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום&quot;, ע&quot;מ 97. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth ''The People of Israel: The History of 4,000 Years, from the Days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty'', 1981, p. 97)&lt;/ref&gt;

For the Jews of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the yeshivot of Babylonia served much the same function as the ancient [[Sanhedrin]]—that is, as a council of Jewish religious authorities. The academies were founded in pre-Islamic Babylonia under the Zoroastrian Sassanid dynasty and were located not far from the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, which at that time was the largest city in the world. After the conquest of Persia in the 7th century, the academies subsequently operated for four hundred years under the Islamic caliphate. The first gaon of Sura, according to [[Sherira Gaon]], was Mar bar Rab Chanan, who assumed office in 609. The last gaon of [[Sura]] was [[Samuel ben Hofni]], who died in 1034; the last gaon of Pumbedita was [[Hezekiah Gaon]], who was tortured to death in 1040; hence the activity of the Geonim covers a period of nearly 450 years.

One of principal seats of Babylonian Judaism was [[Nehardea]], which was then a very large city made up mostly of Jews.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; A very ancient synagogue, built, it was believed, by King Jehoiachin, existed in Nehardea. At Huzal, near Nehardea, there was another synagogue, not far from which could be seen the ruins of Ezra's academy. In the period before Hadrian, Akiba, on his arrival at Nehardea on a mission from the Sanhedrin, entered into a discussion with a resident scholar on a point of matrimonial law (Mishnah Yeb., end). At the same time there was at Nisibis (northern [[Mesopotamia]]), an excellent Jewish college, at the head of which stood [[Judah ben Bathyra]], and in which many Judean scholars found refuge at the time of the persecutions. A certain temporary importance was also attained by a school at [[Nehar Pekod|Nehar-Pekod]], founded by the Judean immigrant Hananiah, nephew of [[Joshua ben Hananiah]], which school might have been the cause of a schism between the Jews of Babylonia and those of Judea-Israel, had not the Judean authorities promptly checked Hananiah's ambition.

=== Byzantine period (324–638 CE) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}}

Jews were also widespread throughout the Roman Empire, and this carried on to a lesser extent in the period of Byzantine rule in the central and eastern Mediterranean. The militant and exclusive Christianity and [[caesaropapism]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] did not treat Jews well, and the condition and influence of diaspora Jews in the Empire declined dramatically.

It was official Christian policy to convert Jews to Christianity, and the Christian leadership used the official power of Rome in their attempts. In 351 CE the Jews revolted against the added pressures of their governor, [[Constantius Gallus]]. Gallus put down the revolt and destroyed the major cities in the Galilee area where the revolt had started. Tzippori and Lydda (site of two of the major legal academies) never recovered.

In this period, the Nasi in Tiberias, [[Hillel II]], created an official calendar, which needed no monthly sightings of the moon. The months were set, and the calendar needed no further authority from Judea. At about the same time, the Jewish academy at Tiberius began to collate the combined Mishnah, [[braitot]], explanations, and interpretations developed by generations of scholars who studied after the death of [[Judah HaNasi]]. The text was organized according to the order of the Mishna: each paragraph of Mishnah was followed by a compilation of all of the interpretations, stories, and responses associated with that Mishnah. This text is called the ''[[Jerusalem Talmud]].''

The Jews of Judea received a brief respite from official persecution during the rule of the Emperor [[Julian the Apostate]]. Julian's policy was to return the Roman Empire to Hellenism, and he encouraged the Jews to rebuild Jerusalem. As Julian's rule lasted only from 361 to 363, the Jews could not rebuild sufficiently before Roman Christian rule was restored over the Empire. Beginning in 398 with the consecration of [[St. John Chrysostom]] as [[Patriarch]], Christian rhetoric against Jews grew sharper; he preached sermons with titles such as &quot;Against the Jews&quot; and &quot;On the Statues, Homily 17&quot;, in which John preaches against &quot;the Jewish sickness&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Wendy Mayer and [[Pauline Allen]], ''John Chrysostom: The Early Church Fathers'' (London, 2000), pp. 113, 146.&lt;/ref&gt; Such heated language contributed to a climate of Christian distrust and hate toward the large Jewish settlements, such as those in [[Antioch]] and [[Constantinople]].

In the beginning of the 5th century, the [[Emperor Theodosius]] issued a set of decrees establishing official persecution of Jews. Jews were not allowed to own slaves, build new synagogues, hold public office or try cases between a Jew and a non-Jew. Intermarriage between Jew and non-Jew was made a capital offence, as was the conversion of Christians to Judaism. Theodosius did away with the [[Sanhedrin]] and abolished the post of [[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]]. Under the [[Emperor Justinian]], the authorities further restricted the civil rights of Jews,&lt;ref&gt;Cod., I., v. 12&lt;/ref&gt; and threatened their religious privileges.&lt;ref&gt;Procopius, ''Historia Arcana'', 28&lt;/ref&gt; The emperor interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue,&lt;ref&gt;Nov., cxlvi., February 8, 553&lt;/ref&gt; and forbade, for instance, the use of the Hebrew language in divine worship. Those who disobeyed the restrictions were threatened with corporal penalties, exile, and loss of property. The Jews at Borium, not far from Syrtis Major, who resisted the Byzantine general [[Belisarius]] in his campaign against the [[Vandals]], were forced to embrace Christianity, and their synagogue was converted to a church.&lt;ref&gt;Procopius, ''De Aedificiis'', vi. 2&lt;/ref&gt;

Justinian and his successors had concerns outside the province of Judea, and he had insufficient troops to enforce these regulations. As a result, the 5th century was a period when a wave of new synagogues were built, many with beautiful mosaic floors. Jews adopted the rich art forms of the Byzantine culture. Jewish mosaics of the period portray people, animals, menorahs, zodiacs, and Biblical characters. Excellent examples of these synagogue floors have been found at Beit Alpha (which includes the scene of Abraham sacrificing a ram instead of his son Isaac along with a zodiac), Tiberius, Beit Shean, and Tzippori.

The precarious existence of Jews under Byzantine rule did not long endure, largely due to the explosion of the Muslim religion out of the remote Arabian peninsula (where large populations of Jews resided, see [[History of the Jews under Muslim Rule]] for more). The [[Muslim]] [[Caliphate]] ejected the Byzantines from the Holy Land (or the Levant, defined as modern Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria) within a few years of their victory at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] in 636. Numerous Jews fled the remaining Byzantine territories in favour of residence in the Caliphate over the subsequent centuries.

The size of the Jewish community in the Byzantine Empire was not affected by attempts by some emperors to forcibly convert the Jews of Anatolia to Christianity, as these attempts met with very little success.&lt;ref&gt;[[G. Ostrogorsky]], ''History of the Byzantine State''&lt;/ref&gt; Historians continue to research the status of the Jews in Asia Minor under Byzantine rule. (for a sample of views, see, for instance, J. Starr ''The Jews in the Byzantine Empire, 641–1204''; S. Bowman, ''The Jews of Byzantium''; R. Jenkins ''Byzantium''; Averil Cameron, &quot;Byzantines and Jews: Recent Work on Early Byzantium&quot;, ''Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies'' 20 (1996)). No systematic persecution of the type endemic at that time in Western Europe (pogroms, the stake, mass [[Expulsions and exoduses of Jews|expulsions]], etc.) has been recorded in Byzantium.&lt;ref&gt;''The Oxford History of Byzantium'', C. Mango (Ed) (2002)&lt;/ref&gt; Much of the Jewish population of Constantinople remained in place after the conquest of the city by [[Mehmet II]].{{citation needed|date=November 2013}}

&lt;gallery widths=&quot;180&quot;&gt;
File:Roman. Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog, 6th century C.E.jpg|''Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog'', 6th century [[Brooklyn Museum]]
File:Beit alfa01.jpg|Mosaic pavement of a synagogue at [[Beit Alpha]] (5th century)
File:ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg|Mosaic in the [[Tzippori Synagogue]] (5th century)
File:Hammat Gader.JPG|Mosaic pavement recovered from the [[Hamat Gader]] synagogue (5th or 6th century)
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Diaspora communities ===
[[File:Arrival of the Jewish pilgrims at Coachin, A.D. 68.jpg|thumb|Arrival of the Jewish pilgrims at Cochin, 68 CE]]
Cochin Jewish tradition holds that the roots of their community go back to the arrival of Jews at [[Kodungallur|Shingly]] in 72 CE, after the [[Destruction of the Second Temple]]. It also states that a Jewish kingdom, understood to mean the granting of autonomy by a local [[Tamils|Tamil]] king, [[Cheraman Perumal Nayanar]], to the community, under their leader Joseph Rabban, in 379 CE. The first synagogue there was built in 1568. The legend of the founding of Indian [[Christianity in Kerala]] by [[Thomas the Apostle]] relates that on his arrival there, he encountered a local girl who understood Hebrew.&lt;ref&gt;Nathan Katz, [https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA22 ''Who Are the Jews of India?,''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160937/https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA22|date=April 9, 2023}} [[University of California Press]], 2000 {{isbn|978-0-520-92072-9}} pp. 13–14, 17–18&lt;/ref&gt;

Perhaps in the 4th century, the [[Kingdom of Semien]], a Jewish nation in modern [[Beta Israel|Ethiopia]] was established, lasting until the 17th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exploring a Forgotten Jewish Land – Archaeology Magazine |url=https://www.archaeology.org/issues/498-2301/letter-from/11057-ethiopia-beta-israel |access-date=November 9, 2023 |website=www.archaeology.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وچين دور==
===اسلامي دور===
[[File:Education (T-S K5.13) (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|قاهره جينيزا جو ٽڪرو، ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي لائبريري&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Cairo Genizah : Education|url=https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-TS-K-00005-00013|access-date=2025-10-18|website=Cambridge Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
سال 638 عيسوي ۾ [[بازنطيني سلطنت]] [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سر زمين شام]] جو ڪنٽرول وڃائي ڇڏيو. خليفي [[عمر بن خطاب|عمر]] [[عمر بن خطاب|رضي الله تعالى عنه]] جي اڳواڻي ۾ [[پهرين اسلامي رياست|عرب اسلامي سلطنت]] [[يروشلم]]، [[ميسوپوٽيميا]]، [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سر زمين شام]] ([[شام]]، [[اردن]] ۽ [[فلسطين]]) ۽ [[مصر]] جي زمينن کي فتح ڪيو. هڪ سياسي نظام جي طور تي، [[اسلام]] يهودين جي معاشي، سماجي ۽ ذهني ترقي لاءِ بنيادي طور تي نوان حالات پيدا ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;Ehrlich, Mark. ''Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1''. ABC-CLIO, 2009, p. 152.({{ISBN|978-1-85109-873-6}})&lt;/ref&gt;عمر رضي الله تعالى عنه يهودين کي، 500 سالن جي وقفي کان پوءِ، [[يروشلم]] ۾ پنهنجي موجودگي کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني (ڏسو:عمر جي يقين دهاني).&lt;ref name=&quot;Bashan-20072&quot;&gt;{{cite EJ|last=Bashan|first=Eliezer|volume=15|page=419|title=Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي روايتون عمر کي هڪ مهربان حڪمران جي طور تي ڏسي ٿي ۽ مدراش (&lt;small&gt;نست&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;اروت دي-راو شمعون بار يوحائي&lt;/small&gt;) کيس &quot;بني اسرائيل جي دوست&quot; طور حوالو ڏئي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bashan-20073&quot;&gt;{{cite EJ|last=Bashan|first=Eliezer|volume=15|page=419|title=Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

عرب جاگرافيدان المقدسي جي مطابق، &lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land|author=Joseph E. Katz|year=2001|publisher=EretzYisroel.Org|access-date=August 12, 2012|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي &quot;سڪن جي چڪاس ڪندڙ، رنگ ڪندڙ، چمڙي جا ماهر ۽ مهاجن&quot; طور ڪم ڪندا هئا. [[فاطمي خلافت|فاطمي دور]] ۾، ڪيترن ئي يهودي عملدارن حڪومت ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏنيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-20013&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land|author=Joseph E. Katz|year=2001|publisher=EretzYisroel.Org|access-date=August 12, 2012|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; پروفيسر موشئ گل جو خيال آهي، ته 7هين صدي ۾ عرب فتح جي وقت، يروشلم جي آبادي جي اڪثريت عيسائي ۽ يهودي هئي.&lt;ref&gt;Moshe Gil, ''A History of Palestine: 634–1099'' pp. 170, 220–221.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن وقت دوران يهودي سڄي قديم بابل ۾ خوشحال برادرين ۾ رهندا هئا. جيونڪ دور (650-1250 عيسوي) ۾، بابلي يشيوا اڪيڊميون يهودي سکيا جا مکيه مرڪز هئا. جيونم (جن جو معنيٰ آهي &quot;شان&quot; يا &quot;جينيئس&quot;) انهن اسڪولن جا سربراهه هئا. انهن کي يهودي قانون ۾ اعليٰ اختيارين طور تسليم ڪيو ويو. 7هين صدي ۾، غير مسلمن جي زمينن تي حڪمران جزيو (&lt;small&gt;Poll&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Tax&lt;/small&gt;) عائد ڪيو، جن جي ڪري بابلي يهودين جي ڳوٺاڻن علائقن مان [[بغداد]] جهڙن شهرن ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. ان جي نتيجي ۾ يهودي برادري ۾ وڌيڪ دولت ۽ بين الاقوامي اثر ۽ انهي سان گڏ يهودي مفڪرن جو هڪ وڌيڪ عالمگير نقطه نظر،جهڙوڪ سعديه گاون، جيڪو هاڻي پهريون ڀيرو مغربي فلسفي سان تمام گهڻي دلچسپي رکن ٿا، پيدا ٿيو.  جڏهن 10هين صدي ۾ [[عباسي خلافت]] ۽ بغداد شهر جو زوال ٿيو، ڪيترائي بابلي يهودي [[رومي (ڀونوچ) سمنڊ|رومي ڀونوچ سمنڊ]] جي علائقن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪيا. سڄي يهودي دنيا ۾ بابلي يهودي رسمن جي پکيڙ ۾ حصو ورتو.&lt;ref&gt;[[Marina Rustow]], [http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/ Baghdad in the West: Migration and the Making of Medieval Jewish Traditions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711065105/http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/|date=July 11, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور (711-1031) ===
&lt;nowiki&gt;{{اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[[اندلس]] ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور [[يُورَپ|يورپ]] ۾ [[وچون دور|وچين دور]] سان گڏ هو، جيڪو سڃي [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|جزيري نما آئبيريا]] تي مسلمانن جي حڪمراني جو دور هو.

=== Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain (711–1031) ===
{{Main|Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain}}
The golden age of Jewish culture in Spain coincided with the [[Middle Ages]] in Europe, a period of [[Al-Andalus|Muslim rule]] throughout much of the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. During that time, Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed.

A period of tolerance thus dawned for the Jews of the [[Iberian Peninsula]], whose number was considerably augmented by immigration from Africa in the wake of the Muslim conquest. Especially after 912, during the reign of [[Abd-ar-Rahman III]] and his son, [[al-Hakam II]], the Jews prospered, devoting themselves to the service of the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]], to the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially to trading in silk and slaves, in this way promoting the prosperity of the country. Jewish economic expansion was unparalleled. In [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], Jews were involved in translating Arabic texts to the [[Romance languages]], as well as translating Greek and Hebrew texts into Arabic. Jews also contributed to botany, geography, medicine, mathematics, poetry and philosophy.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sephardim Archived September 7&quot;&gt;[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html Sephardim] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |date=September 7, 2012 }} by Rebecca Weiner.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ahmed, M.I. Muslim-Jewish Harmony: A Politically-Contingent Reality. Religions 2022, 13, 535. {{doi|10.3390/rel13060535|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to [[Bernard Lewis]]:

{{Blockquote|Generally, the Jewish people were allowed to practice their religion and live according to the laws and scriptures of their community. Furthermore, the restrictions to which they were subject were social and symbolic rather than tangible and practical in character. That is to say, these regulations served to define the relationship between the two communities, and not to oppress the Jewish population.&lt;ref&gt;Lewis, Bernard W (1984). ''The Jews of Islam''&lt;/ref&gt;|}}

'Abd al-Rahman's court physician and minister was Hasdai ben Isaac ibn Shaprut, the patron of Menahem ben Saruq, Dunash ben Labrat, and other Jewish scholars and poets. Jewish thought during this period flourished under famous figures such as Samuel Ha-Nagid, Moses ibn Ezra, Solomon ibn Gabirol [[Judah Halevi]] and [[Moses Maimonides]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Sephardim Archived September 7&quot; /&gt; During 'Abd al-Rahman's term of power, the scholar [[Moses ben Enoch]] was appointed [[rabbi]] of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], and as a consequence [[al-Andalus]] became the centre of Talmudic study, and [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] the meeting-place of Jewish savants.

The Golden Age ended with the invasion of al-Andalus by the [[Almohads]], a conservative dynasty originating in North Africa, who were highly intolerant of religious minorities.

=== Jews and the Crusades (1099–1260) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews and the Crusades}}
{{See also|Siege of Jerusalem (1099)}}
[[File:1099jerusalem.jpg|thumb|left|[[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|Capture of Jerusalem]], 1099]]
Sermonical messages to avenge the death of Jesus encouraged Christians to participate in the Crusades. The 12th-century Jewish narration from R. Solomon ben Samson records that crusaders en route to the Holy Land decided that before combating the Ishmaelites they would massacre the Jews residing in their midst to avenge the [[crucifixion of Christ]]. The massacres began at [[Rouen]] and Jewish communities in [[Rhine Valley]] were seriously affected.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/413 413]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Crusading attacks were made upon Jews in the territory around Heidelberg. A huge loss of Jewish life took place. Many were forcibly converted to Christianity and many committed suicide to avoid baptism. A major driving factor behind the choice to commit suicide was the Jewish realisation that upon being slain their children could be taken to be raised as Christians. The Jews were living in the middle of Christian lands and felt this danger acutely.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/416 416]}}&lt;/ref&gt; This massacre is seen as the first in a sequence of antisemitic events which culminated in the Holocaust.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=David Nirenberg |editor=Gerd Althoff |others=Johannes Fried |title=Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual, Memory, Historiography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MxS6-pQZzGsC&amp;pg=PA279 |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-78066-7 |pages=279–}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jewish populations felt that they had been abandoned by their Christian neighbours and rulers during the massacres and lost faith in all promises and charters.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/419 419]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Many Jews chose self-defence. But their means of self-defence were limited and their casualties only increased. Most of the forced conversions proved ineffective. Many Jews reverted to their original faith later. The pope protested this but Emperor Henry IV agreed to permitting these reversions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot; /&gt; The massacres began a new epoch for Jewry in Christendom. The Jews had preserved their faith from social pressure, now they had to preserve it at sword point. The massacres during the crusades strengthened Jewry from within spiritually. The Jewish perspective was that their struggle was Israel's struggle to hallow the name of God.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/414 414]–}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1099, Jews helped the Arabs to defend Jerusalem against the [[Crusaders]]. When the city fell, the Crusaders gathered many Jews in a synagogue and set it on fire.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot; /&gt; In Haifa, the Jews almost single-handedly defended the town against the Crusaders, holding out for a month, (June–July 1099).&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html |title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land |author=Joseph E. Katz |year=2001 |publisher=EretzYisroel.Org |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=January 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; At this time there were Jewish communities scattered all over the country, including Jerusalem, Tiberias, Ramleh, Ashkelon, Caesarea, and [[Gaza City|Gaza]]. As Jews were not allowed to hold land during the Crusader period, they worked at trades and commerce in the coastal towns during times of quiescence. Most were artisans: glassblowers in [[Sidon]], furriers and dyers in Jerusalem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot; /&gt;

During this period, the [[Masoretes]] of Tiberias established the ''[[niqqud]]'', a system of [[diacritic]]s used to represent vowels or distinguish between alternative pronunciations of letters of the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. Numerous [[piyutim]] and [[midrash]]im were recorded in Palestine at this time.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot; /&gt;

[[Maimonides]] wrote that in 1165 he visited Jerusalem and went to the Temple Mount, where he prayed in the &quot;great, holy house&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Sefer HaCharedim Mitzvat Tshuva Chapter 3&lt;/ref&gt; Maimonides established a yearly holiday for himself and his sons, the 6th of [[Cheshvan]], commemorating the day he went up to pray on the Temple Mount, and another, the 9th of Cheshvan, commemorating the day he merited to pray at the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]] in [[Hebron]].

In 1141 [[Yehuda Halevi]] issued a call to Jews to emigrate to Palestine and took on the long journey himself. After a stormy passage from [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]], he arrived in Egyptian [[Alexandria]], where he was enthusiastically greeted by friends and admirers. At [[Damietta]], he had to struggle against his heart, and the pleadings of his friend Ḥalfon ha-Levi, that he remain in Egypt, where he would be free from intolerant oppression. He started on the rough route overland. He was met along the way by Jews in [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] and [[Damascus]]. Jewish legend relates that as he came near Jerusalem, overpowered by the sight of the Holy City, he sang his most beautiful elegy, the celebrated &quot;Zionide&quot; (''Zion ha-lo Tish'ali''). At that instant, an Arab had galloped out of a gate and rode him down; he was killed in the accident.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}}

=== Mamluk period (1260–1517) ===
[[Nahmanides]] is recorded as settling in the Old City of Jerusalem in 1267. He moved to [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], where he was active in spreading Jewish learning, which was at that time neglected in the Holy Land. He gathered a circle of pupils around him, and people came in crowds, even from the district of the Euphrates, to hear him. [[Karaite Judaism|Karaites]] were said to have attended his lectures, among them Aaron ben Joseph the Elder. He later became one of the greatest [[Karaite (Jewish sect)|Karaite]] authorities. Shortly after Nahmanides' arrival in Jerusalem, he addressed a letter to his son Nahman, in which he described the desolation of the Holy City. At the time, it had only two Jewish inhabitants—two brothers, dyers by trade. In a later letter from Acre, Nahmanides counsels his son to cultivate humility, which he considers to be the first of virtues. In another, addressed to his second son, who occupied an official position at the [[Crown of Castile|Castilian]] court, Nahmanides recommends the recitation of the daily prayers and warns above all against immorality. Nahmanides died after reaching seventy-six, and his remains were interred at [[Haifa]], by the grave of [[Yechiel of Paris]].

Yechiel had [[aliyah|emigrated]] to Acre in 1260, along with his son and a large group of followers.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html |title=Jewish Zionist Education |publisher=Jafi.org.il |date=May 15, 2005 |access-date=August 13, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013142810/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html |archive-date=October 13, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf |title=Hadrat Melech |access-date=April 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502035808/http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf |archive-date=May 2, 2014 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; There he established the Talmudic academy ''Midrash haGadol d'Paris''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&amp;content=content/segal_ch17 |title=Section III: The Biblical Age: Chapter Seventeen: Awaiting the Messiah |author=Benjamin J. Segal |work=Returning, the Land of Israel as a Focus in Jewish History |publisher=JewishHistory.com |access-date=August 12, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227184802/http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&amp;content=content%2Fsegal_ch17 |archive-date=February 27, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; He is believed to have died there between 1265 and 1268. In 1488 [[Obadiah ben Abraham]], commentator on the [[Mishnah]], arrived in Jerusalem; this marked a new period of return for the Jewish community in the land.

==== Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East ====
{{Main|History of the Jews in Spain}}
{{See also|Islam and Judaism|Mizrahi Jew|History of the Jews under Muslim rule}}
[[File:Hebrew Bible Spain.jpg|right|thumb|Sephardic Hebrew Bible from Spain, 1300&lt;ref&gt;[https://lccn.loc.gov/2021667534]&lt;/ref&gt;]]
During the Middle Ages, Jews were generally better treated by Islamic rulers than Christian ones. Despite second-class citizenship, Jews played prominent roles in Muslim courts, and experienced a Golden Age in [[Moorish Spain]] about 900–1100, though the situation deteriorated after that time. Riots resulting in the deaths of Jews did however occur in North Africa through the centuries and especially in [[Morocco]], [[Libya]] and [[Algeria]], where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos.&lt;ref&gt;Maurice Roumani, ''The Case of the Jews from Arab Countries: A Neglected Issue'', 1977, pp. 26–27.&lt;/ref&gt;

During the 11th century, Muslims in Spain conducted pogroms against the Jews; those occurred in Cordoba in 1011 and in [[1066 Granada massacre|Granada in 1066]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |title=Granada |url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |access-date=August 12, 2012 |year=1906 |archive-date=April 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412000424/https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the Middle Ages, the governments of Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen enacted decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues. At certain times, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and [[Baghdad]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_%28gen%29.html |title=The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries |author=Mitchell Bard |year=2012 |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=October 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007003054/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_(gen).html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} The [[Almohad]]s, who had taken control of much of Islamic Iberia by 1172, surpassed the [[Almoravides]] in fundamentalist outlook. They treated the ''[[dhimmi]]s'' harshly. They expelled both Jews and Christians from Morocco and Islamic Spain. Faced with the choice of death or conversion, many Jews emigrated.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=66&amp;Itemid=39 The Forgotten Refugees] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928051923/http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=66&amp;Itemid=39 |date=September 28, 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Some, such as the family of [[Maimonides]], fled south and east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |title=Sephardim |author=Rebecca Weiner |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=September 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Kraemer, Joel L., &quot;Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait,&quot; ''The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides'', pp. 16–17 (2005)&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}}

=== Europe ===
{{Main|History of European Jews in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:Mishnah (Ms. 3173; De Rossi 138), Palatina.jpg|right|thumb|11th century ''[[mishnah]]'' codex from Italy, [[Biblioteca Palatina, Parma]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=adkim |date=2014-02-28 |title=The Biblioteca Palatina and the National Library of Israel |url=https://primolevicenter.org/printed-matter/the-biblioteca-palatina-and-the-national-library-of-israel/ |access-date=2025-10-15 |website=Printed_Matter |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
According to [[James P. Carrol]], &quot;Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, James. ''[[Constantine's Sword]]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) {{ISBN|978-0-395-77927-9}} p. 26&lt;/ref&gt;

Jewish populations have existed in Europe, especially in the area of the former Roman Empire, from very early times. As Jewish males had emigrated, some sometimes took wives from local populations, as is shown by the various [[MtDNA]], compared to [[Y-DNA#Genetic genealogy|Y-DNA]] among Jewish populations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html |title=In DNA, New Clues to Jewish Roots |first=Nicholas |last=Wade |date=May 14, 2002 |work=The New York Times |access-date=June 16, 2013 |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126180104/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; These groups were joined by traders and later on by members of the diaspora.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}} Records of Jewish communities in France (see [[History of the Jews in France]]) and Germany (see [[History of the Jews in Germany]]) date from the 4th century, and substantial Jewish communities in Spain were noted even earlier.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}}

The historian [[Norman Cantor]] and other 20th-century scholars dispute the tradition that the Middle Ages was a uniformly difficult time for Jews. Before the Church became fully organized as an institution with an increasing array of rules, early medieval society was tolerant. Between 800 and 1100, an estimated 1.5 million Jews lived in Christian Europe. As they were not Christians, they were not included as a [[Estates of the realm|division]] of the feudal system of clergy, knights and serfs. This means that they did not have to satisfy the oppressive demands for labour and military conscription that Christian commoners suffered. In relations with the Christian society, the Jews were protected by kings, princes and bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: finance, administration and medicine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Norman F&quot; /&gt; The lack of political strengths did leave Jews vulnerable to exploitation through extreme taxation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Ebenhard |last=Isenmann |editor-first=Richard |editor-last=Bonney |title=The Rise of the Fiscal State in Europe c. 1200–1815 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U24lRLy_qT8C&amp;pg=PA259 |date=1999 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-154220-6 |page=259}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Christian scholars interested in the Bible consulted with Talmudic rabbis. As the Roman Catholic Church strengthened as an institution, the Franciscan and Dominican preaching orders were founded, and there was a rise of competitive middle-class, town-dwelling Christians. By 1300, the friars and local priests staged the Passion Plays during Holy Week, which depicted Jews (in contemporary dress) killing Christ, according to Gospel accounts. From this period, persecution of Jews and deportations became endemic. Around 1500, Jews found relative security and a renewal of prosperity in present-day [[Poland]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Norman F&quot;&gt;Norman F. Cantor, ''The Last Knight: The Twilight of the Middle Ages and the Birth of the Modern Era'', Free Press, 2004. {{ISBN|978-0-7432-2688-2}}, pp. 28–29&lt;/ref&gt;

After 1300, Jews suffered more discrimination and persecution in Christian Europe. Europe's Jewry was mainly urban and literate. The Christians were inclined to regard Jews as obstinate deniers of the truth because in their view the Jews were expected to know of the truth of the Christian doctrines from their knowledge of the Jewish scriptures. Jews were aware of the pressure to accept Christianity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/412 412]}}&lt;/ref&gt; As Catholics were forbidden by the church to loan money for interest, some Jews became prominent moneylenders. Christian rulers gradually saw the advantage of having such a class of people who could supply capital for their use without being liable to excommunication. As a result, the money trade of western Europe became a speciality of the Jews. But, in almost every instance when Jews acquired large amounts through banking transactions, during their lives or upon their deaths, the king would take it over.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england &quot;England&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730231726/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england |date=July 30, 2020 }}, [[Jewish Encyclopedia]] (1906)&lt;/ref&gt; Jews became imperial{{-&quot;}}[[Servi camerae regis|''servi cameræ'']]{{-&quot;}}, the property of the King, who might present them and their possessions to princes or cities.

Jews were frequently massacred and exiled from various European countries. The persecution hit its first peak during the [[Crusades]]. In the [[People's Crusade]] (1096) flourishing Jewish communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed. In the [[Second Crusade]] (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. They were also subjected to attacks by the [[Shepherds' Crusade (1251)|Shepherds' Crusades of 1251]] and [[Shepherds' Crusade (1320)|1320]]. The Crusades were followed by massive expulsions, including the [[Edict of Expulsion|expulsion of the Jews from England in 1290]];&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Robin R. |last=Mundill |title=England's Jewish Solution: Experiment and Expulsion, 1262–1290 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CSKLfi_j110C |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52026-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; in 1396 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and in 1421, thousands were expelled from Austria. Over this time many Jews in Europe, either fleeing or being expelled, migrated to Poland, where they prospered into another [[History of the Jews in Poland#Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572|Golden Age]].

In Italy, Jews were allowed to live in Venice but were required to live in a [[ghetto]], and the practice spread across Italy (see [[Cum nimis absurdum]]) and was adopted in many places in Catholic Europe. Jews outside the Ghetto often had to wear a yellow star.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121 |title=Print of Jews forced to listen to a Christian sermon – Collections Search – United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |website=collections.ushmm.org |access-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-date=November 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129142432/https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;The Jewish-Christian Encounter in Medieval Preaching, Routledge 2015, edited by Jonathan Adams and Jussi Hanska chapter 13, see page 297&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Expulsions of the Jews of Spain and Portugal ===
{{further|Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal}}
[[File:Vicente Cutanda - A los pies del Salvador.jpg|thumb|250px|''At the Feet of the Saviour'', massacre of Jews in [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], oil on canvas by [[Vicente Cutanda]] (1887)]]
[[File:Matanza de judíos en Barcelona - año 1391.jpg|thumb|250px|''Slaughter of Jews in Barcelona in 1391'' by [[Josep Segrelles]], {{circa|1910}}]]
[[File:A Expulsão dos Judeus (Roque Gameiro, Quadros da História de Portugal, 1917).png|250px|thumb|Expulsion of the Jews in 1497, in a 1917 watercolour by [[Alfredo Roque Gameiro]] ]]
[[File:Inquis1.jpg|thumb|250px|Burning of Crypto-Jews in Lisbon, Portugal]]
Significant repression of Spain's numerous community occurred during the 14th century, notably a [[History of the Jews in Spain#Massacres and mass conversions of 1391|major pogrom in 1391]] which resulted in the majority of Spain's 300,000 Jews converting to Catholicism. With the [[Granada War|conquest of the Muslim Kingdom of Granada]] in 1492, the Catholic monarchs issued the [[Alhambra Decree]], and Spain's remaining 100,000 Jews were forced to choose between conversion and exile. The expulsion of the Jews of Spain, is regarded by Jews as the worst catastrophe between the destruction of Jerusalem in 73 CE and the [[Holocaust]] of the 1940s.&lt;ref&gt;European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 1550–1750 by Jonathan Israel, chapter 1 Exodus from the West (page 25)&lt;/ref&gt;

As a result, an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 Jews left Spain, the remainder joining Spain's already numerous [[Converso]] community. Perhaps a quarter of a million Conversos thus were gradually absorbed by the dominant Catholic culture, although those among them who secretly practised Judaism were subject to 40 years of intense repression by the [[Spanish Inquisition]]. This was particularly the case up until 1530, after which the trials of Conversos by the Inquisition dropped to 3% of the total. Similar expulsions of Sephardic Jews occurred 1493 in [[Sicily]] (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Spanish Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire and North Africa and Portugal. A small number also settled in Holland and England.

The expulsion followed a long process of expulsions and bans from what are now England, France, Germany, Austria, and Holland. In January 1492, the [[Emirate of Granada|last Muslim state]] was defeated in Spain and six months later the Jews of Spain (the largest community in the world) were required to [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|convert or leave without their property]]. 100,000 converted with many continuing to [[Marrano|secretly practice Judaism]], for which the Catholic church's inquisition (led by [[Tomás de Torquemada]]) now mandated a sentence of death by public burning. 175,000 left Spain.&lt;ref&gt;The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 138 – 144 / Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-Jews by David Martin Gitlitz, University of New Mexico 2002, pp 75 – 81&lt;/ref&gt;

Many [[Sephardi Jews|Spanish Jews]] moved to North Africa, [[History of the Jews in Poland|Poland]] and the Ottoman Empire, especially [[History of the Jews in Thessaloniki|Thessaloniki]] (now in Greece) which became the world's largest Jewish city. Some groups headed to the Middle East and Palestine, within the domains of the Ottoman Empire. About 100,000 Spanish Jews were allowed into Portugal, however five years later, their children were seized and they were given the choice of conversion or departing without them.&lt;ref&gt;The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 142 – 144&lt;/ref&gt;

==ابتدائي جديد دور==
Historians who study modern Jewry have identified four different paths by which European Jews were &quot;modernized&quot; and thus integrated into the mainstream of European society. A common approach has been to view the process through the lens of the European [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] as Jews faced the promise and the challenges posed by political emancipation. Scholars that use this approach have focused on two social types as paradigms for the decline of Jewish tradition and as agents of the sea changes in Jewish culture that led to the collapse of the [[ghetto]]. The first of these two social types is the [[Court Jew]] who is portrayed as a forerunner of the modern Jew, having achieved integration with and participation in the proto-capitalist economy and court society of central European states such as the [[Habsburg Empire]]. In contrast to the cosmopolitan Court Jew, the second social type presented by historians of modern Jewry is the ''maskil'', (learned person), a proponent of the [[Haskalah]] (Enlightenment). This narrative sees the maskil's pursuit of secular scholarship and his rationalistic critiques of rabbinic tradition as laying a durable intellectual foundation for the secularization of Jewish society and culture. The established paradigm has been one in which Ashkenazic Jews entered modernity through a self-conscious process of westernization led by &quot;highly atypical, Germanized Jewish intellectuals&quot;. Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative movements and planted the seeds of [[Zionism]] while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Reframing Jewish History |date=May 2005 |url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513 |access-date=May 24, 2011 |archive-date=September 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930222143/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
At around the same time that Haskalah was developing, [[Hasidic Judaism]] was spreading as a movement that preached a world view nearly opposed to the Haskalah.

In the 1990s, the concept of the &quot;[[Port Jew]]&quot; has been suggested as an &quot;alternate path to modernity&quot; that was distinct from the European [[Haskalah]]. In contrast to the focus on Ashkenazic Germanized Jews, the concept of the [[Port Jew]] focused on the Sephardi conversos who fled the Inquisition and resettled in European port towns on the coast of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Eastern seaboard of the United States.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fry-2002&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Port Jews: Jewish Communities in Cosmopolitan Maritime Trading Centres, 1550–1950 |first=Helen P. |last=Fry |journal=European Judaism |volume=36 |publisher=Frank Cass Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7146-8286-0 |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002650793 |quote=Port Jews were a social type, usually those who were involved in seafaring and maritime trade, who (like Court Jews) could be seen as the earliest modern Jews. Often arriving as refugees from the Inquisition, they were permitted to settle as merchants and allowed to trade openly in places such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. 'Their Diaspora connections and accumulated expertise lay in exactly the areas of overseas expansion that were then of interest to mercantilist governments.' |access-date=September 1, 2017 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160935/https://www.gale.com/databases/questia?docId=5002650793 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Court Jews ===
[[Court Jew]]s were Jewish bankers or businessmen who lent money and handled the finances of some of the Christian European noble houses. Corresponding historical terms are ''Jewish bailiff'' and ''[[shtadlan]]''.

Examples of what would be later called court Jews emerged when local rulers used services of Jewish bankers for short-term loans. They lent money to nobles and in the process gained social influence. Noble patrons of court Jews employed them as financiers, suppliers, diplomats and [[trade delegate]]s. Court Jews could use their family connections, and connections between each other, to provision their sponsors with, among other things, food, arms, ammunition and precious metals. In return for their services, court Jews gained social privileges, including up to noble status for themselves, and could live outside the Jewish ghettos. Some nobles wanted to keep their bankers in their own courts. And because they were under noble protection, they were exempted from rabbinical jurisdiction.

From medieval times, court Jews could amass personal fortunes and gained political and social influence. Sometimes they were also prominent people in the local Jewish community and could use their influence to protect and influence their brethren. Sometimes they were the only Jews who could interact with the local high society and present petitions of the Jews to the ruler. However, the court Jew had social connections and influence in the Christian world mainly through his Christian patrons. Due to the precarious position of Jews, some nobles could just ignore their debts. If the sponsoring noble died, his Jewish financier could face exile or execution.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

=== Port Jews ===

The [[Port Jew]] is a descriptive term for Jews who were involved in the seafaring and maritime economy of Europe, especially during the 17th and 18th centuries. Helen Fry suggests that they can be considered &quot;the earliest modern Jews&quot;. According to Fry, Port Jews frequently arrived as &quot;refugees from the Inquisition&quot; and the expulsion of Jews from Iberia. They were allowed to settle in port cities because merchants granted them permission to trade in ports such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. Fry notes that their connections to the [[Jewish Diaspora]] and their expertise in maritime trade made them particularly valuable to the mercantilist governments of Europe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fry-2002&quot; /&gt; Lois Dubin describes Port Jews as Jewish merchants who were &quot;valued for their engagement in the international maritime trade upon which such cities thrived&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Dubin, ''The port Jews of Habsburg Trieste: absolutist politics and enlightenment culture'', Stanford University Press, 1999, p. 47&lt;/ref&gt; Sorkin and others have characterized the socio-cultural profile of these men as marked by a flexibility towards religion and a &quot;reluctant cosmopolitanism that was alien to both traditional and 'enlightened' Jewish identities&quot;.

From the 16th to the 18th century, Jewish merchants dominated the chocolate and vanilla trade, exporting to Jewish centres across Europe, mainly Amsterdam, Bayonne, Bordeaux, Hamburg and Livorno.&lt;ref&gt;Encyclopedia of Jewish Food, Gil Marks, HMH, November 17, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ottoman Empire ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire}}

During the Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600), the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well in diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews were the most prominent under the ''[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millets']]'', the apogee of Jewish influence could arguably be the appointment of [[Joseph Nasi]] to [[Sanjak-bey]] (governor, a rank usually only held by Muslims) of the island of [[Naxos]].&lt;ref&gt;Charles Issawi &amp; Dmitri Gondicas; ''Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism'', Princeton, (1999)&lt;/ref&gt;

At the time of the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] when the Levant passed under Muslim Rule, thirty Jewish communities existed in Haifa, Sh'chem, Hebron, Ramleh, Gaza, Jerusalem, and many in the north. Safed became a spiritual centre for the Jews and the [[Shulchan Aruch]] was compiled there as well as many Kabbalistic texts. The first Hebrew printing press, and the first printing in Western Asia began in 1577.

Jews lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey, but more geographically either Anatolia or Asia Minor) for more than 2,400 years. Initial prosperity in Hellenistic times had faded under Christian Byzantine rule, but recovered somewhat under the rule of the various Muslim governments that displaced and succeeded rule from Constantinople. For much of the Ottoman period, Turkey was a safe haven for Jews fleeing persecution, and it continues to have a small Jewish population today. The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economical prosperity at times but were widely persecuted at other times was summarised by G. E. Von Grunebaum:

&lt;blockquote&gt;It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizeable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms.&lt;ref&gt;G. E. Von Grunebaum, ''Eastern Jewry Under Islam'', 1971, p. 369.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Russia, Poland, and Eastern Europe ===
{{Further|History of the Jews in Poland|History of the Jews in Russia|History of the Jews in Ukraine|History of the Jews in Lithuania|History of the Jews in Romania}}
{{expand section|date=October 2025}}

In the 17th century, there were many significant Jewish populations in Western and Central Europe. The relatively tolerant Poland had the largest Jewish population in Europe that dated back to the 13th century, and enjoyed relative prosperity and freedom for nearly four hundred years. However, the calm situation ended when Polish and Lithuanian Jews of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] were slaughtered in the hundreds of thousands by Ukrainian Cossacks during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] (1648) and by the [[Swedish wars]] (1655). Driven by these and other persecutions, some Jews moved back to Western Europe in the 17th century, notably to [[Amsterdam]]. The last ban on Jewish residency in a European nation was revoked in 1654, but periodic expulsions from individual cities still occurred, and Jews were often restricted from land ownership, or forced to live in [[ghetto]]s.

With the [[Partitions of Poland]] in the late 18th century, the Polish-Jewish population was split between the [[Russian Empire]], [[Austria-Hungary]], and German [[Prussia]], which divided Poland among themselves.

=== European Enlightenment and Haskalah (18th century) ===
[[File:Moritz Daniel Oppenheim--Lavater and Lessing Visit Moses Mendelssohn--1856--Magnes Collection.jpg|thumb|right|[[Moses Mendelssohn]] (in red coat), Lavater (at right) and Lessing (standing), in an imaginary portrait by the Jewish artist [[Moritz Daniel Oppenheim]] (1856), [[Magnes Collection of Jewish Art and Life]]]]
During the period of the [[European Renaissance]] and Enlightenment, significant changes occurred within the Jewish community. The [[Haskalah]] movement paralleled the wider Enlightenment, as Jews in the 18th century began to campaign for emancipation from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society. Secular and scientific education was added to the traditional religious instruction received by students, and interest in a national Jewish identity, including a revival in the study of Jewish history and Hebrew, started to grow. Among the prominient Haskalah intellectuals were [[Moses Mendelssohn]], [[Naphtali Hirz Wessely]], [[Isaac Satanow]] and [[Isaac Euchel]].

Haskalah gave birth to the [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] movements in Judaism and planted the seeds of [[Zionism]] while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.

At around the same time another movement was born, one preaching almost the opposite of Haskalah, [[Hasidic Judaism]]. Hasidic Judaism began in the 18th century by [[Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov]], and quickly gained a following with its more exuberant, mystical approach to religion. These two movements, and the traditional orthodox approach to Judaism from which they spring, formed the basis for the modern divisions within Jewish observance.

At the same time, the outside world was changing, and debates began over the potential emancipation of the Jews (granting them equal rights). The first country to do so was France, during the [[French Revolution]] in 1789. Even so, Jews were expected to assimilate, not continue their traditions. This ambivalence is demonstrated in the famous speech of [[Clermont-Tonnerre]] before the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]] in 1789:

&lt;blockquote&gt;We must refuse everything to the Jews as a nation and accord everything to Jews as individuals. We must withdraw recognition from their judges; they should only have our judges. We must refuse legal protection to the maintenance of the so-called laws of their Judaic organization; they should not be allowed to form in the state either a political body or an order. They must be citizens individually. But, some will say to me, they do not want to be citizens. Well then! If they do not want to be citizens, they should say so, and then, we should banish them. It is repugnant to have in the state an association of non-citizens, and a nation within the nation...&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Hasidic Judaism ===
{{See also|Mitnagdim}}
[[File:Maurycy Gottlieb - Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur.jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|Hasidic Jews praying in the synagogue on [[Yom Kippur]], by [[Maurycy Gottlieb]]]]

[[Hasidic Judaism]] is a branch of [[Orthodox Judaism]] that promotes spirituality and joy through the popularisation and internalization of [[Jewish mysticism]] as the fundamental aspects of the [[Jewish faith]]. Hasidism comprises part of contemporary [[Ultra-Orthodox]] Judaism, alongside the previous Talmudic [[Lithuanian Jews|Lithuanian-Yeshiva]] approach and the Oriental [[Sephardi Judaism|Sephardi]] tradition. It was founded in 18th-century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel [[Baal Shem Tov]] as a reaction against overly [[Talmud|legalistic]] Judaism. Opposite to this, Hasidic teachings cherished the sincerity and concealed holiness of the unlettered common folk, and their equality with the scholarly elite. The emphasis on the [[Immanent]] Divine presence in everything gave new value to prayer and deeds of kindness, alongside Rabbinic supremacy of [[Torah study|study]], and replaced historical [[Kabbalah|mystical (kabbalistic)]] and [[Musar literature|ethical (musar)]] [[Asceticism in Judaism|asceticism]] and [[Maggid|admonishment]] with optimism, encouragement, and daily [[Deveikut|fervour]]. This populist emotional revival accompanied the elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine [[Panentheism]], through intellectual articulation of inner dimensions of mystical thought. The adjustment of Jewish values sought to add to required standards of ritual [[Halacha|observance]], while relaxing others where inspiration predominated. Its communal gatherings celebrate soulful [[Nigun|song]] and [[Yiddish literature#Hasidic and Haskalah literature|storytelling]] as forms of mystical devotion.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

==اڻويهين صدي==
[[File:Napoleon stellt den israelitischen Kult wieder her, 30. Mai 1806.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|An 1806 French print depicts [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] emancipating the Jews.]]
Though persecution still existed, [[Jewish emancipation]] spread throughout Europe in the 19th century. [[Napoleon]] invited Jews to leave the [[Jewish ghettos in Europe]] and seek refuge in the newly created tolerant political regimes that offered equality under Napoleonic Law (see [[Napoleon and the Jews]]). Gradually all European nations established in constitutions the principle of equality under the law and abolished all restrictions for Jews.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;&gt;[https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-in-history-the-era-of-nationalism-1800-1918 Antisemitism in History: The Era of Nationalism, 1800–1918]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/emancipation Emancipation]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-emancipation-in-western-europe/ Jewish Emancipation in Western Europe]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://d-nb.info/1175689041/34 Jewish Emancipation in the 18th and 19th Centuries]&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Antisemiticroths.jpg|thumb|A caricature by [[Charles Lucien Léandre]] (France, 1898) showing [[Rothschild family|Rothschild]] with the world in his hands]]
Jews now could own land and enter the civil service. The abolition of restraints on political activism and the broadening of the electoral franchise on the basis of citizenship, not religion, made Jews most visible among [[liberalism|liberal]], [[Radical politics|radical]], and [[Marxism|Marxist]] ([[Social Democracy|Social Democratic]]) political parties.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;/&gt;

For centuries, so-called [[court Jew]]s acted as the principal financiers for the European aristocracys. In the 1760s, one of them, [[Mayer Amschel Rothschild]], established a banking business in Germany that eventually became a vast international conglomerate and yield one of the largest family fortunes in world history. Thus the name of the [[Rothschilds]] became synonymous with Jewish financial power. Across Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, other Jews also created a number of influential banks.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/usury-and-moneylending-in-judaism/ Jews and Finance]&lt;/ref&gt;

The most important branch of Jewish economic life in Eastern Europe was trade. While most remained small shopkeepers, stallholders, and peddlers, others became owners of department stores and shopping arcades. During the 19th century Jews began to move from rural regions to cities, this contributed to the decline of traditional Jewish tavernkeeping. Jews made up a considerable proportion of all craftsmen in the [[Russian Empire]] and [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] during the 19th century, but with the spread of industrialization large factories tended to squeeze out small Jewish-run workshops, and only limited numbers of Jews became employees in these modern factories. Jews were considered less desirable employees since they did not want to work on Saturdays and tended to organize into unions to demand improved working conditions, the foundation of the [[General Jewish Labour Bund|Bund]] in the Russian Empire in 1897 strengthened this process.&lt;ref name=&quot;Economic Life&quot;&gt;[https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/7 Economic Life]&lt;/ref&gt;

The economic achivements of Jews in the 19th century created the impression for some that Jews were being overrepresented in such lucrative occupations as finance, banking, trade, industry, medicine, law, journalism, art, music, literature, and theater. Despite increasing integration of the Jews with secular society, a new form of [[antisemitism]] emerged, [[Racial antisemitism|based on the ideas of race and nationhood]] rather than the religious hatred of the Middle Ages. This form of antisemitism held that Jews were a separate and inferior race from the [[Aryan]] people of Western Europe, and led to the emergence of political parties in France, Germany, and [[Austria-Hungary]] that campaigned on a platform of rolling back emancipation. This form of antisemitism emerged frequently in European culture, most famously in the [[Dreyfus Trial]] in France.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://evolve.reconstructingjudaism.org/anti-semitism-europe-history/ Antisemitism in Europe and America in the Modern Period: Historical Perspectives]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.quest-cdecjournal.it/anti-jewish-prejudices-antisemitic-ideologies-open-violence-antisemitism-in-european-comparison-from-the-1870s-to-the-first-world-war-a-commentary/ Anti-Jewish Prejudices, Antisemitic Ideologies, Open Violence: Antisemitism in European Comparison from the 1870s to the First World War. A Commentary]&lt;/ref&gt;

During this period, Jewish migration to the United States (see [[American Jews]]) created a large new community mostly freed of the restrictions of Europe. Over 2 million Jews arrived in the United States between 1890 and 1924, most from the Russian Empire and Galicia. A similar case occurred in the southern tip of the continent, specifically in the countries of [[Argentina]] and [[Uruguay]].

==ويهين صدي==
===جديد صيهونيت===
[[File:Herzl on a balcony full.jpg|thumb|Theodor Herzl, visionary of the Jewish State, in Basel, photographed during [[World Zionist Congress|Fifth Zionist Congress]] in December 1901, by [[Ephraim Moses Lilien]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Theodor Herzl Signed Photograph, Basel, Switzerland {{!}} Shapell Manuscript Foundation |url=https://www.shapell.org/manuscript/theodor-herzl-signed-photograph-basel-switzerland/ |website=Shapell |access-date=May 10, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to [[Ottoman Syria]] with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and fulfilling the biblical prophecies related to [[Shivat Tzion]]. In 1882 the first Zionist settlement—[[Rishon LeZion]]—was founded by immigrants who belonged to the &quot;[[Hovevei Zion]]&quot; movement. Later on, the &quot;[[Bilu (movement)|Bilu]]&quot; movement established many other settlements in Palestine.

The Zionist movement was officially founded after the [[Kattowitz convention]] (1884) and the [[World Zionist Congress]] (1897), and it was [[Theodor Herzl]] who initiated the struggle to establish a state for the Jews.

After the [[First World War]], it seemed that the conditions that made it possible for the Jews to establish such a state had arrived: The United Kingdom captured [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] from the Ottoman Empire, and the Jews received the promise of a &quot;National Home&quot; from the British in the form of the [[Balfour Declaration]] of 1917, given to [[Chaim Weizmann]].

In 1920, the British Mandate of Palestine was established and the pro-Jewish [[Herbert Samuel]] was appointed High Commissioner of Palestine, the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] was established and several large Jewish immigration waves to Palestine occurred. The Arab inhabitants of Palestine grew hostile to increasing Jewish immigration, and as a result, they began to express their opposition to the establishment of Jewish settlements and the pro-Jewish policy of the British government.

New Jewish immigrants began to create militias and paramilitary groups such as the [[Bar-Giora]] and [[Hashomer]].

Clashes between Jews and Arabs became more frequent. After the [[1920 Nebi Musa riots]], the Jewish leadership in Palestine believed that the British had little desire to involve themselves in these clashes and maintain order. Believing that they could not rely on the British administration for protection, the Jewish leadership created the [[Haganah]] and [[Irgun]] paramilitary organizations in order to protect its community's farms and [[Kibbutz]]im.

These paramilitary organization were involved in major riots, such as the [[Jaffa riots (May 1921)|Jaffa riots]], [[1929 Palestine riots]] and the [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine]]. Arabs, Jews and Britons suffered in this violence.

Due to the increasing violence, the United Kingdom gradually started to backtrack from its original idea of supporting the establishment of a Jewish homeland and it also started to speculate on a [[binational solution]] to the crisis or the establishment of an Arab state that would have a Jewish minority.

===Jews in Europe and the United States after World War I ===
[[File:Yung-teater poster 15.jpg|thumb|Bilingual [[Polish language|Polish]]-[[Yiddish]] poster for the [[Warsaw]] [[Young Theater]]'s production of ''Mississippi'' in 1935, written by [[Leib Malach]]]]
The World War I and subsequent political changes, such as the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917 and the establishment of new nation-states after 1918, led to far-reaching consequenсes for the Jews of Eastern Europe. The authorities of the [[Soviet Union]] viewed private commerce as negative and sought to bring all trade under the aegis of state enterprises. Therefore, many Jews, who had previously made their living from trade, were forced to find other occupations. In Poland, Hungary, and Romania, the authorities adopted policies aimed at ethnicizing their national economies, aiming to exclude Jews as far as possible from the marketplace.&lt;ref name=&quot;Economic Life&quot;/&gt;

Nevertheless, the Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. In Austria in the years between the two World Wars Jews were approximately 3.5% of the population but were 27.3% of university professors. In Germany between 1918 and 1933 Jews were 0.78% of the population but were 16% of the doctors, 15% of the dentists, 25% of the lawyers, 50% of the theatre directors and occupied 80% of the leading positions in the [[Berlin stock exchange]]. In Poland in 1931 Jews were 10.2% of the population but were 56% of the doctors in private practice, 33% of the lawyers, and 24% of the pharmacists. In Russia during the period 1917–1939 Jews were approximately 1.8% of the population, while Jews were 9% of the officers in military academies, 15% of the university graduates, 11% of the doctors and 14% of the university professors.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Lynn | first1=Richard | last2=Kanazawa | first2=Satoshi | title=How to explain high Jewish achievement: The role of intelligence and values | journal=Personality and Individual Differences | date=2008 | volume=44 | issue=4 | pages=801–808 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2007.10.019 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886907003674 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Among those Jews who were generally considered the most famous were the scientist [[Albert Einstein]] and the philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. At that time, a disproportionate number of [[Nobel Prize]] winners were Jewish, as is still the case.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |publisher=jinfo.org |access-date=October 7, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== The Holocaust ===
{{Main|History of the Jews during World War II|The Holocaust}}
[[File:Rows of bodies of dead inmates fill the yard of Lager Nordhausen, a Gestapo concentration camp.jpg|thumb|Bodies of inmates of the [[Mittelbau-Dora]] Nazi concentration camp who died during [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] [[Bombing of Nordhausen in World War II|bombing raids]] on April 3 and 4, 1945]]

In 1933, with [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]]'s rise to power in Germany, the Jewish situation became more severe. [[Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic|Economic crises]], [[Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany|racial Anti-Jewish laws]], and fear of an upcoming war led many Jews to flee from Europe and settle in [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]], the United States and the Soviet Union.

In 1939, [[World War II]] began and until 1945, [[German-occupied Europe|Germany occupied almost all of Europe]], including [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|Poland]]—[[History of the Jews in Poland|where millions of Jews were living at that time]]—and [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|France]]. In 1941, following the [[invasion of the Soviet Union]], the [[Final Solution]] began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe, as well as Jews in European North Africa (pro-Nazi [[Vichy France|Vichy]]-[[French North Africa|North Africa]] and [[Italian Libya]]). This [[genocide]], in which approximately six million Jews were methodically murdered with horrifying cruelty, is known as [[The Holocaust]] or the ''Shoah'' (Hebrew term). In Poland, as many as one million Jews were murdered in [[gas chambers]] at the [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz camp complex]].

The massive scale of the Holocaust, and the horrors that happened during it, were only understood after the war, and they heavily affected the Jewish nation and world public opinion. Efforts were then increased to establish a Jewish state in Palestine.

=== The establishment of the State of Israel ===
{{Main|History of Israel (1948–present)}}
{{Further|Israel|Israeli Declaration of Independence}}
{{History of Israel}}
In 1945 the Jewish resistance organizations in Palestine unified and established the Jewish Resistance Movement. The movement began guerrilla attacks against Arab paramilitaries and the British authorities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html |title=The Jewish Resistance Movement |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=September 7, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160907162736/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} Following the [[King David Hotel bombing]], [[Chaim Weizmann]], president of the [[WZO]] appealed to the movement to cease all further military activity until a decision would be reached by the [[Jewish Agency]]. The Jewish Agency backed Weizmann's recommendation to cease activities, a decision reluctantly accepted by the Haganah, but not by the [[Irgun]] and [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]]. The JRM was dismantled and each of the founding groups continued operating according to their own policy.&lt;ref&gt;Horne, Edward (1982). ''A Job Well Done (Being a History of The Palestine Police Force 1920–1948)''. Anchor. {{ISBN|978-0-9508367-0-6}}. pp. 272, 299. States that Haganah withdrew on July 1, 1946. But remained permanently uncooperative.&lt;/ref&gt;

The Jewish leadership decided to centre the struggle in the illegal immigration to Palestine and began organizing a massive number of Jewish war refugees from Europe, without the approval of the British authorities. This immigration contributed a great deal to the Jewish settlements in Israel in the world public opinion and the British authorities decided to let the United Nations decide upon the fate of Palestine.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

On November 29, 1947, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopted [[Resolution 181]](II) recommending partitioning Palestine into an Arab state, a Jewish state and the City of Jerusalem. The Jewish leadership accepted the decision but the Arab League and the leadership of Palestinian Arabs opposed it. Following a period of [[1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]] the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]] started.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}}

In the middle of the war, after the last British soldiers of the Palestine Mandate left, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed on May 14, 1948, the establishment of a [[Jewish state]] in [[Eretz Israel]] to be known as the [[State of Israel]]. The war ended in 1949 and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of hundreds of thousands of Jews from all over the world, notably [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Arab countries]].

Since 1948, Israel has been involved in a series of major military conflicts, including the 1956 [[Suez Crisis]], 1967 [[Six-Day War]], 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], [[1982 Lebanon War]], and [[2006 Lebanon War]], as well as a nearly constant series of [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict|ongoing minor conflicts]].

Since 1977, an ongoing and largely unsuccessful series of diplomatic efforts have been initiated by Israel, Palestinian organizations, their neighbours, and other parties, including the United States and the European Union, to bring about a [[Israeli–Palestinian peace process|peace process]] to resolve conflicts between Israel and its neighbours, mostly over the fate of the Palestinian people.

==ايڪويهين صدي==
Israel is a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a population of over 8 million people, of whom about 6 million are [[Israeli Jews|Jewish]]. The largest Jewish communities are in Israel and the [[American Jews|United States]], with major communities in France, Argentina, Russia, England, and Canada.

The [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]], created during the [[Soviet]] period, continues to be an [[autonomous oblast]] of the Russian state.&lt;ref&gt;Fishkoff, Sue (October 8, 2008). [http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml &quot;A Jewish revival in Birobidzhan?&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510142551/http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml |date=May 10, 2011 }} ''Jewish News of Greater Phoenix''. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Chief Rabbi]] of [[Birobidzhan]], [[Mordechai Scheiner]], says there are 4,000 Jews in the capital city.&lt;ref&gt;Paxton, Robin (June 1, 2007). [http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&amp;cid=84435&amp;NewsType=80052 &quot;From Tractors to Torah in Russia's Jewish Land&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411050518/http://fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&amp;cid=84435&amp;NewsType=80052 |date=April 11, 2013 }}. Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Governor]] [[Nikolay Mikhaylovich Volkov]] has stated that he intends to, &quot;support every valuable initiative maintained by our local Jewish organizations&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939 &quot;Governor Voices Support for Growing Far East Jewish Community&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518042318/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939 |date=May 18, 2011 }} (November 15, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Birobidzhan Synagogue]] opened in 2004 on the 70th anniversary of the region's founding in 1934.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969 &quot;Far East Community Prepares for 70th Anniversary of Jewish Autonomous Republic&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518041740/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969 |date=May 18, 2011 }} (August 30, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;

The number of people who identified as Jews in [[England and Wales]] rose slightly between 2001 and 2011, with the growth being attributed to the higher birth rate of the [[Haredi]] community.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7411877.stm |title=Jewish population on the increase |date=May 21, 2008 |access-date=March 18, 2020 |archive-date=May 27, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527215725/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7411877.stm |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The estimated [[British Jew]]ish population in [[England]] as of 2011 was 263,346.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2011 Census: KS209EW Religion, local authorities in England and Wales |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262 |publisher=ons.gov.uk |access-date=December 15, 2012 |archive-date=January 5, 2016 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of 2021, per the [[British Census]], the Jewish population of England and Wales was 271,327.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Graham |first1=David |last2=Boyd |first2=Jonathan |title=Jews in Britain in 2021: First results from the Census of England and Wales |url=https://www.jpr.org.uk/reports/jews-britain-2021-first-results-census-england-and-wales |website=Institute for Jewish Policy Research |date=November 29, 2022 |access-date=December 13, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On October 7, 2023, [[Hamas]], along with other [[Palestinian Joint Operations Room|Palestinian militant groups]], [[October 7 attacks|attacked Israel]] from the [[Gaza Strip]], killing 1,139 people. The day is considered the deadliest day in Israel's history, and the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=October 11, 2023 |title=Biden calls Hamas attacks the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust as US death toll ticks up |url=https://apnews.com/article/israel-hamas-us-biden-blinken-99eb4063edabc80fa1fa198fb0bb020e |access-date=November 9, 2023 |work=AP News |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The attack escalated into a [[Gaza war|major war between Israel and Hamas]]. Hundreds of thousands of civilians were displaced, and more than 250 hostages, including Israelis and foreign nationals, were taken by Hamas, [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]], and other Gaza-based militant groups.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last1=Al-Mughrabi |first1=Nidal |last2=Angel |first2=Maytaal |last3=Al-Mughrabi |first3=Nidal |last4=Angel |first4=Maytaal |date=November 8, 2023 |title=Israeli, Hamas fighters in close combat in Gaza City as civilians flee |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/thousands-civilians-flee-north-gaza-israeli-troops-hamas-fighters-clash-2023-11-08/ |access-date=November 9, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[يهوديت]] 
* [[اسلام ۾ ابراهيم]] 
* [[يعقوب عليہ السلام]] 
* [[عيسيٰ عليه السلام]] 
* [[توريت]] 
* [[فلسطين]] 
* [[يروشلم]] 
* [[اسرائيل]] 
* [[فلسطين جي رياست]] 
* [[غزه نسل ڪشي]]
* [[يهوديت جي تاريخ]] 
* [[فلسطين جي تاريخ]] 
* [[يهودي تاريخ جو خاڪو]] 
* [[يهودي تاريخ جو وقت]] 
* [[يهودين جو جينياتي مطالعو]] 
* [[اسرائيل جي سرزمين ۾ يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ]]

==نوٽ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===حوالي جا لکت===
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==ڪتابيات==
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* [[Jacob Neusner|Neusner, Jacob]]; Green, William Scott, eds. (1991). ''The Origins of Judaism. Religion, History, and Literature in Late Antiquity.'' 20-volume Set. New York: Garland Press. (Reprinted scholarly essays, with introductions.)
* [[Jacob Neusner|Neusner, Jacob]] (1999). ''[{{Google books|id=5YFXIUJYgsYC
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=== France ===
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* Taitz, Emily. ''The Jews of Medieval France: The Community of Champagne'' (1994) [https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130202034/https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne |date=November 30, 2018 }}

=== Russia and Eastern Europe ===
* Brinkmann, Tobias.  (2024). ''Between Borders: The Great Jewish Migration from Eastern Europe''. New York: Oxford University Press.

* Darieva, Tsypylma, Darja Klingenberg, and Chen Bram. (2025) &quot;Jews of the Caucasus: multiple entanglements and migration routes.&quot; ''Journal of Modern Jewish Studies'' 24.2 (2025): 557-569.  [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14725886.2025.2518673  online]

* [[David Fishman|Fishman, David]] (1996). ''Russia's First Modern Jews''. New York University Press.
* [[Zvi Gitelman|Gitelman, Zvi]] (2001). ''A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present''.

* Kushkova, Anna. (2025) &quot;From a Shtetl House to an Urban Apartment: The Soviet Jewish Home Negotiated, Transformed, and Reimagined.&quot; ''Jewish Folklore and Ethnology'' 4.1 (2025): 70-125. [https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1028&amp;context=jewishfolklore  online]

* Polonsky, Antony. ''The Jews in Poland and Russia: A Short History'' (2013)

* Sapritsky-Nahum, Marina. (2025) &quot;Identity transformations of Ukrainian Jewry during the Russian–Ukrainian war: Odesa’s communities and religious leaders at home and in exile.&quot; ''Canadian Slavonic Papers'' 67.1-2 (2025): 214-235. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00085006.2025.2500199  online]

* Schapiro, Leonard. &quot;The role of the Jews in the Russian revolutionary movement.&quot; ''Slavonic and East European Review'' (1961): 148-167. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4205328  online]

* Shumsky, Dmitry. (2025) &quot;Beyond Antisemitism: Rethinking Stalin’s Anti-Jewish Campaign, 1948–1953.&quot; ''Journal of Modern History'' 97.2 (2025): 348-386. 
* {{cite book |last1=Weiner |first1=Miriam |last2=Polish State Archives (in cooperation with) |title=Jewish Roots in Poland: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories |date=1997 |publisher=Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation |location=Secaucus, NJ |isbn=978-0-9656508-0-9 |oclc=38756480}}
* {{cite book |last1=Weiner |first1=Miriam |last2=Ukrainian State Archives (in cooperation with) |last3=Moldovan National Archives (in cooperation with) |title=Jewish Roots in Ukraine and Moldova: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories |date=1999 |publisher=Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation |location=Secaucus, NJ |isbn=978-0-9656508-1-6 |oclc=607423469}}
* Yivo Institute for Jewish Research. ''A Century of Ambivalence, Second Expanded Edition: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present'' (Indiana University Press, 2001).

=== United States ===

{{Main|American Jews#Bibliography|History of the{{short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt;
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 063.jpg|thumb|According to Jewish tradition, Jacob, shown [[Jacob wrestling with the angel|wrestling with the angel]] in this painting by [[Rembrandt]], was the father of the [[tribes of Israel]].]]
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|history}}
{{history of religion|religions}}

[[Jews]] originated from the [[Israelites]] and [[Hebrews]] of historical [[Israel and Judah]], two related kingdoms that emerged in the [[Levant]] during the [[Iron Age]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 |date=April 9, 2023 }} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The earliest mention of [[Israelites]] is inscribed on the [[Merneptah Stele]] {{circa|1213–1203 BCE}}; later religious literature tells the story of Israelites going back at least as far as {{cx|1500 BCE}}. Traditionally, the name ''Israel'' is said to originate with the Hebrew patriarch [[Jacob]], who provides a narrative [[etiology]] for the name{{snd}}after wrestling with an angel, Jacob is renamed Israel, meaning &quot;he who struggles with God&quot;. The [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] based in [[Samaria]] fell to the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] {{cx|720 BCE}},&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Kingdom of Judah]] to the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] in 586 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Faust |first=Avraham |title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period |date=August 29, 2012 |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |isbn=978-1-58983-641-9 |pages=1 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28}}&lt;/ref&gt; Part of the Judean population was exiled to [[Babylonia|Babylon]]. The [[Assyrian captivity|Assyrian]] and [[Babylonian captivity|Babylonian captivities]] are regarded as representing the start of the [[Jewish diaspora]].

After the [[Achaemenid Empire]] conquered the region, the exiled Jews were [[Return to Zion|allowed to return]] and [[Second Temple|rebuild the temple]]; these events mark the beginning of the [[Second Temple period]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Jonathan |last1=Stökl |first2=Caroline |last2=Waerzegger |title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context |date=2015 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=7–11, 30, 226}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia Judaica |edition=2nd |volume=3 |page=27}}&lt;/ref&gt; After several centuries of foreign rule, the [[Maccabean Revolt]] against the [[Seleucid Empire]] led to an [[Hasmonean dynasty|independent Hasmonean kingdom]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Peter Fibiger |last1=Bang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&amp;pg=PAPA184 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean |first2=Walter |last2=Scheidel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-518831-8 |pages=184–187}}&lt;/ref&gt; but it was gradually incorporated into the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] imperial system.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=223–239}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Jewish–Roman wars]], a series of unsuccessful revolts against the Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, resulted in the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Zissu |first=Boaz |title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE |date=2018 |isbn=978-90-04-34986-5 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill  |page=19 |chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective |oclc=988856967}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the expulsion of many Jews.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Erwin |last1=Fahlbusch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&amp;pg=PAPA15 |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |first2=Geoffrey William |last2=Bromiley |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5 |page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Jewish population in [[Syria Palaestina]] gradually decreased during the following centuries, enhancing the role of the Jewish diaspora and shifting the spiritual and demographic centre from the depopulated [[Judea]] to [[Galilee]] and then to [[Asoristan|Babylon]], with smaller communities spread out across the [[Roman Empire]]. During the same period, the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]], central Jewish texts, were composed. In the following millennia, the diaspora communities [[Coalescent theory|coalesced]] into three major [[Jewish ethnic divisions|ethnic subdivisions]] according to where their ancestors settled: the [[Ashkenazim]] in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern European Jewry|Eastern Europe]], the [[Sephardim]] initially in [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Iberia]], and the [[Mizrahim]] in the [[History of the Jews under Muslim rule|Middle East]] and [[North Africa]].&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&amp;pg=PA87 &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity.&quot; p. 87.] Eban, Abba Solomon. &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews.&quot; Summit Books Syracuse, New York: 1984. p. 87.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Dosick (2007), pp. 59–60.&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[early Muslim conquests]] ended [[Byzantine]] control over the [[Eastern Mediterranean]], with the newly established [[Rashidun Caliphate]] taking over the [[Levant]], [[Mesopotamia]], and North Africa during the 7th century, and the [[Iberian Peninsula]] during the 8th century. [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain|Jewish culture enjoyed a golden age in Spain]], with Jews becoming widely accepted in society and their religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed before the arrival of the intolerant [[Almohades]]. In 1492 [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|the Jews were forced to leave Spain]] by the Catholic Monarchs [[Catholic Monarchs of Spain|Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand II]], whereafter they migrated in great numbers to the [[History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]] and [[Italian Peninsula|Italy]]. Between the 12th and 15th centuries, Ashkenazi Jews experienced extreme persecution in Central Europe, which prompted their mass migration to [[History of Jews in Poland|Poland]].&lt;ref&gt;Mosk (2013), p. 143. &quot;Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Harshav, Benjamin (1999). ''The Meaning of Yiddish''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. &quot;From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the centre of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The 18th century saw the rise of the [[Haskalah]] intellectual movement. Also starting in the 18th century, Jews began to campaign for [[Jewish emancipation]] from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society.

In the 19th century, when Jews in [[Western Europe]] were increasingly granted equality before the law, Jews in the [[Pale of Settlement]] faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread [[pogrom]]s. During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to [[Ottoman Syria]] with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. The [[Zionist movement]] was officially founded in 1897. The pogroms also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the United States between 1881 and 1924.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lewin |first=Rhoda G. |date=1979 |title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis |url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |journal=Minnesota History |volume=46 |issue=7 |page=259 |access-date=August 10, 2020 |archive-date=July 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. Many [[Nobel Prize]] winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |publisher=jinfo.org |access-date=October 7, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1933, with the rise to power of [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]] in [[Nazi Germany|Germany]], the situation for Jews became severe. Economic crises, racial [[Antisemitism in Europe#The Holocaust|antisemitic laws]], and a fear of an upcoming war led many to flee from Europe to [[Mandatory Palestine]], to the United States and to the [[Soviet Union]]. In 1939, [[World War II]] began and until 1941 Germany [[German-occupied Europe|occupied almost all of Europe]]. In 1941, following the [[Operation Barbarossa|invasion]] of the Soviet Union, the [[Final Solution]] began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe and North Africa. In Poland, three million were murdered in [[gas chambers]] in all concentration camps combined, with one million at the [[Auschwitz]] camp complex alone. This [[genocide]], in which approximately six million Jews were methodically exterminated, is known as [[the Holocaust]].

Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On May 14, 1948, upon the termination of the British Mandate, [[David Ben-Gurion]] declared the creation of the [[State of Israel]], a [[Jewish and democratic state]] in ''[[Eretz Israel]]'' (Land of Israel). Immediately afterwards, all neighbouring Arab states invaded, yet the newly formed [[IDF]] resisted. In 1949, the war ended and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of [[Aliyah]] from all over Europe and [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Middle Eastern countries]]. {{As of|2022|post=,}} Israel is a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a population of 9.6 million people, of whom 7 million are [[Israeli Jews|Jewish]].

The largest Jewish community outside Israel is the [[American Jews|United States]], while large communities also exist in France, Canada, Argentina, Russia, United Kingdom, Australia, and [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]]. Currently, the Jewish ethnicity have two autonomous states under their power to act as sanctuaries, [[Israel]] and the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]].

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Commons category|Jewish history}}
* [http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/ The Jewish History Resource Center]. Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
* [http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/Internetresources/modern/israelindex.htm The State of Israel] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
* [http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/ Jewish History and Culture Encyclopaedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224094628/http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/ |date=December 24, 2008 }} Official Site of the 22-volume Encyclopaedia Judaica
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/jewishsbook.html Internet Jewish History Sourcebook] offering homework help and online texts
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050528023003/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/israelite_religion.htm Israelite Religion to Judaism: the Evolution of the Religion of Israel].
* [https://thinktorah.org/jewish-history/ 2000 Years of Jewish History]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050629084248/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/greek_influence.htm Greek Influence on Judaism from the Hellenistic Period Through the Middle Ages c. 300 BCE–1200 CE].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050604085120/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/jewish_sects.htm Jewish Sects of the Second Temple Period].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101119075635/http://adath-shalom.ca/samaritan_origin.htm The Origin and Nature of the Samaritans and their Relationship to Second Temple Jewish Sects].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051118233741/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/eb2bk.htm Jewish History Tables].
* [http://www.oztorah.com/category/australian-jewry/ Articles on Australian Jewish history].
* [http://www.oztorah.com/category/british-jewry/ Articles on British Jewish history].
* Barnavi, Eli (Ed.). ''A Historical Atlas of the Jewish People''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1992. {{ISBN|978-0-679-40332-6}}
* [http://www.simpletoremember.com/vitals/Jewish_History.htm Crash Course in Jewish History]
* [http://csicso-nagy.uw.hu/fo-o-Csicso-NAGY-A/jewish-families.htm Jewish families in Csicsó – Cicov (Slovakia) until the Holocaust]
* [http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&amp;Volume=36&amp;Issue=1&amp;ArticleID=29 &quot;Under the Influence: Hellenism in Ancient Jewish Life&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229232302/http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&amp;Volume=36&amp;Issue=1&amp;ArticleID=29 |date=February 29, 2012 }} Biblical Archaeology Society
* [http://www.jewishhistory.org/crash-course/ Summary of Jewish History] by Berel Wein
* [http://histclo.com/chron/ancient/heb/heb-hist.html Ancient Hebrew history]
* [http://jewishhistorylectures.org/ Videos of Jewish History Lectures by Henry Abramson of Touro College South]
{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:يهودين جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:يهوديت جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:يهودي نسلي گروهه]]
[[زمرو:تاريخ بلحاظ مذهب]]
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      <text bytes="204092" sha1="d1rue14rfxe1rrbnph4vqs17cltbr7v" xml:space="preserve">يهودي (&lt;small&gt;Jews&lt;/small&gt;) تاريخي اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه، ٻه لاڳاپيل بادشاهتن جيڪيون [[لوهه جو دور|لوهه جي دور]] ۾ [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سرزمين شام (ليونٽ)]] ۾ ظاهر ٿيون،  جي بني اسرائيل ۽ عبرانين مان پيدا ٿيا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|date=2001|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|isbn=978-0-684-86912-4|edition=1st Touchstone|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken2&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229|date=April 9, 2023}} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; بني اسرائيل جو پهريون ذڪر، 1213-1203 ق.م. جو مرنيپتا اسٽيل تي لکيل آهي؛ بعد ۾ مذهبي ادب بني اسرائيلن جي ڪهاڻي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 1500 ق.م. تائين ٻڌائي ٿو. روايتي طور تي، اسرائيل جو نالو عبراني بزرگ [[يعقوب عليہ السلام|يعقوب]] سان شروع ٿيو آهي، جيڪو نالي لاءِ هڪ داستاني ايٽولوجي فراهم ڪري ٿو - هڪ فرشتي سان وڙهڻ کان پوءِ، يعقوب جو نالو اسرائيل رکيو ويو، جنهن جو مطلب آهي &quot;اهو جيڪو خدا سان ويڙهي ٿو&quot;. سامريه ۾ قائم اسرائيل جي بادشاهت 720 ق.م. ڌاري نيو-آشوري سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Broshi|first=Maguen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174|title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2001|isbn=978-1-84127-201-6|page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ 586 ق.م. ڌاري يهودين جي بادشاهت نيو-بابلي سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Faust|first=Avraham|title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period|date=August 29, 2012|publisher=Society of Biblical Literature|isbn=978-1-58983-641-9|pages=1|doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي آبادي جو هڪ حصو [[بابل]] ڏانهن جلاوطن ڪيو ويو. آشور ۽ بابل ۾ قيد ٿيل يهودين کي ڊائاسپورا جي شروعات جي نمائندگي ڪندڙ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.

{{short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt;
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 063.jpg|thumb|يهودي روايت موجب، يعقوب، جيڪو ريمبران جي هن تصوير ۾ ملائڪ سان وڙهندي ڏيکاريو ويو آهي، اسرائيل جي قبيلن جو پيءُ هو. ]][[هخامنشي سلطنت]] طرفان هن علائقي کي فتح ڪرڻ کان پوءِ، جلاوطن يهودين کي واپس اچڻ ۽ مندر کي ٻيهر تعمير ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي؛ اها واقعا ٻئي مندر جي دور جي شروعات جي نشاندهي ڪن ٿا. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Jonathan|last1=Stökl|first2=Caroline|last2=Waerzegger|title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context|date=2015|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|pages=7–11, 30, 226}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia Judaica|edition=2nd|volume=3|page=27}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيترن ئي صدين جي پرڏيهي حڪمراني کانپوءِ، سيليوسڊ سلطنت جي خلاف مڪابي بغاوت هڪ آزاد هاشموني بادشاهت جو سبب بڻي، &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Peter Fibiger|last1=Bang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&amp;pg=PAPA184|title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean|first2=Walter|last2=Scheidel|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-518831-8|pages=184–187}}&lt;/ref&gt; پر ان رياست کي بتدريج [[رومي سلطنت]] ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Abraham|last=Malamat|url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=A History of the Jewish People|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1976|isbn=978-0-674-39731-6|pages=223–239}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي-رومن جنگيون، پهرين ۽ ٻي صدي عيسوي ۾ رومن جي خلاف ناڪام بغاوتن جو هڪ سلسلو، [[يروشلم]] ۽ ٻئي مندر جي تباهي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Zissu|first=Boaz|title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE|date=2018|isbn=978-90-04-34986-5|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|page=19|chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective|oclc=988856967}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ ڪيترن ئي يهودين کي نيڪالي ڏيڻ جو سبب بڻيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Erwin|last1=Fahlbusch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&amp;pg=PAPA15|title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity|first2=Geoffrey William|last2=Bromiley|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5|page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt; سر زمين شام فلسطين ۾ يهودي آبادي ايندڙ صدين دوران بتدريج گهٽجي وئي، يهودي ڊائاسپورا جي ڪردار کي وڌايو ۽ روحاني ۽ آبادي جي مرڪز کي خالي ٿيل يهوديا کان گليلي ۽ پوءِ بابل ڏانهن منتقل ڪيو، يهودين جون ننڍيون برادريون رومن سلطنت ۾ پکڙيل هيون. ساڳئي عرصي دوران، مشناه ۽ تلمود، مرڪزي يهودي متن، ترتيب ڏنا ويا. ايندڙ هزار سالن ۾، ڊائاسپورا برادريون ٽن وڏن نسلي ذيلي تقسيم ۾، جتي انهن جا ابا ڏاڏا آباد ٿيا هئا: وچ ۽ اوڀر يورپ ۾ اشڪنازي، [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|آئبيريا]] ۾ سيفاردي ۽ [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]] ۾ مزراهي طور گڏ ٿي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&amp;pg=PA87 &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity.&quot; p. 87.] Eban, Abba Solomon. &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews.&quot; Summit Books Syracuse, New York: 1984. p. 87.&lt;/ref&gt;  &lt;ref&gt;Dosick (2007), pp. 59–60.&lt;/ref&gt;

شروعاتي اسلامي فتحون اوڀرين رومي سمنڊ جي علائقن تي [[بازنطيني سلطنت|بازنطيني]] ڪنٽرول ختم ڪري ڇڏيو، نئين قائم ٿيل راشدون خلافت 7هين صدي دوران [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|ليونٽ]]، [[ميسوپوٽيميا]] ۽ اتر آفريڪا تي قبضو ڪيو ۽ 8هين صدي دوران [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|آئبيرين جزيره نما]] تي قبضو ڪيو. يهودي ثقافت مسلم [[اندلس]] ۾ هڪ سونهري دور مان لطف اندوز ٿي، يهودين کي سماج ۾ وڏي پيماني تي قبول ڪيو ويو ۽ انهن جي مذهبي، ثقافتي ۽ معاشي زندگي عدم برداشت واري الموحدين جي اچڻ کان اڳ ڦٽي نڪتي. سال 1492ع ۾ ڪيٿولڪ حڪمران، راڻي ازابيل اول ۽ بادشاهه فرڊيننڊ II پاران يهودين کي اسپين ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ڪيو ويو، جنهن کان پوءِ اهي وڏي تعداد ۾ [[عثماني سلطنت]] ۽ [[اٽلي]] ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي. 12هين ۽ 15هين صدي جي وچ ۾، اشڪنازي يهودين وچ يورپ ۾ انتهائي ظلم جو تجربو ڪيو، جنهن جي ڪري انهن جي [[پولينڊ]] ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. &lt;ref&gt;Mosk (2013), p. 143. &quot;Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Harshav, Benjamin (1999). ''The Meaning of Yiddish''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. &quot;From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the centre of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt;هين صدي ۾ هسڪاله دانشورانه تحريڪ جو عروج ڏٺو ويو. &lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt;هين صدي جي شروعات ۾، يهودي يهودين کي پابندين وارن قانونن کان آزاد ڪرڻ ۽ وسيع يورپي سماج ۾ ضم ڪرڻ لاءِ مهم هلائڻ شروع ڪئي.

19هين صدي ۾، جڏهن اولهائين يورپ ۾ يهودين کي قانون جي سامهون برابري ڏني پئي وئي، ته آبادڪاري جي ميدان ۾ يهودين کي وڌندڙ ظلم، قانوني پابندين ۽ وڏي پيماني تي قتل عام جو سامنا ڪرڻ پيو. 1870 ۽ 1880 جي ڏهاڪن دوران، يورپ ۾ يهودي آبادي فلسطين ۾ يهودي رياست کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان عثماني شام ڏانهن هجرت تي وڌيڪ سرگرم بحث ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. صهيوني تحريڪ سرڪاري طور تي سال 1897ع ۾ قائم ڪئي وئي هئي. سال 1881ع ۽ 1924ع جي وچ ۾ [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] ڏانهن 20 لک کان وڌيڪ يهودين جي وڏي پيماني تي هجرت کي به شروع ڪيو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Lewin|first=Rhoda G.|date=1979|title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis|url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf|journal=Minnesota History|volume=46|issue=7|page=259|access-date=August 10, 2020|archive-date=July 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; يورپ ۽ آمريڪا جا يهودي سائنس، ثقافت ۽ معيشت جي شعبن ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪيا. عام طور تي سڀ کان وڌيڪ مشهور سمجهيا ويندڙن ۾ [[البرٽ آئنسٽائن|البرٽ آئن اسٽائن]] ۽ لڊوگ وٽگنسٽائن شامل هئا. هن وقت ڪيترائي [[نوبل انعام حاصل ڪندڙن جي فهرست|نوبل انعام يافته]] يهودي هئا، جيئن اڃا تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners|publisher=jinfo.org|access-date=October 7, 2011|archive-date=December 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سال &lt;small&gt;1933&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، [[جرمنيا|جرمني]] ۾ [[هٽلر|ايڊولف هٽلر]] ۽ نازي پارٽي جي اقتدار ۾ اچڻ سان، يهودين لاءِ صورتحال سخت ٿي وئي. معاشي بحران، نسل پرست يهودي مخالف قانون ۽ ايندڙ جنگ جي خوف سبب ڪيترائي ماڻهو [[يُورَپ|يورپ]] کان [[فلسطين|لازمي فلسطين]]، آمريڪا ۽ [[سوويت يونين]] ڏانهن ڀڄي ويا. سال 1939ع ۾، [[ٻين مھاڀاري جنگ|ٻي مهاڀاري جنگ]] شروع ٿي ۽ سال 1941ع تائين جرمني تقريبن سڄي يورپ تي قبضو ڪري ورتو. سال 1941ع ۾، سوويت يونين جي حملي کان پوءِ، آخري حل شروع ٿيو، هڪ غير معمولي پيماني تي هڪ وسيع منظم آپريشن، جنهن جو مقصد يهودي ماڻهن کي ختم ڪرڻ هو ۽ نتيجي ۾ يورپ ۽ اتر آفريڪا ۾ يهودين جو قتل عام ٿيو. پولينڊ ۾، سڀني ڪنسنٽريشن ڪيمپن ۾ گيس چيمبرن ۾ 30 لک يهودي قتل ڪيا ويا، جن ۾ صرف آشوٽز ڪيمپ ڪمپليڪس ۾ 10 لک شامل هئا. هي نسل ڪشي، جنهن ۾ تقريبن 60 لک يهودين کي طريقي سان ختم ڪيو ويو، هولوڪاسٽ جي نالي سان مشهور آهي. 

هولوڪاسٽ کان اڳ ۽ دوران، يهودين جي وڏي تعداد لازمي فلسطين ڏانهن هجرت ڪئي. 14 مئي 1948ع تي، برطانوي مينڊيٽ جي خاتمي تي، ڊيوڊ بين-گورين ارض اسرائيل (اسرائيل جي سرزمين) ۾ هڪ يهودي ۽ جمهوري رياست، [[اسرائيل]] جي رياست جي قيام جو اعلان ڪيو.

ان کان پوءِ فوري طور تي، سڀني پاڙيسري عرب رياستون اسرائيل تي حملو ڪيو، پر نئين ٺهيل اسرائيلي دفاعي فوج (IDF) مزاحمت ڪئي. سال 1949ع ۾ جنگ ختم ٿي وئي ۽ اسرائيل رياست جي تعمير شروع ڪئي ۽ سڄي يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر جي ملڪن مان ايندڙ يهودين جي وڏين لهرن کي جذب ڪيو. سال 2022ع تائين، اسرائيل هڪ پارلياماني جمهوريت آهي جنهن جي آبادي 96 لک ماڻهن جي آهي، جن مان 70 لک يهودي آهن. ([[غزه جي پٽي|غزا]] ۽ [[فلسطين جي رياست|مغربي ڪناري]] جي 35 لک آبادي کانسواء).

اسرائيل کان ٻاهر سڀ کان وڏي يهودي برادري آمريڪا ۾ آهي، جڏهن ته ٻيون وڏي برادريون [[فرانس]]، [[ڪينيڊا]]، [[ارجنٽائن]]، [[روس]]، [[گڏيل بادشاھت|برطانيه]]، [[آسٽريليا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] ۾ پڻ موجود آهن. هن وقت، يهودي نسل جون ٻه خودمختيار رياستون؛ اسرائيل ۽ روس ۾ يهودي خودمختيار اوبلاست آهن جيڪي انهن جي اختيار هيٺ آهن ته اهي پناهه گاهه طور ڪم ڪن.

==جائزو==
قديم يهودي تاريخ بائيبل ۽ غير بائيبل ذريعن، اپوڪرائيفا ۽ سوڊيپيگرافا، جوزيفس جي لکڻين، گريڪو-رومن ليکڪن ۽ چرچ جي پادرين، گڏوگڏ آثار قديمه جي دريافتن، لکتن، قديم دستاويزن، جهڙوڪ ايليفينٽائن ۽ فيوم مان پيپيري، مردار سمنڊ جا اسڪرول، بار ڪوخبا خط، باباٿا آرڪائيوز ۽ قاهره جينيزا دستاويزن، مان معلوم ٿئي ٿي، جيڪي زباني تاريخ ۽ مدراش ۽ تلمود ۾ تبصرن جي مجموعن سان گڏ آهن. 

ابتدائي جديد دور ۾ پرنٽنگ پريس جي آمد سان، يهودين جي تاريخ ۽ عبراني بائيبل جا شروعاتي ايڊيشن شايع ٿيا جيڪي يهودي مذهب جي تاريخ ۽ وڌندڙ طور تي، يهودين جي قومي تاريخن، يهودي قوم ۽ سڃاڻپ سان لاڳاپيل هئا، هڪ مسودي يا لکندڙ ڪلچر کان هڪ پرنٽنگ ڪلچر ڏانهن منتقلي هئي. يهودي مورخن پنهنجن اجتماعي تجربن جا احوال لکيا، پر سياسي، ثقافتي ۽ سائنسي يا فلسفياتي ڳولا لاءِ تاريخ کي پڻ وڌندڙ طور تي استعمال ڪيو. ليکڪن ثقافتي طور تي ورثي ۾ مليل متن جي هڪ مجموعي کي استعمال ڪيو ته جيئن فن جي حالت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ يا اڳتي وڌائڻ لاءِ هڪ منطقي داستان تيار ڪري سگهجي. جديد يهودي تاريخ نويسي يورپي نشاۃِ ثانيه ۽ روشن خيالي جي دور جهڙين دانشورانه تحريڪن سان جڙيل آهي، پر وچين دور جي آخر ۾ ۽ قديم زماني ۾ مختلف ذريعن ۾ اڳوڻين ڪمن تي ڌيان ڏنو. اڄ، يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ کي اڪثر ست دورن ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي:
# قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه رياست (&lt;small&gt;1200 ق.م. کان 586 ق.م.&lt;/small&gt;) 
# ٻيو مندر وارو دور (&lt;small&gt;516 ق.م. کان 70 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|editor-last=Goodman|editor-first=Martin|chapter=Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period|pages=36–52|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0003|isbn=0-19-928032-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# ربانڪ يا تلمودي دور (&lt;small&gt;70 کان 640 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|editor-last=Goodman|editor-first=Martin|chapter=Historiography on the Jews in the ‘Talmudic Period’ (70–640 ce)|pages=79–114|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0005|isbn=0-19-928032-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# وچين دور (&lt;small&gt;640 کان 1492 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# ابتدائي جديد دور (&lt;small&gt;1492-1750 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# جديد دور (&lt;small&gt;1750ع کان 20هين صدي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# [[صيهونيت]]، [[هولوڪاسٽ]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جو قيام (&lt;small&gt;19 کان 21هين صدي&lt;/small&gt;)
&lt;imagemap&gt;
File:Chronology of Israel eng.png|center|800px
default [[#Time periods in Jewish history|Jewish history]]
rect 658 156 833 176 [[Aliyah|Periods of massive immigration to Palestine]]
rect 564 156 647 175 [[Jewish diaspora|Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in exile]]
rect 460 156 554 175 [[Land of Israel|Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in the southern Levant, with full or partial independence]]
rect 314 156 452 175 [[Temple in Jerusalem|Periods in which a Jewish Temple existed]]
rect 196 156 309 175 [[#Time periods in Jewish history|Jewish history]]
rect 26 102 134 122 [[Book of Judges|Shoftim]]
rect 134 102 265 121 [[Books of Kings|Melakhim]]
rect 146 83 266 104 [[First Temple]]
rect 286 83 418 103 [[Second Temple]]
rect 341 103 392 121 [[Zugot]]
rect 393 103 453 121 [[Tannaim]]
rect 452 102 534 221 [[Amoraim]]
rect 534 102 560 121 [[Savoraim]]
rect 559 103 691 121 [[Geonim]]
rect 691 102 825 121 [[Rishonim]]
rect 825 100 940 120 [[Acharonim]]
rect 939 94 959 120 [[Aliyah|Aliyot]]
rect 957 65 975 121 [[Israel]]
rect 940 62 958 94 [[The Holocaust]]
rect 825 62 941 100 [[Jewish diaspora|Diaspora]]
rect 808 61 825 101 [[Alhambra decree|Expulsion from Spain]]
rect 428 62 808 103 [[Dispersion of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Roman exile]]
poly 226 82 410 82 410 92 428 92 428 61 226 62 [[Ten Lost Tribes|Assyrian Exile (Ten Lost Tribes)]]
rect 264 82 284 122 [[Babylonian captivity]]
rect 283 103 341 121 [[Second Temple of Jerusalem|Second Temple period]]
poly 26 121 17 121 17 63 225 63 226 81 145 82 145 101 26 101 [[Chronology of the Bible|Ancient Jewish History]]
rect 58 136 375 146 [[Chronology of the Bible]]
rect 356 122 373 135 [[Common Era]]
desc none
&lt;/imagemap&gt;

==قديم اسرائيل==
{{Main|يهوديت جي اصل}}
===شروعاتي بني اسرائيل===
{{Main|بني اسرائيل}}
[[File:Ruins atop Tel Megiddo with circular altar-like shrine and a series of temples on top of the other dating from the early bronze-age through the iron-age periods, Tel Meggido, Israel (19888642855).jpg|thumb|تل ميگيدو، هڪ ڪنعاني ۽ بعد ۾ اسرائيلي شهر جا کنڊر]]

ابتدائي يهودين ۽ انهن جي پاڙيسرين جي تاريخ، ميڊيٽرينين سمنڊ جي زرخيز هلال ۽ اوڀر ساحل تي مرڪز آهي. اها انهن ماڻهن سان شروع ٿئي ٿي جيڪا [[نيل درياھہ|نيل]] ۽ [[ميسوپوٽيميا]] جي وچ واري علائقي تي قبضو ڪيو هو. مصر ۽ بابل ۾ ثقافت جي قديم مرڪزن، عرب جي ريگستانن ۽ ايشيا ڪوچڪ جي ميدان جي اهي، ڪنعان جي زمين (تقريبن جديد اسرائيل، فلسطين، اردن ۽ لبنان سان ملندڙ جلندڙ) تهذيبن جي ميلاپ جو هنڌ هئي.

[[File:Map Israel Judea 926 BC-fr.svg|thumb|سال 926 ق.م. ۾ اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه جون بادشاهتون]]
اسرائيل جي نالي سان هڪ قوم جو سڀ کان پهريون رڪارڊ ٿيل ثبوت قديم مصر جي مرنيپتاه اسٽيلئ ۾ نظر اچي ٿو، جيڪو 1200 ق.م. جو آهي. جديد آثار قديمه جي حساب موجب، اسرائيلي ۽ انهن جي ثقافت هڪ الڳ مونولئٽرسٽڪ ۽ پوء توحيد پرست (monotheistic) مذهب جي ترقي ذريعي ڪنعاني ماڻهن ۽ انهن جي ثقافتن مان نڪتل هئي، جيڪا هڪ قومي خدا &quot;يهواه&quot; تي مرڪوز هو. 

earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel appears in the [[Merneptah Stele]] of [[ancient Egypt]],

dated to . According to the modern archaeological account,

the Israelites and their culture branched out of the [[Canaan]]ite peoples and their cultures through the development of a distinct [[monolatristic]]—and later [[monotheistic]]—religion centred on the national god [[Yahweh]].&lt;ref&gt;Mark Smith in &quot;The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel&quot; states &quot;Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000&amp;nbsp;BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period.&quot; (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) &quot;The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel&quot; (Eerdman's)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rendsberg, Gary (2008). &quot;Israel without the Bible&quot;. In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Gnuse |first1=Robert Karl |title=No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel |date=1997 |publisher=Sheffield Academic Press Ltd |isbn=1-85075-657-0 |location=England |pages=28, 31}}&lt;/ref&gt; اها عبراني ٻولي جي هڪ قديم شڪل ڳالهائيندا هئا، جيڪا اڄ بائيبل جي عبراني جي نالي سان مشهور آهي.&lt;ref&gt;Steiner, Richard C. (1997), &quot;Ancient Hebrew&quot;, in Hetzron, Robert (ed.), ''The Semitic Languages'', Routledge, pp. 145–173, {{ISBN|978-0-415-05767-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

پهرين صدي قبل مسيح جي وچ کان، يهودين کي روايتي طور تي پنهنجي تاريخ جي جيڪا سمجھ هئي، اها عبراني بائيبل ۾ بيان ڪيل روايتن جي چوڌاري مرڪوز هئي. هن خيال موجب، ابراهيم (اهو ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته هو يهودين جو حياتياتي پيشوا ۽ يهوديت جو پيءُ آهي) پهريون يهودي آهي.{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=3}} بعد ۾ اسحاق ابراهيم مان پيدا ٿيو ۽ يعقوب اسحاق مان پيدا ٿيو. هڪ ملائڪ سان ويڙهه کان پوءِ، يعقوب کي اسرائيل جو نالو ڏنو ويو. سخت ڏڪار کانپوءِ، يعقوب ۽ سندس ٻارهن پٽ مصر ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي ويا، جتي انهن آخرڪار اسرائيل جا ٻارهن قبيلا ٺاهيا. بعد ۾ بني اسرائيل کي مصر جي غلامي مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ موسيٰ طرفان ڪنعان آندو ويو. انهن آخرڪار يوشع جي اڳواڻي ۾ ڪنعان کي فتح ڪيو.

جديد عالم متفق آهن ته بائيبل بني اسرائيل جي اصليت جو مستند احوال فراهم نٿو ڪري. اتفاق راءِ ان ڳالهه جي حمايت ڪري ٿو ته آثار قديمه جا ثبوت وڏي پيماني تي اسرائيل جي اصليت کي 1200 کان 1000 ق.م. ۾ ڪنعان ۾ ڏيکارين ٿا، مصر ۾ نه. اهو &quot;زبردست&quot; آهي ۽ &quot;مصر مان نڪرڻ يا سينائي ​​جي بيابان ذريعي 40 سالن جي زيارت لاءِ ڪا به گنجائش نه ٿو ڇڏي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dever-2002&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William G. |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8028-2126-3}} p. 99&lt;/ref&gt;

Many archaeologists have abandoned the archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus as &quot;a fruitless pursuit&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dever-2002&quot; /&gt; However, it is accepted that this narrative does have a &quot;historical core&quot; to it.&lt;ref&gt;For more about the historicity of Jewish history as it pertains to [[Oral Torah|rabbinic]] sources, see {{cite journal |first1=Reuven Chaim |last1=Klein |date=2023 |title=Are historical sections of the Talmud actually historical? Critical tools for understanding historical claims in rabbinic literature |url=https://www.academia.edu/127965994 |journal=Journal of Philological Pedagogy |volume=12 |publisher=Chandler School of Education |pages=42–75 |doi=10.17613/rjp5a-md343 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Faust|2015|loc=p.476: &quot;While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt..&quot;}}{{sfn|Redmount|2001|p=61|ps=: &quot;A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative.&quot;}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2001 |isbn=3-927120-37-5 |pages=98–99 |quote=After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible &quot;historical figures&quot; [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.}}&lt;/ref&gt; A century of research by archaeologists and Egyptologists has arguably found no evidence that can be directly related to the Exodus narrative of an Egyptian captivity and the escape and travels through the wilderness, leading to the suggestion that [[Iron Age]] Israel—the kingdoms of Judah and Israel—has its origins in Canaan, not in Egypt:&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |editor-last1=Finkelstein |editor-first1=Israel |editor-first2=Nadav |editor-last2=Naaman |title=From Nomadism to Monarchy: Archaeological and Historical Aspects of Early Israel |publisher=[[Israel Exploration Society]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-880317-20-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Compare: {{cite book |first=Ian |last=Shaw |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&amp;q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&amp;pg=PA313 |title=A Dictionary of Archaeology |author2=Robert Jameson |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-631-23583-5 |editor=Ian Shaw |edition=New |page=313 |quote=The Biblical account of the origins of the people of Israel (principally recounted in Numbers, Joshua and Judges) often conflicts with non-Biblical textual sources and with the archaeological evidence for the settlement of Canaan in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age. [...] Israel is first textually attested as a political entity in Egyptian texts of the late 13th century BCE and the Egyptologist Donald Redford argues that the Israelites must have been emerging as a distinct group within the Canaanite culture during the century or so prior to this. It has been suggested that the early Israelites were an oppressed rural group of Canaanites who rebelled against the more urbanized coastal Canaanites (Gottwald 1979). Alternatively, it has been argued that the Israelites were survivors of the decline in the fortunes of Canaan who established themselves in the highlands at the end of the late Bronze Age (Ahlstrom 1986: 27). Redford, however, makes a good case for equating the very earliest Israelites with a semi-nomadic people in the highlands of central Palestine whom the Egyptians called Shasu (Redford 1992:2689–80; although see Stager 1985 for strong arguments against the identification with the Shasu). These Shasu were a persistent thorn in the side of the Ramessid pharaohs' empire in Syria-Palestine, well-attested in Egyptian texts, but their pastoral lifestyle has left scant traces in the archaeological record. By the end of the 13th century BCE, however, the Shasu/Israelites were beginning to establish small settlements in the uplands, the architecture of which closely resembles contemporary Canaanite villages. |author-link=Israel, Israelites |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160406/https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&amp;q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&amp;pg=PA313 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The culture of the [[Israelite highland settlement|earliest Israelite settlements]] is Canaanite, their cult-objects are those of the Canaanite god [[El (deity)|El]], the pottery remains in the local Canaanite tradition, and the alphabet used is early Canaanite. The almost sole marker distinguishing the &quot;Israelite&quot; villages from Canaanite sites is an absence of pig bones, although whether this can be taken as an ethnic marker or is due to other factors remains a matter of dispute.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Killebrew |first=Ann E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC |title=Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E. |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-58983-097-4 |location=Atlanta |page=176 |quote=Much has been made of the scarcity of pig bones at highland sites. Since small quantities of pig bones do appear in Late Bronze Age assemblages, some archaeologists have interpreted this to indicate that the ethnic identity of the highland inhabitants was distinct from Late Bronze Age indigenous peoples (see Finkelstein 1997, 227–230). Brian Hesse and Paula Wapnish (1997) advise caution, however, since the lack of pig bones at Iron I highland settlements could be a result of other factors that have little to do with ethnicity. |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=January 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117055402/https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to the [[Historicity of the Bible|Biblical narrative]], the [[Land of Israel]] was organized into a confederacy of twelve tribes ruled by a series of [[Biblical judges|Judges]] for several hundred years.

=== Ancient Israel and Judah ===
{{Main|History of ancient Israel and Judah}}
[[File:LMLK, Ezekiah seals.jpg|thumb|A stamped bulla ([[LMLK seal]]) of [[Hezekiah]], &quot;Of Hezekiah (son of) Ahaz King of Judah&quot;, [[Israel Museum]]]]
Two Israelite kingdoms emerged during Iron Age II: [[Israel and Judah]]. The Bible portrays Israel and Judah as the successors of an earlier [[United Kingdom of Israel]], although [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)#Archaeological record|its historicity is disputed]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Zachary |date=April 22, 2016 |title=Debating the United Monarchy: Let's See How Far We've Come |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146107916639208 |journal=Biblical Theology Bulletin |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=59–69 |doi=10.1177/0146107916639208 |issn=0146-1079 |s2cid=147053561 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lipschits |first1=Oded |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |title=The Jewish Study Bible |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-997846-5 |editor1-last=Berlin |editor1-first=Adele |edition=2nd |pages=2107–2119 |language=en |chapter=The history of Israel in the biblical period |quote=As this essay will show, however, the premonarchic period long ago became a literary description of the mythological roots, the early beginnings of the nation and the way to describe the right of Israel on its land. The archeological evidence also does not support the existence of a united monarchy under David and Solomon as described in the Bible, so the rubric of &quot;united monarchy&quot; is best abandoned, although it remains useful for discussing how the Bible views the Israelite past. [...] Although the kingdom of Judah is mentioned in some ancient inscriptions, they never suggest that it was part of a unit {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} Israel and Judah. There are no extrabiblical indications of a united monarchy called &quot;Israel.&quot; |editor2-last=Brettler |editor2-first=Marc Zvi |access-date=August 19, 2022 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160917/https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Historians and archaeologists agree that the northern [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] existed from {{circa|900 BCE}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|169–195}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Wright |first1=Jacob L. |date=July 2014 |title=David, King of Judah (Not Israel) |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301164250/http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |archive-date=March 1, 2021 |access-date=May 15, 2021 |website=The Bible and Interpretation}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that the [[Kingdom of Judah]] existed from {{Abbr|ca.|circa}} 700 BCE.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 |date=April 9, 2023 }} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Tel Dan Stele]], discovered in 1993, shows that the kingdom, at least in some form, existed by the middle of the 9th century BCE, but it does not indicate the extent of its power.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kcVmBAEo5rcC&amp;pg=PA333 |title=Ahab Agonistes: The Rise and Fall of the Omri Dynasty |date=April 28, 2007 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-567-25171-8 |quote=The Tel Dan inscription generated a good deal of debate and a flurry of articles when it first appeared, but it is now widely regarded (a) as genuine and (b) as referring to the Davidic dynasty and the Aramaic kingdom of Damascus. |access-date=August 19, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Cline |first=Eric H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uGzRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA61 |title=Biblical Archaeology: A Very Short Introduction |date=September 28, 2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-971162-8 |quote=Today, after much further discussion in academic journals, it is accepted by most archaeologists that the inscription is not only genuine but that the reference is indeed to the House of David, thus representing the first allusion found anywhere outside the Bible to the biblical David. |access-date=August 19, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Mykytiuk |first=Lawrence J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eprY1Qd0veAC&amp;pg=PA113 |title=Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200-539 B.C.E. |date=January 1, 2004 |publisher=Society of Biblical Lit |isbn=978-1-58983-062-2 |quote=Some unfounded accusations of forgery have had little or no effect on the scholarly acceptance of this inscription as genuine.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Biblical tradition tells that the Israelite monarchy was established in 1037 BCE under [[Saul]], who was anointed by the prophet Samuel,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Who Was the First King of Israel? |url=https://shopisrael.com/blogs/about-israel/first-king-of-israel |access-date=February 5, 2025 |website=Shop Israel |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and continued under [[David]] and his son, [[Solomon]]. David greatly expanded the kingdom's borders and [[Siege of Jebus|conquered Jerusalem]] from the [[Jebusites]], turning it into the national, political and religious capital of the kingdom. Solomon, his son, later built the [[First Temple]] on [[Moriah|Mount Moriah]] in Jerusalem. Upon his death, traditionally dated to c. 930 BCE, a civil war erupted between the ten northern Israelite tribes, and the tribes of [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] ([[Tribe of Simeon|Simeon]] was absorbed into Judah) and [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]] in the south. The kingdom then split into the Kingdom of Israel in the north, and the Kingdom of Judah in the south.

The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two kingdoms and soon developed into a regional power.{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|pp=146-147|loc=Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power}} During the days of the [[Omride Dynasty|Omride dynasty]], it controlled [[Samaria]], [[Galilee]], the upper [[Jordan Valley]], the [[Sharon plain|Sharon]] and large parts of the [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |first=Israel |last=Finkelstein |title=The forgotten kingdom : the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |isbn=978-1-58983-910-6 |pages=74 |oclc=949151323}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Samaria (ancient city)|Samaria]], the capital, was home to one of the largest Iron Age palaces in the Levant.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |title=The Forgotten Kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-58983-911-3 |pages=65–66; 73; 78; 87–94 |oclc=880456140}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |date=November 1, 2011 |title=Observations on the Layout of Iron Age Samaria |url=https://doi.org/10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |journal=Tel Aviv |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=194–207 |doi=10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |issn=0334-4355 |s2cid=128814117 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; The kingdom of Israel was destroyed {{cx|720 BCE}}, when it was [[Samerina|conquered]] by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Kingdom of Judah, with its capital in [[Jerusalem]], controlled the [[Judaean Mountains]], the [[Shephelah]], the [[Judaean Desert]] and parts of the [[Negev]]. After the fall of Israel, Judah became a [[client state]] of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In the 7th century BCE, the kingdom's population increased greatly, prospering under [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] [[Vassal state|vassalage]], despite [[Hezekiah#Assyrian invasion|Hezekiah's revolt]] against the Assyrian king [[Sennacherib]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |editor-last=Ben-Sasson |editor-first=Haim Hillel |editor-link=H. H. Ben-Sasson |page=142 |quote=Sargon's heir, Sennacherib (705–681), could not deal with Hezekiah's revolt until he gained control of Babylon in 702 BCE.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Mesad Hashavyahu ostracon.jpg|thumb|The [[Yavne-Yam ostracon]], a [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|Paleo-Hebrew]] inscription documenting administration in [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]]]
Large parts of the Hebrew Bible were written during this period. This includes the earliest portions of [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]],{{sfn|Kelle|2005|p=9}} [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]],{{sfn|Brettler|2010|pp=161–162}} [[Book of Amos|Amos]]{{sfn|Radine|2010|pp=71–72}} and [[Book of Micah|Micah]],{{sfn|Rogerson|2003a|p=690}} along with [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]],{{sfn|O'Brien|2002|p=14}} [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]],{{sfn|Gelston|2003c|p=715}} most of [[Deuteronomy]],{{sfn|Rogerson|2003b|p=154}} the first edition of the [[Deuteronomistic history]] (the books of [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]/[[Book of Judges|Judges]]/[[Books of Samuel|Samuel]]/[[Books of Kings|Kings]]),{{sfn|Campbell|O'Brien|2000|p=2 and fn.6}} and [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]].{{sfn|Gelston|2003a|p=710}}

With the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 605 BCE, a power struggle emerged between [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt|Egypt]] and the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] for control of the [[Levant]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bickerman |first=E. J. |title=Nebuchadnezzar And Jerusalem |date=January 1, 2007 |work=Studies in Jewish and Christian History (2 vols) |pages=961–974 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789047420729/Bej.9789004152946.i-1242_044.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004152946.i-1242.280 |isbn=978-90-474-2072-9 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to Judah's rapid decline. In 601 BCE, King [[Jehoiakim]] of Judah, who had recently submitted to Babylon, rebelled against the empire. He was soon succeeded by his son, Jehoiachin, who continued his father's policy and faced a Babylonian invasion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; In March 597 BCE,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Galil |first=Gershon |date=1991 |title=The Babylonian Calendar and the Chronology of the Last Kings of Judah |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42611193 |journal=Biblica |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=367–378 |jstor=42611193 |issn=0006-0887 |quote=All the scholars, without exception, establish the date of the surrender of Jehoiachin, king of Judah, as the second day of Adar, the seventh year of Nebuchadnezzar II, king of Babylon (March 16, 597 BC), following the Babylonian chronicle ... This unique date is undoubtedly the most precise in Israelite history during the biblical period.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jehoiachin surrendered to the Babylonians and was taken captive to Babylon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; This defeat is documented in the [[Babylonian Chronicles]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BCE) |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030154541/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |archive-date=October 30, 2014 |access-date=October 30, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle) – Livius |url=https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505195611/https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html |archive-date=May 5, 2019 |access-date=March 26, 2020 |website=www.livius.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Zedekiah]], Jehoiachin's uncle, was then installed as king by the Babylonians.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt;

In 587 or 586 BCE, [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], responding to a second revolt in Judah, [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|besieged and destroyed Jerusalem]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Shalom |first1=N. |last2=Vaknin |first2=Y. |last3=Shaar |first3=R. |last4=Ben-Yosef |first4=E. |last5=Lipschits |first5=O. |last6=Shalev |first6=Y. |last7=Gadot |first7=Y. |last8=Boaretto |first8=E. |date=2023 |title=Destruction by fire: Reconstructing the evidence of the 586 BCE Babylonian destruction in a monumental building in Jerusalem |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305440323001036 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=157 |article-number=105823 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2023.105823 |bibcode=2023JArSc.157j5823S |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; The [[First Temple]] was razed, and its sacred vessels were seized as spoils.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bedford |first=Peter Ross |title=Introduction |date=2001 |work=Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah |pages=1–39 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s004.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004498051_004 |isbn=978-90-04-49805-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; The destruction was followed by a mass exile: the surviving inhabitants of the city, including other segments of the population, were carried off to Mesopotamia,&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt; marking the onset of the era known in Jewish history as the &quot;[[Babylonian Captivity]]&quot;. Zedekiah himself was captured, blinded, and transported to Babylon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt; Others [[History of the Jews in Egypt|fled to Egypt]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} The people of Judah lost their statehood, and, for those in exile, their homeland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001b&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bedford |first=Peter Ross |title=Living Without the Jerusalem Temple—In Judah and Babylonia |date=January 1, 2001 |work=Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah |page=42 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s005.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004498051_005 |isbn=978-90-04-49805-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Following the dissolution of the monarchy, the former kingdom was annexed as a province of the Babylonian Empire.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt;

=== Babylonian captivity (c. 587–538 BCE)&lt;!--[[Exilic]] redirects directly here.--&gt; ===
{{Main|Babylonian captivity}}
[[File:Tissot The Flight of the Prisoners.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Deportation and exile of the ancient [[Kingdom of Judah|Judeans]] to [[Babylon]] and the destruction of Jerusalem and [[Solomon's temple]]]]During the several decades between the fall of Judah and their [[return to Zion]] under Persian rule, Jewish history enters an obscure phase. Many Jews were exiled across [[Babylonia]], [[Elam]], and [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], while others remained in [[Yehud (Babylonian province)|Judea under Babylonian rule]]. [[Jeremiah]] refers to communities in Egypt, including settlements in [[Migdol]], [[Tahpanhes]], [[Noph]], and [[Pathros]]. Moreover, a Jewish military colony existed at [[Elephantine]], established before the exile, where they built their own shrine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001b&quot; /&gt; Deuteronomy was expanded and earlier scriptures were edited during the exilic period. The first edition of [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]], the [[Book of Ezekiel]], the majority of [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]], and what is referred to in research as &quot;[[Book of Isaiah|Second Isaiah]]&quot; were all written during this time period as well.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}

==هيڪل سليماني جي ٻيهر تعمير==
===&lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Post-exilic_period&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;هخامنشي دور (332 کان 538ع)&lt;!--&quot;Post-exilic period&quot;, &quot;Post-Exilic period&quot;, &quot;Post-exilic&quot;, &quot;Post-Exilic&quot;, Postexilic, &quot;Pre-exilic period&quot;, &quot;Pre-Exilic period&quot;, &quot;Pre-Exilic&quot; and &quot;Pre-exilic&quot; redirect here--&gt;===
[[File:109.Ezra Reads the Law to the People.jpg|thumb|[[عزير عليہ السلام|عزير]] ماڻهن کي [[توريت|تورات]] پڙهي ٻڌائي رهيو آهي. گستاو ڊور پاران پينٽنگ]]
عزير جي ڪتاب جي مطابق، [[سائرس اعظم|سائرس]] [[سائرس اعظم|اعظم]]، هخامنشي سلطنت جو بادشاهه، بابل جي فتح کان هڪ سال پوءِ،&lt;ref&gt;''Harper's Bible Dictionary'', ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper &amp; Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103&lt;/ref&gt; سال 538 ق.م ۾ بابلي جلاوطني جو خاتمو آندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Biu.ac.il22&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html|access-date=March 15, 2014|publisher=Biu.ac.il}}&lt;/ref&gt; واپس ڪندڙ يهودين جي اڳواڻي زربابل، [[داؤد عليہ السلام|دائود]] جي شاهي نسل مان هڪ شهزادو ۽ جوشوا، مندر جي اڳوڻي اعليٰ پادرين مان اولاد ڪئي، جنهن ٻئي مندر جي تعمير جي نگراني ڪيا، جيڪا سال &lt;small&gt;521&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;516&lt;/small&gt; ق.م. جي وچ ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Biu.ac.il2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html|access-date=March 15, 2014|publisher=Biu.ac.il}}&lt;/ref&gt;۽ هخامنشي سلطنت جي حصي جي طور تي، يهودين جي اڳوڻي بادشاهت، مختلف حدن سان، هڪ ننڍڙو علائقو ڍڪيندي، يهودين جو صوبو بڻجي وئي.&lt;ref&gt;Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew Yehuda, or &quot;Judah&quot;, and &quot;medinata&quot; the word for province&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Grabbe|first=Lester L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-MnE5T_0RbMC&amp;q=gave+the+Jews+permission+to+return+to+Yehud+province+and+to+rebuild+the&amp;pg=PA355|title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah|volume=1|publisher=T&amp;T Clark|year=2004|isbn=978-0-567-08998-4|page=355}}&lt;/ref&gt; همعصر عالم بتدريج واپسي جي عمل ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا، جيڪي 6هين صدي ق.م. جي آخر ۽ 5هين صدي ق.م. جي شروعات تائين وڌائي وئي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last=Lipschits|first=Oded|title=Judah in the Biblical Period|chapter=Between Archaeology and Text: A Reevaluation of the Development Process of Jerusalem in the Persian Period|date=March 18, 2024|page=374|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110487442-020/html|access-date=July 1, 2024|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110487442-020|isbn=978-3-11-048744-2}}&lt;/ref&gt; فارسي يهودين جي آبادي بادشاهت جي دور کان تمام گهٽجي وئي. آثار قديمه جا سروي پنجين ۽ چوٿين صدي ق.م. دوران تقريبن &lt;small&gt;'''30,000'''&lt;/small&gt; جي آبادي ڏيکارن ٿا. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|date=2001|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|isbn=0-684-86912-8|edition=1st Touchstone|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

آخري توريت کي وڏي پيماني تي فارسي دور (&lt;small&gt;539&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;کان 333&lt;/small&gt; ق.م يا &lt;small&gt;450-350&lt;/small&gt; ق.م.) جي پيداوار طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو،{{Sfn|Frei|2001|p=6}} هي اتفاق راءِ هڪ روايتي يهودي نظريي جو گونج آهي ته [[عزير عليہ السلام|عزير عليه السلام]]، بابل کان واپسي تي يهودي برادري جا اڳواڻ، تورات جي اشاعت ۾ هڪ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{sfn|Romer|2008|p=2 and fn.3}}

ٽي نبي، جيڪا يهودي روايت ۾ آخري سمجهيا وڃن ٿا هن دور ۾ سرگرم هئا: حجائي، زڪريا ۽ ملاڪي.&lt;ref&gt;[[Jerusalem Bible]] (1966), ''Haggai'', ''Zechariah'', ''Malachi'' in ''Introduction to the Prophets'', London: Darton, Longman &amp; Todd, pp. 1138–1140&lt;/ref&gt; بني اسرائيل جي آخري نبي جي وفات کانپوءِ ۽ اڃا تائين فارسي حڪمراني هيٺ، يهودي ماڻهن جي قيادت اڳواڻن جي پنجن مسلسل نسلن جي زگوٽ (جوڙن) جي هٿن ۾ منتقل ٿي وئي. اهي پهرين فارسين جي دور ۾ ۽ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾ ترقي ڪيا ۽ نتيجي طور تي، انهن مان ٻه گروه، فريسي ۽ صدوقي ٺهيا. فارسين جي دور ۾ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾، يهودي سڪا يهوديه ۾ يهودي سڪن جي طور تي ٺاهيا ويا.

=== Hellenistic period (c. 332–110 BCE) ===
{{Main|Hellenistic Judaism}}
[[File:Jews Byzantine Greek Alexander Manuscript (cropped).JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Alexander the Great]], clad as a [[Byzantine emperor]], receives a delegation of Jewish [[rabbi]]s. Miniature from the 14th-century ''Alexander Romance'']]

In 332 BCE, [[Alexander the Great]] of [[Macedon]] defeated the Persians. After Alexander's death and the division of his empire among his generals, the [[Seleucid Kingdom]] was formed.

The Alexandrian conquests spread Greek culture to the Levant. During this time, currents of Judaism were influenced by [[Hellenistic philosophy]] developed from the 3rd century BCE, notably the [[Jewish diaspora]] in [[Alexandrian Jews|Alexandria]], culminating in the compilation of the [[Septuagint]]. An important advocate of the symbiosis of Jewish theology and Hellenistic thought is [[Philo]].

=== Hasmonean dynasty (110–63 BCE) ===
{{Main|Hasmonean dynasty}}
[[File:John Hyrcanus.jpg|thumb|JUDAEA, Hasmoneans. John Hyrcanus I (Yehohanan). 135–104 BCE. Æ Prutah (13mm, 2.02&amp;nbsp;gm, 12h). &quot;Yehohanan the High Priest and the Council of the Jews&quot; (in Hebrew) in five lines within wreath / Double cornucopiae adorned with ribbons; pomegranate between horns; small A to lower left. Meshorer Group B, 11; Hendin 457.]]

Triggered by anti-Jewish decrees from Seleucid king [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] and tensions between Hellenized and conservative Jews, the [[Maccabean Revolt]] erupted in Judea in 167 BCE under the leadership of [[Mattathias]]. His son, [[Judas Maccabeus]], recaptured Jerusalem in 164 BCE, purifying the Second Temple and reinstating sacrificial worship.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atkinson-2016&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Atkinson |first=Kenneth |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/949219870 |title=A History of the Hasmonean State: Josephus and Beyond |date=2016 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-66902-5 |series=T&amp;T Clark Jewish and Christian texts series |location=London; New York |pages=2, 23–28 |oclc=949219870}}&lt;/ref&gt; The successful revolt eventually led to the formation of an independent Jewish state under the [[Hasmonean dynasty]], which lasted from 165 to 63 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;See:

*[[William David Davies]]. ''The Hellenistic Age''. Volume 2 of Cambridge History of Judaism. Cambridge University Press, 1989. {{ISBN|978-0-521-21929-7}}. pp. 292–312.
*Jeff S. Anderson. ''The Internal Diversification of Second Temple Judaism: An Introduction to the Second Temple Period''. University Press of America, 2002. {{ISBN|978-0-7618-2327-8}}. pp. 37–38.
*Howard N. Lupovitch. ''Jews and Judaism in World History''. Taylor &amp; Francis. 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-415-46205-1}}. pp. 26–30.&lt;/ref&gt;

Initially governing as both political leaders and High Priests, the [[Hasmoneans]] later assumed the title of kings. They employed military campaigns and diplomacy to consolidate power.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atkinson-2016&quot; /&gt; Under the rule of [[Alexander Jannaeus]] and [[Salome Alexandra]], [[Hasmonean Judea]] reached its zenith in size and influence. However, internal strife erupted between Salome Alexandra's sons, [[Hyrcanus II]] and [[Aristobulus II]], leading to civil war and appeals to Roman authorities for intervention. Responding to these appeals, Pompey led a Roman campaign of conquest and annexation, which marked the end of Hasmonean sovereignty and ushered in Roman rule over Judea.&lt;ref&gt;Hooker, Richard. {{cite web |title=The Hebrews: The Diaspora |url=http://www.wsu.edu:8000/~dee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM |access-date=April 7, 2018 |archive-date=August 29, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829230214/http://www.wsu.edu:8000/%7Edee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM |url-status=dead}}  World Civilizations Learning Modules.  Washington State University, 1999.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Roman period (63 BCE – 135 CE) ===
{{Main|Herodian dynasty|History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Roman Palestine|Judaea (Roman province)|Jewish–Roman wars}}
[[File:Monnaie - Prutah, bronze, Jérusalem, Judée, Mattathias Antigonos - btv1b8480202s (1 of 2).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Hasmonean coinage|Hasmonean coin]] of [[Antigonus II Mattathias]], depicting the [[Temple menorah]]]]

Judea had been an independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmoneans, but it was [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BCE)|conquered and reorganized as a client state by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE]]. [[Roman expansion]] was going on in other areas as well, and it would continue for more than a hundred and fifty years. Later, [[Herod the Great]] was appointed &quot;King of the Jews&quot; by the [[Roman Senate]], supplanting the Hasmonean dynasty. Some of his offspring held various positions after him, known as the [[Herodian dynasty]]. Briefly, from 4 BCE to 6 CE, [[Herod Archelaus]] ruled the [[Tetrarchy (Judea)|tetrarchy of Judea]] as [[ethnarch]], the Romans denying him the title of King.

After the [[Census of Quirinius]] in 6 CE, the [[Roman province of Judaea]] was formed as a satellite of [[Roman Syria]] under the rule of a [[prefect]] (as was [[Roman Egypt]]) until 41 CE, then [[Procurator (Roman)|procurators]] after 44 CE. The empire was often callous and brutal in its treatment of its Jewish subjects, (see [[Anti-Judaism#Pre-Christian Roman Empire|Anti-Judaism in the pre-Christian Roman Empire]]). In 30 CE (or 33 CE), [[Jesus of Nazareth]], an itinerant [[rabbi]] from [[Galilee]], and the central figure of [[Christianity]], was put to death by [[crucifixion]] in Jerusalem under the Roman prefect of [[Judaea]], [[Pontius Pilate]].&lt;ref&gt;Charlesworth, James H. (2008). The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide. {{ISBN|978-1-4267-2475-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For a short time Judea was reunited and semi-independent under [[Agrippa the Great]] who had good relations with both the Roman aristocracy and local Jewish citizens. After his death Judea was again annexed by Rome and his less popular son [[Herod Agrippa II]] was made ethnarch.&lt;ref&gt;Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, livre XVIII, § V, 4, (132).&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:19 Shrine of the Book 005 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of the [[Second Temple]], following renovations by [[Herod the Great|Herod]] in the 1st century CE]]
[[File:Roberts Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans]] (1850 painting by [[David Roberts (painter)|David Roberts]])]]

Roman oppressive rule, combined with economic, religious, and ethnic tensions, eventually led to the outbreak of the [[First Jewish–Roman War]], also known as the Great Revolt, in 66 CE. Future emperor [[Vespasian]] quelled the rebellion in [[Galilee]] by 67 CE, capturing key strongholds.&lt;ref&gt;Jensen, M. H. (2014). The Political History in Galilee from the First Century BCE to the end of the Second Century CE. ''Galilee in the late Second Temple and Mishnaic periods. Volume 1. Life, culture and society'', pp. 69-70. &quot;According to Jewish War, Vespasian laid siege to and conquered all the major strongholds of Galilee [...] Since the entire campaign was short and lasted only for some months in the spring and summer of 67, there is no reason to believe that Galilee was entirely devastated when the Romans set their course south. However, the places that were conquered, were in a typical Roman fashion levelled more or less to the ground and many people sold of as slaves.&lt;/ref&gt; He was succeeded by his son [[Titus]], who led the brutal [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|siege of Jerusalem]], culminating in the city's fall in 70 CE. The Romans burned Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Weksler-Bdolah |first=Shlomit |title=Aelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman period: in light of archaeological research |publisher=Brill |year=2019 |isbn=978-90-04-41707-6 |page=3 |oclc=1170143447 |quote=The historical description is consistent with the archeological finds. Collapses of massive stones from the walls of the Temple Mount were exposed lying over the Herodian street running along the Western Wall of the Temple Mount. The residential buildings of the Ophel and the Upper City were destroyed by great fire. The large urban drainage channel and the Pool of Siloam in the Lower City silted up and ceased to function, and in many places the city walls collapsed. [...] Following the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, a new era began in the city's history. The Herodian city was destroyed and a military camp of the Tenth Roman Legion established on part of the ruins.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Reich |first=Ronny |date=2009 |title=The Sack of Jerusalem in 70 CE: Flavius Josephus' Description and the Archaeological Record |script-title=he:חורבן ירושלים בשנת 70 לסה&quot;נ: תיאורו של יוסף בן מתתיהו והממצא הארכאולוגי  |journal=Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv |script-journal=he:קתדרה: לתולדות ארץ ישראל ויישובה |issue=131 |pages=25–42 |issn=0334-4657 |jstor=23407359}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Roman victory was celebrated with a [[Roman triumph|triumph]] in Rome, showcasing Jewish artefacts like the [[Temple menorah|menorah]], which were then put on display in the new [[Temple of Peace, Rome|Temple of Peace]].&lt;ref&gt;Huitink, Luuk. &quot;Between Triumph and Tragedy: Josephus, Bellum Judaicum 7.121–157.&quot; ''Reading Greek, Hellenistic and Roman spolia. Objects, appropriation and cultural change, Euhormos: Greco-Roman Studies in Anchoring Innovation. Leiden: Brill'' (2023). pp. 215–216, 234&lt;/ref&gt; The Flavian dynasty leveraged this victory for political gain, erecting monuments in Rome and minting [[Judaea Capta coinage|Judaea Capta coins]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Overman |first1=J. Andrew |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781134518326 |title=The First Jewish Revolt |last2=Overman |first2=J. Andrew |date=September 2, 2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-51832-6 |chapter=The First Revolt and Flavian politics |doi=10.4324/9780203167441}}&lt;/ref&gt; The war concluded with the [[siege of Masada]] (73–74 CE). The Jewish population suffered widespread devastation, with displacement, enslavement, and Roman confiscation of Jewish-owned land.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Herr |first=Moshe David |title=The History of Eretz Israel: The Roman Byzantine period: the Roman period from the conquest to the Ben Kozba War (63 B.C.E-135 C.E.) |publisher=Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi |year=1984 |editor-last=Shtern |editor-first=Menahem |location=Jerusalem |page=288}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The destruction of the Second Temple marked a cataclysmic event in Jewish history, triggering far-reaching transformations within Judaism.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Maclean Rogers |first=Guy |title=For the Freedom of Zion: The Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66–74 CE |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-300-26256-8 |location=New Haven and London |pages=3–5 |oclc=1294393934}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=Judaism in a Time of Crisis: Four Responses to the Destruction of the Second Temple |date=November 28, 2017 |work=Neusner on Judaism |pages=399–413 |editor-last1=Hinnells |editor-first1=John |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781351152761-20 |access-date=May 22, 2022 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781351152761-20 |isbn=978-1-351-15276-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Karesh-2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Karesh |first=Sara E. |title=Encyclopedia of Judaism |publisher=Facts On File |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-78785-171-9 |oclc=1162305378 |quote=Until the modern period, the destruction of the Temple was the most cataclysmic moment in the history of the Jewish people. Without the Temple, the Sadducees no longer had any claim to authority, and they faded away. The sage Yochanan ben Zakkai, with permission from Rome, set up the outpost of Yavneh to continue develop of Pharisaic, or rabbinic, Judaism.}}&lt;/ref&gt; With the central role of sacrificial worship obliterated, religious practices shifted towards [[Jewish prayer|prayer]], [[Torah study]], and communal gatherings in [[synagogue]]s. According to Rabbinic tradition, Yohanan ben Zakkai secured permission from the Romans to establish a center for Torah study in [[Yavne]]h, which then served as a focal point for Jewish religious and cultural life for a generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stemberger-2003&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Stemberger |first=Guenter |title=The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism, 70–640 CE |date=2003 |work=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism |pages=78–79 |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470758014.ch5 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Wiley |language=en |doi=10.1002/9780470758014.ch5 |isbn=978-1-57718-058-6 |editor2-last=Avery-Peck |editor2-first=Alan J. |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-judaism/3F4F0A32983FC0DCDB414553888DC394 |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |volume=4 |page=268 |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488 |quote=Under the leadership of R. Yohanan ben Zakkai and his circle at Yavneh, Judaism sought to reconstitute itself and find a new equilibrium in the face of the disaster of 70.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=Religion (Judentum: Palästinisches Judentum &amp;#91;Forts.&amp;#93;) |date=September 26, 2016 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-083904-3 |editor-last1=Haase |editor-first1=Wolfgang |language=de |chapter=The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism: Yavneh (Jamnia) from A.D. 70 to 100 |pages=3–42 |doi=10.1515/9783110839043-002 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110839043-002/html}}&lt;/ref&gt; Judaism also underwent a significant shift away from its sectarian divisions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Shaye J. D. |date=1984 |title=The Significance of Yavneh: Pharisees, Rabbis, and the End of Jewish Sectarianism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507609 |journal=Hebrew Union College Annual |volume=55 |page=29 |jstor=23507609 |issn=0360-9049 |quote=The goal was not the triumph over other sects but the elimination of the need for sectarianism itself. [...] The destruction of the temple provided the impetus for this process: it warned the Jews of the dangers of internal divisiveness and it removed one of the major focal points of Jewish sectarianism.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Jodi |last=Magness |title=Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History?: On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-04-21744-7 |editor-first=Daniel R. |editor-last=Schwartz |chapter=Sectarianism before and after 70 CE |editor-first2=Zeev |editor-last2=Weiss |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VecxAQAAQBAJ&amp;q=diaspora+70+ce&amp;pg=PA189}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Sadducees]] and [[Essenes]], two prominent sects in the late Second Temple period, faded into obscurity,&lt;ref name=&quot;Karesh-2006&quot; /&gt; while the traditions of the [[Pharisees]], including their halakhic interpretations, the centrality of the [[Oral Torah]], and [[Jewish eschatology|belief in resurrection]] became the foundation of [[Rabbinic Judaism]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Stemberger-2003&quot; /&gt;[[File:Arch of Titus Menorah.png|upright=1.15|thumb|The sack of Jerusalem depicted on the inside wall of the [[Arch of Titus]] in [[Rome]]]]

=== Diaspora during the Second Temple period ===
{{Main|Jewish diaspora}}
The [[Jewish diaspora]] existed well before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and had been ongoing for centuries, with the dispersal driven by both forced expulsions and voluntary migrations.&lt;ref&gt;[[Erich S. Gruen]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=t1IR4WtFjGUC&amp;pg=PA3 Diaspora: Jews Amidst Greeks and Romans] [[Harvard University Press]], 2009 pp. 3–4, 233–234: 'Compulsory dislocation, .…cannot have accounted for more than a fraction of the diaspora. … The vast bulk of Jews who dwelled abroad in the Second Temple Period did so voluntarily.' (2)' .Diaspora did not await the fall of Jerusalem to Roman power and destructiveness. The scattering of Jews had begun long before-occasionally through forced expulsion, much more frequently through voluntary migration.'&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Martin |title=A History of Judaism |date=2018 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-18127-1 |location=Princeton Oxford |pages=21, 232}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Mesopotamia, a testimony to the beginnings of the Jewish community can be found in [[Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets|Joachin's ration tablets]], listing provisions allotted to the exiled Judean king and his family by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], and further evidence are the [[Al-Yahudu Tablets|Al-Yahudu tablets]], dated to the 6th-5th centuries BCE and related to the exiles from Judea arriving after the destruction of the [[First Temple]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Luke |date=February 3, 2017 |title=Ancient tablets reveal life of Jews in Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203 |newspaper=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt; though there is ample evidence for the presence of Jews in Babylonia even from 626 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;Zadok R. Judeans in Babylonia–Updating the Dossier. in U. Gabbay and Sh. Secunda. (eds.). ''Encounters by the Rivers of Babylon: Scholarly Conversations between Jews, Iranians and Babylonians in Antiquity'', Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 160. Tübingen: MohrSiebeck. pp. 109–110.&lt;/ref&gt; In Egypt, the [[Elephantine papyri and ostraca|documents from Elephantine]] reveal the trials of a community founded by a Persian Jewish garrison at two fortresses on the frontier during the 5th-4th centuries BCE, and according to [[Josephus]] the Jewish community in Alexandria existed since the founding of the city in the 4th century BCE by [[Alexander the Great]].&lt;ref&gt;Josephus Flavius, ''Against Appion''. 4.II&lt;/ref&gt; By 200 BCE, there were well established Jewish communities both in Egypt and Mesopotamia (&quot;[[History of the Jews in Iraq|Babylonia]]&quot; in Jewish sources) and in the two centuries that followed, Jewish populations were also present in [[Asia Minor]], [[Greece]], [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]], [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]], and, beginning in the middle of the 1st century BCE, in the city of [[Rome]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=E. Mary |last=Smallwood |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period, Volume 3 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-521-24377-3 |editor1=William David Davies |chapter=The Diaspora in the Roman period before AD 70 |editor2=Louis Finkelstein |editor3=William Horbury |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AW2BuWcalXIC&amp;q=Diaspora+before+70&amp;pg=PA168}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot; /&gt;

In the first centuries CE, as a result of the [[Jewish–Roman wars]],&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot;&gt;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת &quot;עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום&quot;, ע&quot;מ 95. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth – &quot;The People of Israel – the history of 4000 years – from the days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty&quot;, 1981, p. 95)&lt;/ref&gt; a large number of Jews were taken as captives, sold into slavery, or compelled to flee from the regions affected by the wars, contributing to the formation and expansion of Jewish communities across the [[Roman Empire]] as well as in Arabia and Mesopotamia. Jewish communities across Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Egypt were almost entirely obliterated due to the harsh Roman response to the Diaspora Revolt.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006b&quot; /&gt;

The [[New Testament]] Book of [[Acts]], as well as other [[Pauline epistles|Pauline]] texts, make frequent reference to the large populations of [[Hellenized Jews]] in the cities of the Roman world. These Hellenized Jews were affected by the diaspora only in its spiritual sense, absorbing the feeling of loss and homelessness that became a cornerstone of the Jewish creed, much supported by persecutions in various parts of the world. Of critical importance to the reshaping of Jewish tradition from the Temple-based religion to the rabbinic traditions of the Diaspora, was the development of the interpretations of the Torah found in the [[Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]].

==تالمود وارو دور==
===پھرين يهودي بغاوت (115 کان 117ع)===
During the [[Diaspora Revolt]] (115–117 CE), [[Jewish diaspora]] communities across several eastern provinces of the [[Roman Empire]] engaged in widespread rebellion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006a&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=June 22, 2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |pages=93–106 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=September 8, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Driven by messianic fervor and hopes for the [[Gathering of Israel|ingathering of exiles]] and the [[Third Temple|reconstruction of the Temple]], these communities may have sought to spark a broader movement possibly aimed at returning to [[Judea]] and rebuilding Jerusalem.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Smallwood |first=E. Mary |title=The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian |publisher=SBL Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-90-04-50204-8 |pages=394–397}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Horbury |first=William |title=Jewish War under Trajan and Hadrian |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-139-04905-4 |pages=276}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Barclay |first=John M. G. |title=Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: from Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE) |date=1998 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-08651-8 |edition= |location=Edinburgh |pages=241}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient sources describe the revolt as extremely brutal, with cases of cannibalism and mutilation, though modern scholars often consider these accounts to be exaggerated.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006a&quot; /&gt; The Roman suppression of the revolt was marked by severe measures, including [[ethnic cleansing]], leading to the near-total destruction of Jewish diaspora communities in [[Roman Libya|Libya]], [[Roman Cyprus|Cyprus]] and [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last1=Kerkeslager |first1=Allen |title=The Diaspora from 66 to c. 235 ce |date=2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |volume=4 |pages=62–63 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/diaspora-from-66-to-c-235-ce/5AECAD54BE6CA31C7968EED92D6CA36A |access-date=September 10, 2024 |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.004 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |last2=Setzer |first2=Claudia |last3=Trebilco |first3=Paul |last4=Goodblatt |first4=David}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006b&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=June 22, 2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |page=98 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=September 8, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; including the significant and influential community in [[Alexandria]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot; /&gt;

===بار ڪوخبا بغاوت (132 کان 136ع===
{{Main|بار ڪوخبا بغاوت}}
[[File:Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg|thumb|A tetradrachm minted during the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], featuring the former Second Temple, a ''lulav'', and the slogan 'to the freedom of Jerusalem']]
From 132 to 136 CE, Judaea was the center of the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], triggered by Hadrian's decision to establish the pagan colony of [[Aelia Capitolina]] on the ruins of Jerusalem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Eck |first=Werner |editor-first1=Werner |editor-last1=Eck |title=Bar Kokhba |date=July 30, 2015 |work=Oxford Classical Dictionary |url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-1056 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1056 |isbn=978-0-19-938113-5 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Early successes led to the establishment of a short-lived Jewish state in Judea under the leadership of [[Simon Bar Kokhba]], styled as ''[[Nasi (Hebrew title)|nasi]]'' or prince of Israel.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt; The [[Bar Kokhba revolt coinage|rebel state's coinage]] proclaimed &quot;Freedom of Israel&quot; and &quot;For the Freedom of Jerusalem&quot;, using [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|ancient Hebrew script]] for nationalistic symbolism.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-1999&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Eck |first=Werner |date=1999 |title=The Bar Kokhba Revolt: The Roman Point of View |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-studies/article/abs/bar-kokhba-revolt-the-roman-point-of-view/27E95F52A627562F93178F17A51D5FD4 |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |volume=89 |pages=76, 80 |doi=10.2307/300735 |jstor=300735 |issn=1753-528X |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt; However, the Romans soon amassed six legions and additional auxiliaries under [[Julius Severus]], who then brutally crushed the uprising. Historical accounts report the destruction of fifty major strongholds and 985 villages, resulting in 580,000 Jewish deaths and widespread famine and disease.&lt;ref name=&quot;Raviv-2021&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Raviv |first1=Dvir |last2=David |first2=Chaim Ben |date=2021 |title=Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account? |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=585–607 |doi=10.1017/S1047759421000271 |issn=1047-7594 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Archaeological research confirms the widespread destruction and depopulation of the Jewish heartland in [[Judea]] proper, where most of the Jewish population was either killed, sold into slavery, expelled, or forced to flee.&lt;ref name=&quot;Raviv-2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=A. H. M. |title=The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces |publisher=Oxford |year=1971 |edition=2nd |pages=277 |quote=This provoked the last Jewish war, which seems from our meager accounts [...] to have resulted in the desolation of Judaea and the practical extermination of its Jewish population.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Mor|2016|pp=483–484}}: &quot;Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the [[Sicaricon|sikarikon laws]] were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The Romans also suffered heavy losses.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-1999&quot; /&gt; Post-revolt, Jews were prohibited from entering Jerusalem, and Hadrian issued religious edicts,&lt;ref&gt;Hanan Eshel,[[iarchive:cambridgehis xxxx 1984 004 8494287/page/n1082|&lt;!-- pg=105 --&gt; 'The Bar Kochba revolt, 132-135,']] in William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, Steven T. Katz (eds.) ''The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period,'' pp. 105-127, p. 105.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Eshel |first=Hanan |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=T. Katz |editor-first=Steven |volume=4. The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period  |pages=105–127 |chapter=4: The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132 – 135 |oclc=7672733}}&lt;/ref&gt; including a ban on circumcision, later repealed by [[Antoninus Pius]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} The province of Judaea was renamed [[Syria Palaestina]] as a punitive act against the Jews, aimed at placating non-Jewish residents and erasing Jewish historical ties to the land.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, {{ISBN|0-674-39731-2}}, page 334: &quot;In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ariel Lewin. ''The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine''. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. &quot;It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land.&quot; {{ISBN|0-89236-800-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; Christians refused to participate in the revolt and from this point the Jews regarded Christianity as a separate religion.&lt;ref&gt;M. Avi-Yonah, ''The Jews under Roman and Byzantine Rule'', Jerusalem 1984 p. 143&lt;/ref&gt; The Jewish defeat marked the termination of efforts to reestablish a Jewish state until the modern era.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |title=An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History And Religion Of The Jews In The Time Of Nehemiah, The Maccabees, Hillel, And Jesus |date=2010 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-55248-8 |location=Edinburgh |page=78 |quote=It was the total defeat and the massive destruction of the 132–35 war which put paid to any hopes of a revived Jewish state for another 1800 years.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A rabbi of this period, [[Simeon bar Yochai]], is regarded as the author of the [[Zohar]], the foundational text for Kabbalistic thought. However, modern scholars believe it was written in Medieval Spain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |title=Zohar |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&amp;letter=Z#406 |access-date=May 19, 2014 |last=Jacobs |first=Joseph |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007024121/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&amp;letter=Z#406 |archive-date=October 7, 2011 |author2=Broydé, Isaac |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Late Roman period in the Land of Israel ===
{{further|Byzantine Palestine|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}}
The relations of the Jews with the Roman Empire in the region continued to be complicated. [[Constantine the Great and Judaism|Constantine I]] allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once a year on [[Tisha B'Av]] at the [[Western Wall]]. In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched [[Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus|yet another revolt]], provoking heavy retribution.&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lazare and Robert Wistrich, Antisemitism: Its History and Causes, University of Nebraska Press, 1995, I, pp. 46–47.&lt;/ref&gt; The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the [[Constantinian dynasty]]. In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]], the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who unlike his predecessors defied Christianity. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sasanian Persia, in keeping with his effort to foster religions other than Christianity, he ordered the Jewish Temple rebuilt.&lt;ref&gt;Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'', 23.1.2–3.&lt;/ref&gt; The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic [[Galilee earthquake of 363]] and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire. Divine intervention was the common view among Christian historians of the time.&lt;ref&gt;See [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html &quot;Julian and the Jews 361–363 CE&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520080932/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html |date=May 20, 2012 }} (Fordham University, The Jesuit University of New York) and [https://web.archive.org/web/20051020130904/http://www.gibsoncondo.com/~david/convert/history.html &quot;Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple&quot;].&lt;/ref&gt; Julian's support of Jews caused Jews to call him &quot;Julian the [[Hellenes (religion)|Hellene]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Falk |first1=Avner |title=A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews |year=1996 |pages=343 |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press |isbn=978-0-8386-3660-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z10-Xz9Kno4C&amp;q=julian&amp;pg=PA343 |access-date=August 3, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Julian's fatal wound in the Persian campaign and his consequent death had put an end to Jewish aspirations, and Julian's successors embraced Christianity through the entire timeline of Byzantine rule of Jerusalem, preventing any Jewish claims.

In 438 CE, when the Empress [[Licinia Eudoxia|Eudocia]] removed the ban on Jews' praying at the [[Temple Mount|Temple site]], the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call &quot;to the great and mighty people of the Jews&quot; which began: &quot;Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!&quot; However, the Christian population of the city, who saw this as a threat to their primacy, did not allow it and a riot erupted after which they chased away the Jews from the city.&lt;ref&gt;Avraham Yaari, ''Igrot Eretz Yisrael'' (Tel Aviv, 1943), p. 46.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Andrew S. Jacobs |title=Remains of the Jews: The Holy Land and Christian Empire in Late Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8O95ErDSZQgC&amp;pg=PA157 |year=2004 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-4705-9 |page=157 |access-date=April 19, 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of [[Samaritan Revolts|Samaritan insurrections]] broke out across the [[Palaestina Prima]] province. Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in almost the entire annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the Samaritan [[Samaritan Revolts|Revolt of 556]] was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered a brutal suppression of Israelite religion.

In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an [[Jewish revolt against Heraclius|alliance]] with the [[Sassanid Empire|Persians]], who invaded Palaestina Prima in 614, fought at their side, overwhelmed the [[Byzantine]] garrison in Jerusalem, and were given Jerusalem to be governed as an autonomy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Itineraria Phoenicia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&amp;q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&amp;pg=PA542 |author=Edward Lipiński |publisher=Peeters |pages=542–543 |year=2004 |isbn=978-90-429-1344-8 |access-date=March 11, 2014 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409161013/https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&amp;q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&amp;pg=PA542 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, their autonomy was brief: the [[Nehemiah ben Hushiel|Jewish leader]] in Jerusalem was shortly assassinated during a Christian revolt and though Jerusalem was reconquered by Persians and Jews within 3 weeks, it fell into anarchy. With the consequent withdrawal of Persian forces, Jews surrendered to Byzantines in 625 or 628 CE, but were massacred by Christian radicals in 629 CE, with the survivors fleeing to Egypt. The Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) control of the region was finally lost to the Muslim Arab armies in 637 CE, when [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] completed the conquest of Akko.

=== Jews of pre-Muslim Babylonia (219–638 CE) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in Iraq}}

After the fall of Jerusalem, Babylonia would become the focus of Judaism for more than a thousand years. The first Jewish communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by [[Jehoiachin]] in 597 BCE as well as after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; Many more Jews migrated to Babylon in 135 CE after the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] and in the centuries after.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; Babylonia, where some of the largest and most prominent Jewish cities and communities were established, became the centre of Jewish life up to the 13th century. By the 1st century, Babylonia already held a speedily growing&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; population of an estimated 1,000,000 Jews, which increased to an estimated 2 million&lt;ref name=&quot;Solomon Gryazel&quot;&gt;Solomon Gryazel, ''History of the Jews: From the destruction of Judah in 586 BCE to the present Arab Israeli conflict'', p. 137.&lt;/ref&gt; between the years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from Judea, making up about 1/6 of the world Jewish population at that era.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solomon Gryazel&quot; /&gt; It was there that they would write the Babylonian Talmud in the languages used by the Jews of ancient Babylonia: [[Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]]. The Jews established [[Talmudic Academies in Babylonia]], also known as the Geonic Academies (from &quot;Geonim&quot;, meaning &quot;splendour&quot; in Biblical Hebrew or &quot;geniuses&quot;), which became the centre for Jewish scholarship and the development of Jewish law in Babylonia from roughly 500 CE to 1038 CE. The two most famous academies were the [[Pumbedita Academy]] and the [[Sura Academy]]. Major yeshivot were also located at [[Nehardea]] and Mahuza.&lt;ref&gt;''Codex Judaica'', pp. 161–174, Kantor, Zichron Press, NY 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; The Talmudic [[Yeshiva]] Academies became a main part of Jewish culture and education, and Jews continued establishing Yeshiva Academies in Western and Eastern Europe, North Africa, and in later centuries, in America and other countries around the world where Jews lived in the Diaspora. Talmudic study in Yeshiva academies, most of them located in The United States and Israel, continues today.

These Talmudic [[Yeshiva]] academies of Babylonia followed the era of the [[Amoraim]] (expounders)—the sages of the Talmud who were active (both in Judah and in Babylon) during the end of the era of the sealing of the [[Mishnah]] and until the times of the sealing of the Talmud (220–500 CE), and following the [[Savoraim]] (reasoners)—the sages of beth midrash (Torah study places) in Babylon from the end of the era of the Amoraim (5th century) and until the beginning of the era of the [[Geonim]]. The Geonim were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura and Pumbedita, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of the worldwide Jewish community in the early medieval era, in contrast to the [[Resh Galuta]] (Exilarch) who wielded secular authority over the Jews in Islamic lands. According to traditions, the [[Resh Galuta]] were descendants of Judean kings, which is why the kings of [[Parthia]] would treat them with much honour.&lt;ref&gt;[מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס. רותת &quot;עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום&quot;, ע&quot;מ 97. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth ''The People of Israel: The History of 4,000 Years, from the Days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty'', 1981, p. 97)&lt;/ref&gt;

For the Jews of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the yeshivot of Babylonia served much the same function as the ancient [[Sanhedrin]]—that is, as a council of Jewish religious authorities. The academies were founded in pre-Islamic Babylonia under the Zoroastrian Sassanid dynasty and were located not far from the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, which at that time was the largest city in the world. After the conquest of Persia in the 7th century, the academies subsequently operated for four hundred years under the Islamic caliphate. The first gaon of Sura, according to [[Sherira Gaon]], was Mar bar Rab Chanan, who assumed office in 609. The last gaon of [[Sura]] was [[Samuel ben Hofni]], who died in 1034; the last gaon of Pumbedita was [[Hezekiah Gaon]], who was tortured to death in 1040; hence the activity of the Geonim covers a period of nearly 450 years.

One of principal seats of Babylonian Judaism was [[Nehardea]], which was then a very large city made up mostly of Jews.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; A very ancient synagogue, built, it was believed, by King Jehoiachin, existed in Nehardea. At Huzal, near Nehardea, there was another synagogue, not far from which could be seen the ruins of Ezra's academy. In the period before Hadrian, Akiba, on his arrival at Nehardea on a mission from the Sanhedrin, entered into a discussion with a resident scholar on a point of matrimonial law (Mishnah Yeb., end). At the same time there was at Nisibis (northern [[Mesopotamia]]), an excellent Jewish college, at the head of which stood [[Judah ben Bathyra]], and in which many Judean scholars found refuge at the time of the persecutions. A certain temporary importance was also attained by a school at [[Nehar Pekod|Nehar-Pekod]], founded by the Judean immigrant Hananiah, nephew of [[Joshua ben Hananiah]], which school might have been the cause of a schism between the Jews of Babylonia and those of Judea-Israel, had not the Judean authorities promptly checked Hananiah's ambition.

=== Byzantine period (324–638 CE) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}}

Jews were also widespread throughout the Roman Empire, and this carried on to a lesser extent in the period of Byzantine rule in the central and eastern Mediterranean. The militant and exclusive Christianity and [[caesaropapism]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] did not treat Jews well, and the condition and influence of diaspora Jews in the Empire declined dramatically.

It was official Christian policy to convert Jews to Christianity, and the Christian leadership used the official power of Rome in their attempts. In 351 CE the Jews revolted against the added pressures of their governor, [[Constantius Gallus]]. Gallus put down the revolt and destroyed the major cities in the Galilee area where the revolt had started. Tzippori and Lydda (site of two of the major legal academies) never recovered.

In this period, the Nasi in Tiberias, [[Hillel II]], created an official calendar, which needed no monthly sightings of the moon. The months were set, and the calendar needed no further authority from Judea. At about the same time, the Jewish academy at Tiberius began to collate the combined Mishnah, [[braitot]], explanations, and interpretations developed by generations of scholars who studied after the death of [[Judah HaNasi]]. The text was organized according to the order of the Mishna: each paragraph of Mishnah was followed by a compilation of all of the interpretations, stories, and responses associated with that Mishnah. This text is called the ''[[Jerusalem Talmud]].''

The Jews of Judea received a brief respite from official persecution during the rule of the Emperor [[Julian the Apostate]]. Julian's policy was to return the Roman Empire to Hellenism, and he encouraged the Jews to rebuild Jerusalem. As Julian's rule lasted only from 361 to 363, the Jews could not rebuild sufficiently before Roman Christian rule was restored over the Empire. Beginning in 398 with the consecration of [[St. John Chrysostom]] as [[Patriarch]], Christian rhetoric against Jews grew sharper; he preached sermons with titles such as &quot;Against the Jews&quot; and &quot;On the Statues, Homily 17&quot;, in which John preaches against &quot;the Jewish sickness&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Wendy Mayer and [[Pauline Allen]], ''John Chrysostom: The Early Church Fathers'' (London, 2000), pp. 113, 146.&lt;/ref&gt; Such heated language contributed to a climate of Christian distrust and hate toward the large Jewish settlements, such as those in [[Antioch]] and [[Constantinople]].

In the beginning of the 5th century, the [[Emperor Theodosius]] issued a set of decrees establishing official persecution of Jews. Jews were not allowed to own slaves, build new synagogues, hold public office or try cases between a Jew and a non-Jew. Intermarriage between Jew and non-Jew was made a capital offence, as was the conversion of Christians to Judaism. Theodosius did away with the [[Sanhedrin]] and abolished the post of [[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]]. Under the [[Emperor Justinian]], the authorities further restricted the civil rights of Jews,&lt;ref&gt;Cod., I., v. 12&lt;/ref&gt; and threatened their religious privileges.&lt;ref&gt;Procopius, ''Historia Arcana'', 28&lt;/ref&gt; The emperor interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue,&lt;ref&gt;Nov., cxlvi., February 8, 553&lt;/ref&gt; and forbade, for instance, the use of the Hebrew language in divine worship. Those who disobeyed the restrictions were threatened with corporal penalties, exile, and loss of property. The Jews at Borium, not far from Syrtis Major, who resisted the Byzantine general [[Belisarius]] in his campaign against the [[Vandals]], were forced to embrace Christianity, and their synagogue was converted to a church.&lt;ref&gt;Procopius, ''De Aedificiis'', vi. 2&lt;/ref&gt;

Justinian and his successors had concerns outside the province of Judea, and he had insufficient troops to enforce these regulations. As a result, the 5th century was a period when a wave of new synagogues were built, many with beautiful mosaic floors. Jews adopted the rich art forms of the Byzantine culture. Jewish mosaics of the period portray people, animals, menorahs, zodiacs, and Biblical characters. Excellent examples of these synagogue floors have been found at Beit Alpha (which includes the scene of Abraham sacrificing a ram instead of his son Isaac along with a zodiac), Tiberius, Beit Shean, and Tzippori.

The precarious existence of Jews under Byzantine rule did not long endure, largely due to the explosion of the Muslim religion out of the remote Arabian peninsula (where large populations of Jews resided, see [[History of the Jews under Muslim Rule]] for more). The [[Muslim]] [[Caliphate]] ejected the Byzantines from the Holy Land (or the Levant, defined as modern Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria) within a few years of their victory at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] in 636. Numerous Jews fled the remaining Byzantine territories in favour of residence in the Caliphate over the subsequent centuries.

The size of the Jewish community in the Byzantine Empire was not affected by attempts by some emperors to forcibly convert the Jews of Anatolia to Christianity, as these attempts met with very little success.&lt;ref&gt;[[G. Ostrogorsky]], ''History of the Byzantine State''&lt;/ref&gt; Historians continue to research the status of the Jews in Asia Minor under Byzantine rule. (for a sample of views, see, for instance, J. Starr ''The Jews in the Byzantine Empire, 641–1204''; S. Bowman, ''The Jews of Byzantium''; R. Jenkins ''Byzantium''; Averil Cameron, &quot;Byzantines and Jews: Recent Work on Early Byzantium&quot;, ''Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies'' 20 (1996)). No systematic persecution of the type endemic at that time in Western Europe (pogroms, the stake, mass [[Expulsions and exoduses of Jews|expulsions]], etc.) has been recorded in Byzantium.&lt;ref&gt;''The Oxford History of Byzantium'', C. Mango (Ed) (2002)&lt;/ref&gt; Much of the Jewish population of Constantinople remained in place after the conquest of the city by [[Mehmet II]].{{citation needed|date=November 2013}}

&lt;gallery widths=&quot;180&quot;&gt;
File:Roman. Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog, 6th century C.E.jpg|''Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog'', 6th century [[Brooklyn Museum]]
File:Beit alfa01.jpg|Mosaic pavement of a synagogue at [[Beit Alpha]] (5th century)
File:ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg|Mosaic in the [[Tzippori Synagogue]] (5th century)
File:Hammat Gader.JPG|Mosaic pavement recovered from the [[Hamat Gader]] synagogue (5th or 6th century)
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Diaspora communities ===
[[File:Arrival of the Jewish pilgrims at Coachin, A.D. 68.jpg|thumb|Arrival of the Jewish pilgrims at Cochin, 68 CE]]
Cochin Jewish tradition holds that the roots of their community go back to the arrival of Jews at [[Kodungallur|Shingly]] in 72 CE, after the [[Destruction of the Second Temple]]. It also states that a Jewish kingdom, understood to mean the granting of autonomy by a local [[Tamils|Tamil]] king, [[Cheraman Perumal Nayanar]], to the community, under their leader Joseph Rabban, in 379 CE. The first synagogue there was built in 1568. The legend of the founding of Indian [[Christianity in Kerala]] by [[Thomas the Apostle]] relates that on his arrival there, he encountered a local girl who understood Hebrew.&lt;ref&gt;Nathan Katz, [https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA22 ''Who Are the Jews of India?,''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160937/https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA22|date=April 9, 2023}} [[University of California Press]], 2000 {{isbn|978-0-520-92072-9}} pp. 13–14, 17–18&lt;/ref&gt;

Perhaps in the 4th century, the [[Kingdom of Semien]], a Jewish nation in modern [[Beta Israel|Ethiopia]] was established, lasting until the 17th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exploring a Forgotten Jewish Land – Archaeology Magazine |url=https://www.archaeology.org/issues/498-2301/letter-from/11057-ethiopia-beta-israel |access-date=November 9, 2023 |website=www.archaeology.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وچين دور==
===اسلامي دور===
[[File:Education (T-S K5.13) (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|قاهره جينيزا جو ٽڪرو، ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي لائبريري&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Cairo Genizah : Education|url=https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-TS-K-00005-00013|access-date=2025-10-18|website=Cambridge Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
سال 638 عيسوي ۾ [[بازنطيني سلطنت]] [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سر زمين شام]] جو ڪنٽرول وڃائي ڇڏيو. خليفي [[عمر بن خطاب|عمر]] [[عمر بن خطاب|رضي الله تعالى عنه]] جي اڳواڻي ۾ [[پهرين اسلامي رياست|عرب اسلامي سلطنت]] [[يروشلم]]، [[ميسوپوٽيميا]]، [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سر زمين شام]] ([[شام]]، [[اردن]] ۽ [[فلسطين]]) ۽ [[مصر]] جي زمينن کي فتح ڪيو. هڪ سياسي نظام جي طور تي، [[اسلام]] يهودين جي معاشي، سماجي ۽ ذهني ترقي لاءِ بنيادي طور تي نوان حالات پيدا ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;Ehrlich, Mark. ''Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1''. ABC-CLIO, 2009, p. 152.({{ISBN|978-1-85109-873-6}})&lt;/ref&gt;عمر رضي الله تعالى عنه يهودين کي، 500 سالن جي وقفي کان پوءِ، [[يروشلم]] ۾ پنهنجي موجودگي کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني (ڏسو:عمر جي يقين دهاني).&lt;ref name=&quot;Bashan-20072&quot;&gt;{{cite EJ|last=Bashan|first=Eliezer|volume=15|page=419|title=Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي روايتون عمر کي هڪ مهربان حڪمران جي طور تي ڏسي ٿي ۽ مدراش (&lt;small&gt;نست&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;اروت دي-راو شمعون بار يوحائي&lt;/small&gt;) کيس &quot;بني اسرائيل جي دوست&quot; طور حوالو ڏئي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bashan-20073&quot;&gt;{{cite EJ|last=Bashan|first=Eliezer|volume=15|page=419|title=Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

عرب جاگرافيدان المقدسي جي مطابق، &lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land|author=Joseph E. Katz|year=2001|publisher=EretzYisroel.Org|access-date=August 12, 2012|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي &quot;سڪن جي چڪاس ڪندڙ، رنگ ڪندڙ، چمڙي جا ماهر ۽ مهاجن&quot; طور ڪم ڪندا هئا. [[فاطمي خلافت|فاطمي دور]] ۾، ڪيترن ئي يهودي عملدارن حڪومت ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏنيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-20013&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land|author=Joseph E. Katz|year=2001|publisher=EretzYisroel.Org|access-date=August 12, 2012|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; پروفيسر موشئ گل جو خيال آهي، ته 7هين صدي ۾ عرب فتح جي وقت، يروشلم جي آبادي جي اڪثريت عيسائي ۽ يهودي هئي.&lt;ref&gt;Moshe Gil, ''A History of Palestine: 634–1099'' pp. 170, 220–221.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن وقت دوران يهودي سڄي قديم بابل ۾ خوشحال برادرين ۾ رهندا هئا. جيونڪ دور (650-1250 عيسوي) ۾، بابلي يشيوا اڪيڊميون يهودي سکيا جا مکيه مرڪز هئا. جيونم (جن جو معنيٰ آهي &quot;شان&quot; يا &quot;جينيئس&quot;) انهن اسڪولن جا سربراهه هئا. انهن کي يهودي قانون ۾ اعليٰ اختيارين طور تسليم ڪيو ويو. 7هين صدي ۾، غير مسلمن جي زمينن تي حڪمران جزيو (&lt;small&gt;Poll&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Tax&lt;/small&gt;) عائد ڪيو، جن جي ڪري بابلي يهودين جي ڳوٺاڻن علائقن مان [[بغداد]] جهڙن شهرن ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. ان جي نتيجي ۾ يهودي برادري ۾ وڌيڪ دولت ۽ بين الاقوامي اثر ۽ انهي سان گڏ يهودي مفڪرن جو هڪ وڌيڪ عالمگير نقطه نظر،جهڙوڪ سعديه گاون، جيڪو هاڻي پهريون ڀيرو مغربي فلسفي سان تمام گهڻي دلچسپي رکن ٿا، پيدا ٿيو.  جڏهن 10هين صدي ۾ [[عباسي خلافت]] ۽ بغداد شهر جو زوال ٿيو، ڪيترائي بابلي يهودي [[رومي (ڀونوچ) سمنڊ|رومي ڀونوچ سمنڊ]] جي علائقن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪيا. سڄي يهودي دنيا ۾ بابلي يهودي رسمن جي پکيڙ ۾ حصو ورتو.&lt;ref&gt;[[Marina Rustow]], [http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/ Baghdad in the West: Migration and the Making of Medieval Jewish Traditions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711065105/http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/|date=July 11, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور (711-1031) ===
&lt;nowiki&gt;{{اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[[اندلس]] ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور [[يُورَپ|يورپ]] ۾ [[وچون دور|وچين دور]] سان گڏ هو، جيڪو سڃي [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|جزيري نما آئبيريا]] تي مسلمانن جي حڪمراني جو دور هو.

=== Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain (711–1031) ===
{{Main|Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain}}
The golden age of Jewish culture in Spain coincided with the [[Middle Ages]] in Europe, a period of [[Al-Andalus|Muslim rule]] throughout much of the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. During that time, Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed.

A period of tolerance thus dawned for the Jews of the [[Iberian Peninsula]], whose number was considerably augmented by immigration from Africa in the wake of the Muslim conquest. Especially after 912, during the reign of [[Abd-ar-Rahman III]] and his son, [[al-Hakam II]], the Jews prospered, devoting themselves to the service of the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]], to the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially to trading in silk and slaves, in this way promoting the prosperity of the country. Jewish economic expansion was unparalleled. In [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], Jews were involved in translating Arabic texts to the [[Romance languages]], as well as translating Greek and Hebrew texts into Arabic. Jews also contributed to botany, geography, medicine, mathematics, poetry and philosophy.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sephardim Archived September 7&quot;&gt;[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html Sephardim] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |date=September 7, 2012 }} by Rebecca Weiner.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ahmed, M.I. Muslim-Jewish Harmony: A Politically-Contingent Reality. Religions 2022, 13, 535. {{doi|10.3390/rel13060535|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to [[Bernard Lewis]]:

{{Blockquote|Generally, the Jewish people were allowed to practice their religion and live according to the laws and scriptures of their community. Furthermore, the restrictions to which they were subject were social and symbolic rather than tangible and practical in character. That is to say, these regulations served to define the relationship between the two communities, and not to oppress the Jewish population.&lt;ref&gt;Lewis, Bernard W (1984). ''The Jews of Islam''&lt;/ref&gt;|}}

'Abd al-Rahman's court physician and minister was Hasdai ben Isaac ibn Shaprut, the patron of Menahem ben Saruq, Dunash ben Labrat, and other Jewish scholars and poets. Jewish thought during this period flourished under famous figures such as Samuel Ha-Nagid, Moses ibn Ezra, Solomon ibn Gabirol [[Judah Halevi]] and [[Moses Maimonides]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Sephardim Archived September 7&quot; /&gt; During 'Abd al-Rahman's term of power, the scholar [[Moses ben Enoch]] was appointed [[rabbi]] of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], and as a consequence [[al-Andalus]] became the centre of Talmudic study, and [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] the meeting-place of Jewish savants.

The Golden Age ended with the invasion of al-Andalus by the [[Almohads]], a conservative dynasty originating in North Africa, who were highly intolerant of religious minorities.

=== Jews and the Crusades (1099–1260) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews and the Crusades}}
{{See also|Siege of Jerusalem (1099)}}
[[File:1099jerusalem.jpg|thumb|left|[[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|Capture of Jerusalem]], 1099]]
Sermonical messages to avenge the death of Jesus encouraged Christians to participate in the Crusades. The 12th-century Jewish narration from R. Solomon ben Samson records that crusaders en route to the Holy Land decided that before combating the Ishmaelites they would massacre the Jews residing in their midst to avenge the [[crucifixion of Christ]]. The massacres began at [[Rouen]] and Jewish communities in [[Rhine Valley]] were seriously affected.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/413 413]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Crusading attacks were made upon Jews in the territory around Heidelberg. A huge loss of Jewish life took place. Many were forcibly converted to Christianity and many committed suicide to avoid baptism. A major driving factor behind the choice to commit suicide was the Jewish realisation that upon being slain their children could be taken to be raised as Christians. The Jews were living in the middle of Christian lands and felt this danger acutely.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/416 416]}}&lt;/ref&gt; This massacre is seen as the first in a sequence of antisemitic events which culminated in the Holocaust.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=David Nirenberg |editor=Gerd Althoff |others=Johannes Fried |title=Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual, Memory, Historiography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MxS6-pQZzGsC&amp;pg=PA279 |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-78066-7 |pages=279–}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jewish populations felt that they had been abandoned by their Christian neighbours and rulers during the massacres and lost faith in all promises and charters.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/419 419]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Many Jews chose self-defence. But their means of self-defence were limited and their casualties only increased. Most of the forced conversions proved ineffective. Many Jews reverted to their original faith later. The pope protested this but Emperor Henry IV agreed to permitting these reversions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot; /&gt; The massacres began a new epoch for Jewry in Christendom. The Jews had preserved their faith from social pressure, now they had to preserve it at sword point. The massacres during the crusades strengthened Jewry from within spiritually. The Jewish perspective was that their struggle was Israel's struggle to hallow the name of God.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/414 414]–}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1099, Jews helped the Arabs to defend Jerusalem against the [[Crusaders]]. When the city fell, the Crusaders gathered many Jews in a synagogue and set it on fire.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot; /&gt; In Haifa, the Jews almost single-handedly defended the town against the Crusaders, holding out for a month, (June–July 1099).&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html |title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land |author=Joseph E. Katz |year=2001 |publisher=EretzYisroel.Org |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=January 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; At this time there were Jewish communities scattered all over the country, including Jerusalem, Tiberias, Ramleh, Ashkelon, Caesarea, and [[Gaza City|Gaza]]. As Jews were not allowed to hold land during the Crusader period, they worked at trades and commerce in the coastal towns during times of quiescence. Most were artisans: glassblowers in [[Sidon]], furriers and dyers in Jerusalem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot; /&gt;

During this period, the [[Masoretes]] of Tiberias established the ''[[niqqud]]'', a system of [[diacritic]]s used to represent vowels or distinguish between alternative pronunciations of letters of the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. Numerous [[piyutim]] and [[midrash]]im were recorded in Palestine at this time.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot; /&gt;

[[Maimonides]] wrote that in 1165 he visited Jerusalem and went to the Temple Mount, where he prayed in the &quot;great, holy house&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Sefer HaCharedim Mitzvat Tshuva Chapter 3&lt;/ref&gt; Maimonides established a yearly holiday for himself and his sons, the 6th of [[Cheshvan]], commemorating the day he went up to pray on the Temple Mount, and another, the 9th of Cheshvan, commemorating the day he merited to pray at the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]] in [[Hebron]].

In 1141 [[Yehuda Halevi]] issued a call to Jews to emigrate to Palestine and took on the long journey himself. After a stormy passage from [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]], he arrived in Egyptian [[Alexandria]], where he was enthusiastically greeted by friends and admirers. At [[Damietta]], he had to struggle against his heart, and the pleadings of his friend Ḥalfon ha-Levi, that he remain in Egypt, where he would be free from intolerant oppression. He started on the rough route overland. He was met along the way by Jews in [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] and [[Damascus]]. Jewish legend relates that as he came near Jerusalem, overpowered by the sight of the Holy City, he sang his most beautiful elegy, the celebrated &quot;Zionide&quot; (''Zion ha-lo Tish'ali''). At that instant, an Arab had galloped out of a gate and rode him down; he was killed in the accident.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}}

=== Mamluk period (1260–1517) ===
[[Nahmanides]] is recorded as settling in the Old City of Jerusalem in 1267. He moved to [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], where he was active in spreading Jewish learning, which was at that time neglected in the Holy Land. He gathered a circle of pupils around him, and people came in crowds, even from the district of the Euphrates, to hear him. [[Karaite Judaism|Karaites]] were said to have attended his lectures, among them Aaron ben Joseph the Elder. He later became one of the greatest [[Karaite (Jewish sect)|Karaite]] authorities. Shortly after Nahmanides' arrival in Jerusalem, he addressed a letter to his son Nahman, in which he described the desolation of the Holy City. At the time, it had only two Jewish inhabitants—two brothers, dyers by trade. In a later letter from Acre, Nahmanides counsels his son to cultivate humility, which he considers to be the first of virtues. In another, addressed to his second son, who occupied an official position at the [[Crown of Castile|Castilian]] court, Nahmanides recommends the recitation of the daily prayers and warns above all against immorality. Nahmanides died after reaching seventy-six, and his remains were interred at [[Haifa]], by the grave of [[Yechiel of Paris]].

Yechiel had [[aliyah|emigrated]] to Acre in 1260, along with his son and a large group of followers.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html |title=Jewish Zionist Education |publisher=Jafi.org.il |date=May 15, 2005 |access-date=August 13, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013142810/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html |archive-date=October 13, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf |title=Hadrat Melech |access-date=April 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502035808/http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf |archive-date=May 2, 2014 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; There he established the Talmudic academy ''Midrash haGadol d'Paris''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&amp;content=content/segal_ch17 |title=Section III: The Biblical Age: Chapter Seventeen: Awaiting the Messiah |author=Benjamin J. Segal |work=Returning, the Land of Israel as a Focus in Jewish History |publisher=JewishHistory.com |access-date=August 12, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227184802/http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&amp;content=content%2Fsegal_ch17 |archive-date=February 27, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; He is believed to have died there between 1265 and 1268. In 1488 [[Obadiah ben Abraham]], commentator on the [[Mishnah]], arrived in Jerusalem; this marked a new period of return for the Jewish community in the land.

==== Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East ====
{{Main|History of the Jews in Spain}}
{{See also|Islam and Judaism|Mizrahi Jew|History of the Jews under Muslim rule}}
[[File:Hebrew Bible Spain.jpg|right|thumb|Sephardic Hebrew Bible from Spain, 1300&lt;ref&gt;[https://lccn.loc.gov/2021667534]&lt;/ref&gt;]]
During the Middle Ages, Jews were generally better treated by Islamic rulers than Christian ones. Despite second-class citizenship, Jews played prominent roles in Muslim courts, and experienced a Golden Age in [[Moorish Spain]] about 900–1100, though the situation deteriorated after that time. Riots resulting in the deaths of Jews did however occur in North Africa through the centuries and especially in [[Morocco]], [[Libya]] and [[Algeria]], where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos.&lt;ref&gt;Maurice Roumani, ''The Case of the Jews from Arab Countries: A Neglected Issue'', 1977, pp. 26–27.&lt;/ref&gt;

During the 11th century, Muslims in Spain conducted pogroms against the Jews; those occurred in Cordoba in 1011 and in [[1066 Granada massacre|Granada in 1066]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |title=Granada |url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |access-date=August 12, 2012 |year=1906 |archive-date=April 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412000424/https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the Middle Ages, the governments of Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen enacted decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues. At certain times, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and [[Baghdad]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_%28gen%29.html |title=The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries |author=Mitchell Bard |year=2012 |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=October 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007003054/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_(gen).html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} The [[Almohad]]s, who had taken control of much of Islamic Iberia by 1172, surpassed the [[Almoravides]] in fundamentalist outlook. They treated the ''[[dhimmi]]s'' harshly. They expelled both Jews and Christians from Morocco and Islamic Spain. Faced with the choice of death or conversion, many Jews emigrated.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=66&amp;Itemid=39 The Forgotten Refugees] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928051923/http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=66&amp;Itemid=39 |date=September 28, 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Some, such as the family of [[Maimonides]], fled south and east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |title=Sephardim |author=Rebecca Weiner |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=September 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Kraemer, Joel L., &quot;Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait,&quot; ''The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides'', pp. 16–17 (2005)&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}}

=== Europe ===
{{Main|History of European Jews in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:Mishnah (Ms. 3173; De Rossi 138), Palatina.jpg|right|thumb|11th century ''[[mishnah]]'' codex from Italy, [[Biblioteca Palatina, Parma]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=adkim |date=2014-02-28 |title=The Biblioteca Palatina and the National Library of Israel |url=https://primolevicenter.org/printed-matter/the-biblioteca-palatina-and-the-national-library-of-israel/ |access-date=2025-10-15 |website=Printed_Matter |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
According to [[James P. Carrol]], &quot;Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, James. ''[[Constantine's Sword]]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) {{ISBN|978-0-395-77927-9}} p. 26&lt;/ref&gt;

Jewish populations have existed in Europe, especially in the area of the former Roman Empire, from very early times. As Jewish males had emigrated, some sometimes took wives from local populations, as is shown by the various [[MtDNA]], compared to [[Y-DNA#Genetic genealogy|Y-DNA]] among Jewish populations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html |title=In DNA, New Clues to Jewish Roots |first=Nicholas |last=Wade |date=May 14, 2002 |work=The New York Times |access-date=June 16, 2013 |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126180104/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; These groups were joined by traders and later on by members of the diaspora.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}} Records of Jewish communities in France (see [[History of the Jews in France]]) and Germany (see [[History of the Jews in Germany]]) date from the 4th century, and substantial Jewish communities in Spain were noted even earlier.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}}

The historian [[Norman Cantor]] and other 20th-century scholars dispute the tradition that the Middle Ages was a uniformly difficult time for Jews. Before the Church became fully organized as an institution with an increasing array of rules, early medieval society was tolerant. Between 800 and 1100, an estimated 1.5 million Jews lived in Christian Europe. As they were not Christians, they were not included as a [[Estates of the realm|division]] of the feudal system of clergy, knights and serfs. This means that they did not have to satisfy the oppressive demands for labour and military conscription that Christian commoners suffered. In relations with the Christian society, the Jews were protected by kings, princes and bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: finance, administration and medicine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Norman F&quot; /&gt; The lack of political strengths did leave Jews vulnerable to exploitation through extreme taxation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Ebenhard |last=Isenmann |editor-first=Richard |editor-last=Bonney |title=The Rise of the Fiscal State in Europe c. 1200–1815 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U24lRLy_qT8C&amp;pg=PA259 |date=1999 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-154220-6 |page=259}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Christian scholars interested in the Bible consulted with Talmudic rabbis. As the Roman Catholic Church strengthened as an institution, the Franciscan and Dominican preaching orders were founded, and there was a rise of competitive middle-class, town-dwelling Christians. By 1300, the friars and local priests staged the Passion Plays during Holy Week, which depicted Jews (in contemporary dress) killing Christ, according to Gospel accounts. From this period, persecution of Jews and deportations became endemic. Around 1500, Jews found relative security and a renewal of prosperity in present-day [[Poland]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Norman F&quot;&gt;Norman F. Cantor, ''The Last Knight: The Twilight of the Middle Ages and the Birth of the Modern Era'', Free Press, 2004. {{ISBN|978-0-7432-2688-2}}, pp. 28–29&lt;/ref&gt;

After 1300, Jews suffered more discrimination and persecution in Christian Europe. Europe's Jewry was mainly urban and literate. The Christians were inclined to regard Jews as obstinate deniers of the truth because in their view the Jews were expected to know of the truth of the Christian doctrines from their knowledge of the Jewish scriptures. Jews were aware of the pressure to accept Christianity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/412 412]}}&lt;/ref&gt; As Catholics were forbidden by the church to loan money for interest, some Jews became prominent moneylenders. Christian rulers gradually saw the advantage of having such a class of people who could supply capital for their use without being liable to excommunication. As a result, the money trade of western Europe became a speciality of the Jews. But, in almost every instance when Jews acquired large amounts through banking transactions, during their lives or upon their deaths, the king would take it over.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england &quot;England&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730231726/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england |date=July 30, 2020 }}, [[Jewish Encyclopedia]] (1906)&lt;/ref&gt; Jews became imperial{{-&quot;}}[[Servi camerae regis|''servi cameræ'']]{{-&quot;}}, the property of the King, who might present them and their possessions to princes or cities.

Jews were frequently massacred and exiled from various European countries. The persecution hit its first peak during the [[Crusades]]. In the [[People's Crusade]] (1096) flourishing Jewish communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed. In the [[Second Crusade]] (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. They were also subjected to attacks by the [[Shepherds' Crusade (1251)|Shepherds' Crusades of 1251]] and [[Shepherds' Crusade (1320)|1320]]. The Crusades were followed by massive expulsions, including the [[Edict of Expulsion|expulsion of the Jews from England in 1290]];&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Robin R. |last=Mundill |title=England's Jewish Solution: Experiment and Expulsion, 1262–1290 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CSKLfi_j110C |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52026-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; in 1396 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and in 1421, thousands were expelled from Austria. Over this time many Jews in Europe, either fleeing or being expelled, migrated to Poland, where they prospered into another [[History of the Jews in Poland#Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572|Golden Age]].

In Italy, Jews were allowed to live in Venice but were required to live in a [[ghetto]], and the practice spread across Italy (see [[Cum nimis absurdum]]) and was adopted in many places in Catholic Europe. Jews outside the Ghetto often had to wear a yellow star.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121 |title=Print of Jews forced to listen to a Christian sermon – Collections Search – United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |website=collections.ushmm.org |access-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-date=November 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129142432/https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;The Jewish-Christian Encounter in Medieval Preaching, Routledge 2015, edited by Jonathan Adams and Jussi Hanska chapter 13, see page 297&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Expulsions of the Jews of Spain and Portugal ===
{{further|Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal}}
[[File:Vicente Cutanda - A los pies del Salvador.jpg|thumb|250px|''At the Feet of the Saviour'', massacre of Jews in [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], oil on canvas by [[Vicente Cutanda]] (1887)]]
[[File:Matanza de judíos en Barcelona - año 1391.jpg|thumb|250px|''Slaughter of Jews in Barcelona in 1391'' by [[Josep Segrelles]], {{circa|1910}}]]
[[File:A Expulsão dos Judeus (Roque Gameiro, Quadros da História de Portugal, 1917).png|250px|thumb|Expulsion of the Jews in 1497, in a 1917 watercolour by [[Alfredo Roque Gameiro]] ]]
[[File:Inquis1.jpg|thumb|250px|Burning of Crypto-Jews in Lisbon, Portugal]]
Significant repression of Spain's numerous community occurred during the 14th century, notably a [[History of the Jews in Spain#Massacres and mass conversions of 1391|major pogrom in 1391]] which resulted in the majority of Spain's 300,000 Jews converting to Catholicism. With the [[Granada War|conquest of the Muslim Kingdom of Granada]] in 1492, the Catholic monarchs issued the [[Alhambra Decree]], and Spain's remaining 100,000 Jews were forced to choose between conversion and exile. The expulsion of the Jews of Spain, is regarded by Jews as the worst catastrophe between the destruction of Jerusalem in 73 CE and the [[Holocaust]] of the 1940s.&lt;ref&gt;European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 1550–1750 by Jonathan Israel, chapter 1 Exodus from the West (page 25)&lt;/ref&gt;

As a result, an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 Jews left Spain, the remainder joining Spain's already numerous [[Converso]] community. Perhaps a quarter of a million Conversos thus were gradually absorbed by the dominant Catholic culture, although those among them who secretly practised Judaism were subject to 40 years of intense repression by the [[Spanish Inquisition]]. This was particularly the case up until 1530, after which the trials of Conversos by the Inquisition dropped to 3% of the total. Similar expulsions of Sephardic Jews occurred 1493 in [[Sicily]] (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Spanish Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire and North Africa and Portugal. A small number also settled in Holland and England.

The expulsion followed a long process of expulsions and bans from what are now England, France, Germany, Austria, and Holland. In January 1492, the [[Emirate of Granada|last Muslim state]] was defeated in Spain and six months later the Jews of Spain (the largest community in the world) were required to [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|convert or leave without their property]]. 100,000 converted with many continuing to [[Marrano|secretly practice Judaism]], for which the Catholic church's inquisition (led by [[Tomás de Torquemada]]) now mandated a sentence of death by public burning. 175,000 left Spain.&lt;ref&gt;The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 138 – 144 / Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-Jews by David Martin Gitlitz, University of New Mexico 2002, pp 75 – 81&lt;/ref&gt;

Many [[Sephardi Jews|Spanish Jews]] moved to North Africa, [[History of the Jews in Poland|Poland]] and the Ottoman Empire, especially [[History of the Jews in Thessaloniki|Thessaloniki]] (now in Greece) which became the world's largest Jewish city. Some groups headed to the Middle East and Palestine, within the domains of the Ottoman Empire. About 100,000 Spanish Jews were allowed into Portugal, however five years later, their children were seized and they were given the choice of conversion or departing without them.&lt;ref&gt;The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 142 – 144&lt;/ref&gt;

==ابتدائي جديد دور==
Historians who study modern Jewry have identified four different paths by which European Jews were &quot;modernized&quot; and thus integrated into the mainstream of European society. A common approach has been to view the process through the lens of the European [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] as Jews faced the promise and the challenges posed by political emancipation. Scholars that use this approach have focused on two social types as paradigms for the decline of Jewish tradition and as agents of the sea changes in Jewish culture that led to the collapse of the [[ghetto]]. The first of these two social types is the [[Court Jew]] who is portrayed as a forerunner of the modern Jew, having achieved integration with and participation in the proto-capitalist economy and court society of central European states such as the [[Habsburg Empire]]. In contrast to the cosmopolitan Court Jew, the second social type presented by historians of modern Jewry is the ''maskil'', (learned person), a proponent of the [[Haskalah]] (Enlightenment). This narrative sees the maskil's pursuit of secular scholarship and his rationalistic critiques of rabbinic tradition as laying a durable intellectual foundation for the secularization of Jewish society and culture. The established paradigm has been one in which Ashkenazic Jews entered modernity through a self-conscious process of westernization led by &quot;highly atypical, Germanized Jewish intellectuals&quot;. Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative movements and planted the seeds of [[Zionism]] while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Reframing Jewish History |date=May 2005 |url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513 |access-date=May 24, 2011 |archive-date=September 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930222143/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
At around the same time that Haskalah was developing, [[Hasidic Judaism]] was spreading as a movement that preached a world view nearly opposed to the Haskalah.

In the 1990s, the concept of the &quot;[[Port Jew]]&quot; has been suggested as an &quot;alternate path to modernity&quot; that was distinct from the European [[Haskalah]]. In contrast to the focus on Ashkenazic Germanized Jews, the concept of the [[Port Jew]] focused on the Sephardi conversos who fled the Inquisition and resettled in European port towns on the coast of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Eastern seaboard of the United States.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fry-2002&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Port Jews: Jewish Communities in Cosmopolitan Maritime Trading Centres, 1550–1950 |first=Helen P. |last=Fry |journal=European Judaism |volume=36 |publisher=Frank Cass Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7146-8286-0 |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002650793 |quote=Port Jews were a social type, usually those who were involved in seafaring and maritime trade, who (like Court Jews) could be seen as the earliest modern Jews. Often arriving as refugees from the Inquisition, they were permitted to settle as merchants and allowed to trade openly in places such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. 'Their Diaspora connections and accumulated expertise lay in exactly the areas of overseas expansion that were then of interest to mercantilist governments.' |access-date=September 1, 2017 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160935/https://www.gale.com/databases/questia?docId=5002650793 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Court Jews ===
[[Court Jew]]s were Jewish bankers or businessmen who lent money and handled the finances of some of the Christian European noble houses. Corresponding historical terms are ''Jewish bailiff'' and ''[[shtadlan]]''.

Examples of what would be later called court Jews emerged when local rulers used services of Jewish bankers for short-term loans. They lent money to nobles and in the process gained social influence. Noble patrons of court Jews employed them as financiers, suppliers, diplomats and [[trade delegate]]s. Court Jews could use their family connections, and connections between each other, to provision their sponsors with, among other things, food, arms, ammunition and precious metals. In return for their services, court Jews gained social privileges, including up to noble status for themselves, and could live outside the Jewish ghettos. Some nobles wanted to keep their bankers in their own courts. And because they were under noble protection, they were exempted from rabbinical jurisdiction.

From medieval times, court Jews could amass personal fortunes and gained political and social influence. Sometimes they were also prominent people in the local Jewish community and could use their influence to protect and influence their brethren. Sometimes they were the only Jews who could interact with the local high society and present petitions of the Jews to the ruler. However, the court Jew had social connections and influence in the Christian world mainly through his Christian patrons. Due to the precarious position of Jews, some nobles could just ignore their debts. If the sponsoring noble died, his Jewish financier could face exile or execution.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

=== Port Jews ===

The [[Port Jew]] is a descriptive term for Jews who were involved in the seafaring and maritime economy of Europe, especially during the 17th and 18th centuries. Helen Fry suggests that they can be considered &quot;the earliest modern Jews&quot;. According to Fry, Port Jews frequently arrived as &quot;refugees from the Inquisition&quot; and the expulsion of Jews from Iberia. They were allowed to settle in port cities because merchants granted them permission to trade in ports such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. Fry notes that their connections to the [[Jewish Diaspora]] and their expertise in maritime trade made them particularly valuable to the mercantilist governments of Europe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fry-2002&quot; /&gt; Lois Dubin describes Port Jews as Jewish merchants who were &quot;valued for their engagement in the international maritime trade upon which such cities thrived&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Dubin, ''The port Jews of Habsburg Trieste: absolutist politics and enlightenment culture'', Stanford University Press, 1999, p. 47&lt;/ref&gt; Sorkin and others have characterized the socio-cultural profile of these men as marked by a flexibility towards religion and a &quot;reluctant cosmopolitanism that was alien to both traditional and 'enlightened' Jewish identities&quot;.

From the 16th to the 18th century, Jewish merchants dominated the chocolate and vanilla trade, exporting to Jewish centres across Europe, mainly Amsterdam, Bayonne, Bordeaux, Hamburg and Livorno.&lt;ref&gt;Encyclopedia of Jewish Food, Gil Marks, HMH, November 17, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ottoman Empire ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire}}

During the Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600), the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well in diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews were the most prominent under the ''[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millets']]'', the apogee of Jewish influence could arguably be the appointment of [[Joseph Nasi]] to [[Sanjak-bey]] (governor, a rank usually only held by Muslims) of the island of [[Naxos]].&lt;ref&gt;Charles Issawi &amp; Dmitri Gondicas; ''Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism'', Princeton, (1999)&lt;/ref&gt;

At the time of the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] when the Levant passed under Muslim Rule, thirty Jewish communities existed in Haifa, Sh'chem, Hebron, Ramleh, Gaza, Jerusalem, and many in the north. Safed became a spiritual centre for the Jews and the [[Shulchan Aruch]] was compiled there as well as many Kabbalistic texts. The first Hebrew printing press, and the first printing in Western Asia began in 1577.

Jews lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey, but more geographically either Anatolia or Asia Minor) for more than 2,400 years. Initial prosperity in Hellenistic times had faded under Christian Byzantine rule, but recovered somewhat under the rule of the various Muslim governments that displaced and succeeded rule from Constantinople. For much of the Ottoman period, Turkey was a safe haven for Jews fleeing persecution, and it continues to have a small Jewish population today. The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economical prosperity at times but were widely persecuted at other times was summarised by G. E. Von Grunebaum:

&lt;blockquote&gt;It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizeable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms.&lt;ref&gt;G. E. Von Grunebaum, ''Eastern Jewry Under Islam'', 1971, p. 369.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Russia, Poland, and Eastern Europe ===
{{Further|History of the Jews in Poland|History of the Jews in Russia|History of the Jews in Ukraine|History of the Jews in Lithuania|History of the Jews in Romania}}
{{expand section|date=October 2025}}

In the 17th century, there were many significant Jewish populations in Western and Central Europe. The relatively tolerant Poland had the largest Jewish population in Europe that dated back to the 13th century, and enjoyed relative prosperity and freedom for nearly four hundred years. However, the calm situation ended when Polish and Lithuanian Jews of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] were slaughtered in the hundreds of thousands by Ukrainian Cossacks during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] (1648) and by the [[Swedish wars]] (1655). Driven by these and other persecutions, some Jews moved back to Western Europe in the 17th century, notably to [[Amsterdam]]. The last ban on Jewish residency in a European nation was revoked in 1654, but periodic expulsions from individual cities still occurred, and Jews were often restricted from land ownership, or forced to live in [[ghetto]]s.

With the [[Partitions of Poland]] in the late 18th century, the Polish-Jewish population was split between the [[Russian Empire]], [[Austria-Hungary]], and German [[Prussia]], which divided Poland among themselves.

=== European Enlightenment and Haskalah (18th century) ===
[[File:Moritz Daniel Oppenheim--Lavater and Lessing Visit Moses Mendelssohn--1856--Magnes Collection.jpg|thumb|right|[[Moses Mendelssohn]] (in red coat), Lavater (at right) and Lessing (standing), in an imaginary portrait by the Jewish artist [[Moritz Daniel Oppenheim]] (1856), [[Magnes Collection of Jewish Art and Life]]]]
During the period of the [[European Renaissance]] and Enlightenment, significant changes occurred within the Jewish community. The [[Haskalah]] movement paralleled the wider Enlightenment, as Jews in the 18th century began to campaign for emancipation from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society. Secular and scientific education was added to the traditional religious instruction received by students, and interest in a national Jewish identity, including a revival in the study of Jewish history and Hebrew, started to grow. Among the prominient Haskalah intellectuals were [[Moses Mendelssohn]], [[Naphtali Hirz Wessely]], [[Isaac Satanow]] and [[Isaac Euchel]].

Haskalah gave birth to the [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] movements in Judaism and planted the seeds of [[Zionism]] while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.

At around the same time another movement was born, one preaching almost the opposite of Haskalah, [[Hasidic Judaism]]. Hasidic Judaism began in the 18th century by [[Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov]], and quickly gained a following with its more exuberant, mystical approach to religion. These two movements, and the traditional orthodox approach to Judaism from which they spring, formed the basis for the modern divisions within Jewish observance.

At the same time, the outside world was changing, and debates began over the potential emancipation of the Jews (granting them equal rights). The first country to do so was France, during the [[French Revolution]] in 1789. Even so, Jews were expected to assimilate, not continue their traditions. This ambivalence is demonstrated in the famous speech of [[Clermont-Tonnerre]] before the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]] in 1789:

&lt;blockquote&gt;We must refuse everything to the Jews as a nation and accord everything to Jews as individuals. We must withdraw recognition from their judges; they should only have our judges. We must refuse legal protection to the maintenance of the so-called laws of their Judaic organization; they should not be allowed to form in the state either a political body or an order. They must be citizens individually. But, some will say to me, they do not want to be citizens. Well then! If they do not want to be citizens, they should say so, and then, we should banish them. It is repugnant to have in the state an association of non-citizens, and a nation within the nation...&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Hasidic Judaism ===
{{See also|Mitnagdim}}
[[File:Maurycy Gottlieb - Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur.jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|Hasidic Jews praying in the synagogue on [[Yom Kippur]], by [[Maurycy Gottlieb]]]]

[[Hasidic Judaism]] is a branch of [[Orthodox Judaism]] that promotes spirituality and joy through the popularisation and internalization of [[Jewish mysticism]] as the fundamental aspects of the [[Jewish faith]]. Hasidism comprises part of contemporary [[Ultra-Orthodox]] Judaism, alongside the previous Talmudic [[Lithuanian Jews|Lithuanian-Yeshiva]] approach and the Oriental [[Sephardi Judaism|Sephardi]] tradition. It was founded in 18th-century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel [[Baal Shem Tov]] as a reaction against overly [[Talmud|legalistic]] Judaism. Opposite to this, Hasidic teachings cherished the sincerity and concealed holiness of the unlettered common folk, and their equality with the scholarly elite. The emphasis on the [[Immanent]] Divine presence in everything gave new value to prayer and deeds of kindness, alongside Rabbinic supremacy of [[Torah study|study]], and replaced historical [[Kabbalah|mystical (kabbalistic)]] and [[Musar literature|ethical (musar)]] [[Asceticism in Judaism|asceticism]] and [[Maggid|admonishment]] with optimism, encouragement, and daily [[Deveikut|fervour]]. This populist emotional revival accompanied the elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine [[Panentheism]], through intellectual articulation of inner dimensions of mystical thought. The adjustment of Jewish values sought to add to required standards of ritual [[Halacha|observance]], while relaxing others where inspiration predominated. Its communal gatherings celebrate soulful [[Nigun|song]] and [[Yiddish literature#Hasidic and Haskalah literature|storytelling]] as forms of mystical devotion.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

==اڻويهين صدي==
[[File:Napoleon stellt den israelitischen Kult wieder her, 30. Mai 1806.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|An 1806 French print depicts [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] emancipating the Jews.]]
Though persecution still existed, [[Jewish emancipation]] spread throughout Europe in the 19th century. [[Napoleon]] invited Jews to leave the [[Jewish ghettos in Europe]] and seek refuge in the newly created tolerant political regimes that offered equality under Napoleonic Law (see [[Napoleon and the Jews]]). Gradually all European nations established in constitutions the principle of equality under the law and abolished all restrictions for Jews.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;&gt;[https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-in-history-the-era-of-nationalism-1800-1918 Antisemitism in History: The Era of Nationalism, 1800–1918]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/emancipation Emancipation]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-emancipation-in-western-europe/ Jewish Emancipation in Western Europe]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://d-nb.info/1175689041/34 Jewish Emancipation in the 18th and 19th Centuries]&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Antisemiticroths.jpg|thumb|A caricature by [[Charles Lucien Léandre]] (France, 1898) showing [[Rothschild family|Rothschild]] with the world in his hands]]
Jews now could own land and enter the civil service. The abolition of restraints on political activism and the broadening of the electoral franchise on the basis of citizenship, not religion, made Jews most visible among [[liberalism|liberal]], [[Radical politics|radical]], and [[Marxism|Marxist]] ([[Social Democracy|Social Democratic]]) political parties.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;/&gt;

For centuries, so-called [[court Jew]]s acted as the principal financiers for the European aristocracys. In the 1760s, one of them, [[Mayer Amschel Rothschild]], established a banking business in Germany that eventually became a vast international conglomerate and yield one of the largest family fortunes in world history. Thus the name of the [[Rothschilds]] became synonymous with Jewish financial power. Across Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, other Jews also created a number of influential banks.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/usury-and-moneylending-in-judaism/ Jews and Finance]&lt;/ref&gt;

The most important branch of Jewish economic life in Eastern Europe was trade. While most remained small shopkeepers, stallholders, and peddlers, others became owners of department stores and shopping arcades. During the 19th century Jews began to move from rural regions to cities, this contributed to the decline of traditional Jewish tavernkeeping. Jews made up a considerable proportion of all craftsmen in the [[Russian Empire]] and [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] during the 19th century, but with the spread of industrialization large factories tended to squeeze out small Jewish-run workshops, and only limited numbers of Jews became employees in these modern factories. Jews were considered less desirable employees since they did not want to work on Saturdays and tended to organize into unions to demand improved working conditions, the foundation of the [[General Jewish Labour Bund|Bund]] in the Russian Empire in 1897 strengthened this process.&lt;ref name=&quot;Economic Life&quot;&gt;[https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/7 Economic Life]&lt;/ref&gt;

The economic achivements of Jews in the 19th century created the impression for some that Jews were being overrepresented in such lucrative occupations as finance, banking, trade, industry, medicine, law, journalism, art, music, literature, and theater. Despite increasing integration of the Jews with secular society, a new form of [[antisemitism]] emerged, [[Racial antisemitism|based on the ideas of race and nationhood]] rather than the religious hatred of the Middle Ages. This form of antisemitism held that Jews were a separate and inferior race from the [[Aryan]] people of Western Europe, and led to the emergence of political parties in France, Germany, and [[Austria-Hungary]] that campaigned on a platform of rolling back emancipation. This form of antisemitism emerged frequently in European culture, most famously in the [[Dreyfus Trial]] in France.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://evolve.reconstructingjudaism.org/anti-semitism-europe-history/ Antisemitism in Europe and America in the Modern Period: Historical Perspectives]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.quest-cdecjournal.it/anti-jewish-prejudices-antisemitic-ideologies-open-violence-antisemitism-in-european-comparison-from-the-1870s-to-the-first-world-war-a-commentary/ Anti-Jewish Prejudices, Antisemitic Ideologies, Open Violence: Antisemitism in European Comparison from the 1870s to the First World War. A Commentary]&lt;/ref&gt;

During this period, Jewish migration to the United States (see [[American Jews]]) created a large new community mostly freed of the restrictions of Europe. Over 2 million Jews arrived in the United States between 1890 and 1924, most from the Russian Empire and Galicia. A similar case occurred in the southern tip of the continent, specifically in the countries of [[Argentina]] and [[Uruguay]].

==ويهين صدي==
===جديد صيهونيت===
[[File:Herzl on a balcony full.jpg|thumb|Theodor Herzl, visionary of the Jewish State, in Basel, photographed during [[World Zionist Congress|Fifth Zionist Congress]] in December 1901, by [[Ephraim Moses Lilien]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Theodor Herzl Signed Photograph, Basel, Switzerland {{!}} Shapell Manuscript Foundation |url=https://www.shapell.org/manuscript/theodor-herzl-signed-photograph-basel-switzerland/ |website=Shapell |access-date=May 10, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to [[Ottoman Syria]] with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and fulfilling the biblical prophecies related to [[Shivat Tzion]]. In 1882 the first Zionist settlement—[[Rishon LeZion]]—was founded by immigrants who belonged to the &quot;[[Hovevei Zion]]&quot; movement. Later on, the &quot;[[Bilu (movement)|Bilu]]&quot; movement established many other settlements in Palestine.

The Zionist movement was officially founded after the [[Kattowitz convention]] (1884) and the [[World Zionist Congress]] (1897), and it was [[Theodor Herzl]] who initiated the struggle to establish a state for the Jews.

After the [[First World War]], it seemed that the conditions that made it possible for the Jews to establish such a state had arrived: The United Kingdom captured [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] from the Ottoman Empire, and the Jews received the promise of a &quot;National Home&quot; from the British in the form of the [[Balfour Declaration]] of 1917, given to [[Chaim Weizmann]].

In 1920, the British Mandate of Palestine was established and the pro-Jewish [[Herbert Samuel]] was appointed High Commissioner of Palestine, the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] was established and several large Jewish immigration waves to Palestine occurred. The Arab inhabitants of Palestine grew hostile to increasing Jewish immigration, and as a result, they began to express their opposition to the establishment of Jewish settlements and the pro-Jewish policy of the British government.

New Jewish immigrants began to create militias and paramilitary groups such as the [[Bar-Giora]] and [[Hashomer]].

Clashes between Jews and Arabs became more frequent. After the [[1920 Nebi Musa riots]], the Jewish leadership in Palestine believed that the British had little desire to involve themselves in these clashes and maintain order. Believing that they could not rely on the British administration for protection, the Jewish leadership created the [[Haganah]] and [[Irgun]] paramilitary organizations in order to protect its community's farms and [[Kibbutz]]im.

These paramilitary organization were involved in major riots, such as the [[Jaffa riots (May 1921)|Jaffa riots]], [[1929 Palestine riots]] and the [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine]]. Arabs, Jews and Britons suffered in this violence.

Due to the increasing violence, the United Kingdom gradually started to backtrack from its original idea of supporting the establishment of a Jewish homeland and it also started to speculate on a [[binational solution]] to the crisis or the establishment of an Arab state that would have a Jewish minority.

===Jews in Europe and the United States after World War I ===
[[File:Yung-teater poster 15.jpg|thumb|Bilingual [[Polish language|Polish]]-[[Yiddish]] poster for the [[Warsaw]] [[Young Theater]]'s production of ''Mississippi'' in 1935, written by [[Leib Malach]]]]
The World War I and subsequent political changes, such as the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917 and the establishment of new nation-states after 1918, led to far-reaching consequenсes for the Jews of Eastern Europe. The authorities of the [[Soviet Union]] viewed private commerce as negative and sought to bring all trade under the aegis of state enterprises. Therefore, many Jews, who had previously made their living from trade, were forced to find other occupations. In Poland, Hungary, and Romania, the authorities adopted policies aimed at ethnicizing their national economies, aiming to exclude Jews as far as possible from the marketplace.&lt;ref name=&quot;Economic Life&quot;/&gt;

Nevertheless, the Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. In Austria in the years between the two World Wars Jews were approximately 3.5% of the population but were 27.3% of university professors. In Germany between 1918 and 1933 Jews were 0.78% of the population but were 16% of the doctors, 15% of the dentists, 25% of the lawyers, 50% of the theatre directors and occupied 80% of the leading positions in the [[Berlin stock exchange]]. In Poland in 1931 Jews were 10.2% of the population but were 56% of the doctors in private practice, 33% of the lawyers, and 24% of the pharmacists. In Russia during the period 1917–1939 Jews were approximately 1.8% of the population, while Jews were 9% of the officers in military academies, 15% of the university graduates, 11% of the doctors and 14% of the university professors.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Lynn | first1=Richard | last2=Kanazawa | first2=Satoshi | title=How to explain high Jewish achievement: The role of intelligence and values | journal=Personality and Individual Differences | date=2008 | volume=44 | issue=4 | pages=801–808 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2007.10.019 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886907003674 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Among those Jews who were generally considered the most famous were the scientist [[Albert Einstein]] and the philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. At that time, a disproportionate number of [[Nobel Prize]] winners were Jewish, as is still the case.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |publisher=jinfo.org |access-date=October 7, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== The Holocaust ===
{{Main|History of the Jews during World War II|The Holocaust}}
[[File:Rows of bodies of dead inmates fill the yard of Lager Nordhausen, a Gestapo concentration camp.jpg|thumb|Bodies of inmates of the [[Mittelbau-Dora]] Nazi concentration camp who died during [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] [[Bombing of Nordhausen in World War II|bombing raids]] on April 3 and 4, 1945]]

In 1933, with [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]]'s rise to power in Germany, the Jewish situation became more severe. [[Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic|Economic crises]], [[Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany|racial Anti-Jewish laws]], and fear of an upcoming war led many Jews to flee from Europe and settle in [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]], the United States and the Soviet Union.

In 1939, [[World War II]] began and until 1945, [[German-occupied Europe|Germany occupied almost all of Europe]], including [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|Poland]]—[[History of the Jews in Poland|where millions of Jews were living at that time]]—and [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|France]]. In 1941, following the [[invasion of the Soviet Union]], the [[Final Solution]] began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe, as well as Jews in European North Africa (pro-Nazi [[Vichy France|Vichy]]-[[French North Africa|North Africa]] and [[Italian Libya]]). This [[genocide]], in which approximately six million Jews were methodically murdered with horrifying cruelty, is known as [[The Holocaust]] or the ''Shoah'' (Hebrew term). In Poland, as many as one million Jews were murdered in [[gas chambers]] at the [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz camp complex]].

The massive scale of the Holocaust, and the horrors that happened during it, were only understood after the war, and they heavily affected the Jewish nation and world public opinion. Efforts were then increased to establish a Jewish state in Palestine.

=== The establishment of the State of Israel ===
{{Main|History of Israel (1948–present)}}
{{Further|Israel|Israeli Declaration of Independence}}
{{History of Israel}}
In 1945 the Jewish resistance organizations in Palestine unified and established the Jewish Resistance Movement. The movement began guerrilla attacks against Arab paramilitaries and the British authorities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html |title=The Jewish Resistance Movement |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=September 7, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160907162736/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} Following the [[King David Hotel bombing]], [[Chaim Weizmann]], president of the [[WZO]] appealed to the movement to cease all further military activity until a decision would be reached by the [[Jewish Agency]]. The Jewish Agency backed Weizmann's recommendation to cease activities, a decision reluctantly accepted by the Haganah, but not by the [[Irgun]] and [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]]. The JRM was dismantled and each of the founding groups continued operating according to their own policy.&lt;ref&gt;Horne, Edward (1982). ''A Job Well Done (Being a History of The Palestine Police Force 1920–1948)''. Anchor. {{ISBN|978-0-9508367-0-6}}. pp. 272, 299. States that Haganah withdrew on July 1, 1946. But remained permanently uncooperative.&lt;/ref&gt;

The Jewish leadership decided to centre the struggle in the illegal immigration to Palestine and began organizing a massive number of Jewish war refugees from Europe, without the approval of the British authorities. This immigration contributed a great deal to the Jewish settlements in Israel in the world public opinion and the British authorities decided to let the United Nations decide upon the fate of Palestine.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

On November 29, 1947, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopted [[Resolution 181]](II) recommending partitioning Palestine into an Arab state, a Jewish state and the City of Jerusalem. The Jewish leadership accepted the decision but the Arab League and the leadership of Palestinian Arabs opposed it. Following a period of [[1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]] the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]] started.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}}

In the middle of the war, after the last British soldiers of the Palestine Mandate left, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed on May 14, 1948, the establishment of a [[Jewish state]] in [[Eretz Israel]] to be known as the [[State of Israel]]. The war ended in 1949 and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of hundreds of thousands of Jews from all over the world, notably [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Arab countries]].

Since 1948, Israel has been involved in a series of major military conflicts, including the 1956 [[Suez Crisis]], 1967 [[Six-Day War]], 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], [[1982 Lebanon War]], and [[2006 Lebanon War]], as well as a nearly constant series of [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict|ongoing minor conflicts]].

Since 1977, an ongoing and largely unsuccessful series of diplomatic efforts have been initiated by Israel, Palestinian organizations, their neighbours, and other parties, including the United States and the European Union, to bring about a [[Israeli–Palestinian peace process|peace process]] to resolve conflicts between Israel and its neighbours, mostly over the fate of the Palestinian people.

==ايڪويهين صدي==
Israel is a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a population of over 8 million people, of whom about 6 million are [[Israeli Jews|Jewish]]. The largest Jewish communities are in Israel and the [[American Jews|United States]], with major communities in France, Argentina, Russia, England, and Canada.

The [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]], created during the [[Soviet]] period, continues to be an [[autonomous oblast]] of the Russian state.&lt;ref&gt;Fishkoff, Sue (October 8, 2008). [http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml &quot;A Jewish revival in Birobidzhan?&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510142551/http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml |date=May 10, 2011 }} ''Jewish News of Greater Phoenix''. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Chief Rabbi]] of [[Birobidzhan]], [[Mordechai Scheiner]], says there are 4,000 Jews in the capital city.&lt;ref&gt;Paxton, Robin (June 1, 2007). [http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&amp;cid=84435&amp;NewsType=80052 &quot;From Tractors to Torah in Russia's Jewish Land&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411050518/http://fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&amp;cid=84435&amp;NewsType=80052 |date=April 11, 2013 }}. Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Governor]] [[Nikolay Mikhaylovich Volkov]] has stated that he intends to, &quot;support every valuable initiative maintained by our local Jewish organizations&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939 &quot;Governor Voices Support for Growing Far East Jewish Community&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518042318/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939 |date=May 18, 2011 }} (November 15, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Birobidzhan Synagogue]] opened in 2004 on the 70th anniversary of the region's founding in 1934.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969 &quot;Far East Community Prepares for 70th Anniversary of Jewish Autonomous Republic&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518041740/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969 |date=May 18, 2011 }} (August 30, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;

The number of people who identified as Jews in [[England and Wales]] rose slightly between 2001 and 2011, with the growth being attributed to the higher birth rate of the [[Haredi]] community.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7411877.stm |title=Jewish population on the increase |date=May 21, 2008 |access-date=March 18, 2020 |archive-date=May 27, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527215725/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7411877.stm |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The estimated [[British Jew]]ish population in [[England]] as of 2011 was 263,346.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2011 Census: KS209EW Religion, local authorities in England and Wales |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262 |publisher=ons.gov.uk |access-date=December 15, 2012 |archive-date=January 5, 2016 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of 2021, per the [[British Census]], the Jewish population of England and Wales was 271,327.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Graham |first1=David |last2=Boyd |first2=Jonathan |title=Jews in Britain in 2021: First results from the Census of England and Wales |url=https://www.jpr.org.uk/reports/jews-britain-2021-first-results-census-england-and-wales |website=Institute for Jewish Policy Research |date=November 29, 2022 |access-date=December 13, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On October 7, 2023, [[Hamas]], along with other [[Palestinian Joint Operations Room|Palestinian militant groups]], [[October 7 attacks|attacked Israel]] from the [[Gaza Strip]], killing 1,139 people. The day is considered the deadliest day in Israel's history, and the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=October 11, 2023 |title=Biden calls Hamas attacks the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust as US death toll ticks up |url=https://apnews.com/article/israel-hamas-us-biden-blinken-99eb4063edabc80fa1fa198fb0bb020e |access-date=November 9, 2023 |work=AP News |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The attack escalated into a [[Gaza war|major war between Israel and Hamas]]. Hundreds of thousands of civilians were displaced, and more than 250 hostages, including Israelis and foreign nationals, were taken by Hamas, [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]], and other Gaza-based militant groups.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last1=Al-Mughrabi |first1=Nidal |last2=Angel |first2=Maytaal |last3=Al-Mughrabi |first3=Nidal |last4=Angel |first4=Maytaal |date=November 8, 2023 |title=Israeli, Hamas fighters in close combat in Gaza City as civilians flee |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/thousands-civilians-flee-north-gaza-israeli-troops-hamas-fighters-clash-2023-11-08/ |access-date=November 9, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[يهوديت]] 
* [[اسلام ۾ ابراهيم]] 
* [[يعقوب عليہ السلام]] 
* [[عيسيٰ عليه السلام]] 
* [[توريت]] 
* [[فلسطين]] 
* [[يروشلم]] 
* [[اسرائيل]] 
* [[فلسطين جي رياست]] 
* [[غزه نسل ڪشي]]
* [[يهوديت جي تاريخ]] 
* [[فلسطين جي تاريخ]] 
* [[يهودي تاريخ جو خاڪو]] 
* [[يهودي تاريخ جو وقت]] 
* [[يهودين جو جينياتي مطالعو]] 
* [[اسرائيل جي سرزمين ۾ يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ]]

==نوٽ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===حوالي جا لکت===
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==ڪتابيات==
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* [[Jacob Neusner|Neusner, Jacob]]; Green, William Scott, eds. (1991). ''The Origins of Judaism. Religion, History, and Literature in Late Antiquity.'' 20-volume Set. New York: Garland Press. (Reprinted scholarly essays, with introductions.)
* [[Jacob Neusner|Neusner, Jacob]] (1999). ''[{{Google books|id=5YFXIUJYgsYC
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=== France ===
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* Taitz, Emily. ''The Jews of Medieval France: The Community of Champagne'' (1994) [https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130202034/https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne |date=November 30, 2018 }}

=== Russia and Eastern Europe ===
* Brinkmann, Tobias.  (2024). ''Between Borders: The Great Jewish Migration from Eastern Europe''. New York: Oxford University Press.

* Darieva, Tsypylma, Darja Klingenberg, and Chen Bram. (2025) &quot;Jews of the Caucasus: multiple entanglements and migration routes.&quot; ''Journal of Modern Jewish Studies'' 24.2 (2025): 557-569.  [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14725886.2025.2518673  online]

* [[David Fishman|Fishman, David]] (1996). ''Russia's First Modern Jews''. New York University Press.
* [[Zvi Gitelman|Gitelman, Zvi]] (2001). ''A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present''.

* Kushkova, Anna. (2025) &quot;From a Shtetl House to an Urban Apartment: The Soviet Jewish Home Negotiated, Transformed, and Reimagined.&quot; ''Jewish Folklore and Ethnology'' 4.1 (2025): 70-125. [https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1028&amp;context=jewishfolklore  online]

* Polonsky, Antony. ''The Jews in Poland and Russia: A Short History'' (2013)

* Sapritsky-Nahum, Marina. (2025) &quot;Identity transformations of Ukrainian Jewry during the Russian–Ukrainian war: Odesa’s communities and religious leaders at home and in exile.&quot; ''Canadian Slavonic Papers'' 67.1-2 (2025): 214-235. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00085006.2025.2500199  online]

* Schapiro, Leonard. &quot;The role of the Jews in the Russian revolutionary movement.&quot; ''Slavonic and East European Review'' (1961): 148-167. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4205328  online]

* Shumsky, Dmitry. (2025) &quot;Beyond Antisemitism: Rethinking Stalin’s Anti-Jewish Campaign, 1948–1953.&quot; ''Journal of Modern History'' 97.2 (2025): 348-386. 
* {{cite book |last1=Weiner |first1=Miriam |last2=Polish State Archives (in cooperation with) |title=Jewish Roots in Poland: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories |date=1997 |publisher=Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation |location=Secaucus, NJ |isbn=978-0-9656508-0-9 |oclc=38756480}}
* {{cite book |last1=Weiner |first1=Miriam |last2=Ukrainian State Archives (in cooperation with) |last3=Moldovan National Archives (in cooperation with) |title=Jewish Roots in Ukraine and Moldova: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories |date=1999 |publisher=Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation |location=Secaucus, NJ |isbn=978-0-9656508-1-6 |oclc=607423469}}
* Yivo Institute for Jewish Research. ''A Century of Ambivalence, Second Expanded Edition: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present'' (Indiana University Press, 2001).

=== United States ===

{{Main|American Jews#Bibliography|History of the{{short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt;
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 063.jpg|thumb|According to Jewish tradition, Jacob, shown [[Jacob wrestling with the angel|wrestling with the angel]] in this painting by [[Rembrandt]], was the father of the [[tribes of Israel]].]]
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|history}}
{{history of religion|religions}}

[[Jews]] originated from the [[Israelites]] and [[Hebrews]] of historical [[Israel and Judah]], two related kingdoms that emerged in the [[Levant]] during the [[Iron Age]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 |date=April 9, 2023 }} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The earliest mention of [[Israelites]] is inscribed on the [[Merneptah Stele]] {{circa|1213–1203 BCE}}; later religious literature tells the story of Israelites going back at least as far as {{cx|1500 BCE}}. Traditionally, the name ''Israel'' is said to originate with the Hebrew patriarch [[Jacob]], who provides a narrative [[etiology]] for the name{{snd}}after wrestling with an angel, Jacob is renamed Israel, meaning &quot;he who struggles with God&quot;. The [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] based in [[Samaria]] fell to the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] {{cx|720 BCE}},&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Kingdom of Judah]] to the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] in 586 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Faust |first=Avraham |title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period |date=August 29, 2012 |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |isbn=978-1-58983-641-9 |pages=1 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28}}&lt;/ref&gt; Part of the Judean population was exiled to [[Babylonia|Babylon]]. The [[Assyrian captivity|Assyrian]] and [[Babylonian captivity|Babylonian captivities]] are regarded as representing the start of the [[Jewish diaspora]].

After the [[Achaemenid Empire]] conquered the region, the exiled Jews were [[Return to Zion|allowed to return]] and [[Second Temple|rebuild the temple]]; these events mark the beginning of the [[Second Temple period]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Jonathan |last1=Stökl |first2=Caroline |last2=Waerzegger |title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context |date=2015 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=7–11, 30, 226}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia Judaica |edition=2nd |volume=3 |page=27}}&lt;/ref&gt; After several centuries of foreign rule, the [[Maccabean Revolt]] against the [[Seleucid Empire]] led to an [[Hasmonean dynasty|independent Hasmonean kingdom]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Peter Fibiger |last1=Bang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&amp;pg=PAPA184 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean |first2=Walter |last2=Scheidel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-518831-8 |pages=184–187}}&lt;/ref&gt; but it was gradually incorporated into the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] imperial system.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=223–239}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Jewish–Roman wars]], a series of unsuccessful revolts against the Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, resulted in the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Zissu |first=Boaz |title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE |date=2018 |isbn=978-90-04-34986-5 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill  |page=19 |chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective |oclc=988856967}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the expulsion of many Jews.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Erwin |last1=Fahlbusch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&amp;pg=PAPA15 |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |first2=Geoffrey William |last2=Bromiley |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5 |page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Jewish population in [[Syria Palaestina]] gradually decreased during the following centuries, enhancing the role of the Jewish diaspora and shifting the spiritual and demographic centre from the depopulated [[Judea]] to [[Galilee]] and then to [[Asoristan|Babylon]], with smaller communities spread out across the [[Roman Empire]]. During the same period, the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]], central Jewish texts, were composed. In the following millennia, the diaspora communities [[Coalescent theory|coalesced]] into three major [[Jewish ethnic divisions|ethnic subdivisions]] according to where their ancestors settled: the [[Ashkenazim]] in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern European Jewry|Eastern Europe]], the [[Sephardim]] initially in [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Iberia]], and the [[Mizrahim]] in the [[History of the Jews under Muslim rule|Middle East]] and [[North Africa]].&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&amp;pg=PA87 &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity.&quot; p. 87.] Eban, Abba Solomon. &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews.&quot; Summit Books Syracuse, New York: 1984. p. 87.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Dosick (2007), pp. 59–60.&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[early Muslim conquests]] ended [[Byzantine]] control over the [[Eastern Mediterranean]], with the newly established [[Rashidun Caliphate]] taking over the [[Levant]], [[Mesopotamia]], and North Africa during the 7th century, and the [[Iberian Peninsula]] during the 8th century. [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain|Jewish culture enjoyed a golden age in Spain]], with Jews becoming widely accepted in society and their religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed before the arrival of the intolerant [[Almohades]]. In 1492 [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|the Jews were forced to leave Spain]] by the Catholic Monarchs [[Catholic Monarchs of Spain|Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand II]], whereafter they migrated in great numbers to the [[History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]] and [[Italian Peninsula|Italy]]. Between the 12th and 15th centuries, Ashkenazi Jews experienced extreme persecution in Central Europe, which prompted their mass migration to [[History of Jews in Poland|Poland]].&lt;ref&gt;Mosk (2013), p. 143. &quot;Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Harshav, Benjamin (1999). ''The Meaning of Yiddish''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. &quot;From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the centre of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The 18th century saw the rise of the [[Haskalah]] intellectual movement. Also starting in the 18th century, Jews began to campaign for [[Jewish emancipation]] from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society.

In the 19th century, when Jews in [[Western Europe]] were increasingly granted equality before the law, Jews in the [[Pale of Settlement]] faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread [[pogrom]]s. During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to [[Ottoman Syria]] with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. The [[Zionist movement]] was officially founded in 1897. The pogroms also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the United States between 1881 and 1924.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lewin |first=Rhoda G. |date=1979 |title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis |url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |journal=Minnesota History |volume=46 |issue=7 |page=259 |access-date=August 10, 2020 |archive-date=July 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. Many [[Nobel Prize]] winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |publisher=jinfo.org |access-date=October 7, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1933, with the rise to power of [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]] in [[Nazi Germany|Germany]], the situation for Jews became severe. Economic crises, racial [[Antisemitism in Europe#The Holocaust|antisemitic laws]], and a fear of an upcoming war led many to flee from Europe to [[Mandatory Palestine]], to the United States and to the [[Soviet Union]]. In 1939, [[World War II]] began and until 1941 Germany [[German-occupied Europe|occupied almost all of Europe]]. In 1941, following the [[Operation Barbarossa|invasion]] of the Soviet Union, the [[Final Solution]] began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe and North Africa. In Poland, three million were murdered in [[gas chambers]] in all concentration camps combined, with one million at the [[Auschwitz]] camp complex alone. This [[genocide]], in which approximately six million Jews were methodically exterminated, is known as [[the Holocaust]].

Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On May 14, 1948, upon the termination of the British Mandate, [[David Ben-Gurion]] declared the creation of the [[State of Israel]], a [[Jewish and democratic state]] in ''[[Eretz Israel]]'' (Land of Israel). Immediately afterwards, all neighbouring Arab states invaded, yet the newly formed [[IDF]] resisted. In 1949, the war ended and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of [[Aliyah]] from all over Europe and [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Middle Eastern countries]]. {{As of|2022|post=,}} Israel is a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a population of 9.6 million people, of whom 7 million are [[Israeli Jews|Jewish]].

The largest Jewish community outside Israel is the [[American Jews|United States]], while large communities also exist in France, Canada, Argentina, Russia, United Kingdom, Australia, and [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]]. Currently, the Jewish ethnicity have two autonomous states under their power to act as sanctuaries, [[Israel]] and the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]].

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Commons category|Jewish history}}
* [http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/ The Jewish History Resource Center]. Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
* [http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/Internetresources/modern/israelindex.htm The State of Israel] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
* [http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/ Jewish History and Culture Encyclopaedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224094628/http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/ |date=December 24, 2008 }} Official Site of the 22-volume Encyclopaedia Judaica
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/jewishsbook.html Internet Jewish History Sourcebook] offering homework help and online texts
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050528023003/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/israelite_religion.htm Israelite Religion to Judaism: the Evolution of the Religion of Israel].
* [https://thinktorah.org/jewish-history/ 2000 Years of Jewish History]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050629084248/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/greek_influence.htm Greek Influence on Judaism from the Hellenistic Period Through the Middle Ages c. 300 BCE–1200 CE].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050604085120/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/jewish_sects.htm Jewish Sects of the Second Temple Period].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101119075635/http://adath-shalom.ca/samaritan_origin.htm The Origin and Nature of the Samaritans and their Relationship to Second Temple Jewish Sects].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051118233741/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/eb2bk.htm Jewish History Tables].
* [http://www.oztorah.com/category/australian-jewry/ Articles on Australian Jewish history].
* [http://www.oztorah.com/category/british-jewry/ Articles on British Jewish history].
* Barnavi, Eli (Ed.). ''A Historical Atlas of the Jewish People''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1992. {{ISBN|978-0-679-40332-6}}
* [http://www.simpletoremember.com/vitals/Jewish_History.htm Crash Course in Jewish History]
* [http://csicso-nagy.uw.hu/fo-o-Csicso-NAGY-A/jewish-families.htm Jewish families in Csicsó – Cicov (Slovakia) until the Holocaust]
* [http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&amp;Volume=36&amp;Issue=1&amp;ArticleID=29 &quot;Under the Influence: Hellenism in Ancient Jewish Life&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229232302/http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&amp;Volume=36&amp;Issue=1&amp;ArticleID=29 |date=February 29, 2012 }} Biblical Archaeology Society
* [http://www.jewishhistory.org/crash-course/ Summary of Jewish History] by Berel Wein
* [http://histclo.com/chron/ancient/heb/heb-hist.html Ancient Hebrew history]
* [http://jewishhistorylectures.org/ Videos of Jewish History Lectures by Henry Abramson of Touro College South]
{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:يهودين جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:يهوديت جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:يهودي نسلي گروهه]]
[[زمرو:تاريخ بلحاظ مذهب]]
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      <text bytes="203682" sha1="hy4mrzugyyrj36agm46xcvybmr1ni44" xml:space="preserve">يهودي (&lt;small&gt;Jews&lt;/small&gt;) تاريخي اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه، ٻه لاڳاپيل بادشاهتن جيڪيون [[لوهه جو دور|لوهه جي دور]] ۾ [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سرزمين شام (ليونٽ)]] ۾ ظاهر ٿيون،  جي بني اسرائيل ۽ عبرانين مان پيدا ٿيا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|date=2001|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|isbn=978-0-684-86912-4|edition=1st Touchstone|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken2&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229|date=April 9, 2023}} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; بني اسرائيل جو پهريون ذڪر، 1213-1203 ق.م. جو مرنيپتا اسٽيل تي لکيل آهي؛ بعد ۾ مذهبي ادب بني اسرائيلن جي ڪهاڻي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 1500 ق.م. تائين ٻڌائي ٿو. روايتي طور تي، اسرائيل جو نالو عبراني بزرگ [[يعقوب عليہ السلام|يعقوب]] سان شروع ٿيو آهي، جيڪو نالي لاءِ هڪ داستاني ايٽولوجي فراهم ڪري ٿو - هڪ فرشتي سان وڙهڻ کان پوءِ، يعقوب جو نالو اسرائيل رکيو ويو، جنهن جو مطلب آهي &quot;اهو جيڪو خدا سان ويڙهي ٿو&quot;. سامريه ۾ قائم اسرائيل جي بادشاهت 720 ق.م. ڌاري نيو-آشوري سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Broshi|first=Maguen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174|title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2001|isbn=978-1-84127-201-6|page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ 586 ق.م. ڌاري يهودين جي بادشاهت نيو-بابلي سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Faust|first=Avraham|title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period|date=August 29, 2012|publisher=Society of Biblical Literature|isbn=978-1-58983-641-9|pages=1|doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي آبادي جو هڪ حصو [[بابل]] ڏانهن جلاوطن ڪيو ويو. آشور ۽ بابل ۾ قيد ٿيل يهودين کي ڊائاسپورا جي شروعات جي نمائندگي ڪندڙ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.

{{short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt;
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 063.jpg|thumb|يهودي روايت موجب، يعقوب، جيڪو ريمبران جي هن تصوير ۾ ملائڪ سان وڙهندي ڏيکاريو ويو آهي، اسرائيل جي قبيلن جو پيءُ هو. ]][[هخامنشي سلطنت]] طرفان هن علائقي کي فتح ڪرڻ کان پوءِ، جلاوطن يهودين کي واپس اچڻ ۽ مندر کي ٻيهر تعمير ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي؛ اها واقعا ٻئي مندر جي دور جي شروعات جي نشاندهي ڪن ٿا. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Jonathan|last1=Stökl|first2=Caroline|last2=Waerzegger|title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context|date=2015|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|pages=7–11, 30, 226}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia Judaica|edition=2nd|volume=3|page=27}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيترن ئي صدين جي پرڏيهي حڪمراني کانپوءِ، سيليوسڊ سلطنت جي خلاف مڪابي بغاوت هڪ آزاد هاشموني بادشاهت جو سبب بڻي، &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Peter Fibiger|last1=Bang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&amp;pg=PAPA184|title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean|first2=Walter|last2=Scheidel|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-518831-8|pages=184–187}}&lt;/ref&gt; پر ان رياست کي بتدريج [[رومي سلطنت]] ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Abraham|last=Malamat|url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=A History of the Jewish People|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1976|isbn=978-0-674-39731-6|pages=223–239}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي-رومن جنگيون، پهرين ۽ ٻي صدي عيسوي ۾ رومن جي خلاف ناڪام بغاوتن جو هڪ سلسلو، [[يروشلم]] ۽ ٻئي مندر جي تباهي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Zissu|first=Boaz|title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE|date=2018|isbn=978-90-04-34986-5|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|page=19|chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective|oclc=988856967}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ ڪيترن ئي يهودين کي نيڪالي ڏيڻ جو سبب بڻيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Erwin|last1=Fahlbusch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&amp;pg=PAPA15|title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity|first2=Geoffrey William|last2=Bromiley|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5|page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt; سر زمين شام فلسطين ۾ يهودي آبادي ايندڙ صدين دوران بتدريج گهٽجي وئي، يهودي ڊائاسپورا جي ڪردار کي وڌايو ۽ روحاني ۽ آبادي جي مرڪز کي خالي ٿيل يهوديا کان گليلي ۽ پوءِ بابل ڏانهن منتقل ڪيو، يهودين جون ننڍيون برادريون رومن سلطنت ۾ پکڙيل هيون. ساڳئي عرصي دوران، مشناه ۽ تلمود، مرڪزي يهودي متن، ترتيب ڏنا ويا. ايندڙ هزار سالن ۾، ڊائاسپورا برادريون ٽن وڏن نسلي ذيلي تقسيم ۾، جتي انهن جا ابا ڏاڏا آباد ٿيا هئا: وچ ۽ اوڀر يورپ ۾ اشڪنازي، [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|آئبيريا]] ۾ سيفاردي ۽ [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]] ۾ مزراهي طور گڏ ٿي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&amp;pg=PA87 &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity.&quot; p. 87.] Eban, Abba Solomon. &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews.&quot; Summit Books Syracuse, New York: 1984. p. 87.&lt;/ref&gt;  &lt;ref&gt;Dosick (2007), pp. 59–60.&lt;/ref&gt;

شروعاتي اسلامي فتحون اوڀرين رومي سمنڊ جي علائقن تي [[بازنطيني سلطنت|بازنطيني]] ڪنٽرول ختم ڪري ڇڏيو، نئين قائم ٿيل راشدون خلافت 7هين صدي دوران [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|ليونٽ]]، [[ميسوپوٽيميا]] ۽ اتر آفريڪا تي قبضو ڪيو ۽ 8هين صدي دوران [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|آئبيرين جزيره نما]] تي قبضو ڪيو. يهودي ثقافت مسلم [[اندلس]] ۾ هڪ سونهري دور مان لطف اندوز ٿي، يهودين کي سماج ۾ وڏي پيماني تي قبول ڪيو ويو ۽ انهن جي مذهبي، ثقافتي ۽ معاشي زندگي عدم برداشت واري الموحدين جي اچڻ کان اڳ ڦٽي نڪتي. سال 1492ع ۾ ڪيٿولڪ حڪمران، راڻي ازابيل اول ۽ بادشاهه فرڊيننڊ II پاران يهودين کي اسپين ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ڪيو ويو، جنهن کان پوءِ اهي وڏي تعداد ۾ [[عثماني سلطنت]] ۽ [[اٽلي]] ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي. 12هين ۽ 15هين صدي جي وچ ۾، اشڪنازي يهودين وچ يورپ ۾ انتهائي ظلم جو تجربو ڪيو، جنهن جي ڪري انهن جي [[پولينڊ]] ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. &lt;ref&gt;Mosk (2013), p. 143. &quot;Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Harshav, Benjamin (1999). ''The Meaning of Yiddish''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. &quot;From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the centre of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt;هين صدي ۾ هسڪاله دانشورانه تحريڪ جو عروج ڏٺو ويو. &lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt;هين صدي جي شروعات ۾، يهودي يهودين کي پابندين وارن قانونن کان آزاد ڪرڻ ۽ وسيع يورپي سماج ۾ ضم ڪرڻ لاءِ مهم هلائڻ شروع ڪئي.

19هين صدي ۾، جڏهن اولهائين يورپ ۾ يهودين کي قانون جي سامهون برابري ڏني پئي وئي، ته آبادڪاري جي ميدان ۾ يهودين کي وڌندڙ ظلم، قانوني پابندين ۽ وڏي پيماني تي قتل عام جو سامنا ڪرڻ پيو. 1870 ۽ 1880 جي ڏهاڪن دوران، يورپ ۾ يهودي آبادي فلسطين ۾ يهودي رياست کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان عثماني شام ڏانهن هجرت تي وڌيڪ سرگرم بحث ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. صهيوني تحريڪ سرڪاري طور تي سال 1897ع ۾ قائم ڪئي وئي هئي. سال 1881ع ۽ 1924ع جي وچ ۾ [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] ڏانهن 20 لک کان وڌيڪ يهودين جي وڏي پيماني تي هجرت کي به شروع ڪيو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Lewin|first=Rhoda G.|date=1979|title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis|url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf|journal=Minnesota History|volume=46|issue=7|page=259|access-date=August 10, 2020|archive-date=July 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; يورپ ۽ آمريڪا جا يهودي سائنس، ثقافت ۽ معيشت جي شعبن ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪيا. عام طور تي سڀ کان وڌيڪ مشهور سمجهيا ويندڙن ۾ [[البرٽ آئنسٽائن|البرٽ آئن اسٽائن]] ۽ لڊوگ وٽگنسٽائن شامل هئا. هن وقت ڪيترائي [[نوبل انعام حاصل ڪندڙن جي فهرست|نوبل انعام يافته]] يهودي هئا، جيئن اڃا تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners|publisher=jinfo.org|access-date=October 7, 2011|archive-date=December 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سال &lt;small&gt;1933&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، [[جرمنيا|جرمني]] ۾ [[هٽلر|ايڊولف هٽلر]] ۽ نازي پارٽي جي اقتدار ۾ اچڻ سان، يهودين لاءِ صورتحال سخت ٿي وئي. معاشي بحران، نسل پرست يهودي مخالف قانون ۽ ايندڙ جنگ جي خوف سبب ڪيترائي ماڻهو [[يُورَپ|يورپ]] کان [[فلسطين|لازمي فلسطين]]، آمريڪا ۽ [[سوويت يونين]] ڏانهن ڀڄي ويا. سال 1939ع ۾، [[ٻين مھاڀاري جنگ|ٻي مهاڀاري جنگ]] شروع ٿي ۽ سال 1941ع تائين جرمني تقريبن سڄي يورپ تي قبضو ڪري ورتو. سال 1941ع ۾، سوويت يونين جي حملي کان پوءِ، آخري حل شروع ٿيو، هڪ غير معمولي پيماني تي هڪ وسيع منظم آپريشن، جنهن جو مقصد يهودي ماڻهن کي ختم ڪرڻ هو ۽ نتيجي ۾ يورپ ۽ اتر آفريڪا ۾ يهودين جو قتل عام ٿيو. پولينڊ ۾، سڀني ڪنسنٽريشن ڪيمپن ۾ گيس چيمبرن ۾ 30 لک يهودي قتل ڪيا ويا، جن ۾ صرف آشوٽز ڪيمپ ڪمپليڪس ۾ 10 لک شامل هئا. هي نسل ڪشي، جنهن ۾ تقريبن 60 لک يهودين کي طريقي سان ختم ڪيو ويو، هولوڪاسٽ جي نالي سان مشهور آهي. 

هولوڪاسٽ کان اڳ ۽ دوران، يهودين جي وڏي تعداد لازمي فلسطين ڏانهن هجرت ڪئي. 14 مئي 1948ع تي، برطانوي مينڊيٽ جي خاتمي تي، ڊيوڊ بين-گورين ارض اسرائيل (اسرائيل جي سرزمين) ۾ هڪ يهودي ۽ جمهوري رياست، [[اسرائيل]] جي رياست جي قيام جو اعلان ڪيو.

ان کان پوءِ فوري طور تي، سڀني پاڙيسري عرب رياستون اسرائيل تي حملو ڪيو، پر نئين ٺهيل اسرائيلي دفاعي فوج (IDF) مزاحمت ڪئي. سال 1949ع ۾ جنگ ختم ٿي وئي ۽ اسرائيل رياست جي تعمير شروع ڪئي ۽ سڄي يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر جي ملڪن مان ايندڙ يهودين جي وڏين لهرن کي جذب ڪيو. سال 2022ع تائين، اسرائيل هڪ پارلياماني جمهوريت آهي جنهن جي آبادي 96 لک ماڻهن جي آهي، جن مان 70 لک يهودي آهن. ([[غزه جي پٽي|غزا]] ۽ [[فلسطين جي رياست|مغربي ڪناري]] جي 35 لک آبادي کانسواء).

اسرائيل کان ٻاهر سڀ کان وڏي يهودي برادري آمريڪا ۾ آهي، جڏهن ته ٻيون وڏي برادريون [[فرانس]]، [[ڪينيڊا]]، [[ارجنٽائن]]، [[روس]]، [[گڏيل بادشاھت|برطانيه]]، [[آسٽريليا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] ۾ پڻ موجود آهن. هن وقت، يهودي نسل جون ٻه خودمختيار رياستون؛ اسرائيل ۽ روس ۾ يهودي خودمختيار اوبلاست آهن جيڪي انهن جي اختيار هيٺ آهن ته اهي پناهه گاهه طور ڪم ڪن.

==جائزو==
قديم يهودي تاريخ بائيبل ۽ غير بائيبل ذريعن، اپوڪرائيفا ۽ سوڊيپيگرافا، جوزيفس جي لکڻين، گريڪو-رومن ليکڪن ۽ چرچ جي پادرين، گڏوگڏ آثار قديمه جي دريافتن، لکتن، قديم دستاويزن، جهڙوڪ ايليفينٽائن ۽ فيوم مان پيپيري، مردار سمنڊ جا اسڪرول، بار ڪوخبا خط، باباٿا آرڪائيوز ۽ قاهره جينيزا دستاويزن، مان معلوم ٿئي ٿي، جيڪي زباني تاريخ ۽ مدراش ۽ تلمود ۾ تبصرن جي مجموعن سان گڏ آهن. 

ابتدائي جديد دور ۾ پرنٽنگ پريس جي آمد سان، يهودين جي تاريخ ۽ عبراني بائيبل جا شروعاتي ايڊيشن شايع ٿيا جيڪي يهودي مذهب جي تاريخ ۽ وڌندڙ طور تي، يهودين جي قومي تاريخن، يهودي قوم ۽ سڃاڻپ سان لاڳاپيل هئا، هڪ مسودي يا لکندڙ ڪلچر کان هڪ پرنٽنگ ڪلچر ڏانهن منتقلي هئي. يهودي مورخن پنهنجن اجتماعي تجربن جا احوال لکيا، پر سياسي، ثقافتي ۽ سائنسي يا فلسفياتي ڳولا لاءِ تاريخ کي پڻ وڌندڙ طور تي استعمال ڪيو. ليکڪن ثقافتي طور تي ورثي ۾ مليل متن جي هڪ مجموعي کي استعمال ڪيو ته جيئن فن جي حالت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ يا اڳتي وڌائڻ لاءِ هڪ منطقي داستان تيار ڪري سگهجي. جديد يهودي تاريخ نويسي يورپي نشاۃِ ثانيه ۽ روشن خيالي جي دور جهڙين دانشورانه تحريڪن سان جڙيل آهي، پر وچين دور جي آخر ۾ ۽ قديم زماني ۾ مختلف ذريعن ۾ اڳوڻين ڪمن تي ڌيان ڏنو. اڄ، يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ کي اڪثر ست دورن ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي:
# قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه رياست (&lt;small&gt;1200 ق.م. کان 586 ق.م.&lt;/small&gt;) 
# ٻيو مندر وارو دور (&lt;small&gt;516 ق.م. کان 70 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|editor-last=Goodman|editor-first=Martin|chapter=Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period|pages=36–52|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0003|isbn=0-19-928032-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# ربانڪ يا تلمودي دور (&lt;small&gt;70 کان 640 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|editor-last=Goodman|editor-first=Martin|chapter=Historiography on the Jews in the ‘Talmudic Period’ (70–640 ce)|pages=79–114|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0005|isbn=0-19-928032-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# وچين دور (&lt;small&gt;640 کان 1492 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# ابتدائي جديد دور (&lt;small&gt;1492-1750 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# جديد دور (&lt;small&gt;1750ع کان 20هين صدي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# [[صيهونيت]]، [[هولوڪاسٽ]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جو قيام (&lt;small&gt;19 کان 21هين صدي&lt;/small&gt;)
&lt;imagemap&gt;
File:Chronology of Israel eng.png|center|800px
default [[#Time periods in Jewish history|Jewish history]]
rect 658 156 833 176 [[Aliyah|Periods of massive immigration to Palestine]]
rect 564 156 647 175 [[Jewish diaspora|Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in exile]]
rect 460 156 554 175 [[Land of Israel|Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in the southern Levant, with full or partial independence]]
rect 314 156 452 175 [[Temple in Jerusalem|Periods in which a Jewish Temple existed]]
rect 196 156 309 175 [[#Time periods in Jewish history|Jewish history]]
rect 26 102 134 122 [[Book of Judges|Shoftim]]
rect 134 102 265 121 [[Books of Kings|Melakhim]]
rect 146 83 266 104 [[First Temple]]
rect 286 83 418 103 [[Second Temple]]
rect 341 103 392 121 [[Zugot]]
rect 393 103 453 121 [[Tannaim]]
rect 452 102 534 221 [[Amoraim]]
rect 534 102 560 121 [[Savoraim]]
rect 559 103 691 121 [[Geonim]]
rect 691 102 825 121 [[Rishonim]]
rect 825 100 940 120 [[Acharonim]]
rect 939 94 959 120 [[Aliyah|Aliyot]]
rect 957 65 975 121 [[Israel]]
rect 940 62 958 94 [[The Holocaust]]
rect 825 62 941 100 [[Jewish diaspora|Diaspora]]
rect 808 61 825 101 [[Alhambra decree|Expulsion from Spain]]
rect 428 62 808 103 [[Dispersion of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Roman exile]]
poly 226 82 410 82 410 92 428 92 428 61 226 62 [[Ten Lost Tribes|Assyrian Exile (Ten Lost Tribes)]]
rect 264 82 284 122 [[Babylonian captivity]]
rect 283 103 341 121 [[Second Temple of Jerusalem|Second Temple period]]
poly 26 121 17 121 17 63 225 63 226 81 145 82 145 101 26 101 [[Chronology of the Bible|Ancient Jewish History]]
rect 58 136 375 146 [[Chronology of the Bible]]
rect 356 122 373 135 [[Common Era]]
desc none
&lt;/imagemap&gt;

==قديم اسرائيل==
{{Main|يهوديت جي اصل}}
===شروعاتي بني اسرائيل===
{{Main|بني اسرائيل}}
[[File:Ruins atop Tel Megiddo with circular altar-like shrine and a series of temples on top of the other dating from the early bronze-age through the iron-age periods, Tel Meggido, Israel (19888642855).jpg|thumb|تل ميگيدو، هڪ ڪنعاني ۽ بعد ۾ اسرائيلي شهر جا کنڊر]]

ابتدائي يهودين ۽ انهن جي پاڙيسرين جي تاريخ، ميڊيٽرينين سمنڊ جي زرخيز هلال ۽ اوڀر ساحل تي مرڪز آهي. اها انهن ماڻهن سان شروع ٿئي ٿي جيڪا [[نيل درياھہ|نيل]] ۽ [[ميسوپوٽيميا]] جي وچ واري علائقي تي قبضو ڪيو هو. مصر ۽ بابل ۾ ثقافت جي قديم مرڪزن، عرب جي ريگستانن ۽ ايشيا ڪوچڪ جي ميدان جي اهي، ڪنعان جي زمين (تقريبن جديد اسرائيل، فلسطين، اردن ۽ لبنان سان ملندڙ جلندڙ) تهذيبن جي ميلاپ جو هنڌ هئي.

[[File:Map Israel Judea 926 BC-fr.svg|thumb|سال 926 ق.م. ۾ اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه جون بادشاهتون]]
اسرائيل جي نالي سان هڪ قوم جو سڀ کان پهريون رڪارڊ ٿيل ثبوت قديم مصر جي مرنيپتاه اسٽيلئ ۾ نظر اچي ٿو، جيڪو 1200 ق.م. جو آهي. جديد آثار قديمه جي حساب موجب، اسرائيلي ۽ انهن جي ثقافت هڪ الڳ مونولئٽرسٽڪ ۽ پوء توحيد پرست (monotheistic) مذهب جي ترقي ذريعي ڪنعاني ماڻهن ۽ انهن جي ثقافتن مان نڪتل هئي، جيڪا هڪ قومي خدا &quot;يهواه&quot; تي مرڪوز هو.&lt;ref&gt;Mark Smith in &quot;The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel&quot; states &quot;Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000&amp;nbsp;BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period.&quot; (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) &quot;The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel&quot; (Eerdman's)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rendsberg, Gary (2008). &quot;Israel without the Bible&quot;. In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Gnuse |first1=Robert Karl |title=No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel |date=1997 |publisher=Sheffield Academic Press Ltd |isbn=1-85075-657-0 |location=England |pages=28, 31}}&lt;/ref&gt; اها عبراني ٻولي جي هڪ قديم شڪل ڳالهائيندا هئا، جيڪا اڄ بائيبل جي عبراني جي نالي سان مشهور آهي.&lt;ref&gt;Steiner, Richard C. (1997), &quot;Ancient Hebrew&quot;, in Hetzron, Robert (ed.), ''The Semitic Languages'', Routledge, pp. 145–173, {{ISBN|978-0-415-05767-7}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

پهرين صدي قبل مسيح جي وچ کان، يهودين کي روايتي طور تي پنهنجي تاريخ جي جيڪا سمجھ هئي، اها عبراني بائيبل ۾ بيان ڪيل روايتن جي چوڌاري مرڪوز هئي. هن خيال موجب، ابراهيم (اهو ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته هو يهودين جو حياتياتي پيشوا ۽ يهوديت جو پيءُ آهي) پهريون يهودي آهي.{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=3}} بعد ۾ اسحاق ابراهيم مان پيدا ٿيو ۽ يعقوب اسحاق مان پيدا ٿيو. هڪ ملائڪ سان ويڙهه کان پوءِ، يعقوب کي اسرائيل جو نالو ڏنو ويو. سخت ڏڪار کانپوءِ، يعقوب ۽ سندس ٻارهن پٽ مصر ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي ويا، جتي انهن آخرڪار اسرائيل جا ٻارهن قبيلا ٺاهيا. بعد ۾ بني اسرائيل کي مصر جي غلامي مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ موسيٰ طرفان ڪنعان آندو ويو. انهن آخرڪار يوشع جي اڳواڻي ۾ ڪنعان کي فتح ڪيو.

جديد عالم متفق آهن ته بائيبل بني اسرائيل جي اصليت جو مستند احوال فراهم نٿو ڪري. اتفاق راءِ ان ڳالهه جي حمايت ڪري ٿو ته آثار قديمه جا ثبوت وڏي پيماني تي اسرائيل جي اصليت کي 1200 کان 1000 ق.م. ۾ ڪنعان ۾ ڏيکارين ٿا، مصر ۾ نه. اهو &quot;زبردست&quot; آهي ۽ &quot;مصر مان نڪرڻ يا سينائي ​​جي بيابان ذريعي 40 سالن جي زيارت لاءِ ڪا به گنجائش نه ٿو ڇڏي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dever-2002&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William G. |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8028-2126-3}} p. 99&lt;/ref&gt;

Many archaeologists have abandoned the archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus as &quot;a fruitless pursuit&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dever-2002&quot; /&gt; However, it is accepted that this narrative does have a &quot;historical core&quot; to it.&lt;ref&gt;For more about the historicity of Jewish history as it pertains to [[Oral Torah|rabbinic]] sources, see {{cite journal |first1=Reuven Chaim |last1=Klein |date=2023 |title=Are historical sections of the Talmud actually historical? Critical tools for understanding historical claims in rabbinic literature |url=https://www.academia.edu/127965994 |journal=Journal of Philological Pedagogy |volume=12 |publisher=Chandler School of Education |pages=42–75 |doi=10.17613/rjp5a-md343 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Faust|2015|loc=p.476: &quot;While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt..&quot;}}{{sfn|Redmount|2001|p=61|ps=: &quot;A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative.&quot;}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2001 |isbn=3-927120-37-5 |pages=98–99 |quote=After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible &quot;historical figures&quot; [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.}}&lt;/ref&gt; A century of research by archaeologists and Egyptologists has arguably found no evidence that can be directly related to the Exodus narrative of an Egyptian captivity and the escape and travels through the wilderness, leading to the suggestion that [[Iron Age]] Israel—the kingdoms of Judah and Israel—has its origins in Canaan, not in Egypt:&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |editor-last1=Finkelstein |editor-first1=Israel |editor-first2=Nadav |editor-last2=Naaman |title=From Nomadism to Monarchy: Archaeological and Historical Aspects of Early Israel |publisher=[[Israel Exploration Society]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-880317-20-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Compare: {{cite book |first=Ian |last=Shaw |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&amp;q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&amp;pg=PA313 |title=A Dictionary of Archaeology |author2=Robert Jameson |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-631-23583-5 |editor=Ian Shaw |edition=New |page=313 |quote=The Biblical account of the origins of the people of Israel (principally recounted in Numbers, Joshua and Judges) often conflicts with non-Biblical textual sources and with the archaeological evidence for the settlement of Canaan in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age. [...] Israel is first textually attested as a political entity in Egyptian texts of the late 13th century BCE and the Egyptologist Donald Redford argues that the Israelites must have been emerging as a distinct group within the Canaanite culture during the century or so prior to this. It has been suggested that the early Israelites were an oppressed rural group of Canaanites who rebelled against the more urbanized coastal Canaanites (Gottwald 1979). Alternatively, it has been argued that the Israelites were survivors of the decline in the fortunes of Canaan who established themselves in the highlands at the end of the late Bronze Age (Ahlstrom 1986: 27). Redford, however, makes a good case for equating the very earliest Israelites with a semi-nomadic people in the highlands of central Palestine whom the Egyptians called Shasu (Redford 1992:2689–80; although see Stager 1985 for strong arguments against the identification with the Shasu). These Shasu were a persistent thorn in the side of the Ramessid pharaohs' empire in Syria-Palestine, well-attested in Egyptian texts, but their pastoral lifestyle has left scant traces in the archaeological record. By the end of the 13th century BCE, however, the Shasu/Israelites were beginning to establish small settlements in the uplands, the architecture of which closely resembles contemporary Canaanite villages. |author-link=Israel, Israelites |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160406/https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&amp;q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&amp;pg=PA313 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The culture of the [[Israelite highland settlement|earliest Israelite settlements]] is Canaanite, their cult-objects are those of the Canaanite god [[El (deity)|El]], the pottery remains in the local Canaanite tradition, and the alphabet used is early Canaanite. The almost sole marker distinguishing the &quot;Israelite&quot; villages from Canaanite sites is an absence of pig bones, although whether this can be taken as an ethnic marker or is due to other factors remains a matter of dispute.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Killebrew |first=Ann E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC |title=Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E. |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-58983-097-4 |location=Atlanta |page=176 |quote=Much has been made of the scarcity of pig bones at highland sites. Since small quantities of pig bones do appear in Late Bronze Age assemblages, some archaeologists have interpreted this to indicate that the ethnic identity of the highland inhabitants was distinct from Late Bronze Age indigenous peoples (see Finkelstein 1997, 227–230). Brian Hesse and Paula Wapnish (1997) advise caution, however, since the lack of pig bones at Iron I highland settlements could be a result of other factors that have little to do with ethnicity. |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=January 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117055402/https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to the [[Historicity of the Bible|Biblical narrative]], the [[Land of Israel]] was organized into a confederacy of twelve tribes ruled by a series of [[Biblical judges|Judges]] for several hundred years.

=== Ancient Israel and Judah ===
{{Main|History of ancient Israel and Judah}}
[[File:LMLK, Ezekiah seals.jpg|thumb|A stamped bulla ([[LMLK seal]]) of [[Hezekiah]], &quot;Of Hezekiah (son of) Ahaz King of Judah&quot;, [[Israel Museum]]]]
Two Israelite kingdoms emerged during Iron Age II: [[Israel and Judah]]. The Bible portrays Israel and Judah as the successors of an earlier [[United Kingdom of Israel]], although [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)#Archaeological record|its historicity is disputed]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Zachary |date=April 22, 2016 |title=Debating the United Monarchy: Let's See How Far We've Come |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146107916639208 |journal=Biblical Theology Bulletin |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=59–69 |doi=10.1177/0146107916639208 |issn=0146-1079 |s2cid=147053561 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lipschits |first1=Oded |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |title=The Jewish Study Bible |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-997846-5 |editor1-last=Berlin |editor1-first=Adele |edition=2nd |pages=2107–2119 |language=en |chapter=The history of Israel in the biblical period |quote=As this essay will show, however, the premonarchic period long ago became a literary description of the mythological roots, the early beginnings of the nation and the way to describe the right of Israel on its land. The archeological evidence also does not support the existence of a united monarchy under David and Solomon as described in the Bible, so the rubric of &quot;united monarchy&quot; is best abandoned, although it remains useful for discussing how the Bible views the Israelite past. [...] Although the kingdom of Judah is mentioned in some ancient inscriptions, they never suggest that it was part of a unit {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} Israel and Judah. There are no extrabiblical indications of a united monarchy called &quot;Israel.&quot; |editor2-last=Brettler |editor2-first=Marc Zvi |access-date=August 19, 2022 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160917/https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Historians and archaeologists agree that the northern [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] existed from {{circa|900 BCE}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|169–195}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Wright |first1=Jacob L. |date=July 2014 |title=David, King of Judah (Not Israel) |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301164250/http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |archive-date=March 1, 2021 |access-date=May 15, 2021 |website=The Bible and Interpretation}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that the [[Kingdom of Judah]] existed from {{Abbr|ca.|circa}} 700 BCE.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 |date=April 9, 2023 }} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Tel Dan Stele]], discovered in 1993, shows that the kingdom, at least in some form, existed by the middle of the 9th century BCE, but it does not indicate the extent of its power.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kcVmBAEo5rcC&amp;pg=PA333 |title=Ahab Agonistes: The Rise and Fall of the Omri Dynasty |date=April 28, 2007 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-567-25171-8 |quote=The Tel Dan inscription generated a good deal of debate and a flurry of articles when it first appeared, but it is now widely regarded (a) as genuine and (b) as referring to the Davidic dynasty and the Aramaic kingdom of Damascus. |access-date=August 19, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Cline |first=Eric H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uGzRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA61 |title=Biblical Archaeology: A Very Short Introduction |date=September 28, 2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-971162-8 |quote=Today, after much further discussion in academic journals, it is accepted by most archaeologists that the inscription is not only genuine but that the reference is indeed to the House of David, thus representing the first allusion found anywhere outside the Bible to the biblical David. |access-date=August 19, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Mykytiuk |first=Lawrence J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eprY1Qd0veAC&amp;pg=PA113 |title=Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200-539 B.C.E. |date=January 1, 2004 |publisher=Society of Biblical Lit |isbn=978-1-58983-062-2 |quote=Some unfounded accusations of forgery have had little or no effect on the scholarly acceptance of this inscription as genuine.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Biblical tradition tells that the Israelite monarchy was established in 1037 BCE under [[Saul]], who was anointed by the prophet Samuel,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Who Was the First King of Israel? |url=https://shopisrael.com/blogs/about-israel/first-king-of-israel |access-date=February 5, 2025 |website=Shop Israel |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and continued under [[David]] and his son, [[Solomon]]. David greatly expanded the kingdom's borders and [[Siege of Jebus|conquered Jerusalem]] from the [[Jebusites]], turning it into the national, political and religious capital of the kingdom. Solomon, his son, later built the [[First Temple]] on [[Moriah|Mount Moriah]] in Jerusalem. Upon his death, traditionally dated to c. 930 BCE, a civil war erupted between the ten northern Israelite tribes, and the tribes of [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] ([[Tribe of Simeon|Simeon]] was absorbed into Judah) and [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]] in the south. The kingdom then split into the Kingdom of Israel in the north, and the Kingdom of Judah in the south.

The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two kingdoms and soon developed into a regional power.{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|pp=146-147|loc=Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power}} During the days of the [[Omride Dynasty|Omride dynasty]], it controlled [[Samaria]], [[Galilee]], the upper [[Jordan Valley]], the [[Sharon plain|Sharon]] and large parts of the [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |first=Israel |last=Finkelstein |title=The forgotten kingdom : the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |isbn=978-1-58983-910-6 |pages=74 |oclc=949151323}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Samaria (ancient city)|Samaria]], the capital, was home to one of the largest Iron Age palaces in the Levant.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |title=The Forgotten Kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-58983-911-3 |pages=65–66; 73; 78; 87–94 |oclc=880456140}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |date=November 1, 2011 |title=Observations on the Layout of Iron Age Samaria |url=https://doi.org/10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |journal=Tel Aviv |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=194–207 |doi=10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |issn=0334-4355 |s2cid=128814117 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; The kingdom of Israel was destroyed {{cx|720 BCE}}, when it was [[Samerina|conquered]] by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Kingdom of Judah, with its capital in [[Jerusalem]], controlled the [[Judaean Mountains]], the [[Shephelah]], the [[Judaean Desert]] and parts of the [[Negev]]. After the fall of Israel, Judah became a [[client state]] of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In the 7th century BCE, the kingdom's population increased greatly, prospering under [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] [[Vassal state|vassalage]], despite [[Hezekiah#Assyrian invasion|Hezekiah's revolt]] against the Assyrian king [[Sennacherib]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |editor-last=Ben-Sasson |editor-first=Haim Hillel |editor-link=H. H. Ben-Sasson |page=142 |quote=Sargon's heir, Sennacherib (705–681), could not deal with Hezekiah's revolt until he gained control of Babylon in 702 BCE.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Mesad Hashavyahu ostracon.jpg|thumb|The [[Yavne-Yam ostracon]], a [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|Paleo-Hebrew]] inscription documenting administration in [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]]]
Large parts of the Hebrew Bible were written during this period. This includes the earliest portions of [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]],{{sfn|Kelle|2005|p=9}} [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]],{{sfn|Brettler|2010|pp=161–162}} [[Book of Amos|Amos]]{{sfn|Radine|2010|pp=71–72}} and [[Book of Micah|Micah]],{{sfn|Rogerson|2003a|p=690}} along with [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]],{{sfn|O'Brien|2002|p=14}} [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]],{{sfn|Gelston|2003c|p=715}} most of [[Deuteronomy]],{{sfn|Rogerson|2003b|p=154}} the first edition of the [[Deuteronomistic history]] (the books of [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]/[[Book of Judges|Judges]]/[[Books of Samuel|Samuel]]/[[Books of Kings|Kings]]),{{sfn|Campbell|O'Brien|2000|p=2 and fn.6}} and [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]].{{sfn|Gelston|2003a|p=710}}

With the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 605 BCE, a power struggle emerged between [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt|Egypt]] and the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] for control of the [[Levant]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bickerman |first=E. J. |title=Nebuchadnezzar And Jerusalem |date=January 1, 2007 |work=Studies in Jewish and Christian History (2 vols) |pages=961–974 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789047420729/Bej.9789004152946.i-1242_044.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004152946.i-1242.280 |isbn=978-90-474-2072-9 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to Judah's rapid decline. In 601 BCE, King [[Jehoiakim]] of Judah, who had recently submitted to Babylon, rebelled against the empire. He was soon succeeded by his son, Jehoiachin, who continued his father's policy and faced a Babylonian invasion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; In March 597 BCE,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Galil |first=Gershon |date=1991 |title=The Babylonian Calendar and the Chronology of the Last Kings of Judah |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42611193 |journal=Biblica |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=367–378 |jstor=42611193 |issn=0006-0887 |quote=All the scholars, without exception, establish the date of the surrender of Jehoiachin, king of Judah, as the second day of Adar, the seventh year of Nebuchadnezzar II, king of Babylon (March 16, 597 BC), following the Babylonian chronicle ... This unique date is undoubtedly the most precise in Israelite history during the biblical period.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jehoiachin surrendered to the Babylonians and was taken captive to Babylon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; This defeat is documented in the [[Babylonian Chronicles]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BCE) |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030154541/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |archive-date=October 30, 2014 |access-date=October 30, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle) – Livius |url=https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505195611/https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html |archive-date=May 5, 2019 |access-date=March 26, 2020 |website=www.livius.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Zedekiah]], Jehoiachin's uncle, was then installed as king by the Babylonians.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt;

In 587 or 586 BCE, [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], responding to a second revolt in Judah, [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|besieged and destroyed Jerusalem]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Shalom |first1=N. |last2=Vaknin |first2=Y. |last3=Shaar |first3=R. |last4=Ben-Yosef |first4=E. |last5=Lipschits |first5=O. |last6=Shalev |first6=Y. |last7=Gadot |first7=Y. |last8=Boaretto |first8=E. |date=2023 |title=Destruction by fire: Reconstructing the evidence of the 586 BCE Babylonian destruction in a monumental building in Jerusalem |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305440323001036 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=157 |article-number=105823 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2023.105823 |bibcode=2023JArSc.157j5823S |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; The [[First Temple]] was razed, and its sacred vessels were seized as spoils.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bedford |first=Peter Ross |title=Introduction |date=2001 |work=Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah |pages=1–39 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s004.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004498051_004 |isbn=978-90-04-49805-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; The destruction was followed by a mass exile: the surviving inhabitants of the city, including other segments of the population, were carried off to Mesopotamia,&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt; marking the onset of the era known in Jewish history as the &quot;[[Babylonian Captivity]]&quot;. Zedekiah himself was captured, blinded, and transported to Babylon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt; Others [[History of the Jews in Egypt|fled to Egypt]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} The people of Judah lost their statehood, and, for those in exile, their homeland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001b&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bedford |first=Peter Ross |title=Living Without the Jerusalem Temple—In Judah and Babylonia |date=January 1, 2001 |work=Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah |page=42 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s005.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004498051_005 |isbn=978-90-04-49805-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Following the dissolution of the monarchy, the former kingdom was annexed as a province of the Babylonian Empire.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt;

=== Babylonian captivity (c. 587–538 BCE)&lt;!--[[Exilic]] redirects directly here.--&gt; ===
{{Main|Babylonian captivity}}
[[File:Tissot The Flight of the Prisoners.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Deportation and exile of the ancient [[Kingdom of Judah|Judeans]] to [[Babylon]] and the destruction of Jerusalem and [[Solomon's temple]]]]During the several decades between the fall of Judah and their [[return to Zion]] under Persian rule, Jewish history enters an obscure phase. Many Jews were exiled across [[Babylonia]], [[Elam]], and [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], while others remained in [[Yehud (Babylonian province)|Judea under Babylonian rule]]. [[Jeremiah]] refers to communities in Egypt, including settlements in [[Migdol]], [[Tahpanhes]], [[Noph]], and [[Pathros]]. Moreover, a Jewish military colony existed at [[Elephantine]], established before the exile, where they built their own shrine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001b&quot; /&gt; Deuteronomy was expanded and earlier scriptures were edited during the exilic period. The first edition of [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]], the [[Book of Ezekiel]], the majority of [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]], and what is referred to in research as &quot;[[Book of Isaiah|Second Isaiah]]&quot; were all written during this time period as well.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}

==هيڪل سليماني جي ٻيهر تعمير==
===&lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Post-exilic_period&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;هخامنشي دور (332 کان 538ع)&lt;!--&quot;Post-exilic period&quot;, &quot;Post-Exilic period&quot;, &quot;Post-exilic&quot;, &quot;Post-Exilic&quot;, Postexilic, &quot;Pre-exilic period&quot;, &quot;Pre-Exilic period&quot;, &quot;Pre-Exilic&quot; and &quot;Pre-exilic&quot; redirect here--&gt;===
[[File:109.Ezra Reads the Law to the People.jpg|thumb|[[عزير عليہ السلام|عزير]] ماڻهن کي [[توريت|تورات]] پڙهي ٻڌائي رهيو آهي. گستاو ڊور پاران پينٽنگ]]
عزير جي ڪتاب جي مطابق، [[سائرس اعظم|سائرس]] [[سائرس اعظم|اعظم]]، هخامنشي سلطنت جو بادشاهه، بابل جي فتح کان هڪ سال پوءِ،&lt;ref&gt;''Harper's Bible Dictionary'', ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper &amp; Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103&lt;/ref&gt; سال 538 ق.م ۾ بابلي جلاوطني جو خاتمو آندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Biu.ac.il22&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html|access-date=March 15, 2014|publisher=Biu.ac.il}}&lt;/ref&gt; واپس ڪندڙ يهودين جي اڳواڻي زربابل، [[داؤد عليہ السلام|دائود]] جي شاهي نسل مان هڪ شهزادو ۽ جوشوا، مندر جي اڳوڻي اعليٰ پادرين مان اولاد ڪئي، جنهن ٻئي مندر جي تعمير جي نگراني ڪيا، جيڪا سال &lt;small&gt;521&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;516&lt;/small&gt; ق.م. جي وچ ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Biu.ac.il2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html|access-date=March 15, 2014|publisher=Biu.ac.il}}&lt;/ref&gt;۽ هخامنشي سلطنت جي حصي جي طور تي، يهودين جي اڳوڻي بادشاهت، مختلف حدن سان، هڪ ننڍڙو علائقو ڍڪيندي، يهودين جو صوبو بڻجي وئي.&lt;ref&gt;Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew Yehuda, or &quot;Judah&quot;, and &quot;medinata&quot; the word for province&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Grabbe|first=Lester L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-MnE5T_0RbMC&amp;q=gave+the+Jews+permission+to+return+to+Yehud+province+and+to+rebuild+the&amp;pg=PA355|title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah|volume=1|publisher=T&amp;T Clark|year=2004|isbn=978-0-567-08998-4|page=355}}&lt;/ref&gt; همعصر عالم بتدريج واپسي جي عمل ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا، جيڪي 6هين صدي ق.م. جي آخر ۽ 5هين صدي ق.م. جي شروعات تائين وڌائي وئي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last=Lipschits|first=Oded|title=Judah in the Biblical Period|chapter=Between Archaeology and Text: A Reevaluation of the Development Process of Jerusalem in the Persian Period|date=March 18, 2024|page=374|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110487442-020/html|access-date=July 1, 2024|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110487442-020|isbn=978-3-11-048744-2}}&lt;/ref&gt; فارسي يهودين جي آبادي بادشاهت جي دور کان تمام گهٽجي وئي. آثار قديمه جا سروي پنجين ۽ چوٿين صدي ق.م. دوران تقريبن &lt;small&gt;'''30,000'''&lt;/small&gt; جي آبادي ڏيکارن ٿا. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|date=2001|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|isbn=0-684-86912-8|edition=1st Touchstone|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

آخري توريت کي وڏي پيماني تي فارسي دور (&lt;small&gt;539&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;کان 333&lt;/small&gt; ق.م يا &lt;small&gt;450-350&lt;/small&gt; ق.م.) جي پيداوار طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو،{{Sfn|Frei|2001|p=6}} هي اتفاق راءِ هڪ روايتي يهودي نظريي جو گونج آهي ته [[عزير عليہ السلام|عزير عليه السلام]]، بابل کان واپسي تي يهودي برادري جا اڳواڻ، تورات جي اشاعت ۾ هڪ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{sfn|Romer|2008|p=2 and fn.3}}

ٽي نبي، جيڪا يهودي روايت ۾ آخري سمجهيا وڃن ٿا هن دور ۾ سرگرم هئا: حجائي، زڪريا ۽ ملاڪي.&lt;ref&gt;[[Jerusalem Bible]] (1966), ''Haggai'', ''Zechariah'', ''Malachi'' in ''Introduction to the Prophets'', London: Darton, Longman &amp; Todd, pp. 1138–1140&lt;/ref&gt; بني اسرائيل جي آخري نبي جي وفات کانپوءِ ۽ اڃا تائين فارسي حڪمراني هيٺ، يهودي ماڻهن جي قيادت اڳواڻن جي پنجن مسلسل نسلن جي زگوٽ (جوڙن) جي هٿن ۾ منتقل ٿي وئي. اهي پهرين فارسين جي دور ۾ ۽ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾ ترقي ڪيا ۽ نتيجي طور تي، انهن مان ٻه گروه، فريسي ۽ صدوقي ٺهيا. فارسين جي دور ۾ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾، يهودي سڪا يهوديه ۾ يهودي سڪن جي طور تي ٺاهيا ويا.

=== Hellenistic period (c. 332–110 BCE) ===
{{Main|Hellenistic Judaism}}
[[File:Jews Byzantine Greek Alexander Manuscript (cropped).JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Alexander the Great]], clad as a [[Byzantine emperor]], receives a delegation of Jewish [[rabbi]]s. Miniature from the 14th-century ''Alexander Romance'']]

In 332 BCE, [[Alexander the Great]] of [[Macedon]] defeated the Persians. After Alexander's death and the division of his empire among his generals, the [[Seleucid Kingdom]] was formed.

The Alexandrian conquests spread Greek culture to the Levant. During this time, currents of Judaism were influenced by [[Hellenistic philosophy]] developed from the 3rd century BCE, notably the [[Jewish diaspora]] in [[Alexandrian Jews|Alexandria]], culminating in the compilation of the [[Septuagint]]. An important advocate of the symbiosis of Jewish theology and Hellenistic thought is [[Philo]].

=== Hasmonean dynasty (110–63 BCE) ===
{{Main|Hasmonean dynasty}}
[[File:John Hyrcanus.jpg|thumb|JUDAEA, Hasmoneans. John Hyrcanus I (Yehohanan). 135–104 BCE. Æ Prutah (13mm, 2.02&amp;nbsp;gm, 12h). &quot;Yehohanan the High Priest and the Council of the Jews&quot; (in Hebrew) in five lines within wreath / Double cornucopiae adorned with ribbons; pomegranate between horns; small A to lower left. Meshorer Group B, 11; Hendin 457.]]

Triggered by anti-Jewish decrees from Seleucid king [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] and tensions between Hellenized and conservative Jews, the [[Maccabean Revolt]] erupted in Judea in 167 BCE under the leadership of [[Mattathias]]. His son, [[Judas Maccabeus]], recaptured Jerusalem in 164 BCE, purifying the Second Temple and reinstating sacrificial worship.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atkinson-2016&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Atkinson |first=Kenneth |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/949219870 |title=A History of the Hasmonean State: Josephus and Beyond |date=2016 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-66902-5 |series=T&amp;T Clark Jewish and Christian texts series |location=London; New York |pages=2, 23–28 |oclc=949219870}}&lt;/ref&gt; The successful revolt eventually led to the formation of an independent Jewish state under the [[Hasmonean dynasty]], which lasted from 165 to 63 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;See:

*[[William David Davies]]. ''The Hellenistic Age''. Volume 2 of Cambridge History of Judaism. Cambridge University Press, 1989. {{ISBN|978-0-521-21929-7}}. pp. 292–312.
*Jeff S. Anderson. ''The Internal Diversification of Second Temple Judaism: An Introduction to the Second Temple Period''. University Press of America, 2002. {{ISBN|978-0-7618-2327-8}}. pp. 37–38.
*Howard N. Lupovitch. ''Jews and Judaism in World History''. Taylor &amp; Francis. 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-415-46205-1}}. pp. 26–30.&lt;/ref&gt;

Initially governing as both political leaders and High Priests, the [[Hasmoneans]] later assumed the title of kings. They employed military campaigns and diplomacy to consolidate power.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atkinson-2016&quot; /&gt; Under the rule of [[Alexander Jannaeus]] and [[Salome Alexandra]], [[Hasmonean Judea]] reached its zenith in size and influence. However, internal strife erupted between Salome Alexandra's sons, [[Hyrcanus II]] and [[Aristobulus II]], leading to civil war and appeals to Roman authorities for intervention. Responding to these appeals, Pompey led a Roman campaign of conquest and annexation, which marked the end of Hasmonean sovereignty and ushered in Roman rule over Judea.&lt;ref&gt;Hooker, Richard. {{cite web |title=The Hebrews: The Diaspora |url=http://www.wsu.edu:8000/~dee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM |access-date=April 7, 2018 |archive-date=August 29, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829230214/http://www.wsu.edu:8000/%7Edee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM |url-status=dead}}  World Civilizations Learning Modules.  Washington State University, 1999.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Roman period (63 BCE – 135 CE) ===
{{Main|Herodian dynasty|History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Roman Palestine|Judaea (Roman province)|Jewish–Roman wars}}
[[File:Monnaie - Prutah, bronze, Jérusalem, Judée, Mattathias Antigonos - btv1b8480202s (1 of 2).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Hasmonean coinage|Hasmonean coin]] of [[Antigonus II Mattathias]], depicting the [[Temple menorah]]]]

Judea had been an independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmoneans, but it was [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BCE)|conquered and reorganized as a client state by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE]]. [[Roman expansion]] was going on in other areas as well, and it would continue for more than a hundred and fifty years. Later, [[Herod the Great]] was appointed &quot;King of the Jews&quot; by the [[Roman Senate]], supplanting the Hasmonean dynasty. Some of his offspring held various positions after him, known as the [[Herodian dynasty]]. Briefly, from 4 BCE to 6 CE, [[Herod Archelaus]] ruled the [[Tetrarchy (Judea)|tetrarchy of Judea]] as [[ethnarch]], the Romans denying him the title of King.

After the [[Census of Quirinius]] in 6 CE, the [[Roman province of Judaea]] was formed as a satellite of [[Roman Syria]] under the rule of a [[prefect]] (as was [[Roman Egypt]]) until 41 CE, then [[Procurator (Roman)|procurators]] after 44 CE. The empire was often callous and brutal in its treatment of its Jewish subjects, (see [[Anti-Judaism#Pre-Christian Roman Empire|Anti-Judaism in the pre-Christian Roman Empire]]). In 30 CE (or 33 CE), [[Jesus of Nazareth]], an itinerant [[rabbi]] from [[Galilee]], and the central figure of [[Christianity]], was put to death by [[crucifixion]] in Jerusalem under the Roman prefect of [[Judaea]], [[Pontius Pilate]].&lt;ref&gt;Charlesworth, James H. (2008). The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide. {{ISBN|978-1-4267-2475-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For a short time Judea was reunited and semi-independent under [[Agrippa the Great]] who had good relations with both the Roman aristocracy and local Jewish citizens. After his death Judea was again annexed by Rome and his less popular son [[Herod Agrippa II]] was made ethnarch.&lt;ref&gt;Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, livre XVIII, § V, 4, (132).&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:19 Shrine of the Book 005 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of the [[Second Temple]], following renovations by [[Herod the Great|Herod]] in the 1st century CE]]
[[File:Roberts Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans]] (1850 painting by [[David Roberts (painter)|David Roberts]])]]

Roman oppressive rule, combined with economic, religious, and ethnic tensions, eventually led to the outbreak of the [[First Jewish–Roman War]], also known as the Great Revolt, in 66 CE. Future emperor [[Vespasian]] quelled the rebellion in [[Galilee]] by 67 CE, capturing key strongholds.&lt;ref&gt;Jensen, M. H. (2014). The Political History in Galilee from the First Century BCE to the end of the Second Century CE. ''Galilee in the late Second Temple and Mishnaic periods. Volume 1. Life, culture and society'', pp. 69-70. &quot;According to Jewish War, Vespasian laid siege to and conquered all the major strongholds of Galilee [...] Since the entire campaign was short and lasted only for some months in the spring and summer of 67, there is no reason to believe that Galilee was entirely devastated when the Romans set their course south. However, the places that were conquered, were in a typical Roman fashion levelled more or less to the ground and many people sold of as slaves.&lt;/ref&gt; He was succeeded by his son [[Titus]], who led the brutal [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|siege of Jerusalem]], culminating in the city's fall in 70 CE. The Romans burned Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Weksler-Bdolah |first=Shlomit |title=Aelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman period: in light of archaeological research |publisher=Brill |year=2019 |isbn=978-90-04-41707-6 |page=3 |oclc=1170143447 |quote=The historical description is consistent with the archeological finds. Collapses of massive stones from the walls of the Temple Mount were exposed lying over the Herodian street running along the Western Wall of the Temple Mount. The residential buildings of the Ophel and the Upper City were destroyed by great fire. The large urban drainage channel and the Pool of Siloam in the Lower City silted up and ceased to function, and in many places the city walls collapsed. [...] Following the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, a new era began in the city's history. The Herodian city was destroyed and a military camp of the Tenth Roman Legion established on part of the ruins.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Reich |first=Ronny |date=2009 |title=The Sack of Jerusalem in 70 CE: Flavius Josephus' Description and the Archaeological Record |script-title=he:חורבן ירושלים בשנת 70 לסה&quot;נ: תיאורו של יוסף בן מתתיהו והממצא הארכאולוגי  |journal=Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv |script-journal=he:קתדרה: לתולדות ארץ ישראל ויישובה |issue=131 |pages=25–42 |issn=0334-4657 |jstor=23407359}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Roman victory was celebrated with a [[Roman triumph|triumph]] in Rome, showcasing Jewish artefacts like the [[Temple menorah|menorah]], which were then put on display in the new [[Temple of Peace, Rome|Temple of Peace]].&lt;ref&gt;Huitink, Luuk. &quot;Between Triumph and Tragedy: Josephus, Bellum Judaicum 7.121–157.&quot; ''Reading Greek, Hellenistic and Roman spolia. Objects, appropriation and cultural change, Euhormos: Greco-Roman Studies in Anchoring Innovation. Leiden: Brill'' (2023). pp. 215–216, 234&lt;/ref&gt; The Flavian dynasty leveraged this victory for political gain, erecting monuments in Rome and minting [[Judaea Capta coinage|Judaea Capta coins]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Overman |first1=J. Andrew |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781134518326 |title=The First Jewish Revolt |last2=Overman |first2=J. Andrew |date=September 2, 2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-51832-6 |chapter=The First Revolt and Flavian politics |doi=10.4324/9780203167441}}&lt;/ref&gt; The war concluded with the [[siege of Masada]] (73–74 CE). The Jewish population suffered widespread devastation, with displacement, enslavement, and Roman confiscation of Jewish-owned land.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Herr |first=Moshe David |title=The History of Eretz Israel: The Roman Byzantine period: the Roman period from the conquest to the Ben Kozba War (63 B.C.E-135 C.E.) |publisher=Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi |year=1984 |editor-last=Shtern |editor-first=Menahem |location=Jerusalem |page=288}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The destruction of the Second Temple marked a cataclysmic event in Jewish history, triggering far-reaching transformations within Judaism.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Maclean Rogers |first=Guy |title=For the Freedom of Zion: The Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66–74 CE |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-300-26256-8 |location=New Haven and London |pages=3–5 |oclc=1294393934}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=Judaism in a Time of Crisis: Four Responses to the Destruction of the Second Temple |date=November 28, 2017 |work=Neusner on Judaism |pages=399–413 |editor-last1=Hinnells |editor-first1=John |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781351152761-20 |access-date=May 22, 2022 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781351152761-20 |isbn=978-1-351-15276-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Karesh-2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Karesh |first=Sara E. |title=Encyclopedia of Judaism |publisher=Facts On File |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-78785-171-9 |oclc=1162305378 |quote=Until the modern period, the destruction of the Temple was the most cataclysmic moment in the history of the Jewish people. Without the Temple, the Sadducees no longer had any claim to authority, and they faded away. The sage Yochanan ben Zakkai, with permission from Rome, set up the outpost of Yavneh to continue develop of Pharisaic, or rabbinic, Judaism.}}&lt;/ref&gt; With the central role of sacrificial worship obliterated, religious practices shifted towards [[Jewish prayer|prayer]], [[Torah study]], and communal gatherings in [[synagogue]]s. According to Rabbinic tradition, Yohanan ben Zakkai secured permission from the Romans to establish a center for Torah study in [[Yavne]]h, which then served as a focal point for Jewish religious and cultural life for a generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stemberger-2003&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Stemberger |first=Guenter |title=The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism, 70–640 CE |date=2003 |work=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism |pages=78–79 |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470758014.ch5 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Wiley |language=en |doi=10.1002/9780470758014.ch5 |isbn=978-1-57718-058-6 |editor2-last=Avery-Peck |editor2-first=Alan J. |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-judaism/3F4F0A32983FC0DCDB414553888DC394 |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |volume=4 |page=268 |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488 |quote=Under the leadership of R. Yohanan ben Zakkai and his circle at Yavneh, Judaism sought to reconstitute itself and find a new equilibrium in the face of the disaster of 70.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=Religion (Judentum: Palästinisches Judentum &amp;#91;Forts.&amp;#93;) |date=September 26, 2016 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-083904-3 |editor-last1=Haase |editor-first1=Wolfgang |language=de |chapter=The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism: Yavneh (Jamnia) from A.D. 70 to 100 |pages=3–42 |doi=10.1515/9783110839043-002 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110839043-002/html}}&lt;/ref&gt; Judaism also underwent a significant shift away from its sectarian divisions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Shaye J. D. |date=1984 |title=The Significance of Yavneh: Pharisees, Rabbis, and the End of Jewish Sectarianism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507609 |journal=Hebrew Union College Annual |volume=55 |page=29 |jstor=23507609 |issn=0360-9049 |quote=The goal was not the triumph over other sects but the elimination of the need for sectarianism itself. [...] The destruction of the temple provided the impetus for this process: it warned the Jews of the dangers of internal divisiveness and it removed one of the major focal points of Jewish sectarianism.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Jodi |last=Magness |title=Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History?: On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-04-21744-7 |editor-first=Daniel R. |editor-last=Schwartz |chapter=Sectarianism before and after 70 CE |editor-first2=Zeev |editor-last2=Weiss |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VecxAQAAQBAJ&amp;q=diaspora+70+ce&amp;pg=PA189}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Sadducees]] and [[Essenes]], two prominent sects in the late Second Temple period, faded into obscurity,&lt;ref name=&quot;Karesh-2006&quot; /&gt; while the traditions of the [[Pharisees]], including their halakhic interpretations, the centrality of the [[Oral Torah]], and [[Jewish eschatology|belief in resurrection]] became the foundation of [[Rabbinic Judaism]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Stemberger-2003&quot; /&gt;[[File:Arch of Titus Menorah.png|upright=1.15|thumb|The sack of Jerusalem depicted on the inside wall of the [[Arch of Titus]] in [[Rome]]]]

=== Diaspora during the Second Temple period ===
{{Main|Jewish diaspora}}
The [[Jewish diaspora]] existed well before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and had been ongoing for centuries, with the dispersal driven by both forced expulsions and voluntary migrations.&lt;ref&gt;[[Erich S. Gruen]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=t1IR4WtFjGUC&amp;pg=PA3 Diaspora: Jews Amidst Greeks and Romans] [[Harvard University Press]], 2009 pp. 3–4, 233–234: 'Compulsory dislocation, .…cannot have accounted for more than a fraction of the diaspora. … The vast bulk of Jews who dwelled abroad in the Second Temple Period did so voluntarily.' (2)' .Diaspora did not await the fall of Jerusalem to Roman power and destructiveness. The scattering of Jews had begun long before-occasionally through forced expulsion, much more frequently through voluntary migration.'&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Martin |title=A History of Judaism |date=2018 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-18127-1 |location=Princeton Oxford |pages=21, 232}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Mesopotamia, a testimony to the beginnings of the Jewish community can be found in [[Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets|Joachin's ration tablets]], listing provisions allotted to the exiled Judean king and his family by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], and further evidence are the [[Al-Yahudu Tablets|Al-Yahudu tablets]], dated to the 6th-5th centuries BCE and related to the exiles from Judea arriving after the destruction of the [[First Temple]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Luke |date=February 3, 2017 |title=Ancient tablets reveal life of Jews in Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203 |newspaper=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt; though there is ample evidence for the presence of Jews in Babylonia even from 626 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;Zadok R. Judeans in Babylonia–Updating the Dossier. in U. Gabbay and Sh. Secunda. (eds.). ''Encounters by the Rivers of Babylon: Scholarly Conversations between Jews, Iranians and Babylonians in Antiquity'', Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 160. Tübingen: MohrSiebeck. pp. 109–110.&lt;/ref&gt; In Egypt, the [[Elephantine papyri and ostraca|documents from Elephantine]] reveal the trials of a community founded by a Persian Jewish garrison at two fortresses on the frontier during the 5th-4th centuries BCE, and according to [[Josephus]] the Jewish community in Alexandria existed since the founding of the city in the 4th century BCE by [[Alexander the Great]].&lt;ref&gt;Josephus Flavius, ''Against Appion''. 4.II&lt;/ref&gt; By 200 BCE, there were well established Jewish communities both in Egypt and Mesopotamia (&quot;[[History of the Jews in Iraq|Babylonia]]&quot; in Jewish sources) and in the two centuries that followed, Jewish populations were also present in [[Asia Minor]], [[Greece]], [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]], [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]], and, beginning in the middle of the 1st century BCE, in the city of [[Rome]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=E. Mary |last=Smallwood |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period, Volume 3 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-521-24377-3 |editor1=William David Davies |chapter=The Diaspora in the Roman period before AD 70 |editor2=Louis Finkelstein |editor3=William Horbury |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AW2BuWcalXIC&amp;q=Diaspora+before+70&amp;pg=PA168}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot; /&gt;

In the first centuries CE, as a result of the [[Jewish–Roman wars]],&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot;&gt;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת &quot;עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום&quot;, ע&quot;מ 95. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth – &quot;The People of Israel – the history of 4000 years – from the days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty&quot;, 1981, p. 95)&lt;/ref&gt; a large number of Jews were taken as captives, sold into slavery, or compelled to flee from the regions affected by the wars, contributing to the formation and expansion of Jewish communities across the [[Roman Empire]] as well as in Arabia and Mesopotamia. Jewish communities across Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Egypt were almost entirely obliterated due to the harsh Roman response to the Diaspora Revolt.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006b&quot; /&gt;

The [[New Testament]] Book of [[Acts]], as well as other [[Pauline epistles|Pauline]] texts, make frequent reference to the large populations of [[Hellenized Jews]] in the cities of the Roman world. These Hellenized Jews were affected by the diaspora only in its spiritual sense, absorbing the feeling of loss and homelessness that became a cornerstone of the Jewish creed, much supported by persecutions in various parts of the world. Of critical importance to the reshaping of Jewish tradition from the Temple-based religion to the rabbinic traditions of the Diaspora, was the development of the interpretations of the Torah found in the [[Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]].

==تالمود وارو دور==
===پھرين يهودي بغاوت (115 کان 117ع)===
During the [[Diaspora Revolt]] (115–117 CE), [[Jewish diaspora]] communities across several eastern provinces of the [[Roman Empire]] engaged in widespread rebellion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006a&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=June 22, 2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |pages=93–106 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=September 8, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Driven by messianic fervor and hopes for the [[Gathering of Israel|ingathering of exiles]] and the [[Third Temple|reconstruction of the Temple]], these communities may have sought to spark a broader movement possibly aimed at returning to [[Judea]] and rebuilding Jerusalem.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Smallwood |first=E. Mary |title=The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian |publisher=SBL Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-90-04-50204-8 |pages=394–397}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Horbury |first=William |title=Jewish War under Trajan and Hadrian |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-139-04905-4 |pages=276}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Barclay |first=John M. G. |title=Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: from Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE) |date=1998 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-08651-8 |edition= |location=Edinburgh |pages=241}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient sources describe the revolt as extremely brutal, with cases of cannibalism and mutilation, though modern scholars often consider these accounts to be exaggerated.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006a&quot; /&gt; The Roman suppression of the revolt was marked by severe measures, including [[ethnic cleansing]], leading to the near-total destruction of Jewish diaspora communities in [[Roman Libya|Libya]], [[Roman Cyprus|Cyprus]] and [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last1=Kerkeslager |first1=Allen |title=The Diaspora from 66 to c. 235 ce |date=2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |volume=4 |pages=62–63 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/diaspora-from-66-to-c-235-ce/5AECAD54BE6CA31C7968EED92D6CA36A |access-date=September 10, 2024 |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.004 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |last2=Setzer |first2=Claudia |last3=Trebilco |first3=Paul |last4=Goodblatt |first4=David}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006b&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=June 22, 2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |page=98 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=September 8, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; including the significant and influential community in [[Alexandria]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot; /&gt;

===بار ڪوخبا بغاوت (132 کان 136ع===
{{Main|بار ڪوخبا بغاوت}}
[[File:Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg|thumb|A tetradrachm minted during the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], featuring the former Second Temple, a ''lulav'', and the slogan 'to the freedom of Jerusalem']]
From 132 to 136 CE, Judaea was the center of the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], triggered by Hadrian's decision to establish the pagan colony of [[Aelia Capitolina]] on the ruins of Jerusalem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Eck |first=Werner |editor-first1=Werner |editor-last1=Eck |title=Bar Kokhba |date=July 30, 2015 |work=Oxford Classical Dictionary |url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-1056 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1056 |isbn=978-0-19-938113-5 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Early successes led to the establishment of a short-lived Jewish state in Judea under the leadership of [[Simon Bar Kokhba]], styled as ''[[Nasi (Hebrew title)|nasi]]'' or prince of Israel.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt; The [[Bar Kokhba revolt coinage|rebel state's coinage]] proclaimed &quot;Freedom of Israel&quot; and &quot;For the Freedom of Jerusalem&quot;, using [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|ancient Hebrew script]] for nationalistic symbolism.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-1999&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Eck |first=Werner |date=1999 |title=The Bar Kokhba Revolt: The Roman Point of View |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-studies/article/abs/bar-kokhba-revolt-the-roman-point-of-view/27E95F52A627562F93178F17A51D5FD4 |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |volume=89 |pages=76, 80 |doi=10.2307/300735 |jstor=300735 |issn=1753-528X |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt; However, the Romans soon amassed six legions and additional auxiliaries under [[Julius Severus]], who then brutally crushed the uprising. Historical accounts report the destruction of fifty major strongholds and 985 villages, resulting in 580,000 Jewish deaths and widespread famine and disease.&lt;ref name=&quot;Raviv-2021&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Raviv |first1=Dvir |last2=David |first2=Chaim Ben |date=2021 |title=Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account? |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=585–607 |doi=10.1017/S1047759421000271 |issn=1047-7594 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Archaeological research confirms the widespread destruction and depopulation of the Jewish heartland in [[Judea]] proper, where most of the Jewish population was either killed, sold into slavery, expelled, or forced to flee.&lt;ref name=&quot;Raviv-2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=A. H. M. |title=The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces |publisher=Oxford |year=1971 |edition=2nd |pages=277 |quote=This provoked the last Jewish war, which seems from our meager accounts [...] to have resulted in the desolation of Judaea and the practical extermination of its Jewish population.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Mor|2016|pp=483–484}}: &quot;Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the [[Sicaricon|sikarikon laws]] were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The Romans also suffered heavy losses.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-1999&quot; /&gt; Post-revolt, Jews were prohibited from entering Jerusalem, and Hadrian issued religious edicts,&lt;ref&gt;Hanan Eshel,[[iarchive:cambridgehis xxxx 1984 004 8494287/page/n1082|&lt;!-- pg=105 --&gt; 'The Bar Kochba revolt, 132-135,']] in William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, Steven T. Katz (eds.) ''The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period,'' pp. 105-127, p. 105.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Eshel |first=Hanan |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=T. Katz |editor-first=Steven |volume=4. The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period  |pages=105–127 |chapter=4: The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132 – 135 |oclc=7672733}}&lt;/ref&gt; including a ban on circumcision, later repealed by [[Antoninus Pius]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} The province of Judaea was renamed [[Syria Palaestina]] as a punitive act against the Jews, aimed at placating non-Jewish residents and erasing Jewish historical ties to the land.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, {{ISBN|0-674-39731-2}}, page 334: &quot;In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ariel Lewin. ''The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine''. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. &quot;It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land.&quot; {{ISBN|0-89236-800-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; Christians refused to participate in the revolt and from this point the Jews regarded Christianity as a separate religion.&lt;ref&gt;M. Avi-Yonah, ''The Jews under Roman and Byzantine Rule'', Jerusalem 1984 p. 143&lt;/ref&gt; The Jewish defeat marked the termination of efforts to reestablish a Jewish state until the modern era.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |title=An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History And Religion Of The Jews In The Time Of Nehemiah, The Maccabees, Hillel, And Jesus |date=2010 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-55248-8 |location=Edinburgh |page=78 |quote=It was the total defeat and the massive destruction of the 132–35 war which put paid to any hopes of a revived Jewish state for another 1800 years.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A rabbi of this period, [[Simeon bar Yochai]], is regarded as the author of the [[Zohar]], the foundational text for Kabbalistic thought. However, modern scholars believe it was written in Medieval Spain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |title=Zohar |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&amp;letter=Z#406 |access-date=May 19, 2014 |last=Jacobs |first=Joseph |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007024121/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&amp;letter=Z#406 |archive-date=October 7, 2011 |author2=Broydé, Isaac |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Late Roman period in the Land of Israel ===
{{further|Byzantine Palestine|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}}
The relations of the Jews with the Roman Empire in the region continued to be complicated. [[Constantine the Great and Judaism|Constantine I]] allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once a year on [[Tisha B'Av]] at the [[Western Wall]]. In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched [[Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus|yet another revolt]], provoking heavy retribution.&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lazare and Robert Wistrich, Antisemitism: Its History and Causes, University of Nebraska Press, 1995, I, pp. 46–47.&lt;/ref&gt; The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the [[Constantinian dynasty]]. In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]], the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who unlike his predecessors defied Christianity. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sasanian Persia, in keeping with his effort to foster religions other than Christianity, he ordered the Jewish Temple rebuilt.&lt;ref&gt;Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'', 23.1.2–3.&lt;/ref&gt; The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic [[Galilee earthquake of 363]] and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire. Divine intervention was the common view among Christian historians of the time.&lt;ref&gt;See [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html &quot;Julian and the Jews 361–363 CE&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520080932/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html |date=May 20, 2012 }} (Fordham University, The Jesuit University of New York) and [https://web.archive.org/web/20051020130904/http://www.gibsoncondo.com/~david/convert/history.html &quot;Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple&quot;].&lt;/ref&gt; Julian's support of Jews caused Jews to call him &quot;Julian the [[Hellenes (religion)|Hellene]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Falk |first1=Avner |title=A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews |year=1996 |pages=343 |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press |isbn=978-0-8386-3660-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z10-Xz9Kno4C&amp;q=julian&amp;pg=PA343 |access-date=August 3, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Julian's fatal wound in the Persian campaign and his consequent death had put an end to Jewish aspirations, and Julian's successors embraced Christianity through the entire timeline of Byzantine rule of Jerusalem, preventing any Jewish claims.

In 438 CE, when the Empress [[Licinia Eudoxia|Eudocia]] removed the ban on Jews' praying at the [[Temple Mount|Temple site]], the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call &quot;to the great and mighty people of the Jews&quot; which began: &quot;Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!&quot; However, the Christian population of the city, who saw this as a threat to their primacy, did not allow it and a riot erupted after which they chased away the Jews from the city.&lt;ref&gt;Avraham Yaari, ''Igrot Eretz Yisrael'' (Tel Aviv, 1943), p. 46.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Andrew S. Jacobs |title=Remains of the Jews: The Holy Land and Christian Empire in Late Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8O95ErDSZQgC&amp;pg=PA157 |year=2004 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-4705-9 |page=157 |access-date=April 19, 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of [[Samaritan Revolts|Samaritan insurrections]] broke out across the [[Palaestina Prima]] province. Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in almost the entire annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the Samaritan [[Samaritan Revolts|Revolt of 556]] was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered a brutal suppression of Israelite religion.

In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an [[Jewish revolt against Heraclius|alliance]] with the [[Sassanid Empire|Persians]], who invaded Palaestina Prima in 614, fought at their side, overwhelmed the [[Byzantine]] garrison in Jerusalem, and were given Jerusalem to be governed as an autonomy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Itineraria Phoenicia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&amp;q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&amp;pg=PA542 |author=Edward Lipiński |publisher=Peeters |pages=542–543 |year=2004 |isbn=978-90-429-1344-8 |access-date=March 11, 2014 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409161013/https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&amp;q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&amp;pg=PA542 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, their autonomy was brief: the [[Nehemiah ben Hushiel|Jewish leader]] in Jerusalem was shortly assassinated during a Christian revolt and though Jerusalem was reconquered by Persians and Jews within 3 weeks, it fell into anarchy. With the consequent withdrawal of Persian forces, Jews surrendered to Byzantines in 625 or 628 CE, but were massacred by Christian radicals in 629 CE, with the survivors fleeing to Egypt. The Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) control of the region was finally lost to the Muslim Arab armies in 637 CE, when [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] completed the conquest of Akko.

=== Jews of pre-Muslim Babylonia (219–638 CE) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in Iraq}}

After the fall of Jerusalem, Babylonia would become the focus of Judaism for more than a thousand years. The first Jewish communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by [[Jehoiachin]] in 597 BCE as well as after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; Many more Jews migrated to Babylon in 135 CE after the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] and in the centuries after.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; Babylonia, where some of the largest and most prominent Jewish cities and communities were established, became the centre of Jewish life up to the 13th century. By the 1st century, Babylonia already held a speedily growing&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; population of an estimated 1,000,000 Jews, which increased to an estimated 2 million&lt;ref name=&quot;Solomon Gryazel&quot;&gt;Solomon Gryazel, ''History of the Jews: From the destruction of Judah in 586 BCE to the present Arab Israeli conflict'', p. 137.&lt;/ref&gt; between the years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from Judea, making up about 1/6 of the world Jewish population at that era.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solomon Gryazel&quot; /&gt; It was there that they would write the Babylonian Talmud in the languages used by the Jews of ancient Babylonia: [[Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]]. The Jews established [[Talmudic Academies in Babylonia]], also known as the Geonic Academies (from &quot;Geonim&quot;, meaning &quot;splendour&quot; in Biblical Hebrew or &quot;geniuses&quot;), which became the centre for Jewish scholarship and the development of Jewish law in Babylonia from roughly 500 CE to 1038 CE. The two most famous academies were the [[Pumbedita Academy]] and the [[Sura Academy]]. Major yeshivot were also located at [[Nehardea]] and Mahuza.&lt;ref&gt;''Codex Judaica'', pp. 161–174, Kantor, Zichron Press, NY 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; The Talmudic [[Yeshiva]] Academies became a main part of Jewish culture and education, and Jews continued establishing Yeshiva Academies in Western and Eastern Europe, North Africa, and in later centuries, in America and other countries around the world where Jews lived in the Diaspora. Talmudic study in Yeshiva academies, most of them located in The United States and Israel, continues today.

These Talmudic [[Yeshiva]] academies of Babylonia followed the era of the [[Amoraim]] (expounders)—the sages of the Talmud who were active (both in Judah and in Babylon) during the end of the era of the sealing of the [[Mishnah]] and until the times of the sealing of the Talmud (220–500 CE), and following the [[Savoraim]] (reasoners)—the sages of beth midrash (Torah study places) in Babylon from the end of the era of the Amoraim (5th century) and until the beginning of the era of the [[Geonim]]. The Geonim were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura and Pumbedita, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of the worldwide Jewish community in the early medieval era, in contrast to the [[Resh Galuta]] (Exilarch) who wielded secular authority over the Jews in Islamic lands. According to traditions, the [[Resh Galuta]] were descendants of Judean kings, which is why the kings of [[Parthia]] would treat them with much honour.&lt;ref&gt;[מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס. רותת &quot;עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום&quot;, ע&quot;מ 97. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth ''The People of Israel: The History of 4,000 Years, from the Days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty'', 1981, p. 97)&lt;/ref&gt;

For the Jews of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the yeshivot of Babylonia served much the same function as the ancient [[Sanhedrin]]—that is, as a council of Jewish religious authorities. The academies were founded in pre-Islamic Babylonia under the Zoroastrian Sassanid dynasty and were located not far from the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, which at that time was the largest city in the world. After the conquest of Persia in the 7th century, the academies subsequently operated for four hundred years under the Islamic caliphate. The first gaon of Sura, according to [[Sherira Gaon]], was Mar bar Rab Chanan, who assumed office in 609. The last gaon of [[Sura]] was [[Samuel ben Hofni]], who died in 1034; the last gaon of Pumbedita was [[Hezekiah Gaon]], who was tortured to death in 1040; hence the activity of the Geonim covers a period of nearly 450 years.

One of principal seats of Babylonian Judaism was [[Nehardea]], which was then a very large city made up mostly of Jews.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; A very ancient synagogue, built, it was believed, by King Jehoiachin, existed in Nehardea. At Huzal, near Nehardea, there was another synagogue, not far from which could be seen the ruins of Ezra's academy. In the period before Hadrian, Akiba, on his arrival at Nehardea on a mission from the Sanhedrin, entered into a discussion with a resident scholar on a point of matrimonial law (Mishnah Yeb., end). At the same time there was at Nisibis (northern [[Mesopotamia]]), an excellent Jewish college, at the head of which stood [[Judah ben Bathyra]], and in which many Judean scholars found refuge at the time of the persecutions. A certain temporary importance was also attained by a school at [[Nehar Pekod|Nehar-Pekod]], founded by the Judean immigrant Hananiah, nephew of [[Joshua ben Hananiah]], which school might have been the cause of a schism between the Jews of Babylonia and those of Judea-Israel, had not the Judean authorities promptly checked Hananiah's ambition.

=== Byzantine period (324–638 CE) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}}

Jews were also widespread throughout the Roman Empire, and this carried on to a lesser extent in the period of Byzantine rule in the central and eastern Mediterranean. The militant and exclusive Christianity and [[caesaropapism]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] did not treat Jews well, and the condition and influence of diaspora Jews in the Empire declined dramatically.

It was official Christian policy to convert Jews to Christianity, and the Christian leadership used the official power of Rome in their attempts. In 351 CE the Jews revolted against the added pressures of their governor, [[Constantius Gallus]]. Gallus put down the revolt and destroyed the major cities in the Galilee area where the revolt had started. Tzippori and Lydda (site of two of the major legal academies) never recovered.

In this period, the Nasi in Tiberias, [[Hillel II]], created an official calendar, which needed no monthly sightings of the moon. The months were set, and the calendar needed no further authority from Judea. At about the same time, the Jewish academy at Tiberius began to collate the combined Mishnah, [[braitot]], explanations, and interpretations developed by generations of scholars who studied after the death of [[Judah HaNasi]]. The text was organized according to the order of the Mishna: each paragraph of Mishnah was followed by a compilation of all of the interpretations, stories, and responses associated with that Mishnah. This text is called the ''[[Jerusalem Talmud]].''

The Jews of Judea received a brief respite from official persecution during the rule of the Emperor [[Julian the Apostate]]. Julian's policy was to return the Roman Empire to Hellenism, and he encouraged the Jews to rebuild Jerusalem. As Julian's rule lasted only from 361 to 363, the Jews could not rebuild sufficiently before Roman Christian rule was restored over the Empire. Beginning in 398 with the consecration of [[St. John Chrysostom]] as [[Patriarch]], Christian rhetoric against Jews grew sharper; he preached sermons with titles such as &quot;Against the Jews&quot; and &quot;On the Statues, Homily 17&quot;, in which John preaches against &quot;the Jewish sickness&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Wendy Mayer and [[Pauline Allen]], ''John Chrysostom: The Early Church Fathers'' (London, 2000), pp. 113, 146.&lt;/ref&gt; Such heated language contributed to a climate of Christian distrust and hate toward the large Jewish settlements, such as those in [[Antioch]] and [[Constantinople]].

In the beginning of the 5th century, the [[Emperor Theodosius]] issued a set of decrees establishing official persecution of Jews. Jews were not allowed to own slaves, build new synagogues, hold public office or try cases between a Jew and a non-Jew. Intermarriage between Jew and non-Jew was made a capital offence, as was the conversion of Christians to Judaism. Theodosius did away with the [[Sanhedrin]] and abolished the post of [[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]]. Under the [[Emperor Justinian]], the authorities further restricted the civil rights of Jews,&lt;ref&gt;Cod., I., v. 12&lt;/ref&gt; and threatened their religious privileges.&lt;ref&gt;Procopius, ''Historia Arcana'', 28&lt;/ref&gt; The emperor interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue,&lt;ref&gt;Nov., cxlvi., February 8, 553&lt;/ref&gt; and forbade, for instance, the use of the Hebrew language in divine worship. Those who disobeyed the restrictions were threatened with corporal penalties, exile, and loss of property. The Jews at Borium, not far from Syrtis Major, who resisted the Byzantine general [[Belisarius]] in his campaign against the [[Vandals]], were forced to embrace Christianity, and their synagogue was converted to a church.&lt;ref&gt;Procopius, ''De Aedificiis'', vi. 2&lt;/ref&gt;

Justinian and his successors had concerns outside the province of Judea, and he had insufficient troops to enforce these regulations. As a result, the 5th century was a period when a wave of new synagogues were built, many with beautiful mosaic floors. Jews adopted the rich art forms of the Byzantine culture. Jewish mosaics of the period portray people, animals, menorahs, zodiacs, and Biblical characters. Excellent examples of these synagogue floors have been found at Beit Alpha (which includes the scene of Abraham sacrificing a ram instead of his son Isaac along with a zodiac), Tiberius, Beit Shean, and Tzippori.

The precarious existence of Jews under Byzantine rule did not long endure, largely due to the explosion of the Muslim religion out of the remote Arabian peninsula (where large populations of Jews resided, see [[History of the Jews under Muslim Rule]] for more). The [[Muslim]] [[Caliphate]] ejected the Byzantines from the Holy Land (or the Levant, defined as modern Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria) within a few years of their victory at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] in 636. Numerous Jews fled the remaining Byzantine territories in favour of residence in the Caliphate over the subsequent centuries.

The size of the Jewish community in the Byzantine Empire was not affected by attempts by some emperors to forcibly convert the Jews of Anatolia to Christianity, as these attempts met with very little success.&lt;ref&gt;[[G. Ostrogorsky]], ''History of the Byzantine State''&lt;/ref&gt; Historians continue to research the status of the Jews in Asia Minor under Byzantine rule. (for a sample of views, see, for instance, J. Starr ''The Jews in the Byzantine Empire, 641–1204''; S. Bowman, ''The Jews of Byzantium''; R. Jenkins ''Byzantium''; Averil Cameron, &quot;Byzantines and Jews: Recent Work on Early Byzantium&quot;, ''Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies'' 20 (1996)). No systematic persecution of the type endemic at that time in Western Europe (pogroms, the stake, mass [[Expulsions and exoduses of Jews|expulsions]], etc.) has been recorded in Byzantium.&lt;ref&gt;''The Oxford History of Byzantium'', C. Mango (Ed) (2002)&lt;/ref&gt; Much of the Jewish population of Constantinople remained in place after the conquest of the city by [[Mehmet II]].{{citation needed|date=November 2013}}

&lt;gallery widths=&quot;180&quot;&gt;
File:Roman. Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog, 6th century C.E.jpg|''Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog'', 6th century [[Brooklyn Museum]]
File:Beit alfa01.jpg|Mosaic pavement of a synagogue at [[Beit Alpha]] (5th century)
File:ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg|Mosaic in the [[Tzippori Synagogue]] (5th century)
File:Hammat Gader.JPG|Mosaic pavement recovered from the [[Hamat Gader]] synagogue (5th or 6th century)
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Diaspora communities ===
[[File:Arrival of the Jewish pilgrims at Coachin, A.D. 68.jpg|thumb|Arrival of the Jewish pilgrims at Cochin, 68 CE]]
Cochin Jewish tradition holds that the roots of their community go back to the arrival of Jews at [[Kodungallur|Shingly]] in 72 CE, after the [[Destruction of the Second Temple]]. It also states that a Jewish kingdom, understood to mean the granting of autonomy by a local [[Tamils|Tamil]] king, [[Cheraman Perumal Nayanar]], to the community, under their leader Joseph Rabban, in 379 CE. The first synagogue there was built in 1568. The legend of the founding of Indian [[Christianity in Kerala]] by [[Thomas the Apostle]] relates that on his arrival there, he encountered a local girl who understood Hebrew.&lt;ref&gt;Nathan Katz, [https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA22 ''Who Are the Jews of India?,''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160937/https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA22|date=April 9, 2023}} [[University of California Press]], 2000 {{isbn|978-0-520-92072-9}} pp. 13–14, 17–18&lt;/ref&gt;

Perhaps in the 4th century, the [[Kingdom of Semien]], a Jewish nation in modern [[Beta Israel|Ethiopia]] was established, lasting until the 17th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exploring a Forgotten Jewish Land – Archaeology Magazine |url=https://www.archaeology.org/issues/498-2301/letter-from/11057-ethiopia-beta-israel |access-date=November 9, 2023 |website=www.archaeology.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وچين دور==
===اسلامي دور===
[[File:Education (T-S K5.13) (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|قاهره جينيزا جو ٽڪرو، ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي لائبريري&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Cairo Genizah : Education|url=https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-TS-K-00005-00013|access-date=2025-10-18|website=Cambridge Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
سال 638 عيسوي ۾ [[بازنطيني سلطنت]] [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سر زمين شام]] جو ڪنٽرول وڃائي ڇڏيو. خليفي [[عمر بن خطاب|عمر]] [[عمر بن خطاب|رضي الله تعالى عنه]] جي اڳواڻي ۾ [[پهرين اسلامي رياست|عرب اسلامي سلطنت]] [[يروشلم]]، [[ميسوپوٽيميا]]، [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سر زمين شام]] ([[شام]]، [[اردن]] ۽ [[فلسطين]]) ۽ [[مصر]] جي زمينن کي فتح ڪيو. هڪ سياسي نظام جي طور تي، [[اسلام]] يهودين جي معاشي، سماجي ۽ ذهني ترقي لاءِ بنيادي طور تي نوان حالات پيدا ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;Ehrlich, Mark. ''Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1''. ABC-CLIO, 2009, p. 152.({{ISBN|978-1-85109-873-6}})&lt;/ref&gt;عمر رضي الله تعالى عنه يهودين کي، 500 سالن جي وقفي کان پوءِ، [[يروشلم]] ۾ پنهنجي موجودگي کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني (ڏسو:عمر جي يقين دهاني).&lt;ref name=&quot;Bashan-20072&quot;&gt;{{cite EJ|last=Bashan|first=Eliezer|volume=15|page=419|title=Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي روايتون عمر کي هڪ مهربان حڪمران جي طور تي ڏسي ٿي ۽ مدراش (&lt;small&gt;نست&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;اروت دي-راو شمعون بار يوحائي&lt;/small&gt;) کيس &quot;بني اسرائيل جي دوست&quot; طور حوالو ڏئي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bashan-20073&quot;&gt;{{cite EJ|last=Bashan|first=Eliezer|volume=15|page=419|title=Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

عرب جاگرافيدان المقدسي جي مطابق، &lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land|author=Joseph E. Katz|year=2001|publisher=EretzYisroel.Org|access-date=August 12, 2012|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي &quot;سڪن جي چڪاس ڪندڙ، رنگ ڪندڙ، چمڙي جا ماهر ۽ مهاجن&quot; طور ڪم ڪندا هئا. [[فاطمي خلافت|فاطمي دور]] ۾، ڪيترن ئي يهودي عملدارن حڪومت ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏنيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-20013&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land|author=Joseph E. Katz|year=2001|publisher=EretzYisroel.Org|access-date=August 12, 2012|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; پروفيسر موشئ گل جو خيال آهي، ته 7هين صدي ۾ عرب فتح جي وقت، يروشلم جي آبادي جي اڪثريت عيسائي ۽ يهودي هئي.&lt;ref&gt;Moshe Gil, ''A History of Palestine: 634–1099'' pp. 170, 220–221.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن وقت دوران يهودي سڄي قديم بابل ۾ خوشحال برادرين ۾ رهندا هئا. جيونڪ دور (650-1250 عيسوي) ۾، بابلي يشيوا اڪيڊميون يهودي سکيا جا مکيه مرڪز هئا. جيونم (جن جو معنيٰ آهي &quot;شان&quot; يا &quot;جينيئس&quot;) انهن اسڪولن جا سربراهه هئا. انهن کي يهودي قانون ۾ اعليٰ اختيارين طور تسليم ڪيو ويو. 7هين صدي ۾، غير مسلمن جي زمينن تي حڪمران جزيو (&lt;small&gt;Poll&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Tax&lt;/small&gt;) عائد ڪيو، جن جي ڪري بابلي يهودين جي ڳوٺاڻن علائقن مان [[بغداد]] جهڙن شهرن ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. ان جي نتيجي ۾ يهودي برادري ۾ وڌيڪ دولت ۽ بين الاقوامي اثر ۽ انهي سان گڏ يهودي مفڪرن جو هڪ وڌيڪ عالمگير نقطه نظر،جهڙوڪ سعديه گاون، جيڪو هاڻي پهريون ڀيرو مغربي فلسفي سان تمام گهڻي دلچسپي رکن ٿا، پيدا ٿيو.  جڏهن 10هين صدي ۾ [[عباسي خلافت]] ۽ بغداد شهر جو زوال ٿيو، ڪيترائي بابلي يهودي [[رومي (ڀونوچ) سمنڊ|رومي ڀونوچ سمنڊ]] جي علائقن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪيا. سڄي يهودي دنيا ۾ بابلي يهودي رسمن جي پکيڙ ۾ حصو ورتو.&lt;ref&gt;[[Marina Rustow]], [http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/ Baghdad in the West: Migration and the Making of Medieval Jewish Traditions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711065105/http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/|date=July 11, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور (711-1031) ===
&lt;nowiki&gt;{{اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[[اندلس]] ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور [[يُورَپ|يورپ]] ۾ [[وچون دور|وچين دور]] سان گڏ هو، جيڪو سڃي [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|جزيري نما آئبيريا]] تي مسلمانن جي حڪمراني جو دور هو.

=== Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain (711–1031) ===
{{Main|Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain}}
The golden age of Jewish culture in Spain coincided with the [[Middle Ages]] in Europe, a period of [[Al-Andalus|Muslim rule]] throughout much of the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. During that time, Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed.

A period of tolerance thus dawned for the Jews of the [[Iberian Peninsula]], whose number was considerably augmented by immigration from Africa in the wake of the Muslim conquest. Especially after 912, during the reign of [[Abd-ar-Rahman III]] and his son, [[al-Hakam II]], the Jews prospered, devoting themselves to the service of the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]], to the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially to trading in silk and slaves, in this way promoting the prosperity of the country. Jewish economic expansion was unparalleled. In [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], Jews were involved in translating Arabic texts to the [[Romance languages]], as well as translating Greek and Hebrew texts into Arabic. Jews also contributed to botany, geography, medicine, mathematics, poetry and philosophy.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sephardim Archived September 7&quot;&gt;[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html Sephardim] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |date=September 7, 2012 }} by Rebecca Weiner.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ahmed, M.I. Muslim-Jewish Harmony: A Politically-Contingent Reality. Religions 2022, 13, 535. {{doi|10.3390/rel13060535|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to [[Bernard Lewis]]:

{{Blockquote|Generally, the Jewish people were allowed to practice their religion and live according to the laws and scriptures of their community. Furthermore, the restrictions to which they were subject were social and symbolic rather than tangible and practical in character. That is to say, these regulations served to define the relationship between the two communities, and not to oppress the Jewish population.&lt;ref&gt;Lewis, Bernard W (1984). ''The Jews of Islam''&lt;/ref&gt;|}}

'Abd al-Rahman's court physician and minister was Hasdai ben Isaac ibn Shaprut, the patron of Menahem ben Saruq, Dunash ben Labrat, and other Jewish scholars and poets. Jewish thought during this period flourished under famous figures such as Samuel Ha-Nagid, Moses ibn Ezra, Solomon ibn Gabirol [[Judah Halevi]] and [[Moses Maimonides]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Sephardim Archived September 7&quot; /&gt; During 'Abd al-Rahman's term of power, the scholar [[Moses ben Enoch]] was appointed [[rabbi]] of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], and as a consequence [[al-Andalus]] became the centre of Talmudic study, and [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] the meeting-place of Jewish savants.

The Golden Age ended with the invasion of al-Andalus by the [[Almohads]], a conservative dynasty originating in North Africa, who were highly intolerant of religious minorities.

=== Jews and the Crusades (1099–1260) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews and the Crusades}}
{{See also|Siege of Jerusalem (1099)}}
[[File:1099jerusalem.jpg|thumb|left|[[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|Capture of Jerusalem]], 1099]]
Sermonical messages to avenge the death of Jesus encouraged Christians to participate in the Crusades. The 12th-century Jewish narration from R. Solomon ben Samson records that crusaders en route to the Holy Land decided that before combating the Ishmaelites they would massacre the Jews residing in their midst to avenge the [[crucifixion of Christ]]. The massacres began at [[Rouen]] and Jewish communities in [[Rhine Valley]] were seriously affected.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/413 413]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Crusading attacks were made upon Jews in the territory around Heidelberg. A huge loss of Jewish life took place. Many were forcibly converted to Christianity and many committed suicide to avoid baptism. A major driving factor behind the choice to commit suicide was the Jewish realisation that upon being slain their children could be taken to be raised as Christians. The Jews were living in the middle of Christian lands and felt this danger acutely.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/416 416]}}&lt;/ref&gt; This massacre is seen as the first in a sequence of antisemitic events which culminated in the Holocaust.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=David Nirenberg |editor=Gerd Althoff |others=Johannes Fried |title=Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual, Memory, Historiography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MxS6-pQZzGsC&amp;pg=PA279 |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-78066-7 |pages=279–}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jewish populations felt that they had been abandoned by their Christian neighbours and rulers during the massacres and lost faith in all promises and charters.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/419 419]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Many Jews chose self-defence. But their means of self-defence were limited and their casualties only increased. Most of the forced conversions proved ineffective. Many Jews reverted to their original faith later. The pope protested this but Emperor Henry IV agreed to permitting these reversions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot; /&gt; The massacres began a new epoch for Jewry in Christendom. The Jews had preserved their faith from social pressure, now they had to preserve it at sword point. The massacres during the crusades strengthened Jewry from within spiritually. The Jewish perspective was that their struggle was Israel's struggle to hallow the name of God.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/414 414]–}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1099, Jews helped the Arabs to defend Jerusalem against the [[Crusaders]]. When the city fell, the Crusaders gathered many Jews in a synagogue and set it on fire.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot; /&gt; In Haifa, the Jews almost single-handedly defended the town against the Crusaders, holding out for a month, (June–July 1099).&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html |title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land |author=Joseph E. Katz |year=2001 |publisher=EretzYisroel.Org |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=January 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; At this time there were Jewish communities scattered all over the country, including Jerusalem, Tiberias, Ramleh, Ashkelon, Caesarea, and [[Gaza City|Gaza]]. As Jews were not allowed to hold land during the Crusader period, they worked at trades and commerce in the coastal towns during times of quiescence. Most were artisans: glassblowers in [[Sidon]], furriers and dyers in Jerusalem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot; /&gt;

During this period, the [[Masoretes]] of Tiberias established the ''[[niqqud]]'', a system of [[diacritic]]s used to represent vowels or distinguish between alternative pronunciations of letters of the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. Numerous [[piyutim]] and [[midrash]]im were recorded in Palestine at this time.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot; /&gt;

[[Maimonides]] wrote that in 1165 he visited Jerusalem and went to the Temple Mount, where he prayed in the &quot;great, holy house&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Sefer HaCharedim Mitzvat Tshuva Chapter 3&lt;/ref&gt; Maimonides established a yearly holiday for himself and his sons, the 6th of [[Cheshvan]], commemorating the day he went up to pray on the Temple Mount, and another, the 9th of Cheshvan, commemorating the day he merited to pray at the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]] in [[Hebron]].

In 1141 [[Yehuda Halevi]] issued a call to Jews to emigrate to Palestine and took on the long journey himself. After a stormy passage from [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]], he arrived in Egyptian [[Alexandria]], where he was enthusiastically greeted by friends and admirers. At [[Damietta]], he had to struggle against his heart, and the pleadings of his friend Ḥalfon ha-Levi, that he remain in Egypt, where he would be free from intolerant oppression. He started on the rough route overland. He was met along the way by Jews in [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] and [[Damascus]]. Jewish legend relates that as he came near Jerusalem, overpowered by the sight of the Holy City, he sang his most beautiful elegy, the celebrated &quot;Zionide&quot; (''Zion ha-lo Tish'ali''). At that instant, an Arab had galloped out of a gate and rode him down; he was killed in the accident.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}}

=== Mamluk period (1260–1517) ===
[[Nahmanides]] is recorded as settling in the Old City of Jerusalem in 1267. He moved to [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], where he was active in spreading Jewish learning, which was at that time neglected in the Holy Land. He gathered a circle of pupils around him, and people came in crowds, even from the district of the Euphrates, to hear him. [[Karaite Judaism|Karaites]] were said to have attended his lectures, among them Aaron ben Joseph the Elder. He later became one of the greatest [[Karaite (Jewish sect)|Karaite]] authorities. Shortly after Nahmanides' arrival in Jerusalem, he addressed a letter to his son Nahman, in which he described the desolation of the Holy City. At the time, it had only two Jewish inhabitants—two brothers, dyers by trade. In a later letter from Acre, Nahmanides counsels his son to cultivate humility, which he considers to be the first of virtues. In another, addressed to his second son, who occupied an official position at the [[Crown of Castile|Castilian]] court, Nahmanides recommends the recitation of the daily prayers and warns above all against immorality. Nahmanides died after reaching seventy-six, and his remains were interred at [[Haifa]], by the grave of [[Yechiel of Paris]].

Yechiel had [[aliyah|emigrated]] to Acre in 1260, along with his son and a large group of followers.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html |title=Jewish Zionist Education |publisher=Jafi.org.il |date=May 15, 2005 |access-date=August 13, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013142810/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html |archive-date=October 13, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf |title=Hadrat Melech |access-date=April 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502035808/http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf |archive-date=May 2, 2014 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; There he established the Talmudic academy ''Midrash haGadol d'Paris''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&amp;content=content/segal_ch17 |title=Section III: The Biblical Age: Chapter Seventeen: Awaiting the Messiah |author=Benjamin J. Segal |work=Returning, the Land of Israel as a Focus in Jewish History |publisher=JewishHistory.com |access-date=August 12, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227184802/http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&amp;content=content%2Fsegal_ch17 |archive-date=February 27, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; He is believed to have died there between 1265 and 1268. In 1488 [[Obadiah ben Abraham]], commentator on the [[Mishnah]], arrived in Jerusalem; this marked a new period of return for the Jewish community in the land.

==== Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East ====
{{Main|History of the Jews in Spain}}
{{See also|Islam and Judaism|Mizrahi Jew|History of the Jews under Muslim rule}}
[[File:Hebrew Bible Spain.jpg|right|thumb|Sephardic Hebrew Bible from Spain, 1300&lt;ref&gt;[https://lccn.loc.gov/2021667534]&lt;/ref&gt;]]
During the Middle Ages, Jews were generally better treated by Islamic rulers than Christian ones. Despite second-class citizenship, Jews played prominent roles in Muslim courts, and experienced a Golden Age in [[Moorish Spain]] about 900–1100, though the situation deteriorated after that time. Riots resulting in the deaths of Jews did however occur in North Africa through the centuries and especially in [[Morocco]], [[Libya]] and [[Algeria]], where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos.&lt;ref&gt;Maurice Roumani, ''The Case of the Jews from Arab Countries: A Neglected Issue'', 1977, pp. 26–27.&lt;/ref&gt;

During the 11th century, Muslims in Spain conducted pogroms against the Jews; those occurred in Cordoba in 1011 and in [[1066 Granada massacre|Granada in 1066]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |title=Granada |url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |access-date=August 12, 2012 |year=1906 |archive-date=April 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412000424/https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the Middle Ages, the governments of Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen enacted decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues. At certain times, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and [[Baghdad]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_%28gen%29.html |title=The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries |author=Mitchell Bard |year=2012 |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=October 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007003054/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_(gen).html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} The [[Almohad]]s, who had taken control of much of Islamic Iberia by 1172, surpassed the [[Almoravides]] in fundamentalist outlook. They treated the ''[[dhimmi]]s'' harshly. They expelled both Jews and Christians from Morocco and Islamic Spain. Faced with the choice of death or conversion, many Jews emigrated.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=66&amp;Itemid=39 The Forgotten Refugees] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928051923/http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=66&amp;Itemid=39 |date=September 28, 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Some, such as the family of [[Maimonides]], fled south and east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |title=Sephardim |author=Rebecca Weiner |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=September 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Kraemer, Joel L., &quot;Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait,&quot; ''The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides'', pp. 16–17 (2005)&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}}

=== Europe ===
{{Main|History of European Jews in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:Mishnah (Ms. 3173; De Rossi 138), Palatina.jpg|right|thumb|11th century ''[[mishnah]]'' codex from Italy, [[Biblioteca Palatina, Parma]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=adkim |date=2014-02-28 |title=The Biblioteca Palatina and the National Library of Israel |url=https://primolevicenter.org/printed-matter/the-biblioteca-palatina-and-the-national-library-of-israel/ |access-date=2025-10-15 |website=Printed_Matter |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
According to [[James P. Carrol]], &quot;Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, James. ''[[Constantine's Sword]]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) {{ISBN|978-0-395-77927-9}} p. 26&lt;/ref&gt;

Jewish populations have existed in Europe, especially in the area of the former Roman Empire, from very early times. As Jewish males had emigrated, some sometimes took wives from local populations, as is shown by the various [[MtDNA]], compared to [[Y-DNA#Genetic genealogy|Y-DNA]] among Jewish populations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html |title=In DNA, New Clues to Jewish Roots |first=Nicholas |last=Wade |date=May 14, 2002 |work=The New York Times |access-date=June 16, 2013 |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126180104/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; These groups were joined by traders and later on by members of the diaspora.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}} Records of Jewish communities in France (see [[History of the Jews in France]]) and Germany (see [[History of the Jews in Germany]]) date from the 4th century, and substantial Jewish communities in Spain were noted even earlier.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}}

The historian [[Norman Cantor]] and other 20th-century scholars dispute the tradition that the Middle Ages was a uniformly difficult time for Jews. Before the Church became fully organized as an institution with an increasing array of rules, early medieval society was tolerant. Between 800 and 1100, an estimated 1.5 million Jews lived in Christian Europe. As they were not Christians, they were not included as a [[Estates of the realm|division]] of the feudal system of clergy, knights and serfs. This means that they did not have to satisfy the oppressive demands for labour and military conscription that Christian commoners suffered. In relations with the Christian society, the Jews were protected by kings, princes and bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: finance, administration and medicine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Norman F&quot; /&gt; The lack of political strengths did leave Jews vulnerable to exploitation through extreme taxation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Ebenhard |last=Isenmann |editor-first=Richard |editor-last=Bonney |title=The Rise of the Fiscal State in Europe c. 1200–1815 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U24lRLy_qT8C&amp;pg=PA259 |date=1999 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-154220-6 |page=259}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Christian scholars interested in the Bible consulted with Talmudic rabbis. As the Roman Catholic Church strengthened as an institution, the Franciscan and Dominican preaching orders were founded, and there was a rise of competitive middle-class, town-dwelling Christians. By 1300, the friars and local priests staged the Passion Plays during Holy Week, which depicted Jews (in contemporary dress) killing Christ, according to Gospel accounts. From this period, persecution of Jews and deportations became endemic. Around 1500, Jews found relative security and a renewal of prosperity in present-day [[Poland]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Norman F&quot;&gt;Norman F. Cantor, ''The Last Knight: The Twilight of the Middle Ages and the Birth of the Modern Era'', Free Press, 2004. {{ISBN|978-0-7432-2688-2}}, pp. 28–29&lt;/ref&gt;

After 1300, Jews suffered more discrimination and persecution in Christian Europe. Europe's Jewry was mainly urban and literate. The Christians were inclined to regard Jews as obstinate deniers of the truth because in their view the Jews were expected to know of the truth of the Christian doctrines from their knowledge of the Jewish scriptures. Jews were aware of the pressure to accept Christianity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/412 412]}}&lt;/ref&gt; As Catholics were forbidden by the church to loan money for interest, some Jews became prominent moneylenders. Christian rulers gradually saw the advantage of having such a class of people who could supply capital for their use without being liable to excommunication. As a result, the money trade of western Europe became a speciality of the Jews. But, in almost every instance when Jews acquired large amounts through banking transactions, during their lives or upon their deaths, the king would take it over.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england &quot;England&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730231726/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england |date=July 30, 2020 }}, [[Jewish Encyclopedia]] (1906)&lt;/ref&gt; Jews became imperial{{-&quot;}}[[Servi camerae regis|''servi cameræ'']]{{-&quot;}}, the property of the King, who might present them and their possessions to princes or cities.

Jews were frequently massacred and exiled from various European countries. The persecution hit its first peak during the [[Crusades]]. In the [[People's Crusade]] (1096) flourishing Jewish communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed. In the [[Second Crusade]] (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. They were also subjected to attacks by the [[Shepherds' Crusade (1251)|Shepherds' Crusades of 1251]] and [[Shepherds' Crusade (1320)|1320]]. The Crusades were followed by massive expulsions, including the [[Edict of Expulsion|expulsion of the Jews from England in 1290]];&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Robin R. |last=Mundill |title=England's Jewish Solution: Experiment and Expulsion, 1262–1290 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CSKLfi_j110C |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52026-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; in 1396 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and in 1421, thousands were expelled from Austria. Over this time many Jews in Europe, either fleeing or being expelled, migrated to Poland, where they prospered into another [[History of the Jews in Poland#Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572|Golden Age]].

In Italy, Jews were allowed to live in Venice but were required to live in a [[ghetto]], and the practice spread across Italy (see [[Cum nimis absurdum]]) and was adopted in many places in Catholic Europe. Jews outside the Ghetto often had to wear a yellow star.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121 |title=Print of Jews forced to listen to a Christian sermon – Collections Search – United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |website=collections.ushmm.org |access-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-date=November 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129142432/https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;The Jewish-Christian Encounter in Medieval Preaching, Routledge 2015, edited by Jonathan Adams and Jussi Hanska chapter 13, see page 297&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Expulsions of the Jews of Spain and Portugal ===
{{further|Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal}}
[[File:Vicente Cutanda - A los pies del Salvador.jpg|thumb|250px|''At the Feet of the Saviour'', massacre of Jews in [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], oil on canvas by [[Vicente Cutanda]] (1887)]]
[[File:Matanza de judíos en Barcelona - año 1391.jpg|thumb|250px|''Slaughter of Jews in Barcelona in 1391'' by [[Josep Segrelles]], {{circa|1910}}]]
[[File:A Expulsão dos Judeus (Roque Gameiro, Quadros da História de Portugal, 1917).png|250px|thumb|Expulsion of the Jews in 1497, in a 1917 watercolour by [[Alfredo Roque Gameiro]] ]]
[[File:Inquis1.jpg|thumb|250px|Burning of Crypto-Jews in Lisbon, Portugal]]
Significant repression of Spain's numerous community occurred during the 14th century, notably a [[History of the Jews in Spain#Massacres and mass conversions of 1391|major pogrom in 1391]] which resulted in the majority of Spain's 300,000 Jews converting to Catholicism. With the [[Granada War|conquest of the Muslim Kingdom of Granada]] in 1492, the Catholic monarchs issued the [[Alhambra Decree]], and Spain's remaining 100,000 Jews were forced to choose between conversion and exile. The expulsion of the Jews of Spain, is regarded by Jews as the worst catastrophe between the destruction of Jerusalem in 73 CE and the [[Holocaust]] of the 1940s.&lt;ref&gt;European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 1550–1750 by Jonathan Israel, chapter 1 Exodus from the West (page 25)&lt;/ref&gt;

As a result, an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 Jews left Spain, the remainder joining Spain's already numerous [[Converso]] community. Perhaps a quarter of a million Conversos thus were gradually absorbed by the dominant Catholic culture, although those among them who secretly practised Judaism were subject to 40 years of intense repression by the [[Spanish Inquisition]]. This was particularly the case up until 1530, after which the trials of Conversos by the Inquisition dropped to 3% of the total. Similar expulsions of Sephardic Jews occurred 1493 in [[Sicily]] (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Spanish Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire and North Africa and Portugal. A small number also settled in Holland and England.

The expulsion followed a long process of expulsions and bans from what are now England, France, Germany, Austria, and Holland. In January 1492, the [[Emirate of Granada|last Muslim state]] was defeated in Spain and six months later the Jews of Spain (the largest community in the world) were required to [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|convert or leave without their property]]. 100,000 converted with many continuing to [[Marrano|secretly practice Judaism]], for which the Catholic church's inquisition (led by [[Tomás de Torquemada]]) now mandated a sentence of death by public burning. 175,000 left Spain.&lt;ref&gt;The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 138 – 144 / Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-Jews by David Martin Gitlitz, University of New Mexico 2002, pp 75 – 81&lt;/ref&gt;

Many [[Sephardi Jews|Spanish Jews]] moved to North Africa, [[History of the Jews in Poland|Poland]] and the Ottoman Empire, especially [[History of the Jews in Thessaloniki|Thessaloniki]] (now in Greece) which became the world's largest Jewish city. Some groups headed to the Middle East and Palestine, within the domains of the Ottoman Empire. About 100,000 Spanish Jews were allowed into Portugal, however five years later, their children were seized and they were given the choice of conversion or departing without them.&lt;ref&gt;The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 142 – 144&lt;/ref&gt;

==ابتدائي جديد دور==
Historians who study modern Jewry have identified four different paths by which European Jews were &quot;modernized&quot; and thus integrated into the mainstream of European society. A common approach has been to view the process through the lens of the European [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] as Jews faced the promise and the challenges posed by political emancipation. Scholars that use this approach have focused on two social types as paradigms for the decline of Jewish tradition and as agents of the sea changes in Jewish culture that led to the collapse of the [[ghetto]]. The first of these two social types is the [[Court Jew]] who is portrayed as a forerunner of the modern Jew, having achieved integration with and participation in the proto-capitalist economy and court society of central European states such as the [[Habsburg Empire]]. In contrast to the cosmopolitan Court Jew, the second social type presented by historians of modern Jewry is the ''maskil'', (learned person), a proponent of the [[Haskalah]] (Enlightenment). This narrative sees the maskil's pursuit of secular scholarship and his rationalistic critiques of rabbinic tradition as laying a durable intellectual foundation for the secularization of Jewish society and culture. The established paradigm has been one in which Ashkenazic Jews entered modernity through a self-conscious process of westernization led by &quot;highly atypical, Germanized Jewish intellectuals&quot;. Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative movements and planted the seeds of [[Zionism]] while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Reframing Jewish History |date=May 2005 |url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513 |access-date=May 24, 2011 |archive-date=September 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930222143/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
At around the same time that Haskalah was developing, [[Hasidic Judaism]] was spreading as a movement that preached a world view nearly opposed to the Haskalah.

In the 1990s, the concept of the &quot;[[Port Jew]]&quot; has been suggested as an &quot;alternate path to modernity&quot; that was distinct from the European [[Haskalah]]. In contrast to the focus on Ashkenazic Germanized Jews, the concept of the [[Port Jew]] focused on the Sephardi conversos who fled the Inquisition and resettled in European port towns on the coast of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Eastern seaboard of the United States.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fry-2002&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Port Jews: Jewish Communities in Cosmopolitan Maritime Trading Centres, 1550–1950 |first=Helen P. |last=Fry |journal=European Judaism |volume=36 |publisher=Frank Cass Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7146-8286-0 |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002650793 |quote=Port Jews were a social type, usually those who were involved in seafaring and maritime trade, who (like Court Jews) could be seen as the earliest modern Jews. Often arriving as refugees from the Inquisition, they were permitted to settle as merchants and allowed to trade openly in places such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. 'Their Diaspora connections and accumulated expertise lay in exactly the areas of overseas expansion that were then of interest to mercantilist governments.' |access-date=September 1, 2017 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160935/https://www.gale.com/databases/questia?docId=5002650793 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Court Jews ===
[[Court Jew]]s were Jewish bankers or businessmen who lent money and handled the finances of some of the Christian European noble houses. Corresponding historical terms are ''Jewish bailiff'' and ''[[shtadlan]]''.

Examples of what would be later called court Jews emerged when local rulers used services of Jewish bankers for short-term loans. They lent money to nobles and in the process gained social influence. Noble patrons of court Jews employed them as financiers, suppliers, diplomats and [[trade delegate]]s. Court Jews could use their family connections, and connections between each other, to provision their sponsors with, among other things, food, arms, ammunition and precious metals. In return for their services, court Jews gained social privileges, including up to noble status for themselves, and could live outside the Jewish ghettos. Some nobles wanted to keep their bankers in their own courts. And because they were under noble protection, they were exempted from rabbinical jurisdiction.

From medieval times, court Jews could amass personal fortunes and gained political and social influence. Sometimes they were also prominent people in the local Jewish community and could use their influence to protect and influence their brethren. Sometimes they were the only Jews who could interact with the local high society and present petitions of the Jews to the ruler. However, the court Jew had social connections and influence in the Christian world mainly through his Christian patrons. Due to the precarious position of Jews, some nobles could just ignore their debts. If the sponsoring noble died, his Jewish financier could face exile or execution.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

=== Port Jews ===

The [[Port Jew]] is a descriptive term for Jews who were involved in the seafaring and maritime economy of Europe, especially during the 17th and 18th centuries. Helen Fry suggests that they can be considered &quot;the earliest modern Jews&quot;. According to Fry, Port Jews frequently arrived as &quot;refugees from the Inquisition&quot; and the expulsion of Jews from Iberia. They were allowed to settle in port cities because merchants granted them permission to trade in ports such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. Fry notes that their connections to the [[Jewish Diaspora]] and their expertise in maritime trade made them particularly valuable to the mercantilist governments of Europe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fry-2002&quot; /&gt; Lois Dubin describes Port Jews as Jewish merchants who were &quot;valued for their engagement in the international maritime trade upon which such cities thrived&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Dubin, ''The port Jews of Habsburg Trieste: absolutist politics and enlightenment culture'', Stanford University Press, 1999, p. 47&lt;/ref&gt; Sorkin and others have characterized the socio-cultural profile of these men as marked by a flexibility towards religion and a &quot;reluctant cosmopolitanism that was alien to both traditional and 'enlightened' Jewish identities&quot;.

From the 16th to the 18th century, Jewish merchants dominated the chocolate and vanilla trade, exporting to Jewish centres across Europe, mainly Amsterdam, Bayonne, Bordeaux, Hamburg and Livorno.&lt;ref&gt;Encyclopedia of Jewish Food, Gil Marks, HMH, November 17, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ottoman Empire ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire}}

During the Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600), the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well in diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews were the most prominent under the ''[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millets']]'', the apogee of Jewish influence could arguably be the appointment of [[Joseph Nasi]] to [[Sanjak-bey]] (governor, a rank usually only held by Muslims) of the island of [[Naxos]].&lt;ref&gt;Charles Issawi &amp; Dmitri Gondicas; ''Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism'', Princeton, (1999)&lt;/ref&gt;

At the time of the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] when the Levant passed under Muslim Rule, thirty Jewish communities existed in Haifa, Sh'chem, Hebron, Ramleh, Gaza, Jerusalem, and many in the north. Safed became a spiritual centre for the Jews and the [[Shulchan Aruch]] was compiled there as well as many Kabbalistic texts. The first Hebrew printing press, and the first printing in Western Asia began in 1577.

Jews lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey, but more geographically either Anatolia or Asia Minor) for more than 2,400 years. Initial prosperity in Hellenistic times had faded under Christian Byzantine rule, but recovered somewhat under the rule of the various Muslim governments that displaced and succeeded rule from Constantinople. For much of the Ottoman period, Turkey was a safe haven for Jews fleeing persecution, and it continues to have a small Jewish population today. The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economical prosperity at times but were widely persecuted at other times was summarised by G. E. Von Grunebaum:

&lt;blockquote&gt;It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizeable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms.&lt;ref&gt;G. E. Von Grunebaum, ''Eastern Jewry Under Islam'', 1971, p. 369.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Russia, Poland, and Eastern Europe ===
{{Further|History of the Jews in Poland|History of the Jews in Russia|History of the Jews in Ukraine|History of the Jews in Lithuania|History of the Jews in Romania}}
{{expand section|date=October 2025}}

In the 17th century, there were many significant Jewish populations in Western and Central Europe. The relatively tolerant Poland had the largest Jewish population in Europe that dated back to the 13th century, and enjoyed relative prosperity and freedom for nearly four hundred years. However, the calm situation ended when Polish and Lithuanian Jews of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] were slaughtered in the hundreds of thousands by Ukrainian Cossacks during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] (1648) and by the [[Swedish wars]] (1655). Driven by these and other persecutions, some Jews moved back to Western Europe in the 17th century, notably to [[Amsterdam]]. The last ban on Jewish residency in a European nation was revoked in 1654, but periodic expulsions from individual cities still occurred, and Jews were often restricted from land ownership, or forced to live in [[ghetto]]s.

With the [[Partitions of Poland]] in the late 18th century, the Polish-Jewish population was split between the [[Russian Empire]], [[Austria-Hungary]], and German [[Prussia]], which divided Poland among themselves.

=== European Enlightenment and Haskalah (18th century) ===
[[File:Moritz Daniel Oppenheim--Lavater and Lessing Visit Moses Mendelssohn--1856--Magnes Collection.jpg|thumb|right|[[Moses Mendelssohn]] (in red coat), Lavater (at right) and Lessing (standing), in an imaginary portrait by the Jewish artist [[Moritz Daniel Oppenheim]] (1856), [[Magnes Collection of Jewish Art and Life]]]]
During the period of the [[European Renaissance]] and Enlightenment, significant changes occurred within the Jewish community. The [[Haskalah]] movement paralleled the wider Enlightenment, as Jews in the 18th century began to campaign for emancipation from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society. Secular and scientific education was added to the traditional religious instruction received by students, and interest in a national Jewish identity, including a revival in the study of Jewish history and Hebrew, started to grow. Among the prominient Haskalah intellectuals were [[Moses Mendelssohn]], [[Naphtali Hirz Wessely]], [[Isaac Satanow]] and [[Isaac Euchel]].

Haskalah gave birth to the [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] movements in Judaism and planted the seeds of [[Zionism]] while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.

At around the same time another movement was born, one preaching almost the opposite of Haskalah, [[Hasidic Judaism]]. Hasidic Judaism began in the 18th century by [[Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov]], and quickly gained a following with its more exuberant, mystical approach to religion. These two movements, and the traditional orthodox approach to Judaism from which they spring, formed the basis for the modern divisions within Jewish observance.

At the same time, the outside world was changing, and debates began over the potential emancipation of the Jews (granting them equal rights). The first country to do so was France, during the [[French Revolution]] in 1789. Even so, Jews were expected to assimilate, not continue their traditions. This ambivalence is demonstrated in the famous speech of [[Clermont-Tonnerre]] before the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]] in 1789:

&lt;blockquote&gt;We must refuse everything to the Jews as a nation and accord everything to Jews as individuals. We must withdraw recognition from their judges; they should only have our judges. We must refuse legal protection to the maintenance of the so-called laws of their Judaic organization; they should not be allowed to form in the state either a political body or an order. They must be citizens individually. But, some will say to me, they do not want to be citizens. Well then! If they do not want to be citizens, they should say so, and then, we should banish them. It is repugnant to have in the state an association of non-citizens, and a nation within the nation...&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Hasidic Judaism ===
{{See also|Mitnagdim}}
[[File:Maurycy Gottlieb - Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur.jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|Hasidic Jews praying in the synagogue on [[Yom Kippur]], by [[Maurycy Gottlieb]]]]

[[Hasidic Judaism]] is a branch of [[Orthodox Judaism]] that promotes spirituality and joy through the popularisation and internalization of [[Jewish mysticism]] as the fundamental aspects of the [[Jewish faith]]. Hasidism comprises part of contemporary [[Ultra-Orthodox]] Judaism, alongside the previous Talmudic [[Lithuanian Jews|Lithuanian-Yeshiva]] approach and the Oriental [[Sephardi Judaism|Sephardi]] tradition. It was founded in 18th-century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel [[Baal Shem Tov]] as a reaction against overly [[Talmud|legalistic]] Judaism. Opposite to this, Hasidic teachings cherished the sincerity and concealed holiness of the unlettered common folk, and their equality with the scholarly elite. The emphasis on the [[Immanent]] Divine presence in everything gave new value to prayer and deeds of kindness, alongside Rabbinic supremacy of [[Torah study|study]], and replaced historical [[Kabbalah|mystical (kabbalistic)]] and [[Musar literature|ethical (musar)]] [[Asceticism in Judaism|asceticism]] and [[Maggid|admonishment]] with optimism, encouragement, and daily [[Deveikut|fervour]]. This populist emotional revival accompanied the elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine [[Panentheism]], through intellectual articulation of inner dimensions of mystical thought. The adjustment of Jewish values sought to add to required standards of ritual [[Halacha|observance]], while relaxing others where inspiration predominated. Its communal gatherings celebrate soulful [[Nigun|song]] and [[Yiddish literature#Hasidic and Haskalah literature|storytelling]] as forms of mystical devotion.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

==اڻويهين صدي==
[[File:Napoleon stellt den israelitischen Kult wieder her, 30. Mai 1806.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|An 1806 French print depicts [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] emancipating the Jews.]]
Though persecution still existed, [[Jewish emancipation]] spread throughout Europe in the 19th century. [[Napoleon]] invited Jews to leave the [[Jewish ghettos in Europe]] and seek refuge in the newly created tolerant political regimes that offered equality under Napoleonic Law (see [[Napoleon and the Jews]]). Gradually all European nations established in constitutions the principle of equality under the law and abolished all restrictions for Jews.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;&gt;[https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-in-history-the-era-of-nationalism-1800-1918 Antisemitism in History: The Era of Nationalism, 1800–1918]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/emancipation Emancipation]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-emancipation-in-western-europe/ Jewish Emancipation in Western Europe]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://d-nb.info/1175689041/34 Jewish Emancipation in the 18th and 19th Centuries]&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Antisemiticroths.jpg|thumb|A caricature by [[Charles Lucien Léandre]] (France, 1898) showing [[Rothschild family|Rothschild]] with the world in his hands]]
Jews now could own land and enter the civil service. The abolition of restraints on political activism and the broadening of the electoral franchise on the basis of citizenship, not religion, made Jews most visible among [[liberalism|liberal]], [[Radical politics|radical]], and [[Marxism|Marxist]] ([[Social Democracy|Social Democratic]]) political parties.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;/&gt;

For centuries, so-called [[court Jew]]s acted as the principal financiers for the European aristocracys. In the 1760s, one of them, [[Mayer Amschel Rothschild]], established a banking business in Germany that eventually became a vast international conglomerate and yield one of the largest family fortunes in world history. Thus the name of the [[Rothschilds]] became synonymous with Jewish financial power. Across Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, other Jews also created a number of influential banks.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/usury-and-moneylending-in-judaism/ Jews and Finance]&lt;/ref&gt;

The most important branch of Jewish economic life in Eastern Europe was trade. While most remained small shopkeepers, stallholders, and peddlers, others became owners of department stores and shopping arcades. During the 19th century Jews began to move from rural regions to cities, this contributed to the decline of traditional Jewish tavernkeeping. Jews made up a considerable proportion of all craftsmen in the [[Russian Empire]] and [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] during the 19th century, but with the spread of industrialization large factories tended to squeeze out small Jewish-run workshops, and only limited numbers of Jews became employees in these modern factories. Jews were considered less desirable employees since they did not want to work on Saturdays and tended to organize into unions to demand improved working conditions, the foundation of the [[General Jewish Labour Bund|Bund]] in the Russian Empire in 1897 strengthened this process.&lt;ref name=&quot;Economic Life&quot;&gt;[https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/7 Economic Life]&lt;/ref&gt;

The economic achivements of Jews in the 19th century created the impression for some that Jews were being overrepresented in such lucrative occupations as finance, banking, trade, industry, medicine, law, journalism, art, music, literature, and theater. Despite increasing integration of the Jews with secular society, a new form of [[antisemitism]] emerged, [[Racial antisemitism|based on the ideas of race and nationhood]] rather than the religious hatred of the Middle Ages. This form of antisemitism held that Jews were a separate and inferior race from the [[Aryan]] people of Western Europe, and led to the emergence of political parties in France, Germany, and [[Austria-Hungary]] that campaigned on a platform of rolling back emancipation. This form of antisemitism emerged frequently in European culture, most famously in the [[Dreyfus Trial]] in France.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://evolve.reconstructingjudaism.org/anti-semitism-europe-history/ Antisemitism in Europe and America in the Modern Period: Historical Perspectives]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.quest-cdecjournal.it/anti-jewish-prejudices-antisemitic-ideologies-open-violence-antisemitism-in-european-comparison-from-the-1870s-to-the-first-world-war-a-commentary/ Anti-Jewish Prejudices, Antisemitic Ideologies, Open Violence: Antisemitism in European Comparison from the 1870s to the First World War. A Commentary]&lt;/ref&gt;

During this period, Jewish migration to the United States (see [[American Jews]]) created a large new community mostly freed of the restrictions of Europe. Over 2 million Jews arrived in the United States between 1890 and 1924, most from the Russian Empire and Galicia. A similar case occurred in the southern tip of the continent, specifically in the countries of [[Argentina]] and [[Uruguay]].

==ويهين صدي==
===جديد صيهونيت===
[[File:Herzl on a balcony full.jpg|thumb|Theodor Herzl, visionary of the Jewish State, in Basel, photographed during [[World Zionist Congress|Fifth Zionist Congress]] in December 1901, by [[Ephraim Moses Lilien]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Theodor Herzl Signed Photograph, Basel, Switzerland {{!}} Shapell Manuscript Foundation |url=https://www.shapell.org/manuscript/theodor-herzl-signed-photograph-basel-switzerland/ |website=Shapell |access-date=May 10, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to [[Ottoman Syria]] with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and fulfilling the biblical prophecies related to [[Shivat Tzion]]. In 1882 the first Zionist settlement—[[Rishon LeZion]]—was founded by immigrants who belonged to the &quot;[[Hovevei Zion]]&quot; movement. Later on, the &quot;[[Bilu (movement)|Bilu]]&quot; movement established many other settlements in Palestine.

The Zionist movement was officially founded after the [[Kattowitz convention]] (1884) and the [[World Zionist Congress]] (1897), and it was [[Theodor Herzl]] who initiated the struggle to establish a state for the Jews.

After the [[First World War]], it seemed that the conditions that made it possible for the Jews to establish such a state had arrived: The United Kingdom captured [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] from the Ottoman Empire, and the Jews received the promise of a &quot;National Home&quot; from the British in the form of the [[Balfour Declaration]] of 1917, given to [[Chaim Weizmann]].

In 1920, the British Mandate of Palestine was established and the pro-Jewish [[Herbert Samuel]] was appointed High Commissioner of Palestine, the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] was established and several large Jewish immigration waves to Palestine occurred. The Arab inhabitants of Palestine grew hostile to increasing Jewish immigration, and as a result, they began to express their opposition to the establishment of Jewish settlements and the pro-Jewish policy of the British government.

New Jewish immigrants began to create militias and paramilitary groups such as the [[Bar-Giora]] and [[Hashomer]].

Clashes between Jews and Arabs became more frequent. After the [[1920 Nebi Musa riots]], the Jewish leadership in Palestine believed that the British had little desire to involve themselves in these clashes and maintain order. Believing that they could not rely on the British administration for protection, the Jewish leadership created the [[Haganah]] and [[Irgun]] paramilitary organizations in order to protect its community's farms and [[Kibbutz]]im.

These paramilitary organization were involved in major riots, such as the [[Jaffa riots (May 1921)|Jaffa riots]], [[1929 Palestine riots]] and the [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine]]. Arabs, Jews and Britons suffered in this violence.

Due to the increasing violence, the United Kingdom gradually started to backtrack from its original idea of supporting the establishment of a Jewish homeland and it also started to speculate on a [[binational solution]] to the crisis or the establishment of an Arab state that would have a Jewish minority.

===Jews in Europe and the United States after World War I ===
[[File:Yung-teater poster 15.jpg|thumb|Bilingual [[Polish language|Polish]]-[[Yiddish]] poster for the [[Warsaw]] [[Young Theater]]'s production of ''Mississippi'' in 1935, written by [[Leib Malach]]]]
The World War I and subsequent political changes, such as the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917 and the establishment of new nation-states after 1918, led to far-reaching consequenсes for the Jews of Eastern Europe. The authorities of the [[Soviet Union]] viewed private commerce as negative and sought to bring all trade under the aegis of state enterprises. Therefore, many Jews, who had previously made their living from trade, were forced to find other occupations. In Poland, Hungary, and Romania, the authorities adopted policies aimed at ethnicizing their national economies, aiming to exclude Jews as far as possible from the marketplace.&lt;ref name=&quot;Economic Life&quot;/&gt;

Nevertheless, the Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. In Austria in the years between the two World Wars Jews were approximately 3.5% of the population but were 27.3% of university professors. In Germany between 1918 and 1933 Jews were 0.78% of the population but were 16% of the doctors, 15% of the dentists, 25% of the lawyers, 50% of the theatre directors and occupied 80% of the leading positions in the [[Berlin stock exchange]]. In Poland in 1931 Jews were 10.2% of the population but were 56% of the doctors in private practice, 33% of the lawyers, and 24% of the pharmacists. In Russia during the period 1917–1939 Jews were approximately 1.8% of the population, while Jews were 9% of the officers in military academies, 15% of the university graduates, 11% of the doctors and 14% of the university professors.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Lynn | first1=Richard | last2=Kanazawa | first2=Satoshi | title=How to explain high Jewish achievement: The role of intelligence and values | journal=Personality and Individual Differences | date=2008 | volume=44 | issue=4 | pages=801–808 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2007.10.019 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886907003674 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Among those Jews who were generally considered the most famous were the scientist [[Albert Einstein]] and the philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. At that time, a disproportionate number of [[Nobel Prize]] winners were Jewish, as is still the case.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |publisher=jinfo.org |access-date=October 7, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== The Holocaust ===
{{Main|History of the Jews during World War II|The Holocaust}}
[[File:Rows of bodies of dead inmates fill the yard of Lager Nordhausen, a Gestapo concentration camp.jpg|thumb|Bodies of inmates of the [[Mittelbau-Dora]] Nazi concentration camp who died during [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] [[Bombing of Nordhausen in World War II|bombing raids]] on April 3 and 4, 1945]]

In 1933, with [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]]'s rise to power in Germany, the Jewish situation became more severe. [[Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic|Economic crises]], [[Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany|racial Anti-Jewish laws]], and fear of an upcoming war led many Jews to flee from Europe and settle in [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]], the United States and the Soviet Union.

In 1939, [[World War II]] began and until 1945, [[German-occupied Europe|Germany occupied almost all of Europe]], including [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|Poland]]—[[History of the Jews in Poland|where millions of Jews were living at that time]]—and [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|France]]. In 1941, following the [[invasion of the Soviet Union]], the [[Final Solution]] began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe, as well as Jews in European North Africa (pro-Nazi [[Vichy France|Vichy]]-[[French North Africa|North Africa]] and [[Italian Libya]]). This [[genocide]], in which approximately six million Jews were methodically murdered with horrifying cruelty, is known as [[The Holocaust]] or the ''Shoah'' (Hebrew term). In Poland, as many as one million Jews were murdered in [[gas chambers]] at the [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz camp complex]].

The massive scale of the Holocaust, and the horrors that happened during it, were only understood after the war, and they heavily affected the Jewish nation and world public opinion. Efforts were then increased to establish a Jewish state in Palestine.

=== The establishment of the State of Israel ===
{{Main|History of Israel (1948–present)}}
{{Further|Israel|Israeli Declaration of Independence}}
{{History of Israel}}
In 1945 the Jewish resistance organizations in Palestine unified and established the Jewish Resistance Movement. The movement began guerrilla attacks against Arab paramilitaries and the British authorities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html |title=The Jewish Resistance Movement |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=September 7, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160907162736/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} Following the [[King David Hotel bombing]], [[Chaim Weizmann]], president of the [[WZO]] appealed to the movement to cease all further military activity until a decision would be reached by the [[Jewish Agency]]. The Jewish Agency backed Weizmann's recommendation to cease activities, a decision reluctantly accepted by the Haganah, but not by the [[Irgun]] and [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]]. The JRM was dismantled and each of the founding groups continued operating according to their own policy.&lt;ref&gt;Horne, Edward (1982). ''A Job Well Done (Being a History of The Palestine Police Force 1920–1948)''. Anchor. {{ISBN|978-0-9508367-0-6}}. pp. 272, 299. States that Haganah withdrew on July 1, 1946. But remained permanently uncooperative.&lt;/ref&gt;

The Jewish leadership decided to centre the struggle in the illegal immigration to Palestine and began organizing a massive number of Jewish war refugees from Europe, without the approval of the British authorities. This immigration contributed a great deal to the Jewish settlements in Israel in the world public opinion and the British authorities decided to let the United Nations decide upon the fate of Palestine.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

On November 29, 1947, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopted [[Resolution 181]](II) recommending partitioning Palestine into an Arab state, a Jewish state and the City of Jerusalem. The Jewish leadership accepted the decision but the Arab League and the leadership of Palestinian Arabs opposed it. Following a period of [[1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]] the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]] started.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}}

In the middle of the war, after the last British soldiers of the Palestine Mandate left, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed on May 14, 1948, the establishment of a [[Jewish state]] in [[Eretz Israel]] to be known as the [[State of Israel]]. The war ended in 1949 and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of hundreds of thousands of Jews from all over the world, notably [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Arab countries]].

Since 1948, Israel has been involved in a series of major military conflicts, including the 1956 [[Suez Crisis]], 1967 [[Six-Day War]], 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], [[1982 Lebanon War]], and [[2006 Lebanon War]], as well as a nearly constant series of [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict|ongoing minor conflicts]].

Since 1977, an ongoing and largely unsuccessful series of diplomatic efforts have been initiated by Israel, Palestinian organizations, their neighbours, and other parties, including the United States and the European Union, to bring about a [[Israeli–Palestinian peace process|peace process]] to resolve conflicts between Israel and its neighbours, mostly over the fate of the Palestinian people.

==ايڪويهين صدي==
Israel is a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a population of over 8 million people, of whom about 6 million are [[Israeli Jews|Jewish]]. The largest Jewish communities are in Israel and the [[American Jews|United States]], with major communities in France, Argentina, Russia, England, and Canada.

The [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]], created during the [[Soviet]] period, continues to be an [[autonomous oblast]] of the Russian state.&lt;ref&gt;Fishkoff, Sue (October 8, 2008). [http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml &quot;A Jewish revival in Birobidzhan?&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510142551/http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml |date=May 10, 2011 }} ''Jewish News of Greater Phoenix''. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Chief Rabbi]] of [[Birobidzhan]], [[Mordechai Scheiner]], says there are 4,000 Jews in the capital city.&lt;ref&gt;Paxton, Robin (June 1, 2007). [http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&amp;cid=84435&amp;NewsType=80052 &quot;From Tractors to Torah in Russia's Jewish Land&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411050518/http://fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&amp;cid=84435&amp;NewsType=80052 |date=April 11, 2013 }}. Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Governor]] [[Nikolay Mikhaylovich Volkov]] has stated that he intends to, &quot;support every valuable initiative maintained by our local Jewish organizations&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939 &quot;Governor Voices Support for Growing Far East Jewish Community&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518042318/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939 |date=May 18, 2011 }} (November 15, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Birobidzhan Synagogue]] opened in 2004 on the 70th anniversary of the region's founding in 1934.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969 &quot;Far East Community Prepares for 70th Anniversary of Jewish Autonomous Republic&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518041740/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969 |date=May 18, 2011 }} (August 30, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;

The number of people who identified as Jews in [[England and Wales]] rose slightly between 2001 and 2011, with the growth being attributed to the higher birth rate of the [[Haredi]] community.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7411877.stm |title=Jewish population on the increase |date=May 21, 2008 |access-date=March 18, 2020 |archive-date=May 27, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527215725/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7411877.stm |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The estimated [[British Jew]]ish population in [[England]] as of 2011 was 263,346.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2011 Census: KS209EW Religion, local authorities in England and Wales |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262 |publisher=ons.gov.uk |access-date=December 15, 2012 |archive-date=January 5, 2016 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of 2021, per the [[British Census]], the Jewish population of England and Wales was 271,327.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Graham |first1=David |last2=Boyd |first2=Jonathan |title=Jews in Britain in 2021: First results from the Census of England and Wales |url=https://www.jpr.org.uk/reports/jews-britain-2021-first-results-census-england-and-wales |website=Institute for Jewish Policy Research |date=November 29, 2022 |access-date=December 13, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On October 7, 2023, [[Hamas]], along with other [[Palestinian Joint Operations Room|Palestinian militant groups]], [[October 7 attacks|attacked Israel]] from the [[Gaza Strip]], killing 1,139 people. The day is considered the deadliest day in Israel's history, and the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=October 11, 2023 |title=Biden calls Hamas attacks the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust as US death toll ticks up |url=https://apnews.com/article/israel-hamas-us-biden-blinken-99eb4063edabc80fa1fa198fb0bb020e |access-date=November 9, 2023 |work=AP News |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The attack escalated into a [[Gaza war|major war between Israel and Hamas]]. Hundreds of thousands of civilians were displaced, and more than 250 hostages, including Israelis and foreign nationals, were taken by Hamas, [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]], and other Gaza-based militant groups.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last1=Al-Mughrabi |first1=Nidal |last2=Angel |first2=Maytaal |last3=Al-Mughrabi |first3=Nidal |last4=Angel |first4=Maytaal |date=November 8, 2023 |title=Israeli, Hamas fighters in close combat in Gaza City as civilians flee |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/thousands-civilians-flee-north-gaza-israeli-troops-hamas-fighters-clash-2023-11-08/ |access-date=November 9, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[يهوديت]] 
* [[اسلام ۾ ابراهيم]] 
* [[يعقوب عليہ السلام]] 
* [[عيسيٰ عليه السلام]] 
* [[توريت]] 
* [[فلسطين]] 
* [[يروشلم]] 
* [[اسرائيل]] 
* [[فلسطين جي رياست]] 
* [[غزه نسل ڪشي]]
* [[يهوديت جي تاريخ]] 
* [[فلسطين جي تاريخ]] 
* [[يهودي تاريخ جو خاڪو]] 
* [[يهودي تاريخ جو وقت]] 
* [[يهودين جو جينياتي مطالعو]] 
* [[اسرائيل جي سرزمين ۾ يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ]]

==نوٽ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===حوالي جا لکت===
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==ڪتابيات==
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* [[Jacob Neusner|Neusner, Jacob]]; Green, William Scott, eds. (1991). ''The Origins of Judaism. Religion, History, and Literature in Late Antiquity.'' 20-volume Set. New York: Garland Press. (Reprinted scholarly essays, with introductions.)
* [[Jacob Neusner|Neusner, Jacob]] (1999). ''[{{Google books|id=5YFXIUJYgsYC
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=== France ===
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* Taitz, Emily. ''The Jews of Medieval France: The Community of Champagne'' (1994) [https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130202034/https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne |date=November 30, 2018 }}

=== Russia and Eastern Europe ===
* Brinkmann, Tobias.  (2024). ''Between Borders: The Great Jewish Migration from Eastern Europe''. New York: Oxford University Press.

* Darieva, Tsypylma, Darja Klingenberg, and Chen Bram. (2025) &quot;Jews of the Caucasus: multiple entanglements and migration routes.&quot; ''Journal of Modern Jewish Studies'' 24.2 (2025): 557-569.  [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14725886.2025.2518673  online]

* [[David Fishman|Fishman, David]] (1996). ''Russia's First Modern Jews''. New York University Press.
* [[Zvi Gitelman|Gitelman, Zvi]] (2001). ''A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present''.

* Kushkova, Anna. (2025) &quot;From a Shtetl House to an Urban Apartment: The Soviet Jewish Home Negotiated, Transformed, and Reimagined.&quot; ''Jewish Folklore and Ethnology'' 4.1 (2025): 70-125. [https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1028&amp;context=jewishfolklore  online]

* Polonsky, Antony. ''The Jews in Poland and Russia: A Short History'' (2013)

* Sapritsky-Nahum, Marina. (2025) &quot;Identity transformations of Ukrainian Jewry during the Russian–Ukrainian war: Odesa’s communities and religious leaders at home and in exile.&quot; ''Canadian Slavonic Papers'' 67.1-2 (2025): 214-235. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00085006.2025.2500199  online]

* Schapiro, Leonard. &quot;The role of the Jews in the Russian revolutionary movement.&quot; ''Slavonic and East European Review'' (1961): 148-167. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4205328  online]

* Shumsky, Dmitry. (2025) &quot;Beyond Antisemitism: Rethinking Stalin’s Anti-Jewish Campaign, 1948–1953.&quot; ''Journal of Modern History'' 97.2 (2025): 348-386. 
* {{cite book |last1=Weiner |first1=Miriam |last2=Polish State Archives (in cooperation with) |title=Jewish Roots in Poland: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories |date=1997 |publisher=Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation |location=Secaucus, NJ |isbn=978-0-9656508-0-9 |oclc=38756480}}
* {{cite book |last1=Weiner |first1=Miriam |last2=Ukrainian State Archives (in cooperation with) |last3=Moldovan National Archives (in cooperation with) |title=Jewish Roots in Ukraine and Moldova: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories |date=1999 |publisher=Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation |location=Secaucus, NJ |isbn=978-0-9656508-1-6 |oclc=607423469}}
* Yivo Institute for Jewish Research. ''A Century of Ambivalence, Second Expanded Edition: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present'' (Indiana University Press, 2001).

=== United States ===

{{Main|American Jews#Bibliography|History of the{{short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt;
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 063.jpg|thumb|According to Jewish tradition, Jacob, shown [[Jacob wrestling with the angel|wrestling with the angel]] in this painting by [[Rembrandt]], was the father of the [[tribes of Israel]].]]
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|history}}
{{history of religion|religions}}

[[Jews]] originated from the [[Israelites]] and [[Hebrews]] of historical [[Israel and Judah]], two related kingdoms that emerged in the [[Levant]] during the [[Iron Age]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 |date=April 9, 2023 }} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The earliest mention of [[Israelites]] is inscribed on the [[Merneptah Stele]] {{circa|1213–1203 BCE}}; later religious literature tells the story of Israelites going back at least as far as {{cx|1500 BCE}}. Traditionally, the name ''Israel'' is said to originate with the Hebrew patriarch [[Jacob]], who provides a narrative [[etiology]] for the name{{snd}}after wrestling with an angel, Jacob is renamed Israel, meaning &quot;he who struggles with God&quot;. The [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] based in [[Samaria]] fell to the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] {{cx|720 BCE}},&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Kingdom of Judah]] to the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] in 586 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Faust |first=Avraham |title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period |date=August 29, 2012 |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |isbn=978-1-58983-641-9 |pages=1 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28}}&lt;/ref&gt; Part of the Judean population was exiled to [[Babylonia|Babylon]]. The [[Assyrian captivity|Assyrian]] and [[Babylonian captivity|Babylonian captivities]] are regarded as representing the start of the [[Jewish diaspora]].

After the [[Achaemenid Empire]] conquered the region, the exiled Jews were [[Return to Zion|allowed to return]] and [[Second Temple|rebuild the temple]]; these events mark the beginning of the [[Second Temple period]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Jonathan |last1=Stökl |first2=Caroline |last2=Waerzegger |title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context |date=2015 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=7–11, 30, 226}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia Judaica |edition=2nd |volume=3 |page=27}}&lt;/ref&gt; After several centuries of foreign rule, the [[Maccabean Revolt]] against the [[Seleucid Empire]] led to an [[Hasmonean dynasty|independent Hasmonean kingdom]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Peter Fibiger |last1=Bang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&amp;pg=PAPA184 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean |first2=Walter |last2=Scheidel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-518831-8 |pages=184–187}}&lt;/ref&gt; but it was gradually incorporated into the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] imperial system.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=223–239}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Jewish–Roman wars]], a series of unsuccessful revolts against the Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, resulted in the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Zissu |first=Boaz |title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE |date=2018 |isbn=978-90-04-34986-5 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill  |page=19 |chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective |oclc=988856967}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the expulsion of many Jews.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Erwin |last1=Fahlbusch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&amp;pg=PAPA15 |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |first2=Geoffrey William |last2=Bromiley |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5 |page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Jewish population in [[Syria Palaestina]] gradually decreased during the following centuries, enhancing the role of the Jewish diaspora and shifting the spiritual and demographic centre from the depopulated [[Judea]] to [[Galilee]] and then to [[Asoristan|Babylon]], with smaller communities spread out across the [[Roman Empire]]. During the same period, the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]], central Jewish texts, were composed. In the following millennia, the diaspora communities [[Coalescent theory|coalesced]] into three major [[Jewish ethnic divisions|ethnic subdivisions]] according to where their ancestors settled: the [[Ashkenazim]] in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern European Jewry|Eastern Europe]], the [[Sephardim]] initially in [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Iberia]], and the [[Mizrahim]] in the [[History of the Jews under Muslim rule|Middle East]] and [[North Africa]].&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&amp;pg=PA87 &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity.&quot; p. 87.] Eban, Abba Solomon. &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews.&quot; Summit Books Syracuse, New York: 1984. p. 87.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Dosick (2007), pp. 59–60.&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[early Muslim conquests]] ended [[Byzantine]] control over the [[Eastern Mediterranean]], with the newly established [[Rashidun Caliphate]] taking over the [[Levant]], [[Mesopotamia]], and North Africa during the 7th century, and the [[Iberian Peninsula]] during the 8th century. [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain|Jewish culture enjoyed a golden age in Spain]], with Jews becoming widely accepted in society and their religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed before the arrival of the intolerant [[Almohades]]. In 1492 [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|the Jews were forced to leave Spain]] by the Catholic Monarchs [[Catholic Monarchs of Spain|Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand II]], whereafter they migrated in great numbers to the [[History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]] and [[Italian Peninsula|Italy]]. Between the 12th and 15th centuries, Ashkenazi Jews experienced extreme persecution in Central Europe, which prompted their mass migration to [[History of Jews in Poland|Poland]].&lt;ref&gt;Mosk (2013), p. 143. &quot;Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Harshav, Benjamin (1999). ''The Meaning of Yiddish''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. &quot;From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the centre of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The 18th century saw the rise of the [[Haskalah]] intellectual movement. Also starting in the 18th century, Jews began to campaign for [[Jewish emancipation]] from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society.

In the 19th century, when Jews in [[Western Europe]] were increasingly granted equality before the law, Jews in the [[Pale of Settlement]] faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread [[pogrom]]s. During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to [[Ottoman Syria]] with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. The [[Zionist movement]] was officially founded in 1897. The pogroms also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the United States between 1881 and 1924.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lewin |first=Rhoda G. |date=1979 |title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis |url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |journal=Minnesota History |volume=46 |issue=7 |page=259 |access-date=August 10, 2020 |archive-date=July 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. Many [[Nobel Prize]] winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |publisher=jinfo.org |access-date=October 7, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1933, with the rise to power of [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]] in [[Nazi Germany|Germany]], the situation for Jews became severe. Economic crises, racial [[Antisemitism in Europe#The Holocaust|antisemitic laws]], and a fear of an upcoming war led many to flee from Europe to [[Mandatory Palestine]], to the United States and to the [[Soviet Union]]. In 1939, [[World War II]] began and until 1941 Germany [[German-occupied Europe|occupied almost all of Europe]]. In 1941, following the [[Operation Barbarossa|invasion]] of the Soviet Union, the [[Final Solution]] began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe and North Africa. In Poland, three million were murdered in [[gas chambers]] in all concentration camps combined, with one million at the [[Auschwitz]] camp complex alone. This [[genocide]], in which approximately six million Jews were methodically exterminated, is known as [[the Holocaust]].

Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On May 14, 1948, upon the termination of the British Mandate, [[David Ben-Gurion]] declared the creation of the [[State of Israel]], a [[Jewish and democratic state]] in ''[[Eretz Israel]]'' (Land of Israel). Immediately afterwards, all neighbouring Arab states invaded, yet the newly formed [[IDF]] resisted. In 1949, the war ended and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of [[Aliyah]] from all over Europe and [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Middle Eastern countries]]. {{As of|2022|post=,}} Israel is a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a population of 9.6 million people, of whom 7 million are [[Israeli Jews|Jewish]].

The largest Jewish community outside Israel is the [[American Jews|United States]], while large communities also exist in France, Canada, Argentina, Russia, United Kingdom, Australia, and [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]]. Currently, the Jewish ethnicity have two autonomous states under their power to act as sanctuaries, [[Israel]] and the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]].

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Commons category|Jewish history}}
* [http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/ The Jewish History Resource Center]. Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
* [http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/Internetresources/modern/israelindex.htm The State of Israel] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
* [http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/ Jewish History and Culture Encyclopaedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224094628/http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/ |date=December 24, 2008 }} Official Site of the 22-volume Encyclopaedia Judaica
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/jewishsbook.html Internet Jewish History Sourcebook] offering homework help and online texts
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050528023003/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/israelite_religion.htm Israelite Religion to Judaism: the Evolution of the Religion of Israel].
* [https://thinktorah.org/jewish-history/ 2000 Years of Jewish History]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050629084248/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/greek_influence.htm Greek Influence on Judaism from the Hellenistic Period Through the Middle Ages c. 300 BCE–1200 CE].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050604085120/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/jewish_sects.htm Jewish Sects of the Second Temple Period].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101119075635/http://adath-shalom.ca/samaritan_origin.htm The Origin and Nature of the Samaritans and their Relationship to Second Temple Jewish Sects].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051118233741/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/eb2bk.htm Jewish History Tables].
* [http://www.oztorah.com/category/australian-jewry/ Articles on Australian Jewish history].
* [http://www.oztorah.com/category/british-jewry/ Articles on British Jewish history].
* Barnavi, Eli (Ed.). ''A Historical Atlas of the Jewish People''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1992. {{ISBN|978-0-679-40332-6}}
* [http://www.simpletoremember.com/vitals/Jewish_History.htm Crash Course in Jewish History]
* [http://csicso-nagy.uw.hu/fo-o-Csicso-NAGY-A/jewish-families.htm Jewish families in Csicsó – Cicov (Slovakia) until the Holocaust]
* [http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&amp;Volume=36&amp;Issue=1&amp;ArticleID=29 &quot;Under the Influence: Hellenism in Ancient Jewish Life&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229232302/http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&amp;Volume=36&amp;Issue=1&amp;ArticleID=29 |date=February 29, 2012 }} Biblical Archaeology Society
* [http://www.jewishhistory.org/crash-course/ Summary of Jewish History] by Berel Wein
* [http://histclo.com/chron/ancient/heb/heb-hist.html Ancient Hebrew history]
* [http://jewishhistorylectures.org/ Videos of Jewish History Lectures by Henry Abramson of Touro College South]
{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:يهودين جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:يهوديت جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:يهودي نسلي گروهه]]
[[زمرو:تاريخ بلحاظ مذهب]]
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      <text bytes="204229" sha1="80fgz4vz99mo95j1qywm1oadc2gzc1r" xml:space="preserve">يهودي (&lt;small&gt;Jews&lt;/small&gt;) تاريخي اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه، ٻه لاڳاپيل بادشاهتن جيڪيون [[لوهه جو دور|لوهه جي دور]] ۾ [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سرزمين شام (ليونٽ)]] ۾ ظاهر ٿيون،  جي بني اسرائيل ۽ عبرانين مان پيدا ٿيا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|date=2001|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|isbn=978-0-684-86912-4|edition=1st Touchstone|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken2&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229|date=April 9, 2023}} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; بني اسرائيل جو پهريون ذڪر، 1213-1203 ق.م. جو مرنيپتا اسٽيل تي لکيل آهي؛ بعد ۾ مذهبي ادب بني اسرائيلن جي ڪهاڻي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 1500 ق.م. تائين ٻڌائي ٿو. روايتي طور تي، اسرائيل جو نالو عبراني بزرگ [[يعقوب عليہ السلام|يعقوب]] سان شروع ٿيو آهي، جيڪو نالي لاءِ هڪ داستاني ايٽولوجي فراهم ڪري ٿو - هڪ فرشتي سان وڙهڻ کان پوءِ، يعقوب جو نالو اسرائيل رکيو ويو، جنهن جو مطلب آهي &quot;اهو جيڪو خدا سان ويڙهي ٿو&quot;. سامريه ۾ قائم اسرائيل جي بادشاهت 720 ق.م. ڌاري نيو-آشوري سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Broshi|first=Maguen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174|title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2001|isbn=978-1-84127-201-6|page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ 586 ق.م. ڌاري يهودين جي بادشاهت نيو-بابلي سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Faust|first=Avraham|title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period|date=August 29, 2012|publisher=Society of Biblical Literature|isbn=978-1-58983-641-9|pages=1|doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي آبادي جو هڪ حصو [[بابل]] ڏانهن جلاوطن ڪيو ويو. آشور ۽ بابل ۾ قيد ٿيل يهودين کي ڊائاسپورا جي شروعات جي نمائندگي ڪندڙ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.

{{short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt;
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 063.jpg|thumb|يهودي روايت موجب، يعقوب، جيڪو ريمبران جي هن تصوير ۾ ملائڪ سان وڙهندي ڏيکاريو ويو آهي، اسرائيل جي قبيلن جو پيءُ هو. ]][[هخامنشي سلطنت]] طرفان هن علائقي کي فتح ڪرڻ کان پوءِ، جلاوطن يهودين کي واپس اچڻ ۽ مندر کي ٻيهر تعمير ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي؛ اها واقعا ٻئي مندر جي دور جي شروعات جي نشاندهي ڪن ٿا. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Jonathan|last1=Stökl|first2=Caroline|last2=Waerzegger|title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context|date=2015|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|pages=7–11, 30, 226}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia Judaica|edition=2nd|volume=3|page=27}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيترن ئي صدين جي پرڏيهي حڪمراني کانپوءِ، سيليوسڊ سلطنت جي خلاف مڪابي بغاوت هڪ آزاد هاشموني بادشاهت جو سبب بڻي، &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Peter Fibiger|last1=Bang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&amp;pg=PAPA184|title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean|first2=Walter|last2=Scheidel|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-518831-8|pages=184–187}}&lt;/ref&gt; پر ان رياست کي بتدريج [[رومي سلطنت]] ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Abraham|last=Malamat|url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=A History of the Jewish People|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1976|isbn=978-0-674-39731-6|pages=223–239}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي-رومن جنگيون، پهرين ۽ ٻي صدي عيسوي ۾ رومن جي خلاف ناڪام بغاوتن جو هڪ سلسلو، [[يروشلم]] ۽ ٻئي مندر جي تباهي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Zissu|first=Boaz|title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE|date=2018|isbn=978-90-04-34986-5|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|page=19|chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective|oclc=988856967}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ ڪيترن ئي يهودين کي نيڪالي ڏيڻ جو سبب بڻيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Erwin|last1=Fahlbusch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&amp;pg=PAPA15|title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity|first2=Geoffrey William|last2=Bromiley|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5|page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt; سر زمين شام فلسطين ۾ يهودي آبادي ايندڙ صدين دوران بتدريج گهٽجي وئي، يهودي ڊائاسپورا جي ڪردار کي وڌايو ۽ روحاني ۽ آبادي جي مرڪز کي خالي ٿيل يهوديا کان گليلي ۽ پوءِ بابل ڏانهن منتقل ڪيو، يهودين جون ننڍيون برادريون رومن سلطنت ۾ پکڙيل هيون. ساڳئي عرصي دوران، مشناه ۽ تلمود، مرڪزي يهودي متن، ترتيب ڏنا ويا. ايندڙ هزار سالن ۾، ڊائاسپورا برادريون ٽن وڏن نسلي ذيلي تقسيم ۾، جتي انهن جا ابا ڏاڏا آباد ٿيا هئا: وچ ۽ اوڀر يورپ ۾ اشڪنازي، [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|آئبيريا]] ۾ سيفاردي ۽ [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]] ۾ مزراهي طور گڏ ٿي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&amp;pg=PA87 &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity.&quot; p. 87.] Eban, Abba Solomon. &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews.&quot; Summit Books Syracuse, New York: 1984. p. 87.&lt;/ref&gt;  &lt;ref&gt;Dosick (2007), pp. 59–60.&lt;/ref&gt;

شروعاتي اسلامي فتحون اوڀرين رومي سمنڊ جي علائقن تي [[بازنطيني سلطنت|بازنطيني]] ڪنٽرول ختم ڪري ڇڏيو، نئين قائم ٿيل راشدون خلافت 7هين صدي دوران [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|ليونٽ]]، [[ميسوپوٽيميا]] ۽ اتر آفريڪا تي قبضو ڪيو ۽ 8هين صدي دوران [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|آئبيرين جزيره نما]] تي قبضو ڪيو. يهودي ثقافت مسلم [[اندلس]] ۾ هڪ سونهري دور مان لطف اندوز ٿي، يهودين کي سماج ۾ وڏي پيماني تي قبول ڪيو ويو ۽ انهن جي مذهبي، ثقافتي ۽ معاشي زندگي عدم برداشت واري الموحدين جي اچڻ کان اڳ ڦٽي نڪتي. سال 1492ع ۾ ڪيٿولڪ حڪمران، راڻي ازابيل اول ۽ بادشاهه فرڊيننڊ II پاران يهودين کي اسپين ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ڪيو ويو، جنهن کان پوءِ اهي وڏي تعداد ۾ [[عثماني سلطنت]] ۽ [[اٽلي]] ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي. 12هين ۽ 15هين صدي جي وچ ۾، اشڪنازي يهودين وچ يورپ ۾ انتهائي ظلم جو تجربو ڪيو، جنهن جي ڪري انهن جي [[پولينڊ]] ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. &lt;ref&gt;Mosk (2013), p. 143. &quot;Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Harshav, Benjamin (1999). ''The Meaning of Yiddish''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. &quot;From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the centre of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt;هين صدي ۾ هسڪاله دانشورانه تحريڪ جو عروج ڏٺو ويو. &lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt;هين صدي جي شروعات ۾، يهودي يهودين کي پابندين وارن قانونن کان آزاد ڪرڻ ۽ وسيع يورپي سماج ۾ ضم ڪرڻ لاءِ مهم هلائڻ شروع ڪئي.

19هين صدي ۾، جڏهن اولهائين يورپ ۾ يهودين کي قانون جي سامهون برابري ڏني پئي وئي، ته آبادڪاري جي ميدان ۾ يهودين کي وڌندڙ ظلم، قانوني پابندين ۽ وڏي پيماني تي قتل عام جو سامنا ڪرڻ پيو. 1870 ۽ 1880 جي ڏهاڪن دوران، يورپ ۾ يهودي آبادي فلسطين ۾ يهودي رياست کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان عثماني شام ڏانهن هجرت تي وڌيڪ سرگرم بحث ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. صهيوني تحريڪ سرڪاري طور تي سال 1897ع ۾ قائم ڪئي وئي هئي. سال 1881ع ۽ 1924ع جي وچ ۾ [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] ڏانهن 20 لک کان وڌيڪ يهودين جي وڏي پيماني تي هجرت کي به شروع ڪيو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Lewin|first=Rhoda G.|date=1979|title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis|url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf|journal=Minnesota History|volume=46|issue=7|page=259|access-date=August 10, 2020|archive-date=July 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; يورپ ۽ آمريڪا جا يهودي سائنس، ثقافت ۽ معيشت جي شعبن ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪيا. عام طور تي سڀ کان وڌيڪ مشهور سمجهيا ويندڙن ۾ [[البرٽ آئنسٽائن|البرٽ آئن اسٽائن]] ۽ لڊوگ وٽگنسٽائن شامل هئا. هن وقت ڪيترائي [[نوبل انعام حاصل ڪندڙن جي فهرست|نوبل انعام يافته]] يهودي هئا، جيئن اڃا تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners|publisher=jinfo.org|access-date=October 7, 2011|archive-date=December 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سال &lt;small&gt;1933&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، [[جرمنيا|جرمني]] ۾ [[هٽلر|ايڊولف هٽلر]] ۽ نازي پارٽي جي اقتدار ۾ اچڻ سان، يهودين لاءِ صورتحال سخت ٿي وئي. معاشي بحران، نسل پرست يهودي مخالف قانون ۽ ايندڙ جنگ جي خوف سبب ڪيترائي ماڻهو [[يُورَپ|يورپ]] کان [[فلسطين|لازمي فلسطين]]، آمريڪا ۽ [[سوويت يونين]] ڏانهن ڀڄي ويا. سال 1939ع ۾، [[ٻين مھاڀاري جنگ|ٻي مهاڀاري جنگ]] شروع ٿي ۽ سال 1941ع تائين جرمني تقريبن سڄي يورپ تي قبضو ڪري ورتو. سال 1941ع ۾، سوويت يونين جي حملي کان پوءِ، آخري حل شروع ٿيو، هڪ غير معمولي پيماني تي هڪ وسيع منظم آپريشن، جنهن جو مقصد يهودي ماڻهن کي ختم ڪرڻ هو ۽ نتيجي ۾ يورپ ۽ اتر آفريڪا ۾ يهودين جو قتل عام ٿيو. پولينڊ ۾، سڀني ڪنسنٽريشن ڪيمپن ۾ گيس چيمبرن ۾ 30 لک يهودي قتل ڪيا ويا، جن ۾ صرف آشوٽز ڪيمپ ڪمپليڪس ۾ 10 لک شامل هئا. هي نسل ڪشي، جنهن ۾ تقريبن 60 لک يهودين کي طريقي سان ختم ڪيو ويو، هولوڪاسٽ جي نالي سان مشهور آهي. 

هولوڪاسٽ کان اڳ ۽ دوران، يهودين جي وڏي تعداد لازمي فلسطين ڏانهن هجرت ڪئي. 14 مئي 1948ع تي، برطانوي مينڊيٽ جي خاتمي تي، ڊيوڊ بين-گورين ارض اسرائيل (اسرائيل جي سرزمين) ۾ هڪ يهودي ۽ جمهوري رياست، [[اسرائيل]] جي رياست جي قيام جو اعلان ڪيو.

ان کان پوءِ فوري طور تي، سڀني پاڙيسري عرب رياستون اسرائيل تي حملو ڪيو، پر نئين ٺهيل اسرائيلي دفاعي فوج (IDF) مزاحمت ڪئي. سال 1949ع ۾ جنگ ختم ٿي وئي ۽ اسرائيل رياست جي تعمير شروع ڪئي ۽ سڄي يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر جي ملڪن مان ايندڙ يهودين جي وڏين لهرن کي جذب ڪيو. سال 2022ع تائين، اسرائيل هڪ پارلياماني جمهوريت آهي جنهن جي آبادي 96 لک ماڻهن جي آهي، جن مان 70 لک يهودي آهن. ([[غزه جي پٽي|غزا]] ۽ [[فلسطين جي رياست|مغربي ڪناري]] جي 35 لک آبادي کانسواء).

اسرائيل کان ٻاهر سڀ کان وڏي يهودي برادري آمريڪا ۾ آهي، جڏهن ته ٻيون وڏي برادريون [[فرانس]]، [[ڪينيڊا]]، [[ارجنٽائن]]، [[روس]]، [[گڏيل بادشاھت|برطانيه]]، [[آسٽريليا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] ۾ پڻ موجود آهن. هن وقت، يهودي نسل جون ٻه خودمختيار رياستون؛ اسرائيل ۽ روس ۾ يهودي خودمختيار اوبلاست آهن جيڪي انهن جي اختيار هيٺ آهن ته اهي پناهه گاهه طور ڪم ڪن.

==جائزو==
قديم يهودي تاريخ بائيبل ۽ غير بائيبل ذريعن، اپوڪرائيفا ۽ سوڊيپيگرافا، جوزيفس جي لکڻين، گريڪو-رومن ليکڪن ۽ چرچ جي پادرين، گڏوگڏ آثار قديمه جي دريافتن، لکتن، قديم دستاويزن، جهڙوڪ ايليفينٽائن ۽ فيوم مان پيپيري، مردار سمنڊ جا اسڪرول، بار ڪوخبا خط، باباٿا آرڪائيوز ۽ قاهره جينيزا دستاويزن، مان معلوم ٿئي ٿي، جيڪي زباني تاريخ ۽ مدراش ۽ تلمود ۾ تبصرن جي مجموعن سان گڏ آهن. 

ابتدائي جديد دور ۾ پرنٽنگ پريس جي آمد سان، يهودين جي تاريخ ۽ عبراني بائيبل جا شروعاتي ايڊيشن شايع ٿيا جيڪي يهودي مذهب جي تاريخ ۽ وڌندڙ طور تي، يهودين جي قومي تاريخن، يهودي قوم ۽ سڃاڻپ سان لاڳاپيل هئا، هڪ مسودي يا لکندڙ ڪلچر کان هڪ پرنٽنگ ڪلچر ڏانهن منتقلي هئي. يهودي مورخن پنهنجن اجتماعي تجربن جا احوال لکيا، پر سياسي، ثقافتي ۽ سائنسي يا فلسفياتي ڳولا لاءِ تاريخ کي پڻ وڌندڙ طور تي استعمال ڪيو. ليکڪن ثقافتي طور تي ورثي ۾ مليل متن جي هڪ مجموعي کي استعمال ڪيو ته جيئن فن جي حالت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ يا اڳتي وڌائڻ لاءِ هڪ منطقي داستان تيار ڪري سگهجي. جديد يهودي تاريخ نويسي يورپي نشاۃِ ثانيه ۽ روشن خيالي جي دور جهڙين دانشورانه تحريڪن سان جڙيل آهي، پر وچين دور جي آخر ۾ ۽ قديم زماني ۾ مختلف ذريعن ۾ اڳوڻين ڪمن تي ڌيان ڏنو. اڄ، يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ کي اڪثر ست دورن ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي:
# قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه رياست (&lt;small&gt;1200 ق.م. کان 586 ق.م.&lt;/small&gt;) 
# ٻيو مندر وارو دور (&lt;small&gt;516 ق.م. کان 70 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|editor-last=Goodman|editor-first=Martin|chapter=Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period|pages=36–52|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0003|isbn=0-19-928032-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# ربانڪ يا تلمودي دور (&lt;small&gt;70 کان 640 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|editor-last=Goodman|editor-first=Martin|chapter=Historiography on the Jews in the ‘Talmudic Period’ (70–640 ce)|pages=79–114|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0005|isbn=0-19-928032-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# وچين دور (&lt;small&gt;640 کان 1492 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# ابتدائي جديد دور (&lt;small&gt;1492-1750 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# جديد دور (&lt;small&gt;1750ع کان 20هين صدي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# [[صيهونيت]]، [[هولوڪاسٽ]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جو قيام (&lt;small&gt;19 کان 21هين صدي&lt;/small&gt;)
&lt;imagemap&gt;
File:Chronology of Israel eng.png|center|800px
default [[#Time periods in Jewish history|Jewish history]]
rect 658 156 833 176 [[Aliyah|Periods of massive immigration to Palestine]]
rect 564 156 647 175 [[Jewish diaspora|Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in exile]]
rect 460 156 554 175 [[Land of Israel|Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in the southern Levant, with full or partial independence]]
rect 314 156 452 175 [[Temple in Jerusalem|Periods in which a Jewish Temple existed]]
rect 196 156 309 175 [[#Time periods in Jewish history|Jewish history]]
rect 26 102 134 122 [[Book of Judges|Shoftim]]
rect 134 102 265 121 [[Books of Kings|Melakhim]]
rect 146 83 266 104 [[First Temple]]
rect 286 83 418 103 [[Second Temple]]
rect 341 103 392 121 [[Zugot]]
rect 393 103 453 121 [[Tannaim]]
rect 452 102 534 221 [[Amoraim]]
rect 534 102 560 121 [[Savoraim]]
rect 559 103 691 121 [[Geonim]]
rect 691 102 825 121 [[Rishonim]]
rect 825 100 940 120 [[Acharonim]]
rect 939 94 959 120 [[Aliyah|Aliyot]]
rect 957 65 975 121 [[Israel]]
rect 940 62 958 94 [[The Holocaust]]
rect 825 62 941 100 [[Jewish diaspora|Diaspora]]
rect 808 61 825 101 [[Alhambra decree|Expulsion from Spain]]
rect 428 62 808 103 [[Dispersion of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Roman exile]]
poly 226 82 410 82 410 92 428 92 428 61 226 62 [[Ten Lost Tribes|Assyrian Exile (Ten Lost Tribes)]]
rect 264 82 284 122 [[Babylonian captivity]]
rect 283 103 341 121 [[Second Temple of Jerusalem|Second Temple period]]
poly 26 121 17 121 17 63 225 63 226 81 145 82 145 101 26 101 [[Chronology of the Bible|Ancient Jewish History]]
rect 58 136 375 146 [[Chronology of the Bible]]
rect 356 122 373 135 [[Common Era]]
desc none
&lt;/imagemap&gt;

==قديم اسرائيل==
{{Main|يهوديت جي اصل}}
===شروعاتي بني اسرائيل===
{{Main|بني اسرائيل}}
[[File:Ruins atop Tel Megiddo with circular altar-like shrine and a series of temples on top of the other dating from the early bronze-age through the iron-age periods, Tel Meggido, Israel (19888642855).jpg|thumb|تل ميگيدو، هڪ ڪنعاني ۽ بعد ۾ اسرائيلي شهر جا کنڊر]]

ابتدائي يهودين ۽ انهن جي پاڙيسرين جي تاريخ، ميڊيٽرينين سمنڊ جي زرخيز هلال ۽ اوڀر ساحل تي مرڪز آهي. اها انهن ماڻهن سان شروع ٿئي ٿي جيڪا [[نيل درياھہ|نيل]] ۽ [[ميسوپوٽيميا]] جي وچ واري علائقي تي قبضو ڪيو هو. مصر ۽ بابل ۾ ثقافت جي قديم مرڪزن، عرب جي ريگستانن ۽ ايشيا ڪوچڪ جي ميدان جي اهي، ڪنعان جي زمين (تقريبن جديد اسرائيل، فلسطين، اردن ۽ لبنان سان ملندڙ جلندڙ) تهذيبن جي ميلاپ جو هنڌ هئي.

[[File:Map Israel Judea 926 BC-fr.svg|thumb|سال 926 ق.م. ۾ اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه جون بادشاهتون]]
اسرائيل جي نالي سان هڪ قوم جو سڀ کان پهريون رڪارڊ ٿيل ثبوت قديم مصر جي مرنيپتاه اسٽيلئ ۾ نظر اچي ٿو، جيڪو 1200 ق.م. جو آهي. جديد آثار قديمه جي حساب موجب، اسرائيلي ۽ انهن جي ثقافت هڪ الڳ مونولئٽرسٽڪ ۽ پوء توحيد پرست (monotheistic) مذهب جي ترقي ذريعي ڪنعاني ماڻهن ۽ انهن جي ثقافتن مان نڪتل هئي، جيڪا هڪ قومي خدا &quot;يهواه&quot; تي مرڪوز هو.&lt;ref&gt;Mark Smith in &quot;The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel&quot; states &quot;Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000&amp;nbsp;BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period.&quot; (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) &quot;The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel&quot; (Eerdman's)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rendsberg, Gary (2008). &quot;Israel without the Bible&quot;. In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Gnuse |first1=Robert Karl |title=No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel |date=1997 |publisher=Sheffield Academic Press Ltd |isbn=1-85075-657-0 |location=England |pages=28, 31}}&lt;/ref&gt; اها عبراني ٻولي جي هڪ قديم شڪل ڳالهائيندا هئا، جيڪا اڄ بائيبل جي عبراني جي نالي سان مشهور آهي.&lt;ref&gt;Steiner, Richard C. (1997), &quot;Ancient Hebrew&quot;, in Hetzron, Robert (ed.), ''The Semitic Languages'', Routledge, pp. 145–173, {{ISBN|978-0-415-05767-7}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

پهرين صدي قبل مسيح جي وچ کان، يهودين کي روايتي طور تي پنهنجي تاريخ جي جيڪا سمجھ هئي، اها عبراني بائيبل ۾ بيان ڪيل روايتن جي چوڌاري مرڪوز هئي. هن خيال موجب، ابراهيم (اهو ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته هو يهودين جو حياتياتي پيشوا ۽ يهوديت جو پيءُ آهي) پهريون يهودي آهي.{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=3}} بعد ۾ اسحاق ابراهيم مان پيدا ٿيو ۽ يعقوب اسحاق مان پيدا ٿيو. هڪ ملائڪ سان ويڙهه کان پوءِ، يعقوب کي اسرائيل جو نالو ڏنو ويو. سخت ڏڪار کانپوءِ، يعقوب ۽ سندس ٻارهن پٽ مصر ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي ويا، جتي انهن آخرڪار اسرائيل جا ٻارهن قبيلا ٺاهيا. بعد ۾ بني اسرائيل کي مصر جي غلامي مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ موسيٰ طرفان ڪنعان آندو ويو. انهن آخرڪار يوشع جي اڳواڻي ۾ ڪنعان کي فتح ڪيو.

جديد عالم متفق آهن ته بائيبل بني اسرائيل جي اصليت جو مستند احوال فراهم نٿو ڪري. اتفاق راءِ ان ڳالهه جي حمايت ڪري ٿو ته آثار قديمه جا ثبوت وڏي پيماني تي اسرائيل جي اصليت کي 1200 کان 1000 ق.م. ۾ ڪنعان ۾ ڏيکارين ٿا، مصر ۾ نه. اهو &quot;زبردست&quot; آهي ۽ &quot;مصر مان نڪرڻ يا سينائي ​​جي بيابان ذريعي 40 سالن جي زيارت لاءِ ڪا به گنجائش نه ٿو ڇڏي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dever-2002&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William G. |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8028-2126-3}} p. 99&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪيترا ئي آثار قديمه جا ماهر موسيٰ ۽ خروج جي آثار قديمه جي تحقيق کي &quot;هڪ بيڪار جستجو&quot; طور ڇڏي ڏنو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dever-2002&quot; /&gt; بهرحال، اهو قبول ڪيو ويو آهي، ته هن داستان جو هڪ &quot;تاريخي بنياد&quot; آهي.&lt;ref&gt;For more about the historicity of Jewish history as it pertains to [[Oral Torah|rabbinic]] sources, see {{cite journal |first1=Reuven Chaim |last1=Klein |date=2023 |title=Are historical sections of the Talmud actually historical? Critical tools for understanding historical claims in rabbinic literature |url=https://www.academia.edu/127965994 |journal=Journal of Philological Pedagogy |volume=12 |publisher=Chandler School of Education |pages=42–75 |doi=10.17613/rjp5a-md343 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Faust|2015|loc=p.476: &quot;While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt..&quot;}}{{sfn|Redmount|2001|p=61|ps=: &quot;A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative.&quot;}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2001 |isbn=3-927120-37-5 |pages=98–99 |quote=After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible &quot;historical figures&quot; [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.}}&lt;/ref&gt; آثار قديمه جي ماهرن ۽ مصريات جي ماهرن جي هڪ صدي جي تحقيق ۾ ڪو به ثبوت نه مليو آهي، جيڪو مصري قيد ۽ فرار ۽ بيابان مان سفر جي خروج جي داستان سان سڌو سنئون لاڳاپيل ٿي سگهي ٿو، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ اهو مشورو ڏنو ويو آهي ته لوهه جي دور جو اسرائيل - يهودا ۽ اسرائيل جي بادشاهتن جي اصل ڪنعان ۾ آهي، مصر ۾ نه.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |editor-last1=Finkelstein |editor-first1=Israel |editor-first2=Nadav |editor-last2=Naaman |title=From Nomadism to Monarchy: Archaeological and Historical Aspects of Early Israel |publisher=[[Israel Exploration Society]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-880317-20-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Compare: {{cite book |first=Ian |last=Shaw |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&amp;q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&amp;pg=PA313 |title=A Dictionary of Archaeology |author2=Robert Jameson |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-631-23583-5 |editor=Ian Shaw |edition=New |page=313 |quote=The Biblical account of the origins of the people of Israel (principally recounted in Numbers, Joshua and Judges) often conflicts with non-Biblical textual sources and with the archaeological evidence for the settlement of Canaan in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age. [...] Israel is first textually attested as a political entity in Egyptian texts of the late 13th century BCE and the Egyptologist Donald Redford argues that the Israelites must have been emerging as a distinct group within the Canaanite culture during the century or so prior to this. It has been suggested that the early Israelites were an oppressed rural group of Canaanites who rebelled against the more urbanized coastal Canaanites (Gottwald 1979). Alternatively, it has been argued that the Israelites were survivors of the decline in the fortunes of Canaan who established themselves in the highlands at the end of the late Bronze Age (Ahlstrom 1986: 27). Redford, however, makes a good case for equating the very earliest Israelites with a semi-nomadic people in the highlands of central Palestine whom the Egyptians called Shasu (Redford 1992:2689–80; although see Stager 1985 for strong arguments against the identification with the Shasu). These Shasu were a persistent thorn in the side of the Ramessid pharaohs' empire in Syria-Palestine, well-attested in Egyptian texts, but their pastoral lifestyle has left scant traces in the archaeological record. By the end of the 13th century BCE, however, the Shasu/Israelites were beginning to establish small settlements in the uplands, the architecture of which closely resembles contemporary Canaanite villages. |author-link=Israel, Israelites |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160406/https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&amp;q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&amp;pg=PA313 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; ابتدائي اسرائيلي آبادين جي ثقافت ڪنعاني آهي. انهن جي گروهي-شيون ڪنعاني ديوتا ايل، برتن، مقامي ڪنعاني روايت ۽ استعمال ٿيل الفابيٽ ابتدائي ڪنعاني آهن، ۾ رهي ٿو. &quot;اسرائيلي&quot; ڳوٺن کي ڪنعاني جڳهن کان ڌار ڪرڻ لاء واحد نشان سوئر جي هڏن جي غير موجودگي آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ڇا اهو نسلي نشان طور ورتو وڃي ٿو يا ٻين عنصرن جي ڪري آهي، اهو تڪرار جو موضوع رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Killebrew |first=Ann E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC |title=Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E. |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-58983-097-4 |location=Atlanta |page=176 |quote=Much has been made of the scarcity of pig bones at highland sites. Since small quantities of pig bones do appear in Late Bronze Age assemblages, some archaeologists have interpreted this to indicate that the ethnic identity of the highland inhabitants was distinct from Late Bronze Age indigenous peoples (see Finkelstein 1997, 227–230). Brian Hesse and Paula Wapnish (1997) advise caution, however, since the lack of pig bones at Iron I highland settlements could be a result of other factors that have little to do with ethnicity. |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=January 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117055402/https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

بائبل جي داستان مطابق، اسرائيل جي سرزمين ٻارهن قبيلن جي هڪ ڪنفيڊريشن ۾ منظم هئي جنهن تي ڪيترن ئي سؤ سالن تائين قاضين جي هڪ سلسلي جي حڪومت هئي.

=== قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهودا ===
&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; قديم اسرائيل جي تاريخ

=== Ancient Israel and Judah ===
{{Main|History of ancient Israel and Judah}}
[[File:LMLK, Ezekiah seals.jpg|thumb|A stamped bulla ([[LMLK seal]]) of [[Hezekiah]], &quot;Of Hezekiah (son of) Ahaz King of Judah&quot;, [[Israel Museum]]]]
Two Israelite kingdoms emerged during Iron Age II: [[Israel and Judah]]. The Bible portrays Israel and Judah as the successors of an earlier [[United Kingdom of Israel]], although [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)#Archaeological record|its historicity is disputed]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Zachary |date=April 22, 2016 |title=Debating the United Monarchy: Let's See How Far We've Come |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146107916639208 |journal=Biblical Theology Bulletin |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=59–69 |doi=10.1177/0146107916639208 |issn=0146-1079 |s2cid=147053561 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lipschits |first1=Oded |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |title=The Jewish Study Bible |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-997846-5 |editor1-last=Berlin |editor1-first=Adele |edition=2nd |pages=2107–2119 |language=en |chapter=The history of Israel in the biblical period |quote=As this essay will show, however, the premonarchic period long ago became a literary description of the mythological roots, the early beginnings of the nation and the way to describe the right of Israel on its land. The archeological evidence also does not support the existence of a united monarchy under David and Solomon as described in the Bible, so the rubric of &quot;united monarchy&quot; is best abandoned, although it remains useful for discussing how the Bible views the Israelite past. [...] Although the kingdom of Judah is mentioned in some ancient inscriptions, they never suggest that it was part of a unit {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} Israel and Judah. There are no extrabiblical indications of a united monarchy called &quot;Israel.&quot; |editor2-last=Brettler |editor2-first=Marc Zvi |access-date=August 19, 2022 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160917/https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Historians and archaeologists agree that the northern [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] existed from {{circa|900 BCE}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|169–195}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Wright |first1=Jacob L. |date=July 2014 |title=David, King of Judah (Not Israel) |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301164250/http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |archive-date=March 1, 2021 |access-date=May 15, 2021 |website=The Bible and Interpretation}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that the [[Kingdom of Judah]] existed from {{Abbr|ca.|circa}} 700 BCE.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 |date=April 9, 2023 }} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Tel Dan Stele]], discovered in 1993, shows that the kingdom, at least in some form, existed by the middle of the 9th century BCE, but it does not indicate the extent of its power.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kcVmBAEo5rcC&amp;pg=PA333 |title=Ahab Agonistes: The Rise and Fall of the Omri Dynasty |date=April 28, 2007 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-567-25171-8 |quote=The Tel Dan inscription generated a good deal of debate and a flurry of articles when it first appeared, but it is now widely regarded (a) as genuine and (b) as referring to the Davidic dynasty and the Aramaic kingdom of Damascus. |access-date=August 19, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Cline |first=Eric H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uGzRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA61 |title=Biblical Archaeology: A Very Short Introduction |date=September 28, 2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-971162-8 |quote=Today, after much further discussion in academic journals, it is accepted by most archaeologists that the inscription is not only genuine but that the reference is indeed to the House of David, thus representing the first allusion found anywhere outside the Bible to the biblical David. |access-date=August 19, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Mykytiuk |first=Lawrence J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eprY1Qd0veAC&amp;pg=PA113 |title=Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200-539 B.C.E. |date=January 1, 2004 |publisher=Society of Biblical Lit |isbn=978-1-58983-062-2 |quote=Some unfounded accusations of forgery have had little or no effect on the scholarly acceptance of this inscription as genuine.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Biblical tradition tells that the Israelite monarchy was established in 1037 BCE under [[Saul]], who was anointed by the prophet Samuel,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Who Was the First King of Israel? |url=https://shopisrael.com/blogs/about-israel/first-king-of-israel |access-date=February 5, 2025 |website=Shop Israel |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and continued under [[David]] and his son, [[Solomon]]. David greatly expanded the kingdom's borders and [[Siege of Jebus|conquered Jerusalem]] from the [[Jebusites]], turning it into the national, political and religious capital of the kingdom. Solomon, his son, later built the [[First Temple]] on [[Moriah|Mount Moriah]] in Jerusalem. Upon his death, traditionally dated to c. 930 BCE, a civil war erupted between the ten northern Israelite tribes, and the tribes of [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] ([[Tribe of Simeon|Simeon]] was absorbed into Judah) and [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]] in the south. The kingdom then split into the Kingdom of Israel in the north, and the Kingdom of Judah in the south.

The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two kingdoms and soon developed into a regional power.{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|pp=146-147|loc=Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power}} During the days of the [[Omride Dynasty|Omride dynasty]], it controlled [[Samaria]], [[Galilee]], the upper [[Jordan Valley]], the [[Sharon plain|Sharon]] and large parts of the [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |first=Israel |last=Finkelstein |title=The forgotten kingdom : the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |isbn=978-1-58983-910-6 |pages=74 |oclc=949151323}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Samaria (ancient city)|Samaria]], the capital, was home to one of the largest Iron Age palaces in the Levant.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |title=The Forgotten Kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-58983-911-3 |pages=65–66; 73; 78; 87–94 |oclc=880456140}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |date=November 1, 2011 |title=Observations on the Layout of Iron Age Samaria |url=https://doi.org/10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |journal=Tel Aviv |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=194–207 |doi=10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |issn=0334-4355 |s2cid=128814117 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; The kingdom of Israel was destroyed {{cx|720 BCE}}, when it was [[Samerina|conquered]] by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Kingdom of Judah, with its capital in [[Jerusalem]], controlled the [[Judaean Mountains]], the [[Shephelah]], the [[Judaean Desert]] and parts of the [[Negev]]. After the fall of Israel, Judah became a [[client state]] of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In the 7th century BCE, the kingdom's population increased greatly, prospering under [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] [[Vassal state|vassalage]], despite [[Hezekiah#Assyrian invasion|Hezekiah's revolt]] against the Assyrian king [[Sennacherib]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |editor-last=Ben-Sasson |editor-first=Haim Hillel |editor-link=H. H. Ben-Sasson |page=142 |quote=Sargon's heir, Sennacherib (705–681), could not deal with Hezekiah's revolt until he gained control of Babylon in 702 BCE.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Mesad Hashavyahu ostracon.jpg|thumb|The [[Yavne-Yam ostracon]], a [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|Paleo-Hebrew]] inscription documenting administration in [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]]]
Large parts of the Hebrew Bible were written during this period. This includes the earliest portions of [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]],{{sfn|Kelle|2005|p=9}} [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]],{{sfn|Brettler|2010|pp=161–162}} [[Book of Amos|Amos]]{{sfn|Radine|2010|pp=71–72}} and [[Book of Micah|Micah]],{{sfn|Rogerson|2003a|p=690}} along with [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]],{{sfn|O'Brien|2002|p=14}} [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]],{{sfn|Gelston|2003c|p=715}} most of [[Deuteronomy]],{{sfn|Rogerson|2003b|p=154}} the first edition of the [[Deuteronomistic history]] (the books of [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]/[[Book of Judges|Judges]]/[[Books of Samuel|Samuel]]/[[Books of Kings|Kings]]),{{sfn|Campbell|O'Brien|2000|p=2 and fn.6}} and [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]].{{sfn|Gelston|2003a|p=710}}

With the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 605 BCE, a power struggle emerged between [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt|Egypt]] and the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] for control of the [[Levant]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bickerman |first=E. J. |title=Nebuchadnezzar And Jerusalem |date=January 1, 2007 |work=Studies in Jewish and Christian History (2 vols) |pages=961–974 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789047420729/Bej.9789004152946.i-1242_044.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004152946.i-1242.280 |isbn=978-90-474-2072-9 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to Judah's rapid decline. In 601 BCE, King [[Jehoiakim]] of Judah, who had recently submitted to Babylon, rebelled against the empire. He was soon succeeded by his son, Jehoiachin, who continued his father's policy and faced a Babylonian invasion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; In March 597 BCE,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Galil |first=Gershon |date=1991 |title=The Babylonian Calendar and the Chronology of the Last Kings of Judah |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42611193 |journal=Biblica |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=367–378 |jstor=42611193 |issn=0006-0887 |quote=All the scholars, without exception, establish the date of the surrender of Jehoiachin, king of Judah, as the second day of Adar, the seventh year of Nebuchadnezzar II, king of Babylon (March 16, 597 BC), following the Babylonian chronicle ... This unique date is undoubtedly the most precise in Israelite history during the biblical period.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jehoiachin surrendered to the Babylonians and was taken captive to Babylon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; This defeat is documented in the [[Babylonian Chronicles]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BCE) |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030154541/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |archive-date=October 30, 2014 |access-date=October 30, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle) – Livius |url=https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505195611/https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html |archive-date=May 5, 2019 |access-date=March 26, 2020 |website=www.livius.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Zedekiah]], Jehoiachin's uncle, was then installed as king by the Babylonians.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt;

In 587 or 586 BCE, [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], responding to a second revolt in Judah, [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|besieged and destroyed Jerusalem]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Shalom |first1=N. |last2=Vaknin |first2=Y. |last3=Shaar |first3=R. |last4=Ben-Yosef |first4=E. |last5=Lipschits |first5=O. |last6=Shalev |first6=Y. |last7=Gadot |first7=Y. |last8=Boaretto |first8=E. |date=2023 |title=Destruction by fire: Reconstructing the evidence of the 586 BCE Babylonian destruction in a monumental building in Jerusalem |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305440323001036 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=157 |article-number=105823 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2023.105823 |bibcode=2023JArSc.157j5823S |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; The [[First Temple]] was razed, and its sacred vessels were seized as spoils.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bedford |first=Peter Ross |title=Introduction |date=2001 |work=Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah |pages=1–39 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s004.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004498051_004 |isbn=978-90-04-49805-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; The destruction was followed by a mass exile: the surviving inhabitants of the city, including other segments of the population, were carried off to Mesopotamia,&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt; marking the onset of the era known in Jewish history as the &quot;[[Babylonian Captivity]]&quot;. Zedekiah himself was captured, blinded, and transported to Babylon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt; Others [[History of the Jews in Egypt|fled to Egypt]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} The people of Judah lost their statehood, and, for those in exile, their homeland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001b&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bedford |first=Peter Ross |title=Living Without the Jerusalem Temple—In Judah and Babylonia |date=January 1, 2001 |work=Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah |page=42 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s005.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004498051_005 |isbn=978-90-04-49805-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Following the dissolution of the monarchy, the former kingdom was annexed as a province of the Babylonian Empire.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt;

=== Babylonian captivity (c. 587–538 BCE)&lt;!--[[Exilic]] redirects directly here.--&gt; ===
{{Main|Babylonian captivity}}
[[File:Tissot The Flight of the Prisoners.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Deportation and exile of the ancient [[Kingdom of Judah|Judeans]] to [[Babylon]] and the destruction of Jerusalem and [[Solomon's temple]]]]During the several decades between the fall of Judah and their [[return to Zion]] under Persian rule, Jewish history enters an obscure phase. Many Jews were exiled across [[Babylonia]], [[Elam]], and [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], while others remained in [[Yehud (Babylonian province)|Judea under Babylonian rule]]. [[Jeremiah]] refers to communities in Egypt, including settlements in [[Migdol]], [[Tahpanhes]], [[Noph]], and [[Pathros]]. Moreover, a Jewish military colony existed at [[Elephantine]], established before the exile, where they built their own shrine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001b&quot; /&gt; Deuteronomy was expanded and earlier scriptures were edited during the exilic period. The first edition of [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]], the [[Book of Ezekiel]], the majority of [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]], and what is referred to in research as &quot;[[Book of Isaiah|Second Isaiah]]&quot; were all written during this time period as well.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}

==هيڪل سليماني جي ٻيهر تعمير==
===&lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Post-exilic_period&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;هخامنشي دور (332 کان 538ع)&lt;!--&quot;Post-exilic period&quot;, &quot;Post-Exilic period&quot;, &quot;Post-exilic&quot;, &quot;Post-Exilic&quot;, Postexilic, &quot;Pre-exilic period&quot;, &quot;Pre-Exilic period&quot;, &quot;Pre-Exilic&quot; and &quot;Pre-exilic&quot; redirect here--&gt;===
[[File:109.Ezra Reads the Law to the People.jpg|thumb|[[عزير عليہ السلام|عزير]] ماڻهن کي [[توريت|تورات]] پڙهي ٻڌائي رهيو آهي. گستاو ڊور پاران پينٽنگ]]
عزير جي ڪتاب جي مطابق، [[سائرس اعظم|سائرس]] [[سائرس اعظم|اعظم]]، هخامنشي سلطنت جو بادشاهه، بابل جي فتح کان هڪ سال پوءِ،&lt;ref&gt;''Harper's Bible Dictionary'', ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper &amp; Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103&lt;/ref&gt; سال 538 ق.م ۾ بابلي جلاوطني جو خاتمو آندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Biu.ac.il22&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html|access-date=March 15, 2014|publisher=Biu.ac.il}}&lt;/ref&gt; واپس ڪندڙ يهودين جي اڳواڻي زربابل، [[داؤد عليہ السلام|دائود]] جي شاهي نسل مان هڪ شهزادو ۽ جوشوا، مندر جي اڳوڻي اعليٰ پادرين مان اولاد ڪئي، جنهن ٻئي مندر جي تعمير جي نگراني ڪيا، جيڪا سال &lt;small&gt;521&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;516&lt;/small&gt; ق.م. جي وچ ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Biu.ac.il2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html|access-date=March 15, 2014|publisher=Biu.ac.il}}&lt;/ref&gt;۽ هخامنشي سلطنت جي حصي جي طور تي، يهودين جي اڳوڻي بادشاهت، مختلف حدن سان، هڪ ننڍڙو علائقو ڍڪيندي، يهودين جو صوبو بڻجي وئي.&lt;ref&gt;Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew Yehuda, or &quot;Judah&quot;, and &quot;medinata&quot; the word for province&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Grabbe|first=Lester L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-MnE5T_0RbMC&amp;q=gave+the+Jews+permission+to+return+to+Yehud+province+and+to+rebuild+the&amp;pg=PA355|title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah|volume=1|publisher=T&amp;T Clark|year=2004|isbn=978-0-567-08998-4|page=355}}&lt;/ref&gt; همعصر عالم بتدريج واپسي جي عمل ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا، جيڪي 6هين صدي ق.م. جي آخر ۽ 5هين صدي ق.م. جي شروعات تائين وڌائي وئي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last=Lipschits|first=Oded|title=Judah in the Biblical Period|chapter=Between Archaeology and Text: A Reevaluation of the Development Process of Jerusalem in the Persian Period|date=March 18, 2024|page=374|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110487442-020/html|access-date=July 1, 2024|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110487442-020|isbn=978-3-11-048744-2}}&lt;/ref&gt; فارسي يهودين جي آبادي بادشاهت جي دور کان تمام گهٽجي وئي. آثار قديمه جا سروي پنجين ۽ چوٿين صدي ق.م. دوران تقريبن &lt;small&gt;'''30,000'''&lt;/small&gt; جي آبادي ڏيکارن ٿا. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|date=2001|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|isbn=0-684-86912-8|edition=1st Touchstone|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

آخري توريت کي وڏي پيماني تي فارسي دور (&lt;small&gt;539&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;کان 333&lt;/small&gt; ق.م يا &lt;small&gt;450-350&lt;/small&gt; ق.م.) جي پيداوار طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو،{{Sfn|Frei|2001|p=6}} هي اتفاق راءِ هڪ روايتي يهودي نظريي جو گونج آهي ته [[عزير عليہ السلام|عزير عليه السلام]]، بابل کان واپسي تي يهودي برادري جا اڳواڻ، تورات جي اشاعت ۾ هڪ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{sfn|Romer|2008|p=2 and fn.3}}

ٽي نبي، جيڪا يهودي روايت ۾ آخري سمجهيا وڃن ٿا هن دور ۾ سرگرم هئا: حجائي، زڪريا ۽ ملاڪي.&lt;ref&gt;[[Jerusalem Bible]] (1966), ''Haggai'', ''Zechariah'', ''Malachi'' in ''Introduction to the Prophets'', London: Darton, Longman &amp; Todd, pp. 1138–1140&lt;/ref&gt; بني اسرائيل جي آخري نبي جي وفات کانپوءِ ۽ اڃا تائين فارسي حڪمراني هيٺ، يهودي ماڻهن جي قيادت اڳواڻن جي پنجن مسلسل نسلن جي زگوٽ (جوڙن) جي هٿن ۾ منتقل ٿي وئي. اهي پهرين فارسين جي دور ۾ ۽ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾ ترقي ڪيا ۽ نتيجي طور تي، انهن مان ٻه گروه، فريسي ۽ صدوقي ٺهيا. فارسين جي دور ۾ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾، يهودي سڪا يهوديه ۾ يهودي سڪن جي طور تي ٺاهيا ويا.

=== Hellenistic period (c. 332–110 BCE) ===
{{Main|Hellenistic Judaism}}
[[File:Jews Byzantine Greek Alexander Manuscript (cropped).JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Alexander the Great]], clad as a [[Byzantine emperor]], receives a delegation of Jewish [[rabbi]]s. Miniature from the 14th-century ''Alexander Romance'']]

In 332 BCE, [[Alexander the Great]] of [[Macedon]] defeated the Persians. After Alexander's death and the division of his empire among his generals, the [[Seleucid Kingdom]] was formed.

The Alexandrian conquests spread Greek culture to the Levant. During this time, currents of Judaism were influenced by [[Hellenistic philosophy]] developed from the 3rd century BCE, notably the [[Jewish diaspora]] in [[Alexandrian Jews|Alexandria]], culminating in the compilation of the [[Septuagint]]. An important advocate of the symbiosis of Jewish theology and Hellenistic thought is [[Philo]].

=== Hasmonean dynasty (110–63 BCE) ===
{{Main|Hasmonean dynasty}}
[[File:John Hyrcanus.jpg|thumb|JUDAEA, Hasmoneans. John Hyrcanus I (Yehohanan). 135–104 BCE. Æ Prutah (13mm, 2.02&amp;nbsp;gm, 12h). &quot;Yehohanan the High Priest and the Council of the Jews&quot; (in Hebrew) in five lines within wreath / Double cornucopiae adorned with ribbons; pomegranate between horns; small A to lower left. Meshorer Group B, 11; Hendin 457.]]

Triggered by anti-Jewish decrees from Seleucid king [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] and tensions between Hellenized and conservative Jews, the [[Maccabean Revolt]] erupted in Judea in 167 BCE under the leadership of [[Mattathias]]. His son, [[Judas Maccabeus]], recaptured Jerusalem in 164 BCE, purifying the Second Temple and reinstating sacrificial worship.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atkinson-2016&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Atkinson |first=Kenneth |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/949219870 |title=A History of the Hasmonean State: Josephus and Beyond |date=2016 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-66902-5 |series=T&amp;T Clark Jewish and Christian texts series |location=London; New York |pages=2, 23–28 |oclc=949219870}}&lt;/ref&gt; The successful revolt eventually led to the formation of an independent Jewish state under the [[Hasmonean dynasty]], which lasted from 165 to 63 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;See:

*[[William David Davies]]. ''The Hellenistic Age''. Volume 2 of Cambridge History of Judaism. Cambridge University Press, 1989. {{ISBN|978-0-521-21929-7}}. pp. 292–312.
*Jeff S. Anderson. ''The Internal Diversification of Second Temple Judaism: An Introduction to the Second Temple Period''. University Press of America, 2002. {{ISBN|978-0-7618-2327-8}}. pp. 37–38.
*Howard N. Lupovitch. ''Jews and Judaism in World History''. Taylor &amp; Francis. 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-415-46205-1}}. pp. 26–30.&lt;/ref&gt;

Initially governing as both political leaders and High Priests, the [[Hasmoneans]] later assumed the title of kings. They employed military campaigns and diplomacy to consolidate power.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atkinson-2016&quot; /&gt; Under the rule of [[Alexander Jannaeus]] and [[Salome Alexandra]], [[Hasmonean Judea]] reached its zenith in size and influence. However, internal strife erupted between Salome Alexandra's sons, [[Hyrcanus II]] and [[Aristobulus II]], leading to civil war and appeals to Roman authorities for intervention. Responding to these appeals, Pompey led a Roman campaign of conquest and annexation, which marked the end of Hasmonean sovereignty and ushered in Roman rule over Judea.&lt;ref&gt;Hooker, Richard. {{cite web |title=The Hebrews: The Diaspora |url=http://www.wsu.edu:8000/~dee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM |access-date=April 7, 2018 |archive-date=August 29, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829230214/http://www.wsu.edu:8000/%7Edee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM |url-status=dead}}  World Civilizations Learning Modules.  Washington State University, 1999.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Roman period (63 BCE – 135 CE) ===
{{Main|Herodian dynasty|History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Roman Palestine|Judaea (Roman province)|Jewish–Roman wars}}
[[File:Monnaie - Prutah, bronze, Jérusalem, Judée, Mattathias Antigonos - btv1b8480202s (1 of 2).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Hasmonean coinage|Hasmonean coin]] of [[Antigonus II Mattathias]], depicting the [[Temple menorah]]]]

Judea had been an independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmoneans, but it was [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BCE)|conquered and reorganized as a client state by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE]]. [[Roman expansion]] was going on in other areas as well, and it would continue for more than a hundred and fifty years. Later, [[Herod the Great]] was appointed &quot;King of the Jews&quot; by the [[Roman Senate]], supplanting the Hasmonean dynasty. Some of his offspring held various positions after him, known as the [[Herodian dynasty]]. Briefly, from 4 BCE to 6 CE, [[Herod Archelaus]] ruled the [[Tetrarchy (Judea)|tetrarchy of Judea]] as [[ethnarch]], the Romans denying him the title of King.

After the [[Census of Quirinius]] in 6 CE, the [[Roman province of Judaea]] was formed as a satellite of [[Roman Syria]] under the rule of a [[prefect]] (as was [[Roman Egypt]]) until 41 CE, then [[Procurator (Roman)|procurators]] after 44 CE. The empire was often callous and brutal in its treatment of its Jewish subjects, (see [[Anti-Judaism#Pre-Christian Roman Empire|Anti-Judaism in the pre-Christian Roman Empire]]). In 30 CE (or 33 CE), [[Jesus of Nazareth]], an itinerant [[rabbi]] from [[Galilee]], and the central figure of [[Christianity]], was put to death by [[crucifixion]] in Jerusalem under the Roman prefect of [[Judaea]], [[Pontius Pilate]].&lt;ref&gt;Charlesworth, James H. (2008). The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide. {{ISBN|978-1-4267-2475-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For a short time Judea was reunited and semi-independent under [[Agrippa the Great]] who had good relations with both the Roman aristocracy and local Jewish citizens. After his death Judea was again annexed by Rome and his less popular son [[Herod Agrippa II]] was made ethnarch.&lt;ref&gt;Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, livre XVIII, § V, 4, (132).&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:19 Shrine of the Book 005 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of the [[Second Temple]], following renovations by [[Herod the Great|Herod]] in the 1st century CE]]
[[File:Roberts Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans]] (1850 painting by [[David Roberts (painter)|David Roberts]])]]

Roman oppressive rule, combined with economic, religious, and ethnic tensions, eventually led to the outbreak of the [[First Jewish–Roman War]], also known as the Great Revolt, in 66 CE. Future emperor [[Vespasian]] quelled the rebellion in [[Galilee]] by 67 CE, capturing key strongholds.&lt;ref&gt;Jensen, M. H. (2014). The Political History in Galilee from the First Century BCE to the end of the Second Century CE. ''Galilee in the late Second Temple and Mishnaic periods. Volume 1. Life, culture and society'', pp. 69-70. &quot;According to Jewish War, Vespasian laid siege to and conquered all the major strongholds of Galilee [...] Since the entire campaign was short and lasted only for some months in the spring and summer of 67, there is no reason to believe that Galilee was entirely devastated when the Romans set their course south. However, the places that were conquered, were in a typical Roman fashion levelled more or less to the ground and many people sold of as slaves.&lt;/ref&gt; He was succeeded by his son [[Titus]], who led the brutal [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|siege of Jerusalem]], culminating in the city's fall in 70 CE. The Romans burned Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Weksler-Bdolah |first=Shlomit |title=Aelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman period: in light of archaeological research |publisher=Brill |year=2019 |isbn=978-90-04-41707-6 |page=3 |oclc=1170143447 |quote=The historical description is consistent with the archeological finds. Collapses of massive stones from the walls of the Temple Mount were exposed lying over the Herodian street running along the Western Wall of the Temple Mount. The residential buildings of the Ophel and the Upper City were destroyed by great fire. The large urban drainage channel and the Pool of Siloam in the Lower City silted up and ceased to function, and in many places the city walls collapsed. [...] Following the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, a new era began in the city's history. The Herodian city was destroyed and a military camp of the Tenth Roman Legion established on part of the ruins.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Reich |first=Ronny |date=2009 |title=The Sack of Jerusalem in 70 CE: Flavius Josephus' Description and the Archaeological Record |script-title=he:חורבן ירושלים בשנת 70 לסה&quot;נ: תיאורו של יוסף בן מתתיהו והממצא הארכאולוגי  |journal=Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv |script-journal=he:קתדרה: לתולדות ארץ ישראל ויישובה |issue=131 |pages=25–42 |issn=0334-4657 |jstor=23407359}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Roman victory was celebrated with a [[Roman triumph|triumph]] in Rome, showcasing Jewish artefacts like the [[Temple menorah|menorah]], which were then put on display in the new [[Temple of Peace, Rome|Temple of Peace]].&lt;ref&gt;Huitink, Luuk. &quot;Between Triumph and Tragedy: Josephus, Bellum Judaicum 7.121–157.&quot; ''Reading Greek, Hellenistic and Roman spolia. Objects, appropriation and cultural change, Euhormos: Greco-Roman Studies in Anchoring Innovation. Leiden: Brill'' (2023). pp. 215–216, 234&lt;/ref&gt; The Flavian dynasty leveraged this victory for political gain, erecting monuments in Rome and minting [[Judaea Capta coinage|Judaea Capta coins]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Overman |first1=J. Andrew |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781134518326 |title=The First Jewish Revolt |last2=Overman |first2=J. Andrew |date=September 2, 2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-51832-6 |chapter=The First Revolt and Flavian politics |doi=10.4324/9780203167441}}&lt;/ref&gt; The war concluded with the [[siege of Masada]] (73–74 CE). The Jewish population suffered widespread devastation, with displacement, enslavement, and Roman confiscation of Jewish-owned land.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Herr |first=Moshe David |title=The History of Eretz Israel: The Roman Byzantine period: the Roman period from the conquest to the Ben Kozba War (63 B.C.E-135 C.E.) |publisher=Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi |year=1984 |editor-last=Shtern |editor-first=Menahem |location=Jerusalem |page=288}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The destruction of the Second Temple marked a cataclysmic event in Jewish history, triggering far-reaching transformations within Judaism.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Maclean Rogers |first=Guy |title=For the Freedom of Zion: The Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66–74 CE |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-300-26256-8 |location=New Haven and London |pages=3–5 |oclc=1294393934}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=Judaism in a Time of Crisis: Four Responses to the Destruction of the Second Temple |date=November 28, 2017 |work=Neusner on Judaism |pages=399–413 |editor-last1=Hinnells |editor-first1=John |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781351152761-20 |access-date=May 22, 2022 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781351152761-20 |isbn=978-1-351-15276-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Karesh-2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Karesh |first=Sara E. |title=Encyclopedia of Judaism |publisher=Facts On File |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-78785-171-9 |oclc=1162305378 |quote=Until the modern period, the destruction of the Temple was the most cataclysmic moment in the history of the Jewish people. Without the Temple, the Sadducees no longer had any claim to authority, and they faded away. The sage Yochanan ben Zakkai, with permission from Rome, set up the outpost of Yavneh to continue develop of Pharisaic, or rabbinic, Judaism.}}&lt;/ref&gt; With the central role of sacrificial worship obliterated, religious practices shifted towards [[Jewish prayer|prayer]], [[Torah study]], and communal gatherings in [[synagogue]]s. According to Rabbinic tradition, Yohanan ben Zakkai secured permission from the Romans to establish a center for Torah study in [[Yavne]]h, which then served as a focal point for Jewish religious and cultural life for a generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stemberger-2003&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Stemberger |first=Guenter |title=The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism, 70–640 CE |date=2003 |work=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism |pages=78–79 |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470758014.ch5 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Wiley |language=en |doi=10.1002/9780470758014.ch5 |isbn=978-1-57718-058-6 |editor2-last=Avery-Peck |editor2-first=Alan J. |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-judaism/3F4F0A32983FC0DCDB414553888DC394 |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |volume=4 |page=268 |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488 |quote=Under the leadership of R. Yohanan ben Zakkai and his circle at Yavneh, Judaism sought to reconstitute itself and find a new equilibrium in the face of the disaster of 70.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=Religion (Judentum: Palästinisches Judentum &amp;#91;Forts.&amp;#93;) |date=September 26, 2016 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-083904-3 |editor-last1=Haase |editor-first1=Wolfgang |language=de |chapter=The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism: Yavneh (Jamnia) from A.D. 70 to 100 |pages=3–42 |doi=10.1515/9783110839043-002 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110839043-002/html}}&lt;/ref&gt; Judaism also underwent a significant shift away from its sectarian divisions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Shaye J. D. |date=1984 |title=The Significance of Yavneh: Pharisees, Rabbis, and the End of Jewish Sectarianism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507609 |journal=Hebrew Union College Annual |volume=55 |page=29 |jstor=23507609 |issn=0360-9049 |quote=The goal was not the triumph over other sects but the elimination of the need for sectarianism itself. [...] The destruction of the temple provided the impetus for this process: it warned the Jews of the dangers of internal divisiveness and it removed one of the major focal points of Jewish sectarianism.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Jodi |last=Magness |title=Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History?: On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-04-21744-7 |editor-first=Daniel R. |editor-last=Schwartz |chapter=Sectarianism before and after 70 CE |editor-first2=Zeev |editor-last2=Weiss |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VecxAQAAQBAJ&amp;q=diaspora+70+ce&amp;pg=PA189}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Sadducees]] and [[Essenes]], two prominent sects in the late Second Temple period, faded into obscurity,&lt;ref name=&quot;Karesh-2006&quot; /&gt; while the traditions of the [[Pharisees]], including their halakhic interpretations, the centrality of the [[Oral Torah]], and [[Jewish eschatology|belief in resurrection]] became the foundation of [[Rabbinic Judaism]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Stemberger-2003&quot; /&gt;[[File:Arch of Titus Menorah.png|upright=1.15|thumb|The sack of Jerusalem depicted on the inside wall of the [[Arch of Titus]] in [[Rome]]]]

=== Diaspora during the Second Temple period ===
{{Main|Jewish diaspora}}
The [[Jewish diaspora]] existed well before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and had been ongoing for centuries, with the dispersal driven by both forced expulsions and voluntary migrations.&lt;ref&gt;[[Erich S. Gruen]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=t1IR4WtFjGUC&amp;pg=PA3 Diaspora: Jews Amidst Greeks and Romans] [[Harvard University Press]], 2009 pp. 3–4, 233–234: 'Compulsory dislocation, .…cannot have accounted for more than a fraction of the diaspora. … The vast bulk of Jews who dwelled abroad in the Second Temple Period did so voluntarily.' (2)' .Diaspora did not await the fall of Jerusalem to Roman power and destructiveness. The scattering of Jews had begun long before-occasionally through forced expulsion, much more frequently through voluntary migration.'&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Martin |title=A History of Judaism |date=2018 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-18127-1 |location=Princeton Oxford |pages=21, 232}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Mesopotamia, a testimony to the beginnings of the Jewish community can be found in [[Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets|Joachin's ration tablets]], listing provisions allotted to the exiled Judean king and his family by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], and further evidence are the [[Al-Yahudu Tablets|Al-Yahudu tablets]], dated to the 6th-5th centuries BCE and related to the exiles from Judea arriving after the destruction of the [[First Temple]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Luke |date=February 3, 2017 |title=Ancient tablets reveal life of Jews in Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203 |newspaper=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt; though there is ample evidence for the presence of Jews in Babylonia even from 626 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;Zadok R. Judeans in Babylonia–Updating the Dossier. in U. Gabbay and Sh. Secunda. (eds.). ''Encounters by the Rivers of Babylon: Scholarly Conversations between Jews, Iranians and Babylonians in Antiquity'', Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 160. Tübingen: MohrSiebeck. pp. 109–110.&lt;/ref&gt; In Egypt, the [[Elephantine papyri and ostraca|documents from Elephantine]] reveal the trials of a community founded by a Persian Jewish garrison at two fortresses on the frontier during the 5th-4th centuries BCE, and according to [[Josephus]] the Jewish community in Alexandria existed since the founding of the city in the 4th century BCE by [[Alexander the Great]].&lt;ref&gt;Josephus Flavius, ''Against Appion''. 4.II&lt;/ref&gt; By 200 BCE, there were well established Jewish communities both in Egypt and Mesopotamia (&quot;[[History of the Jews in Iraq|Babylonia]]&quot; in Jewish sources) and in the two centuries that followed, Jewish populations were also present in [[Asia Minor]], [[Greece]], [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]], [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]], and, beginning in the middle of the 1st century BCE, in the city of [[Rome]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=E. Mary |last=Smallwood |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period, Volume 3 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-521-24377-3 |editor1=William David Davies |chapter=The Diaspora in the Roman period before AD 70 |editor2=Louis Finkelstein |editor3=William Horbury |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AW2BuWcalXIC&amp;q=Diaspora+before+70&amp;pg=PA168}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot; /&gt;

In the first centuries CE, as a result of the [[Jewish–Roman wars]],&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot;&gt;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת &quot;עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום&quot;, ע&quot;מ 95. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth – &quot;The People of Israel – the history of 4000 years – from the days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty&quot;, 1981, p. 95)&lt;/ref&gt; a large number of Jews were taken as captives, sold into slavery, or compelled to flee from the regions affected by the wars, contributing to the formation and expansion of Jewish communities across the [[Roman Empire]] as well as in Arabia and Mesopotamia. Jewish communities across Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Egypt were almost entirely obliterated due to the harsh Roman response to the Diaspora Revolt.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006b&quot; /&gt;

The [[New Testament]] Book of [[Acts]], as well as other [[Pauline epistles|Pauline]] texts, make frequent reference to the large populations of [[Hellenized Jews]] in the cities of the Roman world. These Hellenized Jews were affected by the diaspora only in its spiritual sense, absorbing the feeling of loss and homelessness that became a cornerstone of the Jewish creed, much supported by persecutions in various parts of the world. Of critical importance to the reshaping of Jewish tradition from the Temple-based religion to the rabbinic traditions of the Diaspora, was the development of the interpretations of the Torah found in the [[Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]].

==تالمود وارو دور==
===پھرين يهودي بغاوت (115 کان 117ع)===
During the [[Diaspora Revolt]] (115–117 CE), [[Jewish diaspora]] communities across several eastern provinces of the [[Roman Empire]] engaged in widespread rebellion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006a&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=June 22, 2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |pages=93–106 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=September 8, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Driven by messianic fervor and hopes for the [[Gathering of Israel|ingathering of exiles]] and the [[Third Temple|reconstruction of the Temple]], these communities may have sought to spark a broader movement possibly aimed at returning to [[Judea]] and rebuilding Jerusalem.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Smallwood |first=E. Mary |title=The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian |publisher=SBL Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-90-04-50204-8 |pages=394–397}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Horbury |first=William |title=Jewish War under Trajan and Hadrian |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-139-04905-4 |pages=276}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Barclay |first=John M. G. |title=Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: from Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE) |date=1998 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-08651-8 |edition= |location=Edinburgh |pages=241}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient sources describe the revolt as extremely brutal, with cases of cannibalism and mutilation, though modern scholars often consider these accounts to be exaggerated.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006a&quot; /&gt; The Roman suppression of the revolt was marked by severe measures, including [[ethnic cleansing]], leading to the near-total destruction of Jewish diaspora communities in [[Roman Libya|Libya]], [[Roman Cyprus|Cyprus]] and [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last1=Kerkeslager |first1=Allen |title=The Diaspora from 66 to c. 235 ce |date=2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |volume=4 |pages=62–63 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/diaspora-from-66-to-c-235-ce/5AECAD54BE6CA31C7968EED92D6CA36A |access-date=September 10, 2024 |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.004 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |last2=Setzer |first2=Claudia |last3=Trebilco |first3=Paul |last4=Goodblatt |first4=David}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006b&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=June 22, 2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |page=98 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=September 8, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; including the significant and influential community in [[Alexandria]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot; /&gt;

===بار ڪوخبا بغاوت (132 کان 136ع===
{{Main|بار ڪوخبا بغاوت}}
[[File:Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg|thumb|A tetradrachm minted during the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], featuring the former Second Temple, a ''lulav'', and the slogan 'to the freedom of Jerusalem']]
From 132 to 136 CE, Judaea was the center of the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], triggered by Hadrian's decision to establish the pagan colony of [[Aelia Capitolina]] on the ruins of Jerusalem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Eck |first=Werner |editor-first1=Werner |editor-last1=Eck |title=Bar Kokhba |date=July 30, 2015 |work=Oxford Classical Dictionary |url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-1056 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1056 |isbn=978-0-19-938113-5 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Early successes led to the establishment of a short-lived Jewish state in Judea under the leadership of [[Simon Bar Kokhba]], styled as ''[[Nasi (Hebrew title)|nasi]]'' or prince of Israel.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt; The [[Bar Kokhba revolt coinage|rebel state's coinage]] proclaimed &quot;Freedom of Israel&quot; and &quot;For the Freedom of Jerusalem&quot;, using [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|ancient Hebrew script]] for nationalistic symbolism.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-1999&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Eck |first=Werner |date=1999 |title=The Bar Kokhba Revolt: The Roman Point of View |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-studies/article/abs/bar-kokhba-revolt-the-roman-point-of-view/27E95F52A627562F93178F17A51D5FD4 |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |volume=89 |pages=76, 80 |doi=10.2307/300735 |jstor=300735 |issn=1753-528X |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt; However, the Romans soon amassed six legions and additional auxiliaries under [[Julius Severus]], who then brutally crushed the uprising. Historical accounts report the destruction of fifty major strongholds and 985 villages, resulting in 580,000 Jewish deaths and widespread famine and disease.&lt;ref name=&quot;Raviv-2021&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Raviv |first1=Dvir |last2=David |first2=Chaim Ben |date=2021 |title=Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account? |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=585–607 |doi=10.1017/S1047759421000271 |issn=1047-7594 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Archaeological research confirms the widespread destruction and depopulation of the Jewish heartland in [[Judea]] proper, where most of the Jewish population was either killed, sold into slavery, expelled, or forced to flee.&lt;ref name=&quot;Raviv-2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=A. H. M. |title=The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces |publisher=Oxford |year=1971 |edition=2nd |pages=277 |quote=This provoked the last Jewish war, which seems from our meager accounts [...] to have resulted in the desolation of Judaea and the practical extermination of its Jewish population.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Mor|2016|pp=483–484}}: &quot;Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the [[Sicaricon|sikarikon laws]] were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The Romans also suffered heavy losses.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-1999&quot; /&gt; Post-revolt, Jews were prohibited from entering Jerusalem, and Hadrian issued religious edicts,&lt;ref&gt;Hanan Eshel,[[iarchive:cambridgehis xxxx 1984 004 8494287/page/n1082|&lt;!-- pg=105 --&gt; 'The Bar Kochba revolt, 132-135,']] in William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, Steven T. Katz (eds.) ''The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period,'' pp. 105-127, p. 105.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Eshel |first=Hanan |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=T. Katz |editor-first=Steven |volume=4. The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period  |pages=105–127 |chapter=4: The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132 – 135 |oclc=7672733}}&lt;/ref&gt; including a ban on circumcision, later repealed by [[Antoninus Pius]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} The province of Judaea was renamed [[Syria Palaestina]] as a punitive act against the Jews, aimed at placating non-Jewish residents and erasing Jewish historical ties to the land.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, {{ISBN|0-674-39731-2}}, page 334: &quot;In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ariel Lewin. ''The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine''. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. &quot;It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land.&quot; {{ISBN|0-89236-800-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; Christians refused to participate in the revolt and from this point the Jews regarded Christianity as a separate religion.&lt;ref&gt;M. Avi-Yonah, ''The Jews under Roman and Byzantine Rule'', Jerusalem 1984 p. 143&lt;/ref&gt; The Jewish defeat marked the termination of efforts to reestablish a Jewish state until the modern era.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |title=An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History And Religion Of The Jews In The Time Of Nehemiah, The Maccabees, Hillel, And Jesus |date=2010 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-55248-8 |location=Edinburgh |page=78 |quote=It was the total defeat and the massive destruction of the 132–35 war which put paid to any hopes of a revived Jewish state for another 1800 years.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A rabbi of this period, [[Simeon bar Yochai]], is regarded as the author of the [[Zohar]], the foundational text for Kabbalistic thought. However, modern scholars believe it was written in Medieval Spain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |title=Zohar |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&amp;letter=Z#406 |access-date=May 19, 2014 |last=Jacobs |first=Joseph |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007024121/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&amp;letter=Z#406 |archive-date=October 7, 2011 |author2=Broydé, Isaac |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Late Roman period in the Land of Israel ===
{{further|Byzantine Palestine|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}}
The relations of the Jews with the Roman Empire in the region continued to be complicated. [[Constantine the Great and Judaism|Constantine I]] allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once a year on [[Tisha B'Av]] at the [[Western Wall]]. In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched [[Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus|yet another revolt]], provoking heavy retribution.&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lazare and Robert Wistrich, Antisemitism: Its History and Causes, University of Nebraska Press, 1995, I, pp. 46–47.&lt;/ref&gt; The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the [[Constantinian dynasty]]. In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]], the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who unlike his predecessors defied Christianity. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sasanian Persia, in keeping with his effort to foster religions other than Christianity, he ordered the Jewish Temple rebuilt.&lt;ref&gt;Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'', 23.1.2–3.&lt;/ref&gt; The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic [[Galilee earthquake of 363]] and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire. Divine intervention was the common view among Christian historians of the time.&lt;ref&gt;See [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html &quot;Julian and the Jews 361–363 CE&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520080932/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html |date=May 20, 2012 }} (Fordham University, The Jesuit University of New York) and [https://web.archive.org/web/20051020130904/http://www.gibsoncondo.com/~david/convert/history.html &quot;Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple&quot;].&lt;/ref&gt; Julian's support of Jews caused Jews to call him &quot;Julian the [[Hellenes (religion)|Hellene]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Falk |first1=Avner |title=A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews |year=1996 |pages=343 |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press |isbn=978-0-8386-3660-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z10-Xz9Kno4C&amp;q=julian&amp;pg=PA343 |access-date=August 3, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Julian's fatal wound in the Persian campaign and his consequent death had put an end to Jewish aspirations, and Julian's successors embraced Christianity through the entire timeline of Byzantine rule of Jerusalem, preventing any Jewish claims.

In 438 CE, when the Empress [[Licinia Eudoxia|Eudocia]] removed the ban on Jews' praying at the [[Temple Mount|Temple site]], the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call &quot;to the great and mighty people of the Jews&quot; which began: &quot;Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!&quot; However, the Christian population of the city, who saw this as a threat to their primacy, did not allow it and a riot erupted after which they chased away the Jews from the city.&lt;ref&gt;Avraham Yaari, ''Igrot Eretz Yisrael'' (Tel Aviv, 1943), p. 46.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Andrew S. Jacobs |title=Remains of the Jews: The Holy Land and Christian Empire in Late Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8O95ErDSZQgC&amp;pg=PA157 |year=2004 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-4705-9 |page=157 |access-date=April 19, 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of [[Samaritan Revolts|Samaritan insurrections]] broke out across the [[Palaestina Prima]] province. Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in almost the entire annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the Samaritan [[Samaritan Revolts|Revolt of 556]] was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered a brutal suppression of Israelite religion.

In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an [[Jewish revolt against Heraclius|alliance]] with the [[Sassanid Empire|Persians]], who invaded Palaestina Prima in 614, fought at their side, overwhelmed the [[Byzantine]] garrison in Jerusalem, and were given Jerusalem to be governed as an autonomy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Itineraria Phoenicia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&amp;q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&amp;pg=PA542 |author=Edward Lipiński |publisher=Peeters |pages=542–543 |year=2004 |isbn=978-90-429-1344-8 |access-date=March 11, 2014 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409161013/https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&amp;q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&amp;pg=PA542 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, their autonomy was brief: the [[Nehemiah ben Hushiel|Jewish leader]] in Jerusalem was shortly assassinated during a Christian revolt and though Jerusalem was reconquered by Persians and Jews within 3 weeks, it fell into anarchy. With the consequent withdrawal of Persian forces, Jews surrendered to Byzantines in 625 or 628 CE, but were massacred by Christian radicals in 629 CE, with the survivors fleeing to Egypt. The Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) control of the region was finally lost to the Muslim Arab armies in 637 CE, when [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] completed the conquest of Akko.

=== Jews of pre-Muslim Babylonia (219–638 CE) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in Iraq}}

After the fall of Jerusalem, Babylonia would become the focus of Judaism for more than a thousand years. The first Jewish communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by [[Jehoiachin]] in 597 BCE as well as after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; Many more Jews migrated to Babylon in 135 CE after the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] and in the centuries after.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; Babylonia, where some of the largest and most prominent Jewish cities and communities were established, became the centre of Jewish life up to the 13th century. By the 1st century, Babylonia already held a speedily growing&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; population of an estimated 1,000,000 Jews, which increased to an estimated 2 million&lt;ref name=&quot;Solomon Gryazel&quot;&gt;Solomon Gryazel, ''History of the Jews: From the destruction of Judah in 586 BCE to the present Arab Israeli conflict'', p. 137.&lt;/ref&gt; between the years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from Judea, making up about 1/6 of the world Jewish population at that era.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solomon Gryazel&quot; /&gt; It was there that they would write the Babylonian Talmud in the languages used by the Jews of ancient Babylonia: [[Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]]. The Jews established [[Talmudic Academies in Babylonia]], also known as the Geonic Academies (from &quot;Geonim&quot;, meaning &quot;splendour&quot; in Biblical Hebrew or &quot;geniuses&quot;), which became the centre for Jewish scholarship and the development of Jewish law in Babylonia from roughly 500 CE to 1038 CE. The two most famous academies were the [[Pumbedita Academy]] and the [[Sura Academy]]. Major yeshivot were also located at [[Nehardea]] and Mahuza.&lt;ref&gt;''Codex Judaica'', pp. 161–174, Kantor, Zichron Press, NY 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; The Talmudic [[Yeshiva]] Academies became a main part of Jewish culture and education, and Jews continued establishing Yeshiva Academies in Western and Eastern Europe, North Africa, and in later centuries, in America and other countries around the world where Jews lived in the Diaspora. Talmudic study in Yeshiva academies, most of them located in The United States and Israel, continues today.

These Talmudic [[Yeshiva]] academies of Babylonia followed the era of the [[Amoraim]] (expounders)—the sages of the Talmud who were active (both in Judah and in Babylon) during the end of the era of the sealing of the [[Mishnah]] and until the times of the sealing of the Talmud (220–500 CE), and following the [[Savoraim]] (reasoners)—the sages of beth midrash (Torah study places) in Babylon from the end of the era of the Amoraim (5th century) and until the beginning of the era of the [[Geonim]]. The Geonim were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura and Pumbedita, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of the worldwide Jewish community in the early medieval era, in contrast to the [[Resh Galuta]] (Exilarch) who wielded secular authority over the Jews in Islamic lands. According to traditions, the [[Resh Galuta]] were descendants of Judean kings, which is why the kings of [[Parthia]] would treat them with much honour.&lt;ref&gt;[מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס. רותת &quot;עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום&quot;, ע&quot;מ 97. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth ''The People of Israel: The History of 4,000 Years, from the Days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty'', 1981, p. 97)&lt;/ref&gt;

For the Jews of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the yeshivot of Babylonia served much the same function as the ancient [[Sanhedrin]]—that is, as a council of Jewish religious authorities. The academies were founded in pre-Islamic Babylonia under the Zoroastrian Sassanid dynasty and were located not far from the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, which at that time was the largest city in the world. After the conquest of Persia in the 7th century, the academies subsequently operated for four hundred years under the Islamic caliphate. The first gaon of Sura, according to [[Sherira Gaon]], was Mar bar Rab Chanan, who assumed office in 609. The last gaon of [[Sura]] was [[Samuel ben Hofni]], who died in 1034; the last gaon of Pumbedita was [[Hezekiah Gaon]], who was tortured to death in 1040; hence the activity of the Geonim covers a period of nearly 450 years.

One of principal seats of Babylonian Judaism was [[Nehardea]], which was then a very large city made up mostly of Jews.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; A very ancient synagogue, built, it was believed, by King Jehoiachin, existed in Nehardea. At Huzal, near Nehardea, there was another synagogue, not far from which could be seen the ruins of Ezra's academy. In the period before Hadrian, Akiba, on his arrival at Nehardea on a mission from the Sanhedrin, entered into a discussion with a resident scholar on a point of matrimonial law (Mishnah Yeb., end). At the same time there was at Nisibis (northern [[Mesopotamia]]), an excellent Jewish college, at the head of which stood [[Judah ben Bathyra]], and in which many Judean scholars found refuge at the time of the persecutions. A certain temporary importance was also attained by a school at [[Nehar Pekod|Nehar-Pekod]], founded by the Judean immigrant Hananiah, nephew of [[Joshua ben Hananiah]], which school might have been the cause of a schism between the Jews of Babylonia and those of Judea-Israel, had not the Judean authorities promptly checked Hananiah's ambition.

=== Byzantine period (324–638 CE) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}}

Jews were also widespread throughout the Roman Empire, and this carried on to a lesser extent in the period of Byzantine rule in the central and eastern Mediterranean. The militant and exclusive Christianity and [[caesaropapism]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] did not treat Jews well, and the condition and influence of diaspora Jews in the Empire declined dramatically.

It was official Christian policy to convert Jews to Christianity, and the Christian leadership used the official power of Rome in their attempts. In 351 CE the Jews revolted against the added pressures of their governor, [[Constantius Gallus]]. Gallus put down the revolt and destroyed the major cities in the Galilee area where the revolt had started. Tzippori and Lydda (site of two of the major legal academies) never recovered.

In this period, the Nasi in Tiberias, [[Hillel II]], created an official calendar, which needed no monthly sightings of the moon. The months were set, and the calendar needed no further authority from Judea. At about the same time, the Jewish academy at Tiberius began to collate the combined Mishnah, [[braitot]], explanations, and interpretations developed by generations of scholars who studied after the death of [[Judah HaNasi]]. The text was organized according to the order of the Mishna: each paragraph of Mishnah was followed by a compilation of all of the interpretations, stories, and responses associated with that Mishnah. This text is called the ''[[Jerusalem Talmud]].''

The Jews of Judea received a brief respite from official persecution during the rule of the Emperor [[Julian the Apostate]]. Julian's policy was to return the Roman Empire to Hellenism, and he encouraged the Jews to rebuild Jerusalem. As Julian's rule lasted only from 361 to 363, the Jews could not rebuild sufficiently before Roman Christian rule was restored over the Empire. Beginning in 398 with the consecration of [[St. John Chrysostom]] as [[Patriarch]], Christian rhetoric against Jews grew sharper; he preached sermons with titles such as &quot;Against the Jews&quot; and &quot;On the Statues, Homily 17&quot;, in which John preaches against &quot;the Jewish sickness&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Wendy Mayer and [[Pauline Allen]], ''John Chrysostom: The Early Church Fathers'' (London, 2000), pp. 113, 146.&lt;/ref&gt; Such heated language contributed to a climate of Christian distrust and hate toward the large Jewish settlements, such as those in [[Antioch]] and [[Constantinople]].

In the beginning of the 5th century, the [[Emperor Theodosius]] issued a set of decrees establishing official persecution of Jews. Jews were not allowed to own slaves, build new synagogues, hold public office or try cases between a Jew and a non-Jew. Intermarriage between Jew and non-Jew was made a capital offence, as was the conversion of Christians to Judaism. Theodosius did away with the [[Sanhedrin]] and abolished the post of [[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]]. Under the [[Emperor Justinian]], the authorities further restricted the civil rights of Jews,&lt;ref&gt;Cod., I., v. 12&lt;/ref&gt; and threatened their religious privileges.&lt;ref&gt;Procopius, ''Historia Arcana'', 28&lt;/ref&gt; The emperor interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue,&lt;ref&gt;Nov., cxlvi., February 8, 553&lt;/ref&gt; and forbade, for instance, the use of the Hebrew language in divine worship. Those who disobeyed the restrictions were threatened with corporal penalties, exile, and loss of property. The Jews at Borium, not far from Syrtis Major, who resisted the Byzantine general [[Belisarius]] in his campaign against the [[Vandals]], were forced to embrace Christianity, and their synagogue was converted to a church.&lt;ref&gt;Procopius, ''De Aedificiis'', vi. 2&lt;/ref&gt;

Justinian and his successors had concerns outside the province of Judea, and he had insufficient troops to enforce these regulations. As a result, the 5th century was a period when a wave of new synagogues were built, many with beautiful mosaic floors. Jews adopted the rich art forms of the Byzantine culture. Jewish mosaics of the period portray people, animals, menorahs, zodiacs, and Biblical characters. Excellent examples of these synagogue floors have been found at Beit Alpha (which includes the scene of Abraham sacrificing a ram instead of his son Isaac along with a zodiac), Tiberius, Beit Shean, and Tzippori.

The precarious existence of Jews under Byzantine rule did not long endure, largely due to the explosion of the Muslim religion out of the remote Arabian peninsula (where large populations of Jews resided, see [[History of the Jews under Muslim Rule]] for more). The [[Muslim]] [[Caliphate]] ejected the Byzantines from the Holy Land (or the Levant, defined as modern Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria) within a few years of their victory at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] in 636. Numerous Jews fled the remaining Byzantine territories in favour of residence in the Caliphate over the subsequent centuries.

The size of the Jewish community in the Byzantine Empire was not affected by attempts by some emperors to forcibly convert the Jews of Anatolia to Christianity, as these attempts met with very little success.&lt;ref&gt;[[G. Ostrogorsky]], ''History of the Byzantine State''&lt;/ref&gt; Historians continue to research the status of the Jews in Asia Minor under Byzantine rule. (for a sample of views, see, for instance, J. Starr ''The Jews in the Byzantine Empire, 641–1204''; S. Bowman, ''The Jews of Byzantium''; R. Jenkins ''Byzantium''; Averil Cameron, &quot;Byzantines and Jews: Recent Work on Early Byzantium&quot;, ''Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies'' 20 (1996)). No systematic persecution of the type endemic at that time in Western Europe (pogroms, the stake, mass [[Expulsions and exoduses of Jews|expulsions]], etc.) has been recorded in Byzantium.&lt;ref&gt;''The Oxford History of Byzantium'', C. Mango (Ed) (2002)&lt;/ref&gt; Much of the Jewish population of Constantinople remained in place after the conquest of the city by [[Mehmet II]].{{citation needed|date=November 2013}}

&lt;gallery widths=&quot;180&quot;&gt;
File:Roman. Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog, 6th century C.E.jpg|''Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog'', 6th century [[Brooklyn Museum]]
File:Beit alfa01.jpg|Mosaic pavement of a synagogue at [[Beit Alpha]] (5th century)
File:ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg|Mosaic in the [[Tzippori Synagogue]] (5th century)
File:Hammat Gader.JPG|Mosaic pavement recovered from the [[Hamat Gader]] synagogue (5th or 6th century)
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Diaspora communities ===
[[File:Arrival of the Jewish pilgrims at Coachin, A.D. 68.jpg|thumb|Arrival of the Jewish pilgrims at Cochin, 68 CE]]
Cochin Jewish tradition holds that the roots of their community go back to the arrival of Jews at [[Kodungallur|Shingly]] in 72 CE, after the [[Destruction of the Second Temple]]. It also states that a Jewish kingdom, understood to mean the granting of autonomy by a local [[Tamils|Tamil]] king, [[Cheraman Perumal Nayanar]], to the community, under their leader Joseph Rabban, in 379 CE. The first synagogue there was built in 1568. The legend of the founding of Indian [[Christianity in Kerala]] by [[Thomas the Apostle]] relates that on his arrival there, he encountered a local girl who understood Hebrew.&lt;ref&gt;Nathan Katz, [https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA22 ''Who Are the Jews of India?,''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160937/https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA22|date=April 9, 2023}} [[University of California Press]], 2000 {{isbn|978-0-520-92072-9}} pp. 13–14, 17–18&lt;/ref&gt;

Perhaps in the 4th century, the [[Kingdom of Semien]], a Jewish nation in modern [[Beta Israel|Ethiopia]] was established, lasting until the 17th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exploring a Forgotten Jewish Land – Archaeology Magazine |url=https://www.archaeology.org/issues/498-2301/letter-from/11057-ethiopia-beta-israel |access-date=November 9, 2023 |website=www.archaeology.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وچين دور==
===اسلامي دور===
[[File:Education (T-S K5.13) (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|قاهره جينيزا جو ٽڪرو، ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي لائبريري&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Cairo Genizah : Education|url=https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-TS-K-00005-00013|access-date=2025-10-18|website=Cambridge Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
سال 638 عيسوي ۾ [[بازنطيني سلطنت]] [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سر زمين شام]] جو ڪنٽرول وڃائي ڇڏيو. خليفي [[عمر بن خطاب|عمر]] [[عمر بن خطاب|رضي الله تعالى عنه]] جي اڳواڻي ۾ [[پهرين اسلامي رياست|عرب اسلامي سلطنت]] [[يروشلم]]، [[ميسوپوٽيميا]]، [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سر زمين شام]] ([[شام]]، [[اردن]] ۽ [[فلسطين]]) ۽ [[مصر]] جي زمينن کي فتح ڪيو. هڪ سياسي نظام جي طور تي، [[اسلام]] يهودين جي معاشي، سماجي ۽ ذهني ترقي لاءِ بنيادي طور تي نوان حالات پيدا ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;Ehrlich, Mark. ''Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1''. ABC-CLIO, 2009, p. 152.({{ISBN|978-1-85109-873-6}})&lt;/ref&gt;عمر رضي الله تعالى عنه يهودين کي، 500 سالن جي وقفي کان پوءِ، [[يروشلم]] ۾ پنهنجي موجودگي کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني (ڏسو:عمر جي يقين دهاني).&lt;ref name=&quot;Bashan-20072&quot;&gt;{{cite EJ|last=Bashan|first=Eliezer|volume=15|page=419|title=Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي روايتون عمر کي هڪ مهربان حڪمران جي طور تي ڏسي ٿي ۽ مدراش (&lt;small&gt;نست&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;اروت دي-راو شمعون بار يوحائي&lt;/small&gt;) کيس &quot;بني اسرائيل جي دوست&quot; طور حوالو ڏئي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bashan-20073&quot;&gt;{{cite EJ|last=Bashan|first=Eliezer|volume=15|page=419|title=Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

عرب جاگرافيدان المقدسي جي مطابق، &lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land|author=Joseph E. Katz|year=2001|publisher=EretzYisroel.Org|access-date=August 12, 2012|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي &quot;سڪن جي چڪاس ڪندڙ، رنگ ڪندڙ، چمڙي جا ماهر ۽ مهاجن&quot; طور ڪم ڪندا هئا. [[فاطمي خلافت|فاطمي دور]] ۾، ڪيترن ئي يهودي عملدارن حڪومت ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏنيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-20013&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land|author=Joseph E. Katz|year=2001|publisher=EretzYisroel.Org|access-date=August 12, 2012|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; پروفيسر موشئ گل جو خيال آهي، ته 7هين صدي ۾ عرب فتح جي وقت، يروشلم جي آبادي جي اڪثريت عيسائي ۽ يهودي هئي.&lt;ref&gt;Moshe Gil, ''A History of Palestine: 634–1099'' pp. 170, 220–221.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن وقت دوران يهودي سڄي قديم بابل ۾ خوشحال برادرين ۾ رهندا هئا. جيونڪ دور (650-1250 عيسوي) ۾، بابلي يشيوا اڪيڊميون يهودي سکيا جا مکيه مرڪز هئا. جيونم (جن جو معنيٰ آهي &quot;شان&quot; يا &quot;جينيئس&quot;) انهن اسڪولن جا سربراهه هئا. انهن کي يهودي قانون ۾ اعليٰ اختيارين طور تسليم ڪيو ويو. 7هين صدي ۾، غير مسلمن جي زمينن تي حڪمران جزيو (&lt;small&gt;Poll&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Tax&lt;/small&gt;) عائد ڪيو، جن جي ڪري بابلي يهودين جي ڳوٺاڻن علائقن مان [[بغداد]] جهڙن شهرن ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. ان جي نتيجي ۾ يهودي برادري ۾ وڌيڪ دولت ۽ بين الاقوامي اثر ۽ انهي سان گڏ يهودي مفڪرن جو هڪ وڌيڪ عالمگير نقطه نظر،جهڙوڪ سعديه گاون، جيڪو هاڻي پهريون ڀيرو مغربي فلسفي سان تمام گهڻي دلچسپي رکن ٿا، پيدا ٿيو.  جڏهن 10هين صدي ۾ [[عباسي خلافت]] ۽ بغداد شهر جو زوال ٿيو، ڪيترائي بابلي يهودي [[رومي (ڀونوچ) سمنڊ|رومي ڀونوچ سمنڊ]] جي علائقن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪيا. سڄي يهودي دنيا ۾ بابلي يهودي رسمن جي پکيڙ ۾ حصو ورتو.&lt;ref&gt;[[Marina Rustow]], [http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/ Baghdad in the West: Migration and the Making of Medieval Jewish Traditions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711065105/http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/|date=July 11, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور (711-1031) ===
&lt;nowiki&gt;{{اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[[اندلس]] ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور [[يُورَپ|يورپ]] ۾ [[وچون دور|وچين دور]] سان گڏ هو، جيڪو سڃي [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|جزيري نما آئبيريا]] تي مسلمانن جي حڪمراني جو دور هو.

=== Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain (711–1031) ===
{{Main|Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain}}
The golden age of Jewish culture in Spain coincided with the [[Middle Ages]] in Europe, a period of [[Al-Andalus|Muslim rule]] throughout much of the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. During that time, Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed.

A period of tolerance thus dawned for the Jews of the [[Iberian Peninsula]], whose number was considerably augmented by immigration from Africa in the wake of the Muslim conquest. Especially after 912, during the reign of [[Abd-ar-Rahman III]] and his son, [[al-Hakam II]], the Jews prospered, devoting themselves to the service of the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]], to the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially to trading in silk and slaves, in this way promoting the prosperity of the country. Jewish economic expansion was unparalleled. In [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], Jews were involved in translating Arabic texts to the [[Romance languages]], as well as translating Greek and Hebrew texts into Arabic. Jews also contributed to botany, geography, medicine, mathematics, poetry and philosophy.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sephardim Archived September 7&quot;&gt;[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html Sephardim] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |date=September 7, 2012 }} by Rebecca Weiner.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ahmed, M.I. Muslim-Jewish Harmony: A Politically-Contingent Reality. Religions 2022, 13, 535. {{doi|10.3390/rel13060535|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to [[Bernard Lewis]]:

{{Blockquote|Generally, the Jewish people were allowed to practice their religion and live according to the laws and scriptures of their community. Furthermore, the restrictions to which they were subject were social and symbolic rather than tangible and practical in character. That is to say, these regulations served to define the relationship between the two communities, and not to oppress the Jewish population.&lt;ref&gt;Lewis, Bernard W (1984). ''The Jews of Islam''&lt;/ref&gt;|}}

'Abd al-Rahman's court physician and minister was Hasdai ben Isaac ibn Shaprut, the patron of Menahem ben Saruq, Dunash ben Labrat, and other Jewish scholars and poets. Jewish thought during this period flourished under famous figures such as Samuel Ha-Nagid, Moses ibn Ezra, Solomon ibn Gabirol [[Judah Halevi]] and [[Moses Maimonides]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Sephardim Archived September 7&quot; /&gt; During 'Abd al-Rahman's term of power, the scholar [[Moses ben Enoch]] was appointed [[rabbi]] of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], and as a consequence [[al-Andalus]] became the centre of Talmudic study, and [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] the meeting-place of Jewish savants.

The Golden Age ended with the invasion of al-Andalus by the [[Almohads]], a conservative dynasty originating in North Africa, who were highly intolerant of religious minorities.

=== Jews and the Crusades (1099–1260) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews and the Crusades}}
{{See also|Siege of Jerusalem (1099)}}
[[File:1099jerusalem.jpg|thumb|left|[[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|Capture of Jerusalem]], 1099]]
Sermonical messages to avenge the death of Jesus encouraged Christians to participate in the Crusades. The 12th-century Jewish narration from R. Solomon ben Samson records that crusaders en route to the Holy Land decided that before combating the Ishmaelites they would massacre the Jews residing in their midst to avenge the [[crucifixion of Christ]]. The massacres began at [[Rouen]] and Jewish communities in [[Rhine Valley]] were seriously affected.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/413 413]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Crusading attacks were made upon Jews in the territory around Heidelberg. A huge loss of Jewish life took place. Many were forcibly converted to Christianity and many committed suicide to avoid baptism. A major driving factor behind the choice to commit suicide was the Jewish realisation that upon being slain their children could be taken to be raised as Christians. The Jews were living in the middle of Christian lands and felt this danger acutely.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/416 416]}}&lt;/ref&gt; This massacre is seen as the first in a sequence of antisemitic events which culminated in the Holocaust.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=David Nirenberg |editor=Gerd Althoff |others=Johannes Fried |title=Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual, Memory, Historiography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MxS6-pQZzGsC&amp;pg=PA279 |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-78066-7 |pages=279–}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jewish populations felt that they had been abandoned by their Christian neighbours and rulers during the massacres and lost faith in all promises and charters.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/419 419]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Many Jews chose self-defence. But their means of self-defence were limited and their casualties only increased. Most of the forced conversions proved ineffective. Many Jews reverted to their original faith later. The pope protested this but Emperor Henry IV agreed to permitting these reversions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot; /&gt; The massacres began a new epoch for Jewry in Christendom. The Jews had preserved their faith from social pressure, now they had to preserve it at sword point. The massacres during the crusades strengthened Jewry from within spiritually. The Jewish perspective was that their struggle was Israel's struggle to hallow the name of God.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/414 414]–}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1099, Jews helped the Arabs to defend Jerusalem against the [[Crusaders]]. When the city fell, the Crusaders gathered many Jews in a synagogue and set it on fire.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot; /&gt; In Haifa, the Jews almost single-handedly defended the town against the Crusaders, holding out for a month, (June–July 1099).&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html |title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land |author=Joseph E. Katz |year=2001 |publisher=EretzYisroel.Org |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=January 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; At this time there were Jewish communities scattered all over the country, including Jerusalem, Tiberias, Ramleh, Ashkelon, Caesarea, and [[Gaza City|Gaza]]. As Jews were not allowed to hold land during the Crusader period, they worked at trades and commerce in the coastal towns during times of quiescence. Most were artisans: glassblowers in [[Sidon]], furriers and dyers in Jerusalem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot; /&gt;

During this period, the [[Masoretes]] of Tiberias established the ''[[niqqud]]'', a system of [[diacritic]]s used to represent vowels or distinguish between alternative pronunciations of letters of the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. Numerous [[piyutim]] and [[midrash]]im were recorded in Palestine at this time.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot; /&gt;

[[Maimonides]] wrote that in 1165 he visited Jerusalem and went to the Temple Mount, where he prayed in the &quot;great, holy house&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Sefer HaCharedim Mitzvat Tshuva Chapter 3&lt;/ref&gt; Maimonides established a yearly holiday for himself and his sons, the 6th of [[Cheshvan]], commemorating the day he went up to pray on the Temple Mount, and another, the 9th of Cheshvan, commemorating the day he merited to pray at the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]] in [[Hebron]].

In 1141 [[Yehuda Halevi]] issued a call to Jews to emigrate to Palestine and took on the long journey himself. After a stormy passage from [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]], he arrived in Egyptian [[Alexandria]], where he was enthusiastically greeted by friends and admirers. At [[Damietta]], he had to struggle against his heart, and the pleadings of his friend Ḥalfon ha-Levi, that he remain in Egypt, where he would be free from intolerant oppression. He started on the rough route overland. He was met along the way by Jews in [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] and [[Damascus]]. Jewish legend relates that as he came near Jerusalem, overpowered by the sight of the Holy City, he sang his most beautiful elegy, the celebrated &quot;Zionide&quot; (''Zion ha-lo Tish'ali''). At that instant, an Arab had galloped out of a gate and rode him down; he was killed in the accident.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}}

=== Mamluk period (1260–1517) ===
[[Nahmanides]] is recorded as settling in the Old City of Jerusalem in 1267. He moved to [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], where he was active in spreading Jewish learning, which was at that time neglected in the Holy Land. He gathered a circle of pupils around him, and people came in crowds, even from the district of the Euphrates, to hear him. [[Karaite Judaism|Karaites]] were said to have attended his lectures, among them Aaron ben Joseph the Elder. He later became one of the greatest [[Karaite (Jewish sect)|Karaite]] authorities. Shortly after Nahmanides' arrival in Jerusalem, he addressed a letter to his son Nahman, in which he described the desolation of the Holy City. At the time, it had only two Jewish inhabitants—two brothers, dyers by trade. In a later letter from Acre, Nahmanides counsels his son to cultivate humility, which he considers to be the first of virtues. In another, addressed to his second son, who occupied an official position at the [[Crown of Castile|Castilian]] court, Nahmanides recommends the recitation of the daily prayers and warns above all against immorality. Nahmanides died after reaching seventy-six, and his remains were interred at [[Haifa]], by the grave of [[Yechiel of Paris]].

Yechiel had [[aliyah|emigrated]] to Acre in 1260, along with his son and a large group of followers.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html |title=Jewish Zionist Education |publisher=Jafi.org.il |date=May 15, 2005 |access-date=August 13, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013142810/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html |archive-date=October 13, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf |title=Hadrat Melech |access-date=April 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502035808/http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf |archive-date=May 2, 2014 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; There he established the Talmudic academy ''Midrash haGadol d'Paris''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&amp;content=content/segal_ch17 |title=Section III: The Biblical Age: Chapter Seventeen: Awaiting the Messiah |author=Benjamin J. Segal |work=Returning, the Land of Israel as a Focus in Jewish History |publisher=JewishHistory.com |access-date=August 12, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227184802/http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&amp;content=content%2Fsegal_ch17 |archive-date=February 27, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; He is believed to have died there between 1265 and 1268. In 1488 [[Obadiah ben Abraham]], commentator on the [[Mishnah]], arrived in Jerusalem; this marked a new period of return for the Jewish community in the land.

==== Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East ====
{{Main|History of the Jews in Spain}}
{{See also|Islam and Judaism|Mizrahi Jew|History of the Jews under Muslim rule}}
[[File:Hebrew Bible Spain.jpg|right|thumb|Sephardic Hebrew Bible from Spain, 1300&lt;ref&gt;[https://lccn.loc.gov/2021667534]&lt;/ref&gt;]]
During the Middle Ages, Jews were generally better treated by Islamic rulers than Christian ones. Despite second-class citizenship, Jews played prominent roles in Muslim courts, and experienced a Golden Age in [[Moorish Spain]] about 900–1100, though the situation deteriorated after that time. Riots resulting in the deaths of Jews did however occur in North Africa through the centuries and especially in [[Morocco]], [[Libya]] and [[Algeria]], where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos.&lt;ref&gt;Maurice Roumani, ''The Case of the Jews from Arab Countries: A Neglected Issue'', 1977, pp. 26–27.&lt;/ref&gt;

During the 11th century, Muslims in Spain conducted pogroms against the Jews; those occurred in Cordoba in 1011 and in [[1066 Granada massacre|Granada in 1066]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |title=Granada |url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |access-date=August 12, 2012 |year=1906 |archive-date=April 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412000424/https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the Middle Ages, the governments of Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen enacted decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues. At certain times, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and [[Baghdad]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_%28gen%29.html |title=The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries |author=Mitchell Bard |year=2012 |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=October 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007003054/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_(gen).html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} The [[Almohad]]s, who had taken control of much of Islamic Iberia by 1172, surpassed the [[Almoravides]] in fundamentalist outlook. They treated the ''[[dhimmi]]s'' harshly. They expelled both Jews and Christians from Morocco and Islamic Spain. Faced with the choice of death or conversion, many Jews emigrated.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=66&amp;Itemid=39 The Forgotten Refugees] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928051923/http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=66&amp;Itemid=39 |date=September 28, 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Some, such as the family of [[Maimonides]], fled south and east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |title=Sephardim |author=Rebecca Weiner |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=September 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Kraemer, Joel L., &quot;Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait,&quot; ''The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides'', pp. 16–17 (2005)&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}}

=== Europe ===
{{Main|History of European Jews in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:Mishnah (Ms. 3173; De Rossi 138), Palatina.jpg|right|thumb|11th century ''[[mishnah]]'' codex from Italy, [[Biblioteca Palatina, Parma]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=adkim |date=2014-02-28 |title=The Biblioteca Palatina and the National Library of Israel |url=https://primolevicenter.org/printed-matter/the-biblioteca-palatina-and-the-national-library-of-israel/ |access-date=2025-10-15 |website=Printed_Matter |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
According to [[James P. Carrol]], &quot;Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, James. ''[[Constantine's Sword]]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) {{ISBN|978-0-395-77927-9}} p. 26&lt;/ref&gt;

Jewish populations have existed in Europe, especially in the area of the former Roman Empire, from very early times. As Jewish males had emigrated, some sometimes took wives from local populations, as is shown by the various [[MtDNA]], compared to [[Y-DNA#Genetic genealogy|Y-DNA]] among Jewish populations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html |title=In DNA, New Clues to Jewish Roots |first=Nicholas |last=Wade |date=May 14, 2002 |work=The New York Times |access-date=June 16, 2013 |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126180104/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; These groups were joined by traders and later on by members of the diaspora.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}} Records of Jewish communities in France (see [[History of the Jews in France]]) and Germany (see [[History of the Jews in Germany]]) date from the 4th century, and substantial Jewish communities in Spain were noted even earlier.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}}

The historian [[Norman Cantor]] and other 20th-century scholars dispute the tradition that the Middle Ages was a uniformly difficult time for Jews. Before the Church became fully organized as an institution with an increasing array of rules, early medieval society was tolerant. Between 800 and 1100, an estimated 1.5 million Jews lived in Christian Europe. As they were not Christians, they were not included as a [[Estates of the realm|division]] of the feudal system of clergy, knights and serfs. This means that they did not have to satisfy the oppressive demands for labour and military conscription that Christian commoners suffered. In relations with the Christian society, the Jews were protected by kings, princes and bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: finance, administration and medicine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Norman F&quot; /&gt; The lack of political strengths did leave Jews vulnerable to exploitation through extreme taxation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Ebenhard |last=Isenmann |editor-first=Richard |editor-last=Bonney |title=The Rise of the Fiscal State in Europe c. 1200–1815 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U24lRLy_qT8C&amp;pg=PA259 |date=1999 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-154220-6 |page=259}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Christian scholars interested in the Bible consulted with Talmudic rabbis. As the Roman Catholic Church strengthened as an institution, the Franciscan and Dominican preaching orders were founded, and there was a rise of competitive middle-class, town-dwelling Christians. By 1300, the friars and local priests staged the Passion Plays during Holy Week, which depicted Jews (in contemporary dress) killing Christ, according to Gospel accounts. From this period, persecution of Jews and deportations became endemic. Around 1500, Jews found relative security and a renewal of prosperity in present-day [[Poland]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Norman F&quot;&gt;Norman F. Cantor, ''The Last Knight: The Twilight of the Middle Ages and the Birth of the Modern Era'', Free Press, 2004. {{ISBN|978-0-7432-2688-2}}, pp. 28–29&lt;/ref&gt;

After 1300, Jews suffered more discrimination and persecution in Christian Europe. Europe's Jewry was mainly urban and literate. The Christians were inclined to regard Jews as obstinate deniers of the truth because in their view the Jews were expected to know of the truth of the Christian doctrines from their knowledge of the Jewish scriptures. Jews were aware of the pressure to accept Christianity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/412 412]}}&lt;/ref&gt; As Catholics were forbidden by the church to loan money for interest, some Jews became prominent moneylenders. Christian rulers gradually saw the advantage of having such a class of people who could supply capital for their use without being liable to excommunication. As a result, the money trade of western Europe became a speciality of the Jews. But, in almost every instance when Jews acquired large amounts through banking transactions, during their lives or upon their deaths, the king would take it over.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england &quot;England&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730231726/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england |date=July 30, 2020 }}, [[Jewish Encyclopedia]] (1906)&lt;/ref&gt; Jews became imperial{{-&quot;}}[[Servi camerae regis|''servi cameræ'']]{{-&quot;}}, the property of the King, who might present them and their possessions to princes or cities.

Jews were frequently massacred and exiled from various European countries. The persecution hit its first peak during the [[Crusades]]. In the [[People's Crusade]] (1096) flourishing Jewish communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed. In the [[Second Crusade]] (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. They were also subjected to attacks by the [[Shepherds' Crusade (1251)|Shepherds' Crusades of 1251]] and [[Shepherds' Crusade (1320)|1320]]. The Crusades were followed by massive expulsions, including the [[Edict of Expulsion|expulsion of the Jews from England in 1290]];&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Robin R. |last=Mundill |title=England's Jewish Solution: Experiment and Expulsion, 1262–1290 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CSKLfi_j110C |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52026-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; in 1396 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and in 1421, thousands were expelled from Austria. Over this time many Jews in Europe, either fleeing or being expelled, migrated to Poland, where they prospered into another [[History of the Jews in Poland#Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572|Golden Age]].

In Italy, Jews were allowed to live in Venice but were required to live in a [[ghetto]], and the practice spread across Italy (see [[Cum nimis absurdum]]) and was adopted in many places in Catholic Europe. Jews outside the Ghetto often had to wear a yellow star.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121 |title=Print of Jews forced to listen to a Christian sermon – Collections Search – United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |website=collections.ushmm.org |access-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-date=November 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129142432/https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;The Jewish-Christian Encounter in Medieval Preaching, Routledge 2015, edited by Jonathan Adams and Jussi Hanska chapter 13, see page 297&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Expulsions of the Jews of Spain and Portugal ===
{{further|Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal}}
[[File:Vicente Cutanda - A los pies del Salvador.jpg|thumb|250px|''At the Feet of the Saviour'', massacre of Jews in [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], oil on canvas by [[Vicente Cutanda]] (1887)]]
[[File:Matanza de judíos en Barcelona - año 1391.jpg|thumb|250px|''Slaughter of Jews in Barcelona in 1391'' by [[Josep Segrelles]], {{circa|1910}}]]
[[File:A Expulsão dos Judeus (Roque Gameiro, Quadros da História de Portugal, 1917).png|250px|thumb|Expulsion of the Jews in 1497, in a 1917 watercolour by [[Alfredo Roque Gameiro]] ]]
[[File:Inquis1.jpg|thumb|250px|Burning of Crypto-Jews in Lisbon, Portugal]]
Significant repression of Spain's numerous community occurred during the 14th century, notably a [[History of the Jews in Spain#Massacres and mass conversions of 1391|major pogrom in 1391]] which resulted in the majority of Spain's 300,000 Jews converting to Catholicism. With the [[Granada War|conquest of the Muslim Kingdom of Granada]] in 1492, the Catholic monarchs issued the [[Alhambra Decree]], and Spain's remaining 100,000 Jews were forced to choose between conversion and exile. The expulsion of the Jews of Spain, is regarded by Jews as the worst catastrophe between the destruction of Jerusalem in 73 CE and the [[Holocaust]] of the 1940s.&lt;ref&gt;European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 1550–1750 by Jonathan Israel, chapter 1 Exodus from the West (page 25)&lt;/ref&gt;

As a result, an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 Jews left Spain, the remainder joining Spain's already numerous [[Converso]] community. Perhaps a quarter of a million Conversos thus were gradually absorbed by the dominant Catholic culture, although those among them who secretly practised Judaism were subject to 40 years of intense repression by the [[Spanish Inquisition]]. This was particularly the case up until 1530, after which the trials of Conversos by the Inquisition dropped to 3% of the total. Similar expulsions of Sephardic Jews occurred 1493 in [[Sicily]] (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Spanish Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire and North Africa and Portugal. A small number also settled in Holland and England.

The expulsion followed a long process of expulsions and bans from what are now England, France, Germany, Austria, and Holland. In January 1492, the [[Emirate of Granada|last Muslim state]] was defeated in Spain and six months later the Jews of Spain (the largest community in the world) were required to [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|convert or leave without their property]]. 100,000 converted with many continuing to [[Marrano|secretly practice Judaism]], for which the Catholic church's inquisition (led by [[Tomás de Torquemada]]) now mandated a sentence of death by public burning. 175,000 left Spain.&lt;ref&gt;The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 138 – 144 / Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-Jews by David Martin Gitlitz, University of New Mexico 2002, pp 75 – 81&lt;/ref&gt;

Many [[Sephardi Jews|Spanish Jews]] moved to North Africa, [[History of the Jews in Poland|Poland]] and the Ottoman Empire, especially [[History of the Jews in Thessaloniki|Thessaloniki]] (now in Greece) which became the world's largest Jewish city. Some groups headed to the Middle East and Palestine, within the domains of the Ottoman Empire. About 100,000 Spanish Jews were allowed into Portugal, however five years later, their children were seized and they were given the choice of conversion or departing without them.&lt;ref&gt;The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 142 – 144&lt;/ref&gt;

==ابتدائي جديد دور==
Historians who study modern Jewry have identified four different paths by which European Jews were &quot;modernized&quot; and thus integrated into the mainstream of European society. A common approach has been to view the process through the lens of the European [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] as Jews faced the promise and the challenges posed by political emancipation. Scholars that use this approach have focused on two social types as paradigms for the decline of Jewish tradition and as agents of the sea changes in Jewish culture that led to the collapse of the [[ghetto]]. The first of these two social types is the [[Court Jew]] who is portrayed as a forerunner of the modern Jew, having achieved integration with and participation in the proto-capitalist economy and court society of central European states such as the [[Habsburg Empire]]. In contrast to the cosmopolitan Court Jew, the second social type presented by historians of modern Jewry is the ''maskil'', (learned person), a proponent of the [[Haskalah]] (Enlightenment). This narrative sees the maskil's pursuit of secular scholarship and his rationalistic critiques of rabbinic tradition as laying a durable intellectual foundation for the secularization of Jewish society and culture. The established paradigm has been one in which Ashkenazic Jews entered modernity through a self-conscious process of westernization led by &quot;highly atypical, Germanized Jewish intellectuals&quot;. Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative movements and planted the seeds of [[Zionism]] while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Reframing Jewish History |date=May 2005 |url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513 |access-date=May 24, 2011 |archive-date=September 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930222143/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
At around the same time that Haskalah was developing, [[Hasidic Judaism]] was spreading as a movement that preached a world view nearly opposed to the Haskalah.

In the 1990s, the concept of the &quot;[[Port Jew]]&quot; has been suggested as an &quot;alternate path to modernity&quot; that was distinct from the European [[Haskalah]]. In contrast to the focus on Ashkenazic Germanized Jews, the concept of the [[Port Jew]] focused on the Sephardi conversos who fled the Inquisition and resettled in European port towns on the coast of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Eastern seaboard of the United States.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fry-2002&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Port Jews: Jewish Communities in Cosmopolitan Maritime Trading Centres, 1550–1950 |first=Helen P. |last=Fry |journal=European Judaism |volume=36 |publisher=Frank Cass Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7146-8286-0 |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002650793 |quote=Port Jews were a social type, usually those who were involved in seafaring and maritime trade, who (like Court Jews) could be seen as the earliest modern Jews. Often arriving as refugees from the Inquisition, they were permitted to settle as merchants and allowed to trade openly in places such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. 'Their Diaspora connections and accumulated expertise lay in exactly the areas of overseas expansion that were then of interest to mercantilist governments.' |access-date=September 1, 2017 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160935/https://www.gale.com/databases/questia?docId=5002650793 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Court Jews ===
[[Court Jew]]s were Jewish bankers or businessmen who lent money and handled the finances of some of the Christian European noble houses. Corresponding historical terms are ''Jewish bailiff'' and ''[[shtadlan]]''.

Examples of what would be later called court Jews emerged when local rulers used services of Jewish bankers for short-term loans. They lent money to nobles and in the process gained social influence. Noble patrons of court Jews employed them as financiers, suppliers, diplomats and [[trade delegate]]s. Court Jews could use their family connections, and connections between each other, to provision their sponsors with, among other things, food, arms, ammunition and precious metals. In return for their services, court Jews gained social privileges, including up to noble status for themselves, and could live outside the Jewish ghettos. Some nobles wanted to keep their bankers in their own courts. And because they were under noble protection, they were exempted from rabbinical jurisdiction.

From medieval times, court Jews could amass personal fortunes and gained political and social influence. Sometimes they were also prominent people in the local Jewish community and could use their influence to protect and influence their brethren. Sometimes they were the only Jews who could interact with the local high society and present petitions of the Jews to the ruler. However, the court Jew had social connections and influence in the Christian world mainly through his Christian patrons. Due to the precarious position of Jews, some nobles could just ignore their debts. If the sponsoring noble died, his Jewish financier could face exile or execution.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

=== Port Jews ===

The [[Port Jew]] is a descriptive term for Jews who were involved in the seafaring and maritime economy of Europe, especially during the 17th and 18th centuries. Helen Fry suggests that they can be considered &quot;the earliest modern Jews&quot;. According to Fry, Port Jews frequently arrived as &quot;refugees from the Inquisition&quot; and the expulsion of Jews from Iberia. They were allowed to settle in port cities because merchants granted them permission to trade in ports such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. Fry notes that their connections to the [[Jewish Diaspora]] and their expertise in maritime trade made them particularly valuable to the mercantilist governments of Europe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fry-2002&quot; /&gt; Lois Dubin describes Port Jews as Jewish merchants who were &quot;valued for their engagement in the international maritime trade upon which such cities thrived&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Dubin, ''The port Jews of Habsburg Trieste: absolutist politics and enlightenment culture'', Stanford University Press, 1999, p. 47&lt;/ref&gt; Sorkin and others have characterized the socio-cultural profile of these men as marked by a flexibility towards religion and a &quot;reluctant cosmopolitanism that was alien to both traditional and 'enlightened' Jewish identities&quot;.

From the 16th to the 18th century, Jewish merchants dominated the chocolate and vanilla trade, exporting to Jewish centres across Europe, mainly Amsterdam, Bayonne, Bordeaux, Hamburg and Livorno.&lt;ref&gt;Encyclopedia of Jewish Food, Gil Marks, HMH, November 17, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ottoman Empire ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire}}

During the Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600), the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well in diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews were the most prominent under the ''[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millets']]'', the apogee of Jewish influence could arguably be the appointment of [[Joseph Nasi]] to [[Sanjak-bey]] (governor, a rank usually only held by Muslims) of the island of [[Naxos]].&lt;ref&gt;Charles Issawi &amp; Dmitri Gondicas; ''Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism'', Princeton, (1999)&lt;/ref&gt;

At the time of the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] when the Levant passed under Muslim Rule, thirty Jewish communities existed in Haifa, Sh'chem, Hebron, Ramleh, Gaza, Jerusalem, and many in the north. Safed became a spiritual centre for the Jews and the [[Shulchan Aruch]] was compiled there as well as many Kabbalistic texts. The first Hebrew printing press, and the first printing in Western Asia began in 1577.

Jews lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey, but more geographically either Anatolia or Asia Minor) for more than 2,400 years. Initial prosperity in Hellenistic times had faded under Christian Byzantine rule, but recovered somewhat under the rule of the various Muslim governments that displaced and succeeded rule from Constantinople. For much of the Ottoman period, Turkey was a safe haven for Jews fleeing persecution, and it continues to have a small Jewish population today. The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economical prosperity at times but were widely persecuted at other times was summarised by G. E. Von Grunebaum:

&lt;blockquote&gt;It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizeable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms.&lt;ref&gt;G. E. Von Grunebaum, ''Eastern Jewry Under Islam'', 1971, p. 369.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Russia, Poland, and Eastern Europe ===
{{Further|History of the Jews in Poland|History of the Jews in Russia|History of the Jews in Ukraine|History of the Jews in Lithuania|History of the Jews in Romania}}
{{expand section|date=October 2025}}

In the 17th century, there were many significant Jewish populations in Western and Central Europe. The relatively tolerant Poland had the largest Jewish population in Europe that dated back to the 13th century, and enjoyed relative prosperity and freedom for nearly four hundred years. However, the calm situation ended when Polish and Lithuanian Jews of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] were slaughtered in the hundreds of thousands by Ukrainian Cossacks during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] (1648) and by the [[Swedish wars]] (1655). Driven by these and other persecutions, some Jews moved back to Western Europe in the 17th century, notably to [[Amsterdam]]. The last ban on Jewish residency in a European nation was revoked in 1654, but periodic expulsions from individual cities still occurred, and Jews were often restricted from land ownership, or forced to live in [[ghetto]]s.

With the [[Partitions of Poland]] in the late 18th century, the Polish-Jewish population was split between the [[Russian Empire]], [[Austria-Hungary]], and German [[Prussia]], which divided Poland among themselves.

=== European Enlightenment and Haskalah (18th century) ===
[[File:Moritz Daniel Oppenheim--Lavater and Lessing Visit Moses Mendelssohn--1856--Magnes Collection.jpg|thumb|right|[[Moses Mendelssohn]] (in red coat), Lavater (at right) and Lessing (standing), in an imaginary portrait by the Jewish artist [[Moritz Daniel Oppenheim]] (1856), [[Magnes Collection of Jewish Art and Life]]]]
During the period of the [[European Renaissance]] and Enlightenment, significant changes occurred within the Jewish community. The [[Haskalah]] movement paralleled the wider Enlightenment, as Jews in the 18th century began to campaign for emancipation from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society. Secular and scientific education was added to the traditional religious instruction received by students, and interest in a national Jewish identity, including a revival in the study of Jewish history and Hebrew, started to grow. Among the prominient Haskalah intellectuals were [[Moses Mendelssohn]], [[Naphtali Hirz Wessely]], [[Isaac Satanow]] and [[Isaac Euchel]].

Haskalah gave birth to the [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] movements in Judaism and planted the seeds of [[Zionism]] while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.

At around the same time another movement was born, one preaching almost the opposite of Haskalah, [[Hasidic Judaism]]. Hasidic Judaism began in the 18th century by [[Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov]], and quickly gained a following with its more exuberant, mystical approach to religion. These two movements, and the traditional orthodox approach to Judaism from which they spring, formed the basis for the modern divisions within Jewish observance.

At the same time, the outside world was changing, and debates began over the potential emancipation of the Jews (granting them equal rights). The first country to do so was France, during the [[French Revolution]] in 1789. Even so, Jews were expected to assimilate, not continue their traditions. This ambivalence is demonstrated in the famous speech of [[Clermont-Tonnerre]] before the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]] in 1789:

&lt;blockquote&gt;We must refuse everything to the Jews as a nation and accord everything to Jews as individuals. We must withdraw recognition from their judges; they should only have our judges. We must refuse legal protection to the maintenance of the so-called laws of their Judaic organization; they should not be allowed to form in the state either a political body or an order. They must be citizens individually. But, some will say to me, they do not want to be citizens. Well then! If they do not want to be citizens, they should say so, and then, we should banish them. It is repugnant to have in the state an association of non-citizens, and a nation within the nation...&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Hasidic Judaism ===
{{See also|Mitnagdim}}
[[File:Maurycy Gottlieb - Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur.jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|Hasidic Jews praying in the synagogue on [[Yom Kippur]], by [[Maurycy Gottlieb]]]]

[[Hasidic Judaism]] is a branch of [[Orthodox Judaism]] that promotes spirituality and joy through the popularisation and internalization of [[Jewish mysticism]] as the fundamental aspects of the [[Jewish faith]]. Hasidism comprises part of contemporary [[Ultra-Orthodox]] Judaism, alongside the previous Talmudic [[Lithuanian Jews|Lithuanian-Yeshiva]] approach and the Oriental [[Sephardi Judaism|Sephardi]] tradition. It was founded in 18th-century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel [[Baal Shem Tov]] as a reaction against overly [[Talmud|legalistic]] Judaism. Opposite to this, Hasidic teachings cherished the sincerity and concealed holiness of the unlettered common folk, and their equality with the scholarly elite. The emphasis on the [[Immanent]] Divine presence in everything gave new value to prayer and deeds of kindness, alongside Rabbinic supremacy of [[Torah study|study]], and replaced historical [[Kabbalah|mystical (kabbalistic)]] and [[Musar literature|ethical (musar)]] [[Asceticism in Judaism|asceticism]] and [[Maggid|admonishment]] with optimism, encouragement, and daily [[Deveikut|fervour]]. This populist emotional revival accompanied the elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine [[Panentheism]], through intellectual articulation of inner dimensions of mystical thought. The adjustment of Jewish values sought to add to required standards of ritual [[Halacha|observance]], while relaxing others where inspiration predominated. Its communal gatherings celebrate soulful [[Nigun|song]] and [[Yiddish literature#Hasidic and Haskalah literature|storytelling]] as forms of mystical devotion.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

==اڻويهين صدي==
[[File:Napoleon stellt den israelitischen Kult wieder her, 30. Mai 1806.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|An 1806 French print depicts [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] emancipating the Jews.]]
Though persecution still existed, [[Jewish emancipation]] spread throughout Europe in the 19th century. [[Napoleon]] invited Jews to leave the [[Jewish ghettos in Europe]] and seek refuge in the newly created tolerant political regimes that offered equality under Napoleonic Law (see [[Napoleon and the Jews]]). Gradually all European nations established in constitutions the principle of equality under the law and abolished all restrictions for Jews.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;&gt;[https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-in-history-the-era-of-nationalism-1800-1918 Antisemitism in History: The Era of Nationalism, 1800–1918]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/emancipation Emancipation]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-emancipation-in-western-europe/ Jewish Emancipation in Western Europe]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://d-nb.info/1175689041/34 Jewish Emancipation in the 18th and 19th Centuries]&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Antisemiticroths.jpg|thumb|A caricature by [[Charles Lucien Léandre]] (France, 1898) showing [[Rothschild family|Rothschild]] with the world in his hands]]
Jews now could own land and enter the civil service. The abolition of restraints on political activism and the broadening of the electoral franchise on the basis of citizenship, not religion, made Jews most visible among [[liberalism|liberal]], [[Radical politics|radical]], and [[Marxism|Marxist]] ([[Social Democracy|Social Democratic]]) political parties.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;/&gt;

For centuries, so-called [[court Jew]]s acted as the principal financiers for the European aristocracys. In the 1760s, one of them, [[Mayer Amschel Rothschild]], established a banking business in Germany that eventually became a vast international conglomerate and yield one of the largest family fortunes in world history. Thus the name of the [[Rothschilds]] became synonymous with Jewish financial power. Across Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, other Jews also created a number of influential banks.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/usury-and-moneylending-in-judaism/ Jews and Finance]&lt;/ref&gt;

The most important branch of Jewish economic life in Eastern Europe was trade. While most remained small shopkeepers, stallholders, and peddlers, others became owners of department stores and shopping arcades. During the 19th century Jews began to move from rural regions to cities, this contributed to the decline of traditional Jewish tavernkeeping. Jews made up a considerable proportion of all craftsmen in the [[Russian Empire]] and [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] during the 19th century, but with the spread of industrialization large factories tended to squeeze out small Jewish-run workshops, and only limited numbers of Jews became employees in these modern factories. Jews were considered less desirable employees since they did not want to work on Saturdays and tended to organize into unions to demand improved working conditions, the foundation of the [[General Jewish Labour Bund|Bund]] in the Russian Empire in 1897 strengthened this process.&lt;ref name=&quot;Economic Life&quot;&gt;[https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/7 Economic Life]&lt;/ref&gt;

The economic achivements of Jews in the 19th century created the impression for some that Jews were being overrepresented in such lucrative occupations as finance, banking, trade, industry, medicine, law, journalism, art, music, literature, and theater. Despite increasing integration of the Jews with secular society, a new form of [[antisemitism]] emerged, [[Racial antisemitism|based on the ideas of race and nationhood]] rather than the religious hatred of the Middle Ages. This form of antisemitism held that Jews were a separate and inferior race from the [[Aryan]] people of Western Europe, and led to the emergence of political parties in France, Germany, and [[Austria-Hungary]] that campaigned on a platform of rolling back emancipation. This form of antisemitism emerged frequently in European culture, most famously in the [[Dreyfus Trial]] in France.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://evolve.reconstructingjudaism.org/anti-semitism-europe-history/ Antisemitism in Europe and America in the Modern Period: Historical Perspectives]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.quest-cdecjournal.it/anti-jewish-prejudices-antisemitic-ideologies-open-violence-antisemitism-in-european-comparison-from-the-1870s-to-the-first-world-war-a-commentary/ Anti-Jewish Prejudices, Antisemitic Ideologies, Open Violence: Antisemitism in European Comparison from the 1870s to the First World War. A Commentary]&lt;/ref&gt;

During this period, Jewish migration to the United States (see [[American Jews]]) created a large new community mostly freed of the restrictions of Europe. Over 2 million Jews arrived in the United States between 1890 and 1924, most from the Russian Empire and Galicia. A similar case occurred in the southern tip of the continent, specifically in the countries of [[Argentina]] and [[Uruguay]].

==ويهين صدي==
===جديد صيهونيت===
[[File:Herzl on a balcony full.jpg|thumb|Theodor Herzl, visionary of the Jewish State, in Basel, photographed during [[World Zionist Congress|Fifth Zionist Congress]] in December 1901, by [[Ephraim Moses Lilien]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Theodor Herzl Signed Photograph, Basel, Switzerland {{!}} Shapell Manuscript Foundation |url=https://www.shapell.org/manuscript/theodor-herzl-signed-photograph-basel-switzerland/ |website=Shapell |access-date=May 10, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to [[Ottoman Syria]] with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and fulfilling the biblical prophecies related to [[Shivat Tzion]]. In 1882 the first Zionist settlement—[[Rishon LeZion]]—was founded by immigrants who belonged to the &quot;[[Hovevei Zion]]&quot; movement. Later on, the &quot;[[Bilu (movement)|Bilu]]&quot; movement established many other settlements in Palestine.

The Zionist movement was officially founded after the [[Kattowitz convention]] (1884) and the [[World Zionist Congress]] (1897), and it was [[Theodor Herzl]] who initiated the struggle to establish a state for the Jews.

After the [[First World War]], it seemed that the conditions that made it possible for the Jews to establish such a state had arrived: The United Kingdom captured [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] from the Ottoman Empire, and the Jews received the promise of a &quot;National Home&quot; from the British in the form of the [[Balfour Declaration]] of 1917, given to [[Chaim Weizmann]].

In 1920, the British Mandate of Palestine was established and the pro-Jewish [[Herbert Samuel]] was appointed High Commissioner of Palestine, the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] was established and several large Jewish immigration waves to Palestine occurred. The Arab inhabitants of Palestine grew hostile to increasing Jewish immigration, and as a result, they began to express their opposition to the establishment of Jewish settlements and the pro-Jewish policy of the British government.

New Jewish immigrants began to create militias and paramilitary groups such as the [[Bar-Giora]] and [[Hashomer]].

Clashes between Jews and Arabs became more frequent. After the [[1920 Nebi Musa riots]], the Jewish leadership in Palestine believed that the British had little desire to involve themselves in these clashes and maintain order. Believing that they could not rely on the British administration for protection, the Jewish leadership created the [[Haganah]] and [[Irgun]] paramilitary organizations in order to protect its community's farms and [[Kibbutz]]im.

These paramilitary organization were involved in major riots, such as the [[Jaffa riots (May 1921)|Jaffa riots]], [[1929 Palestine riots]] and the [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine]]. Arabs, Jews and Britons suffered in this violence.

Due to the increasing violence, the United Kingdom gradually started to backtrack from its original idea of supporting the establishment of a Jewish homeland and it also started to speculate on a [[binational solution]] to the crisis or the establishment of an Arab state that would have a Jewish minority.

===Jews in Europe and the United States after World War I ===
[[File:Yung-teater poster 15.jpg|thumb|Bilingual [[Polish language|Polish]]-[[Yiddish]] poster for the [[Warsaw]] [[Young Theater]]'s production of ''Mississippi'' in 1935, written by [[Leib Malach]]]]
The World War I and subsequent political changes, such as the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917 and the establishment of new nation-states after 1918, led to far-reaching consequenсes for the Jews of Eastern Europe. The authorities of the [[Soviet Union]] viewed private commerce as negative and sought to bring all trade under the aegis of state enterprises. Therefore, many Jews, who had previously made their living from trade, were forced to find other occupations. In Poland, Hungary, and Romania, the authorities adopted policies aimed at ethnicizing their national economies, aiming to exclude Jews as far as possible from the marketplace.&lt;ref name=&quot;Economic Life&quot;/&gt;

Nevertheless, the Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. In Austria in the years between the two World Wars Jews were approximately 3.5% of the population but were 27.3% of university professors. In Germany between 1918 and 1933 Jews were 0.78% of the population but were 16% of the doctors, 15% of the dentists, 25% of the lawyers, 50% of the theatre directors and occupied 80% of the leading positions in the [[Berlin stock exchange]]. In Poland in 1931 Jews were 10.2% of the population but were 56% of the doctors in private practice, 33% of the lawyers, and 24% of the pharmacists. In Russia during the period 1917–1939 Jews were approximately 1.8% of the population, while Jews were 9% of the officers in military academies, 15% of the university graduates, 11% of the doctors and 14% of the university professors.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Lynn | first1=Richard | last2=Kanazawa | first2=Satoshi | title=How to explain high Jewish achievement: The role of intelligence and values | journal=Personality and Individual Differences | date=2008 | volume=44 | issue=4 | pages=801–808 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2007.10.019 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886907003674 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Among those Jews who were generally considered the most famous were the scientist [[Albert Einstein]] and the philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. At that time, a disproportionate number of [[Nobel Prize]] winners were Jewish, as is still the case.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |publisher=jinfo.org |access-date=October 7, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== The Holocaust ===
{{Main|History of the Jews during World War II|The Holocaust}}
[[File:Rows of bodies of dead inmates fill the yard of Lager Nordhausen, a Gestapo concentration camp.jpg|thumb|Bodies of inmates of the [[Mittelbau-Dora]] Nazi concentration camp who died during [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] [[Bombing of Nordhausen in World War II|bombing raids]] on April 3 and 4, 1945]]

In 1933, with [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]]'s rise to power in Germany, the Jewish situation became more severe. [[Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic|Economic crises]], [[Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany|racial Anti-Jewish laws]], and fear of an upcoming war led many Jews to flee from Europe and settle in [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]], the United States and the Soviet Union.

In 1939, [[World War II]] began and until 1945, [[German-occupied Europe|Germany occupied almost all of Europe]], including [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|Poland]]—[[History of the Jews in Poland|where millions of Jews were living at that time]]—and [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|France]]. In 1941, following the [[invasion of the Soviet Union]], the [[Final Solution]] began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe, as well as Jews in European North Africa (pro-Nazi [[Vichy France|Vichy]]-[[French North Africa|North Africa]] and [[Italian Libya]]). This [[genocide]], in which approximately six million Jews were methodically murdered with horrifying cruelty, is known as [[The Holocaust]] or the ''Shoah'' (Hebrew term). In Poland, as many as one million Jews were murdered in [[gas chambers]] at the [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz camp complex]].

The massive scale of the Holocaust, and the horrors that happened during it, were only understood after the war, and they heavily affected the Jewish nation and world public opinion. Efforts were then increased to establish a Jewish state in Palestine.

=== The establishment of the State of Israel ===
{{Main|History of Israel (1948–present)}}
{{Further|Israel|Israeli Declaration of Independence}}
{{History of Israel}}
In 1945 the Jewish resistance organizations in Palestine unified and established the Jewish Resistance Movement. The movement began guerrilla attacks against Arab paramilitaries and the British authorities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html |title=The Jewish Resistance Movement |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=September 7, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160907162736/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} Following the [[King David Hotel bombing]], [[Chaim Weizmann]], president of the [[WZO]] appealed to the movement to cease all further military activity until a decision would be reached by the [[Jewish Agency]]. The Jewish Agency backed Weizmann's recommendation to cease activities, a decision reluctantly accepted by the Haganah, but not by the [[Irgun]] and [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]]. The JRM was dismantled and each of the founding groups continued operating according to their own policy.&lt;ref&gt;Horne, Edward (1982). ''A Job Well Done (Being a History of The Palestine Police Force 1920–1948)''. Anchor. {{ISBN|978-0-9508367-0-6}}. pp. 272, 299. States that Haganah withdrew on July 1, 1946. But remained permanently uncooperative.&lt;/ref&gt;

The Jewish leadership decided to centre the struggle in the illegal immigration to Palestine and began organizing a massive number of Jewish war refugees from Europe, without the approval of the British authorities. This immigration contributed a great deal to the Jewish settlements in Israel in the world public opinion and the British authorities decided to let the United Nations decide upon the fate of Palestine.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

On November 29, 1947, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopted [[Resolution 181]](II) recommending partitioning Palestine into an Arab state, a Jewish state and the City of Jerusalem. The Jewish leadership accepted the decision but the Arab League and the leadership of Palestinian Arabs opposed it. Following a period of [[1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]] the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]] started.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}}

In the middle of the war, after the last British soldiers of the Palestine Mandate left, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed on May 14, 1948, the establishment of a [[Jewish state]] in [[Eretz Israel]] to be known as the [[State of Israel]]. The war ended in 1949 and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of hundreds of thousands of Jews from all over the world, notably [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Arab countries]].

Since 1948, Israel has been involved in a series of major military conflicts, including the 1956 [[Suez Crisis]], 1967 [[Six-Day War]], 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], [[1982 Lebanon War]], and [[2006 Lebanon War]], as well as a nearly constant series of [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict|ongoing minor conflicts]].

Since 1977, an ongoing and largely unsuccessful series of diplomatic efforts have been initiated by Israel, Palestinian organizations, their neighbours, and other parties, including the United States and the European Union, to bring about a [[Israeli–Palestinian peace process|peace process]] to resolve conflicts between Israel and its neighbours, mostly over the fate of the Palestinian people.

==ايڪويهين صدي==
Israel is a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a population of over 8 million people, of whom about 6 million are [[Israeli Jews|Jewish]]. The largest Jewish communities are in Israel and the [[American Jews|United States]], with major communities in France, Argentina, Russia, England, and Canada.

The [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]], created during the [[Soviet]] period, continues to be an [[autonomous oblast]] of the Russian state.&lt;ref&gt;Fishkoff, Sue (October 8, 2008). [http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml &quot;A Jewish revival in Birobidzhan?&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510142551/http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml |date=May 10, 2011 }} ''Jewish News of Greater Phoenix''. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Chief Rabbi]] of [[Birobidzhan]], [[Mordechai Scheiner]], says there are 4,000 Jews in the capital city.&lt;ref&gt;Paxton, Robin (June 1, 2007). [http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&amp;cid=84435&amp;NewsType=80052 &quot;From Tractors to Torah in Russia's Jewish Land&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411050518/http://fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&amp;cid=84435&amp;NewsType=80052 |date=April 11, 2013 }}. Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Governor]] [[Nikolay Mikhaylovich Volkov]] has stated that he intends to, &quot;support every valuable initiative maintained by our local Jewish organizations&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939 &quot;Governor Voices Support for Growing Far East Jewish Community&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518042318/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939 |date=May 18, 2011 }} (November 15, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Birobidzhan Synagogue]] opened in 2004 on the 70th anniversary of the region's founding in 1934.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969 &quot;Far East Community Prepares for 70th Anniversary of Jewish Autonomous Republic&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518041740/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969 |date=May 18, 2011 }} (August 30, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;

The number of people who identified as Jews in [[England and Wales]] rose slightly between 2001 and 2011, with the growth being attributed to the higher birth rate of the [[Haredi]] community.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7411877.stm |title=Jewish population on the increase |date=May 21, 2008 |access-date=March 18, 2020 |archive-date=May 27, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527215725/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7411877.stm |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The estimated [[British Jew]]ish population in [[England]] as of 2011 was 263,346.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2011 Census: KS209EW Religion, local authorities in England and Wales |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262 |publisher=ons.gov.uk |access-date=December 15, 2012 |archive-date=January 5, 2016 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of 2021, per the [[British Census]], the Jewish population of England and Wales was 271,327.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Graham |first1=David |last2=Boyd |first2=Jonathan |title=Jews in Britain in 2021: First results from the Census of England and Wales |url=https://www.jpr.org.uk/reports/jews-britain-2021-first-results-census-england-and-wales |website=Institute for Jewish Policy Research |date=November 29, 2022 |access-date=December 13, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On October 7, 2023, [[Hamas]], along with other [[Palestinian Joint Operations Room|Palestinian militant groups]], [[October 7 attacks|attacked Israel]] from the [[Gaza Strip]], killing 1,139 people. The day is considered the deadliest day in Israel's history, and the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=October 11, 2023 |title=Biden calls Hamas attacks the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust as US death toll ticks up |url=https://apnews.com/article/israel-hamas-us-biden-blinken-99eb4063edabc80fa1fa198fb0bb020e |access-date=November 9, 2023 |work=AP News |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The attack escalated into a [[Gaza war|major war between Israel and Hamas]]. Hundreds of thousands of civilians were displaced, and more than 250 hostages, including Israelis and foreign nationals, were taken by Hamas, [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]], and other Gaza-based militant groups.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last1=Al-Mughrabi |first1=Nidal |last2=Angel |first2=Maytaal |last3=Al-Mughrabi |first3=Nidal |last4=Angel |first4=Maytaal |date=November 8, 2023 |title=Israeli, Hamas fighters in close combat in Gaza City as civilians flee |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/thousands-civilians-flee-north-gaza-israeli-troops-hamas-fighters-clash-2023-11-08/ |access-date=November 9, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[يهوديت]] 
* [[اسلام ۾ ابراهيم]] 
* [[يعقوب عليہ السلام]] 
* [[عيسيٰ عليه السلام]] 
* [[توريت]] 
* [[فلسطين]] 
* [[يروشلم]] 
* [[اسرائيل]] 
* [[فلسطين جي رياست]] 
* [[غزه نسل ڪشي]]
* [[يهوديت جي تاريخ]] 
* [[فلسطين جي تاريخ]] 
* [[يهودي تاريخ جو خاڪو]] 
* [[يهودي تاريخ جو وقت]] 
* [[يهودين جو جينياتي مطالعو]] 
* [[اسرائيل جي سرزمين ۾ يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ]]

==نوٽ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===حوالي جا لکت===
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==ڪتابيات==
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* [[Jacob Neusner|Neusner, Jacob]]; Green, William Scott, eds. (1991). ''The Origins of Judaism. Religion, History, and Literature in Late Antiquity.'' 20-volume Set. New York: Garland Press. (Reprinted scholarly essays, with introductions.)
* [[Jacob Neusner|Neusner, Jacob]] (1999). ''[{{Google books|id=5YFXIUJYgsYC
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=== France ===
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* Taitz, Emily. ''The Jews of Medieval France: The Community of Champagne'' (1994) [https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130202034/https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne |date=November 30, 2018 }}

=== Russia and Eastern Europe ===
* Brinkmann, Tobias.  (2024). ''Between Borders: The Great Jewish Migration from Eastern Europe''. New York: Oxford University Press.

* Darieva, Tsypylma, Darja Klingenberg, and Chen Bram. (2025) &quot;Jews of the Caucasus: multiple entanglements and migration routes.&quot; ''Journal of Modern Jewish Studies'' 24.2 (2025): 557-569.  [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14725886.2025.2518673  online]

* [[David Fishman|Fishman, David]] (1996). ''Russia's First Modern Jews''. New York University Press.
* [[Zvi Gitelman|Gitelman, Zvi]] (2001). ''A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present''.

* Kushkova, Anna. (2025) &quot;From a Shtetl House to an Urban Apartment: The Soviet Jewish Home Negotiated, Transformed, and Reimagined.&quot; ''Jewish Folklore and Ethnology'' 4.1 (2025): 70-125. [https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1028&amp;context=jewishfolklore  online]

* Polonsky, Antony. ''The Jews in Poland and Russia: A Short History'' (2013)

* Sapritsky-Nahum, Marina. (2025) &quot;Identity transformations of Ukrainian Jewry during the Russian–Ukrainian war: Odesa’s communities and religious leaders at home and in exile.&quot; ''Canadian Slavonic Papers'' 67.1-2 (2025): 214-235. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00085006.2025.2500199  online]

* Schapiro, Leonard. &quot;The role of the Jews in the Russian revolutionary movement.&quot; ''Slavonic and East European Review'' (1961): 148-167. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4205328  online]

* Shumsky, Dmitry. (2025) &quot;Beyond Antisemitism: Rethinking Stalin’s Anti-Jewish Campaign, 1948–1953.&quot; ''Journal of Modern History'' 97.2 (2025): 348-386. 
* {{cite book |last1=Weiner |first1=Miriam |last2=Polish State Archives (in cooperation with) |title=Jewish Roots in Poland: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories |date=1997 |publisher=Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation |location=Secaucus, NJ |isbn=978-0-9656508-0-9 |oclc=38756480}}
* {{cite book |last1=Weiner |first1=Miriam |last2=Ukrainian State Archives (in cooperation with) |last3=Moldovan National Archives (in cooperation with) |title=Jewish Roots in Ukraine and Moldova: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories |date=1999 |publisher=Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation |location=Secaucus, NJ |isbn=978-0-9656508-1-6 |oclc=607423469}}
* Yivo Institute for Jewish Research. ''A Century of Ambivalence, Second Expanded Edition: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present'' (Indiana University Press, 2001).

=== United States ===

{{Main|American Jews#Bibliography|History of the{{short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt;
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 063.jpg|thumb|According to Jewish tradition, Jacob, shown [[Jacob wrestling with the angel|wrestling with the angel]] in this painting by [[Rembrandt]], was the father of the [[tribes of Israel]].]]
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|history}}
{{history of religion|religions}}

[[Jews]] originated from the [[Israelites]] and [[Hebrews]] of historical [[Israel and Judah]], two related kingdoms that emerged in the [[Levant]] during the [[Iron Age]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 |date=April 9, 2023 }} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The earliest mention of [[Israelites]] is inscribed on the [[Merneptah Stele]] {{circa|1213–1203 BCE}}; later religious literature tells the story of Israelites going back at least as far as {{cx|1500 BCE}}. Traditionally, the name ''Israel'' is said to originate with the Hebrew patriarch [[Jacob]], who provides a narrative [[etiology]] for the name{{snd}}after wrestling with an angel, Jacob is renamed Israel, meaning &quot;he who struggles with God&quot;. The [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] based in [[Samaria]] fell to the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] {{cx|720 BCE}},&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Kingdom of Judah]] to the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] in 586 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Faust |first=Avraham |title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period |date=August 29, 2012 |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |isbn=978-1-58983-641-9 |pages=1 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28}}&lt;/ref&gt; Part of the Judean population was exiled to [[Babylonia|Babylon]]. The [[Assyrian captivity|Assyrian]] and [[Babylonian captivity|Babylonian captivities]] are regarded as representing the start of the [[Jewish diaspora]].

After the [[Achaemenid Empire]] conquered the region, the exiled Jews were [[Return to Zion|allowed to return]] and [[Second Temple|rebuild the temple]]; these events mark the beginning of the [[Second Temple period]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Jonathan |last1=Stökl |first2=Caroline |last2=Waerzegger |title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context |date=2015 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=7–11, 30, 226}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia Judaica |edition=2nd |volume=3 |page=27}}&lt;/ref&gt; After several centuries of foreign rule, the [[Maccabean Revolt]] against the [[Seleucid Empire]] led to an [[Hasmonean dynasty|independent Hasmonean kingdom]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Peter Fibiger |last1=Bang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&amp;pg=PAPA184 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean |first2=Walter |last2=Scheidel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-518831-8 |pages=184–187}}&lt;/ref&gt; but it was gradually incorporated into the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] imperial system.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=223–239}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Jewish–Roman wars]], a series of unsuccessful revolts against the Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, resulted in the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Zissu |first=Boaz |title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE |date=2018 |isbn=978-90-04-34986-5 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill  |page=19 |chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective |oclc=988856967}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the expulsion of many Jews.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Erwin |last1=Fahlbusch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&amp;pg=PAPA15 |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |first2=Geoffrey William |last2=Bromiley |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5 |page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Jewish population in [[Syria Palaestina]] gradually decreased during the following centuries, enhancing the role of the Jewish diaspora and shifting the spiritual and demographic centre from the depopulated [[Judea]] to [[Galilee]] and then to [[Asoristan|Babylon]], with smaller communities spread out across the [[Roman Empire]]. During the same period, the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]], central Jewish texts, were composed. In the following millennia, the diaspora communities [[Coalescent theory|coalesced]] into three major [[Jewish ethnic divisions|ethnic subdivisions]] according to where their ancestors settled: the [[Ashkenazim]] in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern European Jewry|Eastern Europe]], the [[Sephardim]] initially in [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Iberia]], and the [[Mizrahim]] in the [[History of the Jews under Muslim rule|Middle East]] and [[North Africa]].&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&amp;pg=PA87 &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity.&quot; p. 87.] Eban, Abba Solomon. &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews.&quot; Summit Books Syracuse, New York: 1984. p. 87.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Dosick (2007), pp. 59–60.&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[early Muslim conquests]] ended [[Byzantine]] control over the [[Eastern Mediterranean]], with the newly established [[Rashidun Caliphate]] taking over the [[Levant]], [[Mesopotamia]], and North Africa during the 7th century, and the [[Iberian Peninsula]] during the 8th century. [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain|Jewish culture enjoyed a golden age in Spain]], with Jews becoming widely accepted in society and their religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed before the arrival of the intolerant [[Almohades]]. In 1492 [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|the Jews were forced to leave Spain]] by the Catholic Monarchs [[Catholic Monarchs of Spain|Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand II]], whereafter they migrated in great numbers to the [[History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]] and [[Italian Peninsula|Italy]]. Between the 12th and 15th centuries, Ashkenazi Jews experienced extreme persecution in Central Europe, which prompted their mass migration to [[History of Jews in Poland|Poland]].&lt;ref&gt;Mosk (2013), p. 143. &quot;Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Harshav, Benjamin (1999). ''The Meaning of Yiddish''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. &quot;From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the centre of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The 18th century saw the rise of the [[Haskalah]] intellectual movement. Also starting in the 18th century, Jews began to campaign for [[Jewish emancipation]] from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society.

In the 19th century, when Jews in [[Western Europe]] were increasingly granted equality before the law, Jews in the [[Pale of Settlement]] faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread [[pogrom]]s. During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to [[Ottoman Syria]] with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. The [[Zionist movement]] was officially founded in 1897. The pogroms also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the United States between 1881 and 1924.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lewin |first=Rhoda G. |date=1979 |title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis |url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |journal=Minnesota History |volume=46 |issue=7 |page=259 |access-date=August 10, 2020 |archive-date=July 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. Many [[Nobel Prize]] winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |publisher=jinfo.org |access-date=October 7, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1933, with the rise to power of [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]] in [[Nazi Germany|Germany]], the situation for Jews became severe. Economic crises, racial [[Antisemitism in Europe#The Holocaust|antisemitic laws]], and a fear of an upcoming war led many to flee from Europe to [[Mandatory Palestine]], to the United States and to the [[Soviet Union]]. In 1939, [[World War II]] began and until 1941 Germany [[German-occupied Europe|occupied almost all of Europe]]. In 1941, following the [[Operation Barbarossa|invasion]] of the Soviet Union, the [[Final Solution]] began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe and North Africa. In Poland, three million were murdered in [[gas chambers]] in all concentration camps combined, with one million at the [[Auschwitz]] camp complex alone. This [[genocide]], in which approximately six million Jews were methodically exterminated, is known as [[the Holocaust]].

Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On May 14, 1948, upon the termination of the British Mandate, [[David Ben-Gurion]] declared the creation of the [[State of Israel]], a [[Jewish and democratic state]] in ''[[Eretz Israel]]'' (Land of Israel). Immediately afterwards, all neighbouring Arab states invaded, yet the newly formed [[IDF]] resisted. In 1949, the war ended and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of [[Aliyah]] from all over Europe and [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Middle Eastern countries]]. {{As of|2022|post=,}} Israel is a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a population of 9.6 million people, of whom 7 million are [[Israeli Jews|Jewish]].

The largest Jewish community outside Israel is the [[American Jews|United States]], while large communities also exist in France, Canada, Argentina, Russia, United Kingdom, Australia, and [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]]. Currently, the Jewish ethnicity have two autonomous states under their power to act as sanctuaries, [[Israel]] and the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]].

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Commons category|Jewish history}}
* [http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/ The Jewish History Resource Center]. Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
* [http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/Internetresources/modern/israelindex.htm The State of Israel] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
* [http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/ Jewish History and Culture Encyclopaedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224094628/http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/ |date=December 24, 2008 }} Official Site of the 22-volume Encyclopaedia Judaica
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/jewishsbook.html Internet Jewish History Sourcebook] offering homework help and online texts
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050528023003/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/israelite_religion.htm Israelite Religion to Judaism: the Evolution of the Religion of Israel].
* [https://thinktorah.org/jewish-history/ 2000 Years of Jewish History]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050629084248/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/greek_influence.htm Greek Influence on Judaism from the Hellenistic Period Through the Middle Ages c. 300 BCE–1200 CE].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050604085120/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/jewish_sects.htm Jewish Sects of the Second Temple Period].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101119075635/http://adath-shalom.ca/samaritan_origin.htm The Origin and Nature of the Samaritans and their Relationship to Second Temple Jewish Sects].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051118233741/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/eb2bk.htm Jewish History Tables].
* [http://www.oztorah.com/category/australian-jewry/ Articles on Australian Jewish history].
* [http://www.oztorah.com/category/british-jewry/ Articles on British Jewish history].
* Barnavi, Eli (Ed.). ''A Historical Atlas of the Jewish People''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1992. {{ISBN|978-0-679-40332-6}}
* [http://www.simpletoremember.com/vitals/Jewish_History.htm Crash Course in Jewish History]
* [http://csicso-nagy.uw.hu/fo-o-Csicso-NAGY-A/jewish-families.htm Jewish families in Csicsó – Cicov (Slovakia) until the Holocaust]
* [http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&amp;Volume=36&amp;Issue=1&amp;ArticleID=29 &quot;Under the Influence: Hellenism in Ancient Jewish Life&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229232302/http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&amp;Volume=36&amp;Issue=1&amp;ArticleID=29 |date=February 29, 2012 }} Biblical Archaeology Society
* [http://www.jewishhistory.org/crash-course/ Summary of Jewish History] by Berel Wein
* [http://histclo.com/chron/ancient/heb/heb-hist.html Ancient Hebrew history]
* [http://jewishhistorylectures.org/ Videos of Jewish History Lectures by Henry Abramson of Touro College South]
{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:يهودين جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:يهوديت جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:يهودي نسلي گروهه]]
[[زمرو:تاريخ بلحاظ مذهب]]
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      <text bytes="204618" sha1="je58b24jb9ua327ko65b4qkx0l96qdh" xml:space="preserve">يهودي (&lt;small&gt;Jews&lt;/small&gt;) تاريخي اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه، ٻه لاڳاپيل بادشاهتن جيڪيون [[لوهه جو دور|لوهه جي دور]] ۾ [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سرزمين شام (ليونٽ)]] ۾ ظاهر ٿيون،  جي بني اسرائيل ۽ عبرانين مان پيدا ٿيا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|date=2001|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|isbn=978-0-684-86912-4|edition=1st Touchstone|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken2&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229|date=April 9, 2023}} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; بني اسرائيل جو پهريون ذڪر، 1213-1203 ق.م. جو مرنيپتا اسٽيل تي لکيل آهي؛ بعد ۾ مذهبي ادب بني اسرائيلن جي ڪهاڻي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 1500 ق.م. تائين ٻڌائي ٿو. روايتي طور تي، اسرائيل جو نالو عبراني بزرگ [[يعقوب عليہ السلام|يعقوب]] سان شروع ٿيو آهي، جيڪو نالي لاءِ هڪ داستاني ايٽولوجي فراهم ڪري ٿو - هڪ فرشتي سان وڙهڻ کان پوءِ، يعقوب جو نالو اسرائيل رکيو ويو، جنهن جو مطلب آهي &quot;اهو جيڪو خدا سان ويڙهي ٿو&quot;. سامريه ۾ قائم اسرائيل جي بادشاهت 720 ق.م. ڌاري نيو-آشوري سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Broshi|first=Maguen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174|title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2001|isbn=978-1-84127-201-6|page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ 586 ق.م. ڌاري يهودين جي بادشاهت نيو-بابلي سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Faust|first=Avraham|title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period|date=August 29, 2012|publisher=Society of Biblical Literature|isbn=978-1-58983-641-9|pages=1|doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي آبادي جو هڪ حصو [[بابل]] ڏانهن جلاوطن ڪيو ويو. آشور ۽ بابل ۾ قيد ٿيل يهودين کي ڊائاسپورا جي شروعات جي نمائندگي ڪندڙ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.

{{short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt;
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 063.jpg|thumb|يهودي روايت موجب، يعقوب، جيڪو ريمبران جي هن تصوير ۾ ملائڪ سان وڙهندي ڏيکاريو ويو آهي، اسرائيل جي قبيلن جو پيءُ هو. ]][[هخامنشي سلطنت]] طرفان هن علائقي کي فتح ڪرڻ کان پوءِ، جلاوطن يهودين کي واپس اچڻ ۽ مندر کي ٻيهر تعمير ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي؛ اها واقعا ٻئي مندر جي دور جي شروعات جي نشاندهي ڪن ٿا. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Jonathan|last1=Stökl|first2=Caroline|last2=Waerzegger|title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context|date=2015|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|pages=7–11, 30, 226}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia Judaica|edition=2nd|volume=3|page=27}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيترن ئي صدين جي پرڏيهي حڪمراني کانپوءِ، سيليوسڊ سلطنت جي خلاف مڪابي بغاوت هڪ آزاد هاشموني بادشاهت جو سبب بڻي، &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Peter Fibiger|last1=Bang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&amp;pg=PAPA184|title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean|first2=Walter|last2=Scheidel|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-518831-8|pages=184–187}}&lt;/ref&gt; پر ان رياست کي بتدريج [[رومي سلطنت]] ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Abraham|last=Malamat|url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=A History of the Jewish People|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1976|isbn=978-0-674-39731-6|pages=223–239}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي-رومن جنگيون، پهرين ۽ ٻي صدي عيسوي ۾ رومن جي خلاف ناڪام بغاوتن جو هڪ سلسلو، [[يروشلم]] ۽ ٻئي مندر جي تباهي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Zissu|first=Boaz|title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE|date=2018|isbn=978-90-04-34986-5|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|page=19|chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective|oclc=988856967}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ ڪيترن ئي يهودين کي نيڪالي ڏيڻ جو سبب بڻيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Erwin|last1=Fahlbusch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&amp;pg=PAPA15|title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity|first2=Geoffrey William|last2=Bromiley|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5|page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt; سر زمين شام فلسطين ۾ يهودي آبادي ايندڙ صدين دوران بتدريج گهٽجي وئي، يهودي ڊائاسپورا جي ڪردار کي وڌايو ۽ روحاني ۽ آبادي جي مرڪز کي خالي ٿيل يهوديا کان گليلي ۽ پوءِ بابل ڏانهن منتقل ڪيو، يهودين جون ننڍيون برادريون رومن سلطنت ۾ پکڙيل هيون. ساڳئي عرصي دوران، مشناه ۽ تلمود، مرڪزي يهودي متن، ترتيب ڏنا ويا. ايندڙ هزار سالن ۾، ڊائاسپورا برادريون ٽن وڏن نسلي ذيلي تقسيم ۾، جتي انهن جا ابا ڏاڏا آباد ٿيا هئا: وچ ۽ اوڀر يورپ ۾ اشڪنازي، [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|آئبيريا]] ۾ سيفاردي ۽ [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]] ۾ مزراهي طور گڏ ٿي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&amp;pg=PA87 &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity.&quot; p. 87.] Eban, Abba Solomon. &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews.&quot; Summit Books Syracuse, New York: 1984. p. 87.&lt;/ref&gt;  &lt;ref&gt;Dosick (2007), pp. 59–60.&lt;/ref&gt;

شروعاتي اسلامي فتحون اوڀرين رومي سمنڊ جي علائقن تي [[بازنطيني سلطنت|بازنطيني]] ڪنٽرول ختم ڪري ڇڏيو، نئين قائم ٿيل راشدون خلافت 7هين صدي دوران [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|ليونٽ]]، [[ميسوپوٽيميا]] ۽ اتر آفريڪا تي قبضو ڪيو ۽ 8هين صدي دوران [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|آئبيرين جزيره نما]] تي قبضو ڪيو. يهودي ثقافت مسلم [[اندلس]] ۾ هڪ سونهري دور مان لطف اندوز ٿي، يهودين کي سماج ۾ وڏي پيماني تي قبول ڪيو ويو ۽ انهن جي مذهبي، ثقافتي ۽ معاشي زندگي عدم برداشت واري الموحدين جي اچڻ کان اڳ ڦٽي نڪتي. سال 1492ع ۾ ڪيٿولڪ حڪمران، راڻي ازابيل اول ۽ بادشاهه فرڊيننڊ II پاران يهودين کي اسپين ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ڪيو ويو، جنهن کان پوءِ اهي وڏي تعداد ۾ [[عثماني سلطنت]] ۽ [[اٽلي]] ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي. 12هين ۽ 15هين صدي جي وچ ۾، اشڪنازي يهودين وچ يورپ ۾ انتهائي ظلم جو تجربو ڪيو، جنهن جي ڪري انهن جي [[پولينڊ]] ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. &lt;ref&gt;Mosk (2013), p. 143. &quot;Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Harshav, Benjamin (1999). ''The Meaning of Yiddish''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. &quot;From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the centre of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt;هين صدي ۾ هسڪاله دانشورانه تحريڪ جو عروج ڏٺو ويو. &lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt;هين صدي جي شروعات ۾، يهودي يهودين کي پابندين وارن قانونن کان آزاد ڪرڻ ۽ وسيع يورپي سماج ۾ ضم ڪرڻ لاءِ مهم هلائڻ شروع ڪئي.

19هين صدي ۾، جڏهن اولهائين يورپ ۾ يهودين کي قانون جي سامهون برابري ڏني پئي وئي، ته آبادڪاري جي ميدان ۾ يهودين کي وڌندڙ ظلم، قانوني پابندين ۽ وڏي پيماني تي قتل عام جو سامنا ڪرڻ پيو. 1870 ۽ 1880 جي ڏهاڪن دوران، يورپ ۾ يهودي آبادي فلسطين ۾ يهودي رياست کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان عثماني شام ڏانهن هجرت تي وڌيڪ سرگرم بحث ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. صهيوني تحريڪ سرڪاري طور تي سال 1897ع ۾ قائم ڪئي وئي هئي. سال 1881ع ۽ 1924ع جي وچ ۾ [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] ڏانهن 20 لک کان وڌيڪ يهودين جي وڏي پيماني تي هجرت کي به شروع ڪيو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Lewin|first=Rhoda G.|date=1979|title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis|url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf|journal=Minnesota History|volume=46|issue=7|page=259|access-date=August 10, 2020|archive-date=July 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; يورپ ۽ آمريڪا جا يهودي سائنس، ثقافت ۽ معيشت جي شعبن ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪيا. عام طور تي سڀ کان وڌيڪ مشهور سمجهيا ويندڙن ۾ [[البرٽ آئنسٽائن|البرٽ آئن اسٽائن]] ۽ لڊوگ وٽگنسٽائن شامل هئا. هن وقت ڪيترائي [[نوبل انعام حاصل ڪندڙن جي فهرست|نوبل انعام يافته]] يهودي هئا، جيئن اڃا تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners|publisher=jinfo.org|access-date=October 7, 2011|archive-date=December 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سال &lt;small&gt;1933&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، [[جرمنيا|جرمني]] ۾ [[هٽلر|ايڊولف هٽلر]] ۽ نازي پارٽي جي اقتدار ۾ اچڻ سان، يهودين لاءِ صورتحال سخت ٿي وئي. معاشي بحران، نسل پرست يهودي مخالف قانون ۽ ايندڙ جنگ جي خوف سبب ڪيترائي ماڻهو [[يُورَپ|يورپ]] کان [[فلسطين|لازمي فلسطين]]، آمريڪا ۽ [[سوويت يونين]] ڏانهن ڀڄي ويا. سال 1939ع ۾، [[ٻين مھاڀاري جنگ|ٻي مهاڀاري جنگ]] شروع ٿي ۽ سال 1941ع تائين جرمني تقريبن سڄي يورپ تي قبضو ڪري ورتو. سال 1941ع ۾، سوويت يونين جي حملي کان پوءِ، آخري حل شروع ٿيو، هڪ غير معمولي پيماني تي هڪ وسيع منظم آپريشن، جنهن جو مقصد يهودي ماڻهن کي ختم ڪرڻ هو ۽ نتيجي ۾ يورپ ۽ اتر آفريڪا ۾ يهودين جو قتل عام ٿيو. پولينڊ ۾، سڀني ڪنسنٽريشن ڪيمپن ۾ گيس چيمبرن ۾ 30 لک يهودي قتل ڪيا ويا، جن ۾ صرف آشوٽز ڪيمپ ڪمپليڪس ۾ 10 لک شامل هئا. هي نسل ڪشي، جنهن ۾ تقريبن 60 لک يهودين کي طريقي سان ختم ڪيو ويو، هولوڪاسٽ جي نالي سان مشهور آهي. 

هولوڪاسٽ کان اڳ ۽ دوران، يهودين جي وڏي تعداد لازمي فلسطين ڏانهن هجرت ڪئي. 14 مئي 1948ع تي، برطانوي مينڊيٽ جي خاتمي تي، ڊيوڊ بين-گورين ارض اسرائيل (اسرائيل جي سرزمين) ۾ هڪ يهودي ۽ جمهوري رياست، [[اسرائيل]] جي رياست جي قيام جو اعلان ڪيو.

ان کان پوءِ فوري طور تي، سڀني پاڙيسري عرب رياستون اسرائيل تي حملو ڪيو، پر نئين ٺهيل اسرائيلي دفاعي فوج (IDF) مزاحمت ڪئي. سال 1949ع ۾ جنگ ختم ٿي وئي ۽ اسرائيل رياست جي تعمير شروع ڪئي ۽ سڄي يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر جي ملڪن مان ايندڙ يهودين جي وڏين لهرن کي جذب ڪيو. سال 2022ع تائين، اسرائيل هڪ پارلياماني جمهوريت آهي جنهن جي آبادي 96 لک ماڻهن جي آهي، جن مان 70 لک يهودي آهن. ([[غزه جي پٽي|غزا]] ۽ [[فلسطين جي رياست|مغربي ڪناري]] جي 35 لک آبادي کانسواء).

اسرائيل کان ٻاهر سڀ کان وڏي يهودي برادري آمريڪا ۾ آهي، جڏهن ته ٻيون وڏي برادريون [[فرانس]]، [[ڪينيڊا]]، [[ارجنٽائن]]، [[روس]]، [[گڏيل بادشاھت|برطانيه]]، [[آسٽريليا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] ۾ پڻ موجود آهن. هن وقت، يهودي نسل جون ٻه خودمختيار رياستون؛ اسرائيل ۽ روس ۾ يهودي خودمختيار اوبلاست آهن جيڪي انهن جي اختيار هيٺ آهن ته اهي پناهه گاهه طور ڪم ڪن.

==جائزو==
قديم يهودي تاريخ بائيبل ۽ غير بائيبل ذريعن، اپوڪرائيفا ۽ سوڊيپيگرافا، جوزيفس جي لکڻين، گريڪو-رومن ليکڪن ۽ چرچ جي پادرين، گڏوگڏ آثار قديمه جي دريافتن، لکتن، قديم دستاويزن، جهڙوڪ ايليفينٽائن ۽ فيوم مان پيپيري، مردار سمنڊ جا اسڪرول، بار ڪوخبا خط، باباٿا آرڪائيوز ۽ قاهره جينيزا دستاويزن، مان معلوم ٿئي ٿي، جيڪي زباني تاريخ ۽ مدراش ۽ تلمود ۾ تبصرن جي مجموعن سان گڏ آهن. 

ابتدائي جديد دور ۾ پرنٽنگ پريس جي آمد سان، يهودين جي تاريخ ۽ عبراني بائيبل جا شروعاتي ايڊيشن شايع ٿيا جيڪي يهودي مذهب جي تاريخ ۽ وڌندڙ طور تي، يهودين جي قومي تاريخن، يهودي قوم ۽ سڃاڻپ سان لاڳاپيل هئا، هڪ مسودي يا لکندڙ ڪلچر کان هڪ پرنٽنگ ڪلچر ڏانهن منتقلي هئي. يهودي مورخن پنهنجن اجتماعي تجربن جا احوال لکيا، پر سياسي، ثقافتي ۽ سائنسي يا فلسفياتي ڳولا لاءِ تاريخ کي پڻ وڌندڙ طور تي استعمال ڪيو. ليکڪن ثقافتي طور تي ورثي ۾ مليل متن جي هڪ مجموعي کي استعمال ڪيو ته جيئن فن جي حالت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ يا اڳتي وڌائڻ لاءِ هڪ منطقي داستان تيار ڪري سگهجي. جديد يهودي تاريخ نويسي يورپي نشاۃِ ثانيه ۽ روشن خيالي جي دور جهڙين دانشورانه تحريڪن سان جڙيل آهي، پر وچين دور جي آخر ۾ ۽ قديم زماني ۾ مختلف ذريعن ۾ اڳوڻين ڪمن تي ڌيان ڏنو. اڄ، يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ کي اڪثر ست دورن ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي:
# قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه رياست (&lt;small&gt;1200 ق.م. کان 586 ق.م.&lt;/small&gt;) 
# ٻيو مندر وارو دور (&lt;small&gt;516 ق.م. کان 70 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|editor-last=Goodman|editor-first=Martin|chapter=Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period|pages=36–52|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0003|isbn=0-19-928032-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# ربانڪ يا تلمودي دور (&lt;small&gt;70 کان 640 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|editor-last=Goodman|editor-first=Martin|chapter=Historiography on the Jews in the ‘Talmudic Period’ (70–640 ce)|pages=79–114|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0005|isbn=0-19-928032-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# وچين دور (&lt;small&gt;640 کان 1492 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# ابتدائي جديد دور (&lt;small&gt;1492-1750 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# جديد دور (&lt;small&gt;1750ع کان 20هين صدي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# [[صيهونيت]]، [[هولوڪاسٽ]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جو قيام (&lt;small&gt;19 کان 21هين صدي&lt;/small&gt;)
&lt;imagemap&gt;
File:Chronology of Israel eng.png|center|800px
default [[#Time periods in Jewish history|Jewish history]]
rect 658 156 833 176 [[Aliyah|Periods of massive immigration to Palestine]]
rect 564 156 647 175 [[Jewish diaspora|Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in exile]]
rect 460 156 554 175 [[Land of Israel|Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in the southern Levant, with full or partial independence]]
rect 314 156 452 175 [[Temple in Jerusalem|Periods in which a Jewish Temple existed]]
rect 196 156 309 175 [[#Time periods in Jewish history|Jewish history]]
rect 26 102 134 122 [[Book of Judges|Shoftim]]
rect 134 102 265 121 [[Books of Kings|Melakhim]]
rect 146 83 266 104 [[First Temple]]
rect 286 83 418 103 [[Second Temple]]
rect 341 103 392 121 [[Zugot]]
rect 393 103 453 121 [[Tannaim]]
rect 452 102 534 221 [[Amoraim]]
rect 534 102 560 121 [[Savoraim]]
rect 559 103 691 121 [[Geonim]]
rect 691 102 825 121 [[Rishonim]]
rect 825 100 940 120 [[Acharonim]]
rect 939 94 959 120 [[Aliyah|Aliyot]]
rect 957 65 975 121 [[Israel]]
rect 940 62 958 94 [[The Holocaust]]
rect 825 62 941 100 [[Jewish diaspora|Diaspora]]
rect 808 61 825 101 [[Alhambra decree|Expulsion from Spain]]
rect 428 62 808 103 [[Dispersion of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Roman exile]]
poly 226 82 410 82 410 92 428 92 428 61 226 62 [[Ten Lost Tribes|Assyrian Exile (Ten Lost Tribes)]]
rect 264 82 284 122 [[Babylonian captivity]]
rect 283 103 341 121 [[Second Temple of Jerusalem|Second Temple period]]
poly 26 121 17 121 17 63 225 63 226 81 145 82 145 101 26 101 [[Chronology of the Bible|Ancient Jewish History]]
rect 58 136 375 146 [[Chronology of the Bible]]
rect 356 122 373 135 [[Common Era]]
desc none
&lt;/imagemap&gt;

==قديم اسرائيل==
{{Main|يهوديت جي اصل}}
===شروعاتي بني اسرائيل===
{{Main|بني اسرائيل}}
[[File:Ruins atop Tel Megiddo with circular altar-like shrine and a series of temples on top of the other dating from the early bronze-age through the iron-age periods, Tel Meggido, Israel (19888642855).jpg|thumb|تل ميگيدو، هڪ ڪنعاني ۽ بعد ۾ اسرائيلي شهر جا کنڊر]]

ابتدائي يهودين ۽ انهن جي پاڙيسرين جي تاريخ، ميڊيٽرينين سمنڊ جي زرخيز هلال ۽ اوڀر ساحل تي مرڪز آهي. اها انهن ماڻهن سان شروع ٿئي ٿي جيڪا [[نيل درياھہ|نيل]] ۽ [[ميسوپوٽيميا]] جي وچ واري علائقي تي قبضو ڪيو هو. مصر ۽ بابل ۾ ثقافت جي قديم مرڪزن، عرب جي ريگستانن ۽ ايشيا ڪوچڪ جي ميدان جي اهي، ڪنعان جي زمين (تقريبن جديد اسرائيل، فلسطين، اردن ۽ لبنان سان ملندڙ جلندڙ) تهذيبن جي ميلاپ جو هنڌ هئي.

[[File:Map Israel Judea 926 BC-fr.svg|thumb|سال 926 ق.م. ۾ اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه جون بادشاهتون]]
اسرائيل جي نالي سان هڪ قوم جو سڀ کان پهريون رڪارڊ ٿيل ثبوت قديم مصر جي مرنيپتاه اسٽيلئ ۾ نظر اچي ٿو، جيڪو 1200 ق.م. جو آهي. جديد آثار قديمه جي حساب موجب، اسرائيلي ۽ انهن جي ثقافت هڪ الڳ مونولئٽرسٽڪ ۽ پوء توحيد پرست (monotheistic) مذهب جي ترقي ذريعي ڪنعاني ماڻهن ۽ انهن جي ثقافتن مان نڪتل هئي، جيڪا هڪ قومي خدا &quot;يهواه&quot; تي مرڪوز هو.&lt;ref&gt;Mark Smith in &quot;The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel&quot; states &quot;Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000&amp;nbsp;BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period.&quot; (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) &quot;The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel&quot; (Eerdman's)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rendsberg, Gary (2008). &quot;Israel without the Bible&quot;. In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Gnuse |first1=Robert Karl |title=No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel |date=1997 |publisher=Sheffield Academic Press Ltd |isbn=1-85075-657-0 |location=England |pages=28, 31}}&lt;/ref&gt; اها عبراني ٻولي جي هڪ قديم شڪل ڳالهائيندا هئا، جيڪا اڄ بائيبل جي عبراني جي نالي سان مشهور آهي.&lt;ref&gt;Steiner, Richard C. (1997), &quot;Ancient Hebrew&quot;, in Hetzron, Robert (ed.), ''The Semitic Languages'', Routledge, pp. 145–173, {{ISBN|978-0-415-05767-7}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

پهرين صدي قبل مسيح جي وچ کان، يهودين کي روايتي طور تي پنهنجي تاريخ جي جيڪا سمجھ هئي، اها عبراني بائيبل ۾ بيان ڪيل روايتن جي چوڌاري مرڪوز هئي. هن خيال موجب، ابراهيم (اهو ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته هو يهودين جو حياتياتي پيشوا ۽ يهوديت جو پيءُ آهي) پهريون يهودي آهي.{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=3}} بعد ۾ اسحاق ابراهيم مان پيدا ٿيو ۽ يعقوب اسحاق مان پيدا ٿيو. هڪ ملائڪ سان ويڙهه کان پوءِ، يعقوب کي اسرائيل جو نالو ڏنو ويو. سخت ڏڪار کانپوءِ، يعقوب ۽ سندس ٻارهن پٽ مصر ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي ويا، جتي انهن آخرڪار اسرائيل جا ٻارهن قبيلا ٺاهيا. بعد ۾ بني اسرائيل کي مصر جي غلامي مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ موسيٰ طرفان ڪنعان آندو ويو. انهن آخرڪار يوشع جي اڳواڻي ۾ ڪنعان کي فتح ڪيو.

جديد عالم متفق آهن ته بائيبل بني اسرائيل جي اصليت جو مستند احوال فراهم نٿو ڪري. اتفاق راءِ ان ڳالهه جي حمايت ڪري ٿو ته آثار قديمه جا ثبوت وڏي پيماني تي اسرائيل جي اصليت کي 1200 کان 1000 ق.م. ۾ ڪنعان ۾ ڏيکارين ٿا، مصر ۾ نه. اهو &quot;زبردست&quot; آهي ۽ &quot;مصر مان نڪرڻ يا سينائي ​​جي بيابان ذريعي 40 سالن جي زيارت لاءِ ڪا به گنجائش نه ٿو ڇڏي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dever-2002&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William G. |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8028-2126-3}} p. 99&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪيترا ئي آثار قديمه جا ماهر موسيٰ ۽ خروج جي آثار قديمه جي تحقيق کي &quot;هڪ بيڪار جستجو&quot; طور ڇڏي ڏنو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dever-2002&quot; /&gt; بهرحال، اهو قبول ڪيو ويو آهي، ته هن داستان جو هڪ &quot;تاريخي بنياد&quot; آهي.&lt;ref&gt;For more about the historicity of Jewish history as it pertains to [[Oral Torah|rabbinic]] sources, see {{cite journal |first1=Reuven Chaim |last1=Klein |date=2023 |title=Are historical sections of the Talmud actually historical? Critical tools for understanding historical claims in rabbinic literature |url=https://www.academia.edu/127965994 |journal=Journal of Philological Pedagogy |volume=12 |publisher=Chandler School of Education |pages=42–75 |doi=10.17613/rjp5a-md343 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Faust|2015|loc=p.476: &quot;While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt..&quot;}}{{sfn|Redmount|2001|p=61|ps=: &quot;A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative.&quot;}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2001 |isbn=3-927120-37-5 |pages=98–99 |quote=After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible &quot;historical figures&quot; [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.}}&lt;/ref&gt; آثار قديمه جي ماهرن ۽ مصريات جي ماهرن جي هڪ صدي جي تحقيق ۾ ڪو به ثبوت نه مليو آهي، جيڪو مصري قيد ۽ فرار ۽ بيابان مان سفر جي خروج جي داستان سان سڌو سنئون لاڳاپيل ٿي سگهي ٿو، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ اهو مشورو ڏنو ويو آهي ته لوهه جي دور جو اسرائيل - يهودا ۽ اسرائيل جي بادشاهتن جي اصل ڪنعان ۾ آهي، مصر ۾ نه.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |editor-last1=Finkelstein |editor-first1=Israel |editor-first2=Nadav |editor-last2=Naaman |title=From Nomadism to Monarchy: Archaeological and Historical Aspects of Early Israel |publisher=[[Israel Exploration Society]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-880317-20-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Compare: {{cite book |first=Ian |last=Shaw |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&amp;q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&amp;pg=PA313 |title=A Dictionary of Archaeology |author2=Robert Jameson |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-631-23583-5 |editor=Ian Shaw |edition=New |page=313 |quote=The Biblical account of the origins of the people of Israel (principally recounted in Numbers, Joshua and Judges) often conflicts with non-Biblical textual sources and with the archaeological evidence for the settlement of Canaan in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age. [...] Israel is first textually attested as a political entity in Egyptian texts of the late 13th century BCE and the Egyptologist Donald Redford argues that the Israelites must have been emerging as a distinct group within the Canaanite culture during the century or so prior to this. It has been suggested that the early Israelites were an oppressed rural group of Canaanites who rebelled against the more urbanized coastal Canaanites (Gottwald 1979). Alternatively, it has been argued that the Israelites were survivors of the decline in the fortunes of Canaan who established themselves in the highlands at the end of the late Bronze Age (Ahlstrom 1986: 27). Redford, however, makes a good case for equating the very earliest Israelites with a semi-nomadic people in the highlands of central Palestine whom the Egyptians called Shasu (Redford 1992:2689–80; although see Stager 1985 for strong arguments against the identification with the Shasu). These Shasu were a persistent thorn in the side of the Ramessid pharaohs' empire in Syria-Palestine, well-attested in Egyptian texts, but their pastoral lifestyle has left scant traces in the archaeological record. By the end of the 13th century BCE, however, the Shasu/Israelites were beginning to establish small settlements in the uplands, the architecture of which closely resembles contemporary Canaanite villages. |author-link=Israel, Israelites |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160406/https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&amp;q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&amp;pg=PA313 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; ابتدائي اسرائيلي آبادين جي ثقافت ڪنعاني آهي. انهن جي گروهي-شيون ڪنعاني ديوتا ايل، برتن، مقامي ڪنعاني روايت ۽ استعمال ٿيل الفابيٽ ابتدائي ڪنعاني آهن، ۾ رهي ٿو. &quot;اسرائيلي&quot; ڳوٺن کي ڪنعاني جڳهن کان ڌار ڪرڻ لاء واحد نشان سوئر جي هڏن جي غير موجودگي آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ڇا اهو نسلي نشان طور ورتو وڃي ٿو يا ٻين عنصرن جي ڪري آهي، اهو تڪرار جو موضوع رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Killebrew |first=Ann E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC |title=Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E. |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-58983-097-4 |location=Atlanta |page=176 |quote=Much has been made of the scarcity of pig bones at highland sites. Since small quantities of pig bones do appear in Late Bronze Age assemblages, some archaeologists have interpreted this to indicate that the ethnic identity of the highland inhabitants was distinct from Late Bronze Age indigenous peoples (see Finkelstein 1997, 227–230). Brian Hesse and Paula Wapnish (1997) advise caution, however, since the lack of pig bones at Iron I highland settlements could be a result of other factors that have little to do with ethnicity. |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=January 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117055402/https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

بائبل جي داستان مطابق، اسرائيل جي سرزمين ٻارهن قبيلن جي هڪ ڪنفيڊريشن ۾ منظم هئي جنهن تي ڪيترن ئي سؤ سالن تائين قاضين جي هڪ سلسلي جي حڪومت هئي.

=== قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهودا ===
&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; قديم اسرائيل جي تاريخ

=== Ancient Israel and Judah ===
{{Main|History of ancient Israel and Judah}}
[[File:LMLK, Ezekiah seals.jpg|thumb|A stamped bulla ([[LMLK seal]]) of [[Hezekiah]], &quot;Of Hezekiah (son of) Ahaz King of Judah&quot;, [[Israel Museum]]]]
Two Israelite kingdoms emerged during Iron Age II: [[Israel and Judah]]. The Bible portrays Israel and Judah as the successors of an earlier [[United Kingdom of Israel]], although [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)#Archaeological record|its historicity is disputed]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Zachary |date=April 22, 2016 |title=Debating the United Monarchy: Let's See How Far We've Come |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146107916639208 |journal=Biblical Theology Bulletin |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=59–69 |doi=10.1177/0146107916639208 |issn=0146-1079 |s2cid=147053561 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lipschits |first1=Oded |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |title=The Jewish Study Bible |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-997846-5 |editor1-last=Berlin |editor1-first=Adele |edition=2nd |pages=2107–2119 |language=en |chapter=The history of Israel in the biblical period |quote=As this essay will show, however, the premonarchic period long ago became a literary description of the mythological roots, the early beginnings of the nation and the way to describe the right of Israel on its land. The archeological evidence also does not support the existence of a united monarchy under David and Solomon as described in the Bible, so the rubric of &quot;united monarchy&quot; is best abandoned, although it remains useful for discussing how the Bible views the Israelite past. [...] Although the kingdom of Judah is mentioned in some ancient inscriptions, they never suggest that it was part of a unit {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} Israel and Judah. There are no extrabiblical indications of a united monarchy called &quot;Israel.&quot; |editor2-last=Brettler |editor2-first=Marc Zvi |access-date=August 19, 2022 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160917/https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Historians and archaeologists agree that the northern [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] existed from {{circa|900 BCE}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|169–195}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Wright |first1=Jacob L. |date=July 2014 |title=David, King of Judah (Not Israel) |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301164250/http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |archive-date=March 1, 2021 |access-date=May 15, 2021 |website=The Bible and Interpretation}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that the [[Kingdom of Judah]] existed from {{Abbr|ca.|circa}} 700 BCE.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 |date=April 9, 2023 }} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Tel Dan Stele]], discovered in 1993, shows that the kingdom, at least in some form, existed by the middle of the 9th century BCE, but it does not indicate the extent of its power.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kcVmBAEo5rcC&amp;pg=PA333 |title=Ahab Agonistes: The Rise and Fall of the Omri Dynasty |date=April 28, 2007 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-567-25171-8 |quote=The Tel Dan inscription generated a good deal of debate and a flurry of articles when it first appeared, but it is now widely regarded (a) as genuine and (b) as referring to the Davidic dynasty and the Aramaic kingdom of Damascus. |access-date=August 19, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Cline |first=Eric H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uGzRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA61 |title=Biblical Archaeology: A Very Short Introduction |date=September 28, 2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-971162-8 |quote=Today, after much further discussion in academic journals, it is accepted by most archaeologists that the inscription is not only genuine but that the reference is indeed to the House of David, thus representing the first allusion found anywhere outside the Bible to the biblical David. |access-date=August 19, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Mykytiuk |first=Lawrence J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eprY1Qd0veAC&amp;pg=PA113 |title=Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200-539 B.C.E. |date=January 1, 2004 |publisher=Society of Biblical Lit |isbn=978-1-58983-062-2 |quote=Some unfounded accusations of forgery have had little or no effect on the scholarly acceptance of this inscription as genuine.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Biblical tradition tells that the Israelite monarchy was established in 1037 BCE under [[Saul]], who was anointed by the prophet Samuel,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Who Was the First King of Israel? |url=https://shopisrael.com/blogs/about-israel/first-king-of-israel |access-date=February 5, 2025 |website=Shop Israel |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and continued under [[David]] and his son, [[Solomon]]. David greatly expanded the kingdom's borders and [[Siege of Jebus|conquered Jerusalem]] from the [[Jebusites]], turning it into the national, political and religious capital of the kingdom. Solomon, his son, later built the [[First Temple]] on [[Moriah|Mount Moriah]] in Jerusalem. Upon his death, traditionally dated to c. 930 BCE, a civil war erupted between the ten northern Israelite tribes, and the tribes of [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] ([[Tribe of Simeon|Simeon]] was absorbed into Judah) and [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]] in the south. The kingdom then split into the Kingdom of Israel in the north, and the Kingdom of Judah in the south.

The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two kingdoms and soon developed into a regional power.{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|pp=146-147|loc=Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power}} During the days of the [[Omride Dynasty|Omride dynasty]], it controlled [[Samaria]], [[Galilee]], the upper [[Jordan Valley]], the [[Sharon plain|Sharon]] and large parts of the [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |first=Israel |last=Finkelstein |title=The forgotten kingdom : the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |isbn=978-1-58983-910-6 |pages=74 |oclc=949151323}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Samaria (ancient city)|Samaria]], the capital, was home to one of the largest Iron Age palaces in the Levant.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |title=The Forgotten Kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-58983-911-3 |pages=65–66; 73; 78; 87–94 |oclc=880456140}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |date=November 1, 2011 |title=Observations on the Layout of Iron Age Samaria |url=https://doi.org/10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |journal=Tel Aviv |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=194–207 |doi=10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |issn=0334-4355 |s2cid=128814117 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; The kingdom of Israel was destroyed {{cx|720 BCE}}, when it was [[Samerina|conquered]] by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Kingdom of Judah, with its capital in [[Jerusalem]], controlled the [[Judaean Mountains]], the [[Shephelah]], the [[Judaean Desert]] and parts of the [[Negev]]. After the fall of Israel, Judah became a [[client state]] of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In the 7th century BCE, the kingdom's population increased greatly, prospering under [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] [[Vassal state|vassalage]], despite [[Hezekiah#Assyrian invasion|Hezekiah's revolt]] against the Assyrian king [[Sennacherib]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |editor-last=Ben-Sasson |editor-first=Haim Hillel |editor-link=H. H. Ben-Sasson |page=142 |quote=Sargon's heir, Sennacherib (705–681), could not deal with Hezekiah's revolt until he gained control of Babylon in 702 BCE.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Mesad Hashavyahu ostracon.jpg|thumb|The [[Yavne-Yam ostracon]], a [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|Paleo-Hebrew]] inscription documenting administration in [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]]]
Large parts of the Hebrew Bible were written during this period. This includes the earliest portions of [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]],{{sfn|Kelle|2005|p=9}} [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]],{{sfn|Brettler|2010|pp=161–162}} [[Book of Amos|Amos]]{{sfn|Radine|2010|pp=71–72}} and [[Book of Micah|Micah]],{{sfn|Rogerson|2003a|p=690}} along with [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]],{{sfn|O'Brien|2002|p=14}} [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]],{{sfn|Gelston|2003c|p=715}} most of [[Deuteronomy]],{{sfn|Rogerson|2003b|p=154}} the first edition of the [[Deuteronomistic history]] (the books of [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]/[[Book of Judges|Judges]]/[[Books of Samuel|Samuel]]/[[Books of Kings|Kings]]),{{sfn|Campbell|O'Brien|2000|p=2 and fn.6}} and [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]].{{sfn|Gelston|2003a|p=710}}

With the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 605 BCE, a power struggle emerged between [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt|Egypt]] and the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] for control of the [[Levant]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bickerman |first=E. J. |title=Nebuchadnezzar And Jerusalem |date=January 1, 2007 |work=Studies in Jewish and Christian History (2 vols) |pages=961–974 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789047420729/Bej.9789004152946.i-1242_044.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004152946.i-1242.280 |isbn=978-90-474-2072-9 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to Judah's rapid decline. In 601 BCE, King [[Jehoiakim]] of Judah, who had recently submitted to Babylon, rebelled against the empire. He was soon succeeded by his son, Jehoiachin, who continued his father's policy and faced a Babylonian invasion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; In March 597 BCE,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Galil |first=Gershon |date=1991 |title=The Babylonian Calendar and the Chronology of the Last Kings of Judah |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42611193 |journal=Biblica |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=367–378 |jstor=42611193 |issn=0006-0887 |quote=All the scholars, without exception, establish the date of the surrender of Jehoiachin, king of Judah, as the second day of Adar, the seventh year of Nebuchadnezzar II, king of Babylon (March 16, 597 BC), following the Babylonian chronicle ... This unique date is undoubtedly the most precise in Israelite history during the biblical period.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jehoiachin surrendered to the Babylonians and was taken captive to Babylon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; This defeat is documented in the [[Babylonian Chronicles]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BCE) |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030154541/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |archive-date=October 30, 2014 |access-date=October 30, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle) – Livius |url=https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505195611/https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html |archive-date=May 5, 2019 |access-date=March 26, 2020 |website=www.livius.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Zedekiah]], Jehoiachin's uncle, was then installed as king by the Babylonians.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt;

In 587 or 586 BCE, [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], responding to a second revolt in Judah, [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|besieged and destroyed Jerusalem]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Shalom |first1=N. |last2=Vaknin |first2=Y. |last3=Shaar |first3=R. |last4=Ben-Yosef |first4=E. |last5=Lipschits |first5=O. |last6=Shalev |first6=Y. |last7=Gadot |first7=Y. |last8=Boaretto |first8=E. |date=2023 |title=Destruction by fire: Reconstructing the evidence of the 586 BCE Babylonian destruction in a monumental building in Jerusalem |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305440323001036 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=157 |article-number=105823 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2023.105823 |bibcode=2023JArSc.157j5823S |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; The [[First Temple]] was razed, and its sacred vessels were seized as spoils.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bedford |first=Peter Ross |title=Introduction |date=2001 |work=Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah |pages=1–39 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s004.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004498051_004 |isbn=978-90-04-49805-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; The destruction was followed by a mass exile: the surviving inhabitants of the city, including other segments of the population, were carried off to Mesopotamia,&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt; marking the onset of the era known in Jewish history as the &quot;[[Babylonian Captivity]]&quot;. Zedekiah himself was captured, blinded, and transported to Babylon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt; Others [[History of the Jews in Egypt|fled to Egypt]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} The people of Judah lost their statehood, and, for those in exile, their homeland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001b&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bedford |first=Peter Ross |title=Living Without the Jerusalem Temple—In Judah and Babylonia |date=January 1, 2001 |work=Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah |page=42 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s005.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004498051_005 |isbn=978-90-04-49805-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Following the dissolution of the monarchy, the former kingdom was annexed as a province of the Babylonian Empire.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt;

=== خروج ۽ بابل ۾ قيد (587 - 538 ق.م.) ===
{{Main|يهودين جي بابل ۾ قيد}}
[[File:Tissot The Flight of the Prisoners.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|قديم يهودين جو خروج ۽ [[بابل]] ڏانهن جلاوطني ۽ [[يروشلم]] ۽ [[سليمان عليہ السلام|سليمان]] جي مندر جي تباهي جو ڏيک. هڪ مصور پاران ]]يهوديه جي رياست جي زوال ۽ فارسي حڪمراني هيٺ وطن ڏانهن انهن جي واپسي جي وچ ۾ ڪيترن ئي ڏهاڪن دوران، يهودي تاريخ هڪ غير واضح مرحلي ۾ داخل ٿئي ٿي. ڪيترائي يهودي بابل (عراق)، ايلام (ايران) ۽ مصر ۾ جلاوطن ڪيا ويا، جڏهن ته ٻيا بابلي حڪمراني هيٺ يهوديه ۾ رهيا. يرمياه مصر ۾ برادرين جو حوالو ڏئي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ميگڊول، طهپانحيس، نوف ۽ پاٿروس ۾ آباديون شامل آهن. ان کانسواء، هڪ يهودي فوجي ڪالوني ايليفينٽائن ۾ موجود هئي، جيڪا جلاوطني کان اڳ قائم ڪئي وئي هئي، جتي انهن پنهنجو مزار ٺاهيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001b&quot; /&gt; توره جي باب استثنا کي وڌايو ويو ۽ اڳوڻي صحيفن کي جلاوطني جي دور ۾ ايڊٽ ڪيو ويو. يرمياه جو پهريون ايڊيشن، حزقيل جو ڪتاب، عبيدياه جو اڪثريت ۽ اها سڀ جن جو تحقيق ۾ &quot;ٻيو يسعياه&quot; جي نالي سان حوالو ڏنو ويو آهي، اهي سڀ هن دور ۾ لکيل هئا.

==هيڪل سليماني جي ٻيهر تعمير==
===&lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Post-exilic_period&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;هخامنشي دور (332 کان 538ع)&lt;!--&quot;Post-exilic period&quot;, &quot;Post-Exilic period&quot;, &quot;Post-exilic&quot;, &quot;Post-Exilic&quot;, Postexilic, &quot;Pre-exilic period&quot;, &quot;Pre-Exilic period&quot;, &quot;Pre-Exilic&quot; and &quot;Pre-exilic&quot; redirect here--&gt;===
[[File:109.Ezra Reads the Law to the People.jpg|thumb|[[عزير عليہ السلام|عزير]] ماڻهن کي [[توريت|تورات]] پڙهي ٻڌائي رهيو آهي. گستاو ڊور پاران پينٽنگ]]
عزير جي ڪتاب جي مطابق، [[سائرس اعظم|سائرس]] [[سائرس اعظم|اعظم]]، هخامنشي سلطنت جو بادشاهه، بابل جي فتح کان هڪ سال پوءِ،&lt;ref&gt;''Harper's Bible Dictionary'', ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper &amp; Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103&lt;/ref&gt; سال 538 ق.م ۾ بابلي جلاوطني جو خاتمو آندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Biu.ac.il22&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html|access-date=March 15, 2014|publisher=Biu.ac.il}}&lt;/ref&gt; واپس ڪندڙ يهودين جي اڳواڻي زربابل، [[داؤد عليہ السلام|دائود]] جي شاهي نسل مان هڪ شهزادو ۽ جوشوا، مندر جي اڳوڻي اعليٰ پادرين مان اولاد ڪئي، جنهن ٻئي مندر جي تعمير جي نگراني ڪيا، جيڪا سال &lt;small&gt;521&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;516&lt;/small&gt; ق.م. جي وچ ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Biu.ac.il2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html|access-date=March 15, 2014|publisher=Biu.ac.il}}&lt;/ref&gt;۽ هخامنشي سلطنت جي حصي جي طور تي، يهودين جي اڳوڻي بادشاهت، مختلف حدن سان، هڪ ننڍڙو علائقو ڍڪيندي، يهودين جو صوبو بڻجي وئي.&lt;ref&gt;Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew Yehuda, or &quot;Judah&quot;, and &quot;medinata&quot; the word for province&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Grabbe|first=Lester L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-MnE5T_0RbMC&amp;q=gave+the+Jews+permission+to+return+to+Yehud+province+and+to+rebuild+the&amp;pg=PA355|title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah|volume=1|publisher=T&amp;T Clark|year=2004|isbn=978-0-567-08998-4|page=355}}&lt;/ref&gt; همعصر عالم بتدريج واپسي جي عمل ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا، جيڪي 6هين صدي ق.م. جي آخر ۽ 5هين صدي ق.م. جي شروعات تائين وڌائي وئي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last=Lipschits|first=Oded|title=Judah in the Biblical Period|chapter=Between Archaeology and Text: A Reevaluation of the Development Process of Jerusalem in the Persian Period|date=March 18, 2024|page=374|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110487442-020/html|access-date=July 1, 2024|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110487442-020|isbn=978-3-11-048744-2}}&lt;/ref&gt; فارسي يهودين جي آبادي بادشاهت جي دور کان تمام گهٽجي وئي. آثار قديمه جا سروي پنجين ۽ چوٿين صدي ق.م. دوران تقريبن &lt;small&gt;'''30,000'''&lt;/small&gt; جي آبادي ڏيکارن ٿا. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|date=2001|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|isbn=0-684-86912-8|edition=1st Touchstone|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

آخري توريت کي وڏي پيماني تي فارسي دور (&lt;small&gt;539&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;کان 333&lt;/small&gt; ق.م يا &lt;small&gt;450-350&lt;/small&gt; ق.م.) جي پيداوار طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو،{{Sfn|Frei|2001|p=6}} هي اتفاق راءِ هڪ روايتي يهودي نظريي جو گونج آهي ته [[عزير عليہ السلام|عزير عليه السلام]]، بابل کان واپسي تي يهودي برادري جا اڳواڻ، تورات جي اشاعت ۾ هڪ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{sfn|Romer|2008|p=2 and fn.3}}

ٽي نبي، جيڪا يهودي روايت ۾ آخري سمجهيا وڃن ٿا هن دور ۾ سرگرم هئا: حجائي، زڪريا ۽ ملاڪي.&lt;ref&gt;[[Jerusalem Bible]] (1966), ''Haggai'', ''Zechariah'', ''Malachi'' in ''Introduction to the Prophets'', London: Darton, Longman &amp; Todd, pp. 1138–1140&lt;/ref&gt; بني اسرائيل جي آخري نبي جي وفات کانپوءِ ۽ اڃا تائين فارسي حڪمراني هيٺ، يهودي ماڻهن جي قيادت اڳواڻن جي پنجن مسلسل نسلن جي زگوٽ (جوڙن) جي هٿن ۾ منتقل ٿي وئي. اهي پهرين فارسين جي دور ۾ ۽ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾ ترقي ڪيا ۽ نتيجي طور تي، انهن مان ٻه گروه، فريسي ۽ صدوقي ٺهيا. فارسين جي دور ۾ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾، يهودي سڪا يهوديه ۾ يهودي سڪن جي طور تي ٺاهيا ويا.

=== Hellenistic period (c. 332–110 BCE) ===
{{Main|Hellenistic Judaism}}
[[File:Jews Byzantine Greek Alexander Manuscript (cropped).JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Alexander the Great]], clad as a [[Byzantine emperor]], receives a delegation of Jewish [[rabbi]]s. Miniature from the 14th-century ''Alexander Romance'']]

In 332 BCE, [[Alexander the Great]] of [[Macedon]] defeated the Persians. After Alexander's death and the division of his empire among his generals, the [[Seleucid Kingdom]] was formed.

The Alexandrian conquests spread Greek culture to the Levant. During this time, currents of Judaism were influenced by [[Hellenistic philosophy]] developed from the 3rd century BCE, notably the [[Jewish diaspora]] in [[Alexandrian Jews|Alexandria]], culminating in the compilation of the [[Septuagint]]. An important advocate of the symbiosis of Jewish theology and Hellenistic thought is [[Philo]].

=== Hasmonean dynasty (110–63 BCE) ===
{{Main|Hasmonean dynasty}}
[[File:John Hyrcanus.jpg|thumb|JUDAEA, Hasmoneans. John Hyrcanus I (Yehohanan). 135–104 BCE. Æ Prutah (13mm, 2.02&amp;nbsp;gm, 12h). &quot;Yehohanan the High Priest and the Council of the Jews&quot; (in Hebrew) in five lines within wreath / Double cornucopiae adorned with ribbons; pomegranate between horns; small A to lower left. Meshorer Group B, 11; Hendin 457.]]

Triggered by anti-Jewish decrees from Seleucid king [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] and tensions between Hellenized and conservative Jews, the [[Maccabean Revolt]] erupted in Judea in 167 BCE under the leadership of [[Mattathias]]. His son, [[Judas Maccabeus]], recaptured Jerusalem in 164 BCE, purifying the Second Temple and reinstating sacrificial worship.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atkinson-2016&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Atkinson |first=Kenneth |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/949219870 |title=A History of the Hasmonean State: Josephus and Beyond |date=2016 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-66902-5 |series=T&amp;T Clark Jewish and Christian texts series |location=London; New York |pages=2, 23–28 |oclc=949219870}}&lt;/ref&gt; The successful revolt eventually led to the formation of an independent Jewish state under the [[Hasmonean dynasty]], which lasted from 165 to 63 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;See:

*[[William David Davies]]. ''The Hellenistic Age''. Volume 2 of Cambridge History of Judaism. Cambridge University Press, 1989. {{ISBN|978-0-521-21929-7}}. pp. 292–312.
*Jeff S. Anderson. ''The Internal Diversification of Second Temple Judaism: An Introduction to the Second Temple Period''. University Press of America, 2002. {{ISBN|978-0-7618-2327-8}}. pp. 37–38.
*Howard N. Lupovitch. ''Jews and Judaism in World History''. Taylor &amp; Francis. 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-415-46205-1}}. pp. 26–30.&lt;/ref&gt;

Initially governing as both political leaders and High Priests, the [[Hasmoneans]] later assumed the title of kings. They employed military campaigns and diplomacy to consolidate power.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atkinson-2016&quot; /&gt; Under the rule of [[Alexander Jannaeus]] and [[Salome Alexandra]], [[Hasmonean Judea]] reached its zenith in size and influence. However, internal strife erupted between Salome Alexandra's sons, [[Hyrcanus II]] and [[Aristobulus II]], leading to civil war and appeals to Roman authorities for intervention. Responding to these appeals, Pompey led a Roman campaign of conquest and annexation, which marked the end of Hasmonean sovereignty and ushered in Roman rule over Judea.&lt;ref&gt;Hooker, Richard. {{cite web |title=The Hebrews: The Diaspora |url=http://www.wsu.edu:8000/~dee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM |access-date=April 7, 2018 |archive-date=August 29, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829230214/http://www.wsu.edu:8000/%7Edee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM |url-status=dead}}  World Civilizations Learning Modules.  Washington State University, 1999.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Roman period (63 BCE – 135 CE) ===
{{Main|Herodian dynasty|History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Roman Palestine|Judaea (Roman province)|Jewish–Roman wars}}
[[File:Monnaie - Prutah, bronze, Jérusalem, Judée, Mattathias Antigonos - btv1b8480202s (1 of 2).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Hasmonean coinage|Hasmonean coin]] of [[Antigonus II Mattathias]], depicting the [[Temple menorah]]]]

Judea had been an independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmoneans, but it was [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BCE)|conquered and reorganized as a client state by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE]]. [[Roman expansion]] was going on in other areas as well, and it would continue for more than a hundred and fifty years. Later, [[Herod the Great]] was appointed &quot;King of the Jews&quot; by the [[Roman Senate]], supplanting the Hasmonean dynasty. Some of his offspring held various positions after him, known as the [[Herodian dynasty]]. Briefly, from 4 BCE to 6 CE, [[Herod Archelaus]] ruled the [[Tetrarchy (Judea)|tetrarchy of Judea]] as [[ethnarch]], the Romans denying him the title of King.

After the [[Census of Quirinius]] in 6 CE, the [[Roman province of Judaea]] was formed as a satellite of [[Roman Syria]] under the rule of a [[prefect]] (as was [[Roman Egypt]]) until 41 CE, then [[Procurator (Roman)|procurators]] after 44 CE. The empire was often callous and brutal in its treatment of its Jewish subjects, (see [[Anti-Judaism#Pre-Christian Roman Empire|Anti-Judaism in the pre-Christian Roman Empire]]). In 30 CE (or 33 CE), [[Jesus of Nazareth]], an itinerant [[rabbi]] from [[Galilee]], and the central figure of [[Christianity]], was put to death by [[crucifixion]] in Jerusalem under the Roman prefect of [[Judaea]], [[Pontius Pilate]].&lt;ref&gt;Charlesworth, James H. (2008). The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide. {{ISBN|978-1-4267-2475-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For a short time Judea was reunited and semi-independent under [[Agrippa the Great]] who had good relations with both the Roman aristocracy and local Jewish citizens. After his death Judea was again annexed by Rome and his less popular son [[Herod Agrippa II]] was made ethnarch.&lt;ref&gt;Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, livre XVIII, § V, 4, (132).&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:19 Shrine of the Book 005 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of the [[Second Temple]], following renovations by [[Herod the Great|Herod]] in the 1st century CE]]
[[File:Roberts Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans]] (1850 painting by [[David Roberts (painter)|David Roberts]])]]

Roman oppressive rule, combined with economic, religious, and ethnic tensions, eventually led to the outbreak of the [[First Jewish–Roman War]], also known as the Great Revolt, in 66 CE. Future emperor [[Vespasian]] quelled the rebellion in [[Galilee]] by 67 CE, capturing key strongholds.&lt;ref&gt;Jensen, M. H. (2014). The Political History in Galilee from the First Century BCE to the end of the Second Century CE. ''Galilee in the late Second Temple and Mishnaic periods. Volume 1. Life, culture and society'', pp. 69-70. &quot;According to Jewish War, Vespasian laid siege to and conquered all the major strongholds of Galilee [...] Since the entire campaign was short and lasted only for some months in the spring and summer of 67, there is no reason to believe that Galilee was entirely devastated when the Romans set their course south. However, the places that were conquered, were in a typical Roman fashion levelled more or less to the ground and many people sold of as slaves.&lt;/ref&gt; He was succeeded by his son [[Titus]], who led the brutal [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|siege of Jerusalem]], culminating in the city's fall in 70 CE. The Romans burned Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Weksler-Bdolah |first=Shlomit |title=Aelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman period: in light of archaeological research |publisher=Brill |year=2019 |isbn=978-90-04-41707-6 |page=3 |oclc=1170143447 |quote=The historical description is consistent with the archeological finds. Collapses of massive stones from the walls of the Temple Mount were exposed lying over the Herodian street running along the Western Wall of the Temple Mount. The residential buildings of the Ophel and the Upper City were destroyed by great fire. The large urban drainage channel and the Pool of Siloam in the Lower City silted up and ceased to function, and in many places the city walls collapsed. [...] Following the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, a new era began in the city's history. The Herodian city was destroyed and a military camp of the Tenth Roman Legion established on part of the ruins.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Reich |first=Ronny |date=2009 |title=The Sack of Jerusalem in 70 CE: Flavius Josephus' Description and the Archaeological Record |script-title=he:חורבן ירושלים בשנת 70 לסה&quot;נ: תיאורו של יוסף בן מתתיהו והממצא הארכאולוגי  |journal=Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv |script-journal=he:קתדרה: לתולדות ארץ ישראל ויישובה |issue=131 |pages=25–42 |issn=0334-4657 |jstor=23407359}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Roman victory was celebrated with a [[Roman triumph|triumph]] in Rome, showcasing Jewish artefacts like the [[Temple menorah|menorah]], which were then put on display in the new [[Temple of Peace, Rome|Temple of Peace]].&lt;ref&gt;Huitink, Luuk. &quot;Between Triumph and Tragedy: Josephus, Bellum Judaicum 7.121–157.&quot; ''Reading Greek, Hellenistic and Roman spolia. Objects, appropriation and cultural change, Euhormos: Greco-Roman Studies in Anchoring Innovation. Leiden: Brill'' (2023). pp. 215–216, 234&lt;/ref&gt; The Flavian dynasty leveraged this victory for political gain, erecting monuments in Rome and minting [[Judaea Capta coinage|Judaea Capta coins]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Overman |first1=J. Andrew |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781134518326 |title=The First Jewish Revolt |last2=Overman |first2=J. Andrew |date=September 2, 2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-51832-6 |chapter=The First Revolt and Flavian politics |doi=10.4324/9780203167441}}&lt;/ref&gt; The war concluded with the [[siege of Masada]] (73–74 CE). The Jewish population suffered widespread devastation, with displacement, enslavement, and Roman confiscation of Jewish-owned land.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Herr |first=Moshe David |title=The History of Eretz Israel: The Roman Byzantine period: the Roman period from the conquest to the Ben Kozba War (63 B.C.E-135 C.E.) |publisher=Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi |year=1984 |editor-last=Shtern |editor-first=Menahem |location=Jerusalem |page=288}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The destruction of the Second Temple marked a cataclysmic event in Jewish history, triggering far-reaching transformations within Judaism.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Maclean Rogers |first=Guy |title=For the Freedom of Zion: The Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66–74 CE |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-300-26256-8 |location=New Haven and London |pages=3–5 |oclc=1294393934}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=Judaism in a Time of Crisis: Four Responses to the Destruction of the Second Temple |date=November 28, 2017 |work=Neusner on Judaism |pages=399–413 |editor-last1=Hinnells |editor-first1=John |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781351152761-20 |access-date=May 22, 2022 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781351152761-20 |isbn=978-1-351-15276-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Karesh-2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Karesh |first=Sara E. |title=Encyclopedia of Judaism |publisher=Facts On File |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-78785-171-9 |oclc=1162305378 |quote=Until the modern period, the destruction of the Temple was the most cataclysmic moment in the history of the Jewish people. Without the Temple, the Sadducees no longer had any claim to authority, and they faded away. The sage Yochanan ben Zakkai, with permission from Rome, set up the outpost of Yavneh to continue develop of Pharisaic, or rabbinic, Judaism.}}&lt;/ref&gt; With the central role of sacrificial worship obliterated, religious practices shifted towards [[Jewish prayer|prayer]], [[Torah study]], and communal gatherings in [[synagogue]]s. According to Rabbinic tradition, Yohanan ben Zakkai secured permission from the Romans to establish a center for Torah study in [[Yavne]]h, which then served as a focal point for Jewish religious and cultural life for a generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stemberger-2003&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Stemberger |first=Guenter |title=The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism, 70–640 CE |date=2003 |work=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism |pages=78–79 |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470758014.ch5 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Wiley |language=en |doi=10.1002/9780470758014.ch5 |isbn=978-1-57718-058-6 |editor2-last=Avery-Peck |editor2-first=Alan J. |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-judaism/3F4F0A32983FC0DCDB414553888DC394 |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |volume=4 |page=268 |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488 |quote=Under the leadership of R. Yohanan ben Zakkai and his circle at Yavneh, Judaism sought to reconstitute itself and find a new equilibrium in the face of the disaster of 70.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=Religion (Judentum: Palästinisches Judentum &amp;#91;Forts.&amp;#93;) |date=September 26, 2016 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-083904-3 |editor-last1=Haase |editor-first1=Wolfgang |language=de |chapter=The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism: Yavneh (Jamnia) from A.D. 70 to 100 |pages=3–42 |doi=10.1515/9783110839043-002 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110839043-002/html}}&lt;/ref&gt; Judaism also underwent a significant shift away from its sectarian divisions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Shaye J. D. |date=1984 |title=The Significance of Yavneh: Pharisees, Rabbis, and the End of Jewish Sectarianism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507609 |journal=Hebrew Union College Annual |volume=55 |page=29 |jstor=23507609 |issn=0360-9049 |quote=The goal was not the triumph over other sects but the elimination of the need for sectarianism itself. [...] The destruction of the temple provided the impetus for this process: it warned the Jews of the dangers of internal divisiveness and it removed one of the major focal points of Jewish sectarianism.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Jodi |last=Magness |title=Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History?: On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-04-21744-7 |editor-first=Daniel R. |editor-last=Schwartz |chapter=Sectarianism before and after 70 CE |editor-first2=Zeev |editor-last2=Weiss |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VecxAQAAQBAJ&amp;q=diaspora+70+ce&amp;pg=PA189}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Sadducees]] and [[Essenes]], two prominent sects in the late Second Temple period, faded into obscurity,&lt;ref name=&quot;Karesh-2006&quot; /&gt; while the traditions of the [[Pharisees]], including their halakhic interpretations, the centrality of the [[Oral Torah]], and [[Jewish eschatology|belief in resurrection]] became the foundation of [[Rabbinic Judaism]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Stemberger-2003&quot; /&gt;[[File:Arch of Titus Menorah.png|upright=1.15|thumb|The sack of Jerusalem depicted on the inside wall of the [[Arch of Titus]] in [[Rome]]]]

=== Diaspora during the Second Temple period ===
{{Main|Jewish diaspora}}
The [[Jewish diaspora]] existed well before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and had been ongoing for centuries, with the dispersal driven by both forced expulsions and voluntary migrations.&lt;ref&gt;[[Erich S. Gruen]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=t1IR4WtFjGUC&amp;pg=PA3 Diaspora: Jews Amidst Greeks and Romans] [[Harvard University Press]], 2009 pp. 3–4, 233–234: 'Compulsory dislocation, .…cannot have accounted for more than a fraction of the diaspora. … The vast bulk of Jews who dwelled abroad in the Second Temple Period did so voluntarily.' (2)' .Diaspora did not await the fall of Jerusalem to Roman power and destructiveness. The scattering of Jews had begun long before-occasionally through forced expulsion, much more frequently through voluntary migration.'&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Martin |title=A History of Judaism |date=2018 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-18127-1 |location=Princeton Oxford |pages=21, 232}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Mesopotamia, a testimony to the beginnings of the Jewish community can be found in [[Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets|Joachin's ration tablets]], listing provisions allotted to the exiled Judean king and his family by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], and further evidence are the [[Al-Yahudu Tablets|Al-Yahudu tablets]], dated to the 6th-5th centuries BCE and related to the exiles from Judea arriving after the destruction of the [[First Temple]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Luke |date=February 3, 2017 |title=Ancient tablets reveal life of Jews in Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203 |newspaper=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt; though there is ample evidence for the presence of Jews in Babylonia even from 626 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;Zadok R. Judeans in Babylonia–Updating the Dossier. in U. Gabbay and Sh. Secunda. (eds.). ''Encounters by the Rivers of Babylon: Scholarly Conversations between Jews, Iranians and Babylonians in Antiquity'', Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 160. Tübingen: MohrSiebeck. pp. 109–110.&lt;/ref&gt; In Egypt, the [[Elephantine papyri and ostraca|documents from Elephantine]] reveal the trials of a community founded by a Persian Jewish garrison at two fortresses on the frontier during the 5th-4th centuries BCE, and according to [[Josephus]] the Jewish community in Alexandria existed since the founding of the city in the 4th century BCE by [[Alexander the Great]].&lt;ref&gt;Josephus Flavius, ''Against Appion''. 4.II&lt;/ref&gt; By 200 BCE, there were well established Jewish communities both in Egypt and Mesopotamia (&quot;[[History of the Jews in Iraq|Babylonia]]&quot; in Jewish sources) and in the two centuries that followed, Jewish populations were also present in [[Asia Minor]], [[Greece]], [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]], [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]], and, beginning in the middle of the 1st century BCE, in the city of [[Rome]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=E. Mary |last=Smallwood |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period, Volume 3 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-521-24377-3 |editor1=William David Davies |chapter=The Diaspora in the Roman period before AD 70 |editor2=Louis Finkelstein |editor3=William Horbury |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AW2BuWcalXIC&amp;q=Diaspora+before+70&amp;pg=PA168}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot; /&gt;

In the first centuries CE, as a result of the [[Jewish–Roman wars]],&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot;&gt;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת &quot;עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום&quot;, ע&quot;מ 95. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth – &quot;The People of Israel – the history of 4000 years – from the days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty&quot;, 1981, p. 95)&lt;/ref&gt; a large number of Jews were taken as captives, sold into slavery, or compelled to flee from the regions affected by the wars, contributing to the formation and expansion of Jewish communities across the [[Roman Empire]] as well as in Arabia and Mesopotamia. Jewish communities across Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Egypt were almost entirely obliterated due to the harsh Roman response to the Diaspora Revolt.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006b&quot; /&gt;

The [[New Testament]] Book of [[Acts]], as well as other [[Pauline epistles|Pauline]] texts, make frequent reference to the large populations of [[Hellenized Jews]] in the cities of the Roman world. These Hellenized Jews were affected by the diaspora only in its spiritual sense, absorbing the feeling of loss and homelessness that became a cornerstone of the Jewish creed, much supported by persecutions in various parts of the world. Of critical importance to the reshaping of Jewish tradition from the Temple-based religion to the rabbinic traditions of the Diaspora, was the development of the interpretations of the Torah found in the [[Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]].

==تالمود وارو دور==
===پھرين يهودي بغاوت (115 کان 117ع)===
During the [[Diaspora Revolt]] (115–117 CE), [[Jewish diaspora]] communities across several eastern provinces of the [[Roman Empire]] engaged in widespread rebellion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006a&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=June 22, 2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |pages=93–106 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=September 8, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Driven by messianic fervor and hopes for the [[Gathering of Israel|ingathering of exiles]] and the [[Third Temple|reconstruction of the Temple]], these communities may have sought to spark a broader movement possibly aimed at returning to [[Judea]] and rebuilding Jerusalem.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Smallwood |first=E. Mary |title=The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian |publisher=SBL Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-90-04-50204-8 |pages=394–397}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Horbury |first=William |title=Jewish War under Trajan and Hadrian |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-139-04905-4 |pages=276}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Barclay |first=John M. G. |title=Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: from Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE) |date=1998 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-08651-8 |edition= |location=Edinburgh |pages=241}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient sources describe the revolt as extremely brutal, with cases of cannibalism and mutilation, though modern scholars often consider these accounts to be exaggerated.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006a&quot; /&gt; The Roman suppression of the revolt was marked by severe measures, including [[ethnic cleansing]], leading to the near-total destruction of Jewish diaspora communities in [[Roman Libya|Libya]], [[Roman Cyprus|Cyprus]] and [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last1=Kerkeslager |first1=Allen |title=The Diaspora from 66 to c. 235 ce |date=2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |volume=4 |pages=62–63 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/diaspora-from-66-to-c-235-ce/5AECAD54BE6CA31C7968EED92D6CA36A |access-date=September 10, 2024 |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.004 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |last2=Setzer |first2=Claudia |last3=Trebilco |first3=Paul |last4=Goodblatt |first4=David}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006b&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=June 22, 2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |page=98 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=September 8, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; including the significant and influential community in [[Alexandria]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot; /&gt;

===بار ڪوخبا بغاوت (132 کان 136ع===
{{Main|بار ڪوخبا بغاوت}}
[[File:Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg|thumb|A tetradrachm minted during the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], featuring the former Second Temple, a ''lulav'', and the slogan 'to the freedom of Jerusalem']]
From 132 to 136 CE, Judaea was the center of the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], triggered by Hadrian's decision to establish the pagan colony of [[Aelia Capitolina]] on the ruins of Jerusalem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Eck |first=Werner |editor-first1=Werner |editor-last1=Eck |title=Bar Kokhba |date=July 30, 2015 |work=Oxford Classical Dictionary |url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-1056 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1056 |isbn=978-0-19-938113-5 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Early successes led to the establishment of a short-lived Jewish state in Judea under the leadership of [[Simon Bar Kokhba]], styled as ''[[Nasi (Hebrew title)|nasi]]'' or prince of Israel.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt; The [[Bar Kokhba revolt coinage|rebel state's coinage]] proclaimed &quot;Freedom of Israel&quot; and &quot;For the Freedom of Jerusalem&quot;, using [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|ancient Hebrew script]] for nationalistic symbolism.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-1999&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Eck |first=Werner |date=1999 |title=The Bar Kokhba Revolt: The Roman Point of View |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-studies/article/abs/bar-kokhba-revolt-the-roman-point-of-view/27E95F52A627562F93178F17A51D5FD4 |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |volume=89 |pages=76, 80 |doi=10.2307/300735 |jstor=300735 |issn=1753-528X |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt; However, the Romans soon amassed six legions and additional auxiliaries under [[Julius Severus]], who then brutally crushed the uprising. Historical accounts report the destruction of fifty major strongholds and 985 villages, resulting in 580,000 Jewish deaths and widespread famine and disease.&lt;ref name=&quot;Raviv-2021&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Raviv |first1=Dvir |last2=David |first2=Chaim Ben |date=2021 |title=Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account? |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=585–607 |doi=10.1017/S1047759421000271 |issn=1047-7594 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Archaeological research confirms the widespread destruction and depopulation of the Jewish heartland in [[Judea]] proper, where most of the Jewish population was either killed, sold into slavery, expelled, or forced to flee.&lt;ref name=&quot;Raviv-2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=A. H. M. |title=The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces |publisher=Oxford |year=1971 |edition=2nd |pages=277 |quote=This provoked the last Jewish war, which seems from our meager accounts [...] to have resulted in the desolation of Judaea and the practical extermination of its Jewish population.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Mor|2016|pp=483–484}}: &quot;Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the [[Sicaricon|sikarikon laws]] were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The Romans also suffered heavy losses.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-1999&quot; /&gt; Post-revolt, Jews were prohibited from entering Jerusalem, and Hadrian issued religious edicts,&lt;ref&gt;Hanan Eshel,[[iarchive:cambridgehis xxxx 1984 004 8494287/page/n1082|&lt;!-- pg=105 --&gt; 'The Bar Kochba revolt, 132-135,']] in William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, Steven T. Katz (eds.) ''The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period,'' pp. 105-127, p. 105.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Eshel |first=Hanan |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=T. Katz |editor-first=Steven |volume=4. The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period  |pages=105–127 |chapter=4: The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132 – 135 |oclc=7672733}}&lt;/ref&gt; including a ban on circumcision, later repealed by [[Antoninus Pius]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} The province of Judaea was renamed [[Syria Palaestina]] as a punitive act against the Jews, aimed at placating non-Jewish residents and erasing Jewish historical ties to the land.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, {{ISBN|0-674-39731-2}}, page 334: &quot;In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ariel Lewin. ''The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine''. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. &quot;It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land.&quot; {{ISBN|0-89236-800-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; Christians refused to participate in the revolt and from this point the Jews regarded Christianity as a separate religion.&lt;ref&gt;M. Avi-Yonah, ''The Jews under Roman and Byzantine Rule'', Jerusalem 1984 p. 143&lt;/ref&gt; The Jewish defeat marked the termination of efforts to reestablish a Jewish state until the modern era.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |title=An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History And Religion Of The Jews In The Time Of Nehemiah, The Maccabees, Hillel, And Jesus |date=2010 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-55248-8 |location=Edinburgh |page=78 |quote=It was the total defeat and the massive destruction of the 132–35 war which put paid to any hopes of a revived Jewish state for another 1800 years.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A rabbi of this period, [[Simeon bar Yochai]], is regarded as the author of the [[Zohar]], the foundational text for Kabbalistic thought. However, modern scholars believe it was written in Medieval Spain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |title=Zohar |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&amp;letter=Z#406 |access-date=May 19, 2014 |last=Jacobs |first=Joseph |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007024121/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&amp;letter=Z#406 |archive-date=October 7, 2011 |author2=Broydé, Isaac |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Late Roman period in the Land of Israel ===
{{further|Byzantine Palestine|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}}
The relations of the Jews with the Roman Empire in the region continued to be complicated. [[Constantine the Great and Judaism|Constantine I]] allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once a year on [[Tisha B'Av]] at the [[Western Wall]]. In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched [[Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus|yet another revolt]], provoking heavy retribution.&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lazare and Robert Wistrich, Antisemitism: Its History and Causes, University of Nebraska Press, 1995, I, pp. 46–47.&lt;/ref&gt; The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the [[Constantinian dynasty]]. In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]], the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who unlike his predecessors defied Christianity. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sasanian Persia, in keeping with his effort to foster religions other than Christianity, he ordered the Jewish Temple rebuilt.&lt;ref&gt;Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'', 23.1.2–3.&lt;/ref&gt; The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic [[Galilee earthquake of 363]] and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire. Divine intervention was the common view among Christian historians of the time.&lt;ref&gt;See [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html &quot;Julian and the Jews 361–363 CE&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520080932/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html |date=May 20, 2012 }} (Fordham University, The Jesuit University of New York) and [https://web.archive.org/web/20051020130904/http://www.gibsoncondo.com/~david/convert/history.html &quot;Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple&quot;].&lt;/ref&gt; Julian's support of Jews caused Jews to call him &quot;Julian the [[Hellenes (religion)|Hellene]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Falk |first1=Avner |title=A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews |year=1996 |pages=343 |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press |isbn=978-0-8386-3660-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z10-Xz9Kno4C&amp;q=julian&amp;pg=PA343 |access-date=August 3, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Julian's fatal wound in the Persian campaign and his consequent death had put an end to Jewish aspirations, and Julian's successors embraced Christianity through the entire timeline of Byzantine rule of Jerusalem, preventing any Jewish claims.

In 438 CE, when the Empress [[Licinia Eudoxia|Eudocia]] removed the ban on Jews' praying at the [[Temple Mount|Temple site]], the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call &quot;to the great and mighty people of the Jews&quot; which began: &quot;Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!&quot; However, the Christian population of the city, who saw this as a threat to their primacy, did not allow it and a riot erupted after which they chased away the Jews from the city.&lt;ref&gt;Avraham Yaari, ''Igrot Eretz Yisrael'' (Tel Aviv, 1943), p. 46.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Andrew S. Jacobs |title=Remains of the Jews: The Holy Land and Christian Empire in Late Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8O95ErDSZQgC&amp;pg=PA157 |year=2004 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-4705-9 |page=157 |access-date=April 19, 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of [[Samaritan Revolts|Samaritan insurrections]] broke out across the [[Palaestina Prima]] province. Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in almost the entire annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the Samaritan [[Samaritan Revolts|Revolt of 556]] was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered a brutal suppression of Israelite religion.

In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an [[Jewish revolt against Heraclius|alliance]] with the [[Sassanid Empire|Persians]], who invaded Palaestina Prima in 614, fought at their side, overwhelmed the [[Byzantine]] garrison in Jerusalem, and were given Jerusalem to be governed as an autonomy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Itineraria Phoenicia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&amp;q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&amp;pg=PA542 |author=Edward Lipiński |publisher=Peeters |pages=542–543 |year=2004 |isbn=978-90-429-1344-8 |access-date=March 11, 2014 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409161013/https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&amp;q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&amp;pg=PA542 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, their autonomy was brief: the [[Nehemiah ben Hushiel|Jewish leader]] in Jerusalem was shortly assassinated during a Christian revolt and though Jerusalem was reconquered by Persians and Jews within 3 weeks, it fell into anarchy. With the consequent withdrawal of Persian forces, Jews surrendered to Byzantines in 625 or 628 CE, but were massacred by Christian radicals in 629 CE, with the survivors fleeing to Egypt. The Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) control of the region was finally lost to the Muslim Arab armies in 637 CE, when [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] completed the conquest of Akko.

=== Jews of pre-Muslim Babylonia (219–638 CE) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in Iraq}}

After the fall of Jerusalem, Babylonia would become the focus of Judaism for more than a thousand years. The first Jewish communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by [[Jehoiachin]] in 597 BCE as well as after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; Many more Jews migrated to Babylon in 135 CE after the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] and in the centuries after.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; Babylonia, where some of the largest and most prominent Jewish cities and communities were established, became the centre of Jewish life up to the 13th century. By the 1st century, Babylonia already held a speedily growing&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; population of an estimated 1,000,000 Jews, which increased to an estimated 2 million&lt;ref name=&quot;Solomon Gryazel&quot;&gt;Solomon Gryazel, ''History of the Jews: From the destruction of Judah in 586 BCE to the present Arab Israeli conflict'', p. 137.&lt;/ref&gt; between the years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from Judea, making up about 1/6 of the world Jewish population at that era.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solomon Gryazel&quot; /&gt; It was there that they would write the Babylonian Talmud in the languages used by the Jews of ancient Babylonia: [[Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]]. The Jews established [[Talmudic Academies in Babylonia]], also known as the Geonic Academies (from &quot;Geonim&quot;, meaning &quot;splendour&quot; in Biblical Hebrew or &quot;geniuses&quot;), which became the centre for Jewish scholarship and the development of Jewish law in Babylonia from roughly 500 CE to 1038 CE. The two most famous academies were the [[Pumbedita Academy]] and the [[Sura Academy]]. Major yeshivot were also located at [[Nehardea]] and Mahuza.&lt;ref&gt;''Codex Judaica'', pp. 161–174, Kantor, Zichron Press, NY 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; The Talmudic [[Yeshiva]] Academies became a main part of Jewish culture and education, and Jews continued establishing Yeshiva Academies in Western and Eastern Europe, North Africa, and in later centuries, in America and other countries around the world where Jews lived in the Diaspora. Talmudic study in Yeshiva academies, most of them located in The United States and Israel, continues today.

These Talmudic [[Yeshiva]] academies of Babylonia followed the era of the [[Amoraim]] (expounders)—the sages of the Talmud who were active (both in Judah and in Babylon) during the end of the era of the sealing of the [[Mishnah]] and until the times of the sealing of the Talmud (220–500 CE), and following the [[Savoraim]] (reasoners)—the sages of beth midrash (Torah study places) in Babylon from the end of the era of the Amoraim (5th century) and until the beginning of the era of the [[Geonim]]. The Geonim were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura and Pumbedita, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of the worldwide Jewish community in the early medieval era, in contrast to the [[Resh Galuta]] (Exilarch) who wielded secular authority over the Jews in Islamic lands. According to traditions, the [[Resh Galuta]] were descendants of Judean kings, which is why the kings of [[Parthia]] would treat them with much honour.&lt;ref&gt;[מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס. רותת &quot;עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום&quot;, ע&quot;מ 97. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth ''The People of Israel: The History of 4,000 Years, from the Days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty'', 1981, p. 97)&lt;/ref&gt;

For the Jews of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the yeshivot of Babylonia served much the same function as the ancient [[Sanhedrin]]—that is, as a council of Jewish religious authorities. The academies were founded in pre-Islamic Babylonia under the Zoroastrian Sassanid dynasty and were located not far from the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, which at that time was the largest city in the world. After the conquest of Persia in the 7th century, the academies subsequently operated for four hundred years under the Islamic caliphate. The first gaon of Sura, according to [[Sherira Gaon]], was Mar bar Rab Chanan, who assumed office in 609. The last gaon of [[Sura]] was [[Samuel ben Hofni]], who died in 1034; the last gaon of Pumbedita was [[Hezekiah Gaon]], who was tortured to death in 1040; hence the activity of the Geonim covers a period of nearly 450 years.

One of principal seats of Babylonian Judaism was [[Nehardea]], which was then a very large city made up mostly of Jews.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; A very ancient synagogue, built, it was believed, by King Jehoiachin, existed in Nehardea. At Huzal, near Nehardea, there was another synagogue, not far from which could be seen the ruins of Ezra's academy. In the period before Hadrian, Akiba, on his arrival at Nehardea on a mission from the Sanhedrin, entered into a discussion with a resident scholar on a point of matrimonial law (Mishnah Yeb., end). At the same time there was at Nisibis (northern [[Mesopotamia]]), an excellent Jewish college, at the head of which stood [[Judah ben Bathyra]], and in which many Judean scholars found refuge at the time of the persecutions. A certain temporary importance was also attained by a school at [[Nehar Pekod|Nehar-Pekod]], founded by the Judean immigrant Hananiah, nephew of [[Joshua ben Hananiah]], which school might have been the cause of a schism between the Jews of Babylonia and those of Judea-Israel, had not the Judean authorities promptly checked Hananiah's ambition.

=== Byzantine period (324–638 CE) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}}

Jews were also widespread throughout the Roman Empire, and this carried on to a lesser extent in the period of Byzantine rule in the central and eastern Mediterranean. The militant and exclusive Christianity and [[caesaropapism]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] did not treat Jews well, and the condition and influence of diaspora Jews in the Empire declined dramatically.

It was official Christian policy to convert Jews to Christianity, and the Christian leadership used the official power of Rome in their attempts. In 351 CE the Jews revolted against the added pressures of their governor, [[Constantius Gallus]]. Gallus put down the revolt and destroyed the major cities in the Galilee area where the revolt had started. Tzippori and Lydda (site of two of the major legal academies) never recovered.

In this period, the Nasi in Tiberias, [[Hillel II]], created an official calendar, which needed no monthly sightings of the moon. The months were set, and the calendar needed no further authority from Judea. At about the same time, the Jewish academy at Tiberius began to collate the combined Mishnah, [[braitot]], explanations, and interpretations developed by generations of scholars who studied after the death of [[Judah HaNasi]]. The text was organized according to the order of the Mishna: each paragraph of Mishnah was followed by a compilation of all of the interpretations, stories, and responses associated with that Mishnah. This text is called the ''[[Jerusalem Talmud]].''

The Jews of Judea received a brief respite from official persecution during the rule of the Emperor [[Julian the Apostate]]. Julian's policy was to return the Roman Empire to Hellenism, and he encouraged the Jews to rebuild Jerusalem. As Julian's rule lasted only from 361 to 363, the Jews could not rebuild sufficiently before Roman Christian rule was restored over the Empire. Beginning in 398 with the consecration of [[St. John Chrysostom]] as [[Patriarch]], Christian rhetoric against Jews grew sharper; he preached sermons with titles such as &quot;Against the Jews&quot; and &quot;On the Statues, Homily 17&quot;, in which John preaches against &quot;the Jewish sickness&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Wendy Mayer and [[Pauline Allen]], ''John Chrysostom: The Early Church Fathers'' (London, 2000), pp. 113, 146.&lt;/ref&gt; Such heated language contributed to a climate of Christian distrust and hate toward the large Jewish settlements, such as those in [[Antioch]] and [[Constantinople]].

In the beginning of the 5th century, the [[Emperor Theodosius]] issued a set of decrees establishing official persecution of Jews. Jews were not allowed to own slaves, build new synagogues, hold public office or try cases between a Jew and a non-Jew. Intermarriage between Jew and non-Jew was made a capital offence, as was the conversion of Christians to Judaism. Theodosius did away with the [[Sanhedrin]] and abolished the post of [[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]]. Under the [[Emperor Justinian]], the authorities further restricted the civil rights of Jews,&lt;ref&gt;Cod., I., v. 12&lt;/ref&gt; and threatened their religious privileges.&lt;ref&gt;Procopius, ''Historia Arcana'', 28&lt;/ref&gt; The emperor interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue,&lt;ref&gt;Nov., cxlvi., February 8, 553&lt;/ref&gt; and forbade, for instance, the use of the Hebrew language in divine worship. Those who disobeyed the restrictions were threatened with corporal penalties, exile, and loss of property. The Jews at Borium, not far from Syrtis Major, who resisted the Byzantine general [[Belisarius]] in his campaign against the [[Vandals]], were forced to embrace Christianity, and their synagogue was converted to a church.&lt;ref&gt;Procopius, ''De Aedificiis'', vi. 2&lt;/ref&gt;

Justinian and his successors had concerns outside the province of Judea, and he had insufficient troops to enforce these regulations. As a result, the 5th century was a period when a wave of new synagogues were built, many with beautiful mosaic floors. Jews adopted the rich art forms of the Byzantine culture. Jewish mosaics of the period portray people, animals, menorahs, zodiacs, and Biblical characters. Excellent examples of these synagogue floors have been found at Beit Alpha (which includes the scene of Abraham sacrificing a ram instead of his son Isaac along with a zodiac), Tiberius, Beit Shean, and Tzippori.

The precarious existence of Jews under Byzantine rule did not long endure, largely due to the explosion of the Muslim religion out of the remote Arabian peninsula (where large populations of Jews resided, see [[History of the Jews under Muslim Rule]] for more). The [[Muslim]] [[Caliphate]] ejected the Byzantines from the Holy Land (or the Levant, defined as modern Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria) within a few years of their victory at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] in 636. Numerous Jews fled the remaining Byzantine territories in favour of residence in the Caliphate over the subsequent centuries.

The size of the Jewish community in the Byzantine Empire was not affected by attempts by some emperors to forcibly convert the Jews of Anatolia to Christianity, as these attempts met with very little success.&lt;ref&gt;[[G. Ostrogorsky]], ''History of the Byzantine State''&lt;/ref&gt; Historians continue to research the status of the Jews in Asia Minor under Byzantine rule. (for a sample of views, see, for instance, J. Starr ''The Jews in the Byzantine Empire, 641–1204''; S. Bowman, ''The Jews of Byzantium''; R. Jenkins ''Byzantium''; Averil Cameron, &quot;Byzantines and Jews: Recent Work on Early Byzantium&quot;, ''Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies'' 20 (1996)). No systematic persecution of the type endemic at that time in Western Europe (pogroms, the stake, mass [[Expulsions and exoduses of Jews|expulsions]], etc.) has been recorded in Byzantium.&lt;ref&gt;''The Oxford History of Byzantium'', C. Mango (Ed) (2002)&lt;/ref&gt; Much of the Jewish population of Constantinople remained in place after the conquest of the city by [[Mehmet II]].{{citation needed|date=November 2013}}

&lt;gallery widths=&quot;180&quot;&gt;
File:Roman. Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog, 6th century C.E.jpg|''Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog'', 6th century [[Brooklyn Museum]]
File:Beit alfa01.jpg|Mosaic pavement of a synagogue at [[Beit Alpha]] (5th century)
File:ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg|Mosaic in the [[Tzippori Synagogue]] (5th century)
File:Hammat Gader.JPG|Mosaic pavement recovered from the [[Hamat Gader]] synagogue (5th or 6th century)
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Diaspora communities ===
[[File:Arrival of the Jewish pilgrims at Coachin, A.D. 68.jpg|thumb|Arrival of the Jewish pilgrims at Cochin, 68 CE]]
Cochin Jewish tradition holds that the roots of their community go back to the arrival of Jews at [[Kodungallur|Shingly]] in 72 CE, after the [[Destruction of the Second Temple]]. It also states that a Jewish kingdom, understood to mean the granting of autonomy by a local [[Tamils|Tamil]] king, [[Cheraman Perumal Nayanar]], to the community, under their leader Joseph Rabban, in 379 CE. The first synagogue there was built in 1568. The legend of the founding of Indian [[Christianity in Kerala]] by [[Thomas the Apostle]] relates that on his arrival there, he encountered a local girl who understood Hebrew.&lt;ref&gt;Nathan Katz, [https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA22 ''Who Are the Jews of India?,''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160937/https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA22|date=April 9, 2023}} [[University of California Press]], 2000 {{isbn|978-0-520-92072-9}} pp. 13–14, 17–18&lt;/ref&gt;

Perhaps in the 4th century, the [[Kingdom of Semien]], a Jewish nation in modern [[Beta Israel|Ethiopia]] was established, lasting until the 17th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exploring a Forgotten Jewish Land – Archaeology Magazine |url=https://www.archaeology.org/issues/498-2301/letter-from/11057-ethiopia-beta-israel |access-date=November 9, 2023 |website=www.archaeology.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وچين دور==
===اسلامي دور===
[[File:Education (T-S K5.13) (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|قاهره جينيزا جو ٽڪرو، ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي لائبريري&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Cairo Genizah : Education|url=https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-TS-K-00005-00013|access-date=2025-10-18|website=Cambridge Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
سال 638 عيسوي ۾ [[بازنطيني سلطنت]] [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سر زمين شام]] جو ڪنٽرول وڃائي ڇڏيو. خليفي [[عمر بن خطاب|عمر]] [[عمر بن خطاب|رضي الله تعالى عنه]] جي اڳواڻي ۾ [[پهرين اسلامي رياست|عرب اسلامي سلطنت]] [[يروشلم]]، [[ميسوپوٽيميا]]، [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سر زمين شام]] ([[شام]]، [[اردن]] ۽ [[فلسطين]]) ۽ [[مصر]] جي زمينن کي فتح ڪيو. هڪ سياسي نظام جي طور تي، [[اسلام]] يهودين جي معاشي، سماجي ۽ ذهني ترقي لاءِ بنيادي طور تي نوان حالات پيدا ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;Ehrlich, Mark. ''Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1''. ABC-CLIO, 2009, p. 152.({{ISBN|978-1-85109-873-6}})&lt;/ref&gt;عمر رضي الله تعالى عنه يهودين کي، 500 سالن جي وقفي کان پوءِ، [[يروشلم]] ۾ پنهنجي موجودگي کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني (ڏسو:عمر جي يقين دهاني).&lt;ref name=&quot;Bashan-20072&quot;&gt;{{cite EJ|last=Bashan|first=Eliezer|volume=15|page=419|title=Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي روايتون عمر کي هڪ مهربان حڪمران جي طور تي ڏسي ٿي ۽ مدراش (&lt;small&gt;نست&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;اروت دي-راو شمعون بار يوحائي&lt;/small&gt;) کيس &quot;بني اسرائيل جي دوست&quot; طور حوالو ڏئي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bashan-20073&quot;&gt;{{cite EJ|last=Bashan|first=Eliezer|volume=15|page=419|title=Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

عرب جاگرافيدان المقدسي جي مطابق، &lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land|author=Joseph E. Katz|year=2001|publisher=EretzYisroel.Org|access-date=August 12, 2012|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي &quot;سڪن جي چڪاس ڪندڙ، رنگ ڪندڙ، چمڙي جا ماهر ۽ مهاجن&quot; طور ڪم ڪندا هئا. [[فاطمي خلافت|فاطمي دور]] ۾، ڪيترن ئي يهودي عملدارن حڪومت ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏنيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-20013&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land|author=Joseph E. Katz|year=2001|publisher=EretzYisroel.Org|access-date=August 12, 2012|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; پروفيسر موشئ گل جو خيال آهي، ته 7هين صدي ۾ عرب فتح جي وقت، يروشلم جي آبادي جي اڪثريت عيسائي ۽ يهودي هئي.&lt;ref&gt;Moshe Gil, ''A History of Palestine: 634–1099'' pp. 170, 220–221.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن وقت دوران يهودي سڄي قديم بابل ۾ خوشحال برادرين ۾ رهندا هئا. جيونڪ دور (650-1250 عيسوي) ۾، بابلي يشيوا اڪيڊميون يهودي سکيا جا مکيه مرڪز هئا. جيونم (جن جو معنيٰ آهي &quot;شان&quot; يا &quot;جينيئس&quot;) انهن اسڪولن جا سربراهه هئا. انهن کي يهودي قانون ۾ اعليٰ اختيارين طور تسليم ڪيو ويو. 7هين صدي ۾، غير مسلمن جي زمينن تي حڪمران جزيو (&lt;small&gt;Poll&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Tax&lt;/small&gt;) عائد ڪيو، جن جي ڪري بابلي يهودين جي ڳوٺاڻن علائقن مان [[بغداد]] جهڙن شهرن ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. ان جي نتيجي ۾ يهودي برادري ۾ وڌيڪ دولت ۽ بين الاقوامي اثر ۽ انهي سان گڏ يهودي مفڪرن جو هڪ وڌيڪ عالمگير نقطه نظر،جهڙوڪ سعديه گاون، جيڪو هاڻي پهريون ڀيرو مغربي فلسفي سان تمام گهڻي دلچسپي رکن ٿا، پيدا ٿيو.  جڏهن 10هين صدي ۾ [[عباسي خلافت]] ۽ بغداد شهر جو زوال ٿيو، ڪيترائي بابلي يهودي [[رومي (ڀونوچ) سمنڊ|رومي ڀونوچ سمنڊ]] جي علائقن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪيا. سڄي يهودي دنيا ۾ بابلي يهودي رسمن جي پکيڙ ۾ حصو ورتو.&lt;ref&gt;[[Marina Rustow]], [http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/ Baghdad in the West: Migration and the Making of Medieval Jewish Traditions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711065105/http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/|date=July 11, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور (711-1031) ===
&lt;nowiki&gt;{{اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[[اندلس]] ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور [[يُورَپ|يورپ]] ۾ [[وچون دور|وچين دور]] سان گڏ هو، جيڪو سڃي [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|جزيري نما آئبيريا]] تي مسلمانن جي حڪمراني جو دور هو.

=== Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain (711–1031) ===
{{Main|Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain}}
The golden age of Jewish culture in Spain coincided with the [[Middle Ages]] in Europe, a period of [[Al-Andalus|Muslim rule]] throughout much of the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. During that time, Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed.

A period of tolerance thus dawned for the Jews of the [[Iberian Peninsula]], whose number was considerably augmented by immigration from Africa in the wake of the Muslim conquest. Especially after 912, during the reign of [[Abd-ar-Rahman III]] and his son, [[al-Hakam II]], the Jews prospered, devoting themselves to the service of the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]], to the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially to trading in silk and slaves, in this way promoting the prosperity of the country. Jewish economic expansion was unparalleled. In [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], Jews were involved in translating Arabic texts to the [[Romance languages]], as well as translating Greek and Hebrew texts into Arabic. Jews also contributed to botany, geography, medicine, mathematics, poetry and philosophy.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sephardim Archived September 7&quot;&gt;[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html Sephardim] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |date=September 7, 2012 }} by Rebecca Weiner.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ahmed, M.I. Muslim-Jewish Harmony: A Politically-Contingent Reality. Religions 2022, 13, 535. {{doi|10.3390/rel13060535|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to [[Bernard Lewis]]:

{{Blockquote|Generally, the Jewish people were allowed to practice their religion and live according to the laws and scriptures of their community. Furthermore, the restrictions to which they were subject were social and symbolic rather than tangible and practical in character. That is to say, these regulations served to define the relationship between the two communities, and not to oppress the Jewish population.&lt;ref&gt;Lewis, Bernard W (1984). ''The Jews of Islam''&lt;/ref&gt;|}}

'Abd al-Rahman's court physician and minister was Hasdai ben Isaac ibn Shaprut, the patron of Menahem ben Saruq, Dunash ben Labrat, and other Jewish scholars and poets. Jewish thought during this period flourished under famous figures such as Samuel Ha-Nagid, Moses ibn Ezra, Solomon ibn Gabirol [[Judah Halevi]] and [[Moses Maimonides]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Sephardim Archived September 7&quot; /&gt; During 'Abd al-Rahman's term of power, the scholar [[Moses ben Enoch]] was appointed [[rabbi]] of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], and as a consequence [[al-Andalus]] became the centre of Talmudic study, and [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] the meeting-place of Jewish savants.

The Golden Age ended with the invasion of al-Andalus by the [[Almohads]], a conservative dynasty originating in North Africa, who were highly intolerant of religious minorities.

=== Jews and the Crusades (1099–1260) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews and the Crusades}}
{{See also|Siege of Jerusalem (1099)}}
[[File:1099jerusalem.jpg|thumb|left|[[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|Capture of Jerusalem]], 1099]]
Sermonical messages to avenge the death of Jesus encouraged Christians to participate in the Crusades. The 12th-century Jewish narration from R. Solomon ben Samson records that crusaders en route to the Holy Land decided that before combating the Ishmaelites they would massacre the Jews residing in their midst to avenge the [[crucifixion of Christ]]. The massacres began at [[Rouen]] and Jewish communities in [[Rhine Valley]] were seriously affected.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/413 413]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Crusading attacks were made upon Jews in the territory around Heidelberg. A huge loss of Jewish life took place. Many were forcibly converted to Christianity and many committed suicide to avoid baptism. A major driving factor behind the choice to commit suicide was the Jewish realisation that upon being slain their children could be taken to be raised as Christians. The Jews were living in the middle of Christian lands and felt this danger acutely.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/416 416]}}&lt;/ref&gt; This massacre is seen as the first in a sequence of antisemitic events which culminated in the Holocaust.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=David Nirenberg |editor=Gerd Althoff |others=Johannes Fried |title=Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual, Memory, Historiography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MxS6-pQZzGsC&amp;pg=PA279 |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-78066-7 |pages=279–}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jewish populations felt that they had been abandoned by their Christian neighbours and rulers during the massacres and lost faith in all promises and charters.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/419 419]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Many Jews chose self-defence. But their means of self-defence were limited and their casualties only increased. Most of the forced conversions proved ineffective. Many Jews reverted to their original faith later. The pope protested this but Emperor Henry IV agreed to permitting these reversions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot; /&gt; The massacres began a new epoch for Jewry in Christendom. The Jews had preserved their faith from social pressure, now they had to preserve it at sword point. The massacres during the crusades strengthened Jewry from within spiritually. The Jewish perspective was that their struggle was Israel's struggle to hallow the name of God.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/414 414]–}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1099, Jews helped the Arabs to defend Jerusalem against the [[Crusaders]]. When the city fell, the Crusaders gathered many Jews in a synagogue and set it on fire.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot; /&gt; In Haifa, the Jews almost single-handedly defended the town against the Crusaders, holding out for a month, (June–July 1099).&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html |title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land |author=Joseph E. Katz |year=2001 |publisher=EretzYisroel.Org |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=January 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; At this time there were Jewish communities scattered all over the country, including Jerusalem, Tiberias, Ramleh, Ashkelon, Caesarea, and [[Gaza City|Gaza]]. As Jews were not allowed to hold land during the Crusader period, they worked at trades and commerce in the coastal towns during times of quiescence. Most were artisans: glassblowers in [[Sidon]], furriers and dyers in Jerusalem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot; /&gt;

During this period, the [[Masoretes]] of Tiberias established the ''[[niqqud]]'', a system of [[diacritic]]s used to represent vowels or distinguish between alternative pronunciations of letters of the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. Numerous [[piyutim]] and [[midrash]]im were recorded in Palestine at this time.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot; /&gt;

[[Maimonides]] wrote that in 1165 he visited Jerusalem and went to the Temple Mount, where he prayed in the &quot;great, holy house&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Sefer HaCharedim Mitzvat Tshuva Chapter 3&lt;/ref&gt; Maimonides established a yearly holiday for himself and his sons, the 6th of [[Cheshvan]], commemorating the day he went up to pray on the Temple Mount, and another, the 9th of Cheshvan, commemorating the day he merited to pray at the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]] in [[Hebron]].

In 1141 [[Yehuda Halevi]] issued a call to Jews to emigrate to Palestine and took on the long journey himself. After a stormy passage from [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]], he arrived in Egyptian [[Alexandria]], where he was enthusiastically greeted by friends and admirers. At [[Damietta]], he had to struggle against his heart, and the pleadings of his friend Ḥalfon ha-Levi, that he remain in Egypt, where he would be free from intolerant oppression. He started on the rough route overland. He was met along the way by Jews in [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] and [[Damascus]]. Jewish legend relates that as he came near Jerusalem, overpowered by the sight of the Holy City, he sang his most beautiful elegy, the celebrated &quot;Zionide&quot; (''Zion ha-lo Tish'ali''). At that instant, an Arab had galloped out of a gate and rode him down; he was killed in the accident.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}}

=== Mamluk period (1260–1517) ===
[[Nahmanides]] is recorded as settling in the Old City of Jerusalem in 1267. He moved to [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], where he was active in spreading Jewish learning, which was at that time neglected in the Holy Land. He gathered a circle of pupils around him, and people came in crowds, even from the district of the Euphrates, to hear him. [[Karaite Judaism|Karaites]] were said to have attended his lectures, among them Aaron ben Joseph the Elder. He later became one of the greatest [[Karaite (Jewish sect)|Karaite]] authorities. Shortly after Nahmanides' arrival in Jerusalem, he addressed a letter to his son Nahman, in which he described the desolation of the Holy City. At the time, it had only two Jewish inhabitants—two brothers, dyers by trade. In a later letter from Acre, Nahmanides counsels his son to cultivate humility, which he considers to be the first of virtues. In another, addressed to his second son, who occupied an official position at the [[Crown of Castile|Castilian]] court, Nahmanides recommends the recitation of the daily prayers and warns above all against immorality. Nahmanides died after reaching seventy-six, and his remains were interred at [[Haifa]], by the grave of [[Yechiel of Paris]].

Yechiel had [[aliyah|emigrated]] to Acre in 1260, along with his son and a large group of followers.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html |title=Jewish Zionist Education |publisher=Jafi.org.il |date=May 15, 2005 |access-date=August 13, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013142810/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html |archive-date=October 13, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf |title=Hadrat Melech |access-date=April 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502035808/http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf |archive-date=May 2, 2014 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; There he established the Talmudic academy ''Midrash haGadol d'Paris''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&amp;content=content/segal_ch17 |title=Section III: The Biblical Age: Chapter Seventeen: Awaiting the Messiah |author=Benjamin J. Segal |work=Returning, the Land of Israel as a Focus in Jewish History |publisher=JewishHistory.com |access-date=August 12, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227184802/http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&amp;content=content%2Fsegal_ch17 |archive-date=February 27, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; He is believed to have died there between 1265 and 1268. In 1488 [[Obadiah ben Abraham]], commentator on the [[Mishnah]], arrived in Jerusalem; this marked a new period of return for the Jewish community in the land.

==== Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East ====
{{Main|History of the Jews in Spain}}
{{See also|Islam and Judaism|Mizrahi Jew|History of the Jews under Muslim rule}}
[[File:Hebrew Bible Spain.jpg|right|thumb|Sephardic Hebrew Bible from Spain, 1300&lt;ref&gt;[https://lccn.loc.gov/2021667534]&lt;/ref&gt;]]
During the Middle Ages, Jews were generally better treated by Islamic rulers than Christian ones. Despite second-class citizenship, Jews played prominent roles in Muslim courts, and experienced a Golden Age in [[Moorish Spain]] about 900–1100, though the situation deteriorated after that time. Riots resulting in the deaths of Jews did however occur in North Africa through the centuries and especially in [[Morocco]], [[Libya]] and [[Algeria]], where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos.&lt;ref&gt;Maurice Roumani, ''The Case of the Jews from Arab Countries: A Neglected Issue'', 1977, pp. 26–27.&lt;/ref&gt;

During the 11th century, Muslims in Spain conducted pogroms against the Jews; those occurred in Cordoba in 1011 and in [[1066 Granada massacre|Granada in 1066]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |title=Granada |url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |access-date=August 12, 2012 |year=1906 |archive-date=April 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412000424/https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the Middle Ages, the governments of Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen enacted decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues. At certain times, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and [[Baghdad]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_%28gen%29.html |title=The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries |author=Mitchell Bard |year=2012 |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=October 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007003054/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_(gen).html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} The [[Almohad]]s, who had taken control of much of Islamic Iberia by 1172, surpassed the [[Almoravides]] in fundamentalist outlook. They treated the ''[[dhimmi]]s'' harshly. They expelled both Jews and Christians from Morocco and Islamic Spain. Faced with the choice of death or conversion, many Jews emigrated.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=66&amp;Itemid=39 The Forgotten Refugees] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928051923/http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=66&amp;Itemid=39 |date=September 28, 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Some, such as the family of [[Maimonides]], fled south and east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |title=Sephardim |author=Rebecca Weiner |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=September 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Kraemer, Joel L., &quot;Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait,&quot; ''The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides'', pp. 16–17 (2005)&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}}

=== Europe ===
{{Main|History of European Jews in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:Mishnah (Ms. 3173; De Rossi 138), Palatina.jpg|right|thumb|11th century ''[[mishnah]]'' codex from Italy, [[Biblioteca Palatina, Parma]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=adkim |date=2014-02-28 |title=The Biblioteca Palatina and the National Library of Israel |url=https://primolevicenter.org/printed-matter/the-biblioteca-palatina-and-the-national-library-of-israel/ |access-date=2025-10-15 |website=Printed_Matter |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
According to [[James P. Carrol]], &quot;Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, James. ''[[Constantine's Sword]]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) {{ISBN|978-0-395-77927-9}} p. 26&lt;/ref&gt;

Jewish populations have existed in Europe, especially in the area of the former Roman Empire, from very early times. As Jewish males had emigrated, some sometimes took wives from local populations, as is shown by the various [[MtDNA]], compared to [[Y-DNA#Genetic genealogy|Y-DNA]] among Jewish populations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html |title=In DNA, New Clues to Jewish Roots |first=Nicholas |last=Wade |date=May 14, 2002 |work=The New York Times |access-date=June 16, 2013 |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126180104/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; These groups were joined by traders and later on by members of the diaspora.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}} Records of Jewish communities in France (see [[History of the Jews in France]]) and Germany (see [[History of the Jews in Germany]]) date from the 4th century, and substantial Jewish communities in Spain were noted even earlier.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}}

The historian [[Norman Cantor]] and other 20th-century scholars dispute the tradition that the Middle Ages was a uniformly difficult time for Jews. Before the Church became fully organized as an institution with an increasing array of rules, early medieval society was tolerant. Between 800 and 1100, an estimated 1.5 million Jews lived in Christian Europe. As they were not Christians, they were not included as a [[Estates of the realm|division]] of the feudal system of clergy, knights and serfs. This means that they did not have to satisfy the oppressive demands for labour and military conscription that Christian commoners suffered. In relations with the Christian society, the Jews were protected by kings, princes and bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: finance, administration and medicine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Norman F&quot; /&gt; The lack of political strengths did leave Jews vulnerable to exploitation through extreme taxation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Ebenhard |last=Isenmann |editor-first=Richard |editor-last=Bonney |title=The Rise of the Fiscal State in Europe c. 1200–1815 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U24lRLy_qT8C&amp;pg=PA259 |date=1999 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-154220-6 |page=259}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Christian scholars interested in the Bible consulted with Talmudic rabbis. As the Roman Catholic Church strengthened as an institution, the Franciscan and Dominican preaching orders were founded, and there was a rise of competitive middle-class, town-dwelling Christians. By 1300, the friars and local priests staged the Passion Plays during Holy Week, which depicted Jews (in contemporary dress) killing Christ, according to Gospel accounts. From this period, persecution of Jews and deportations became endemic. Around 1500, Jews found relative security and a renewal of prosperity in present-day [[Poland]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Norman F&quot;&gt;Norman F. Cantor, ''The Last Knight: The Twilight of the Middle Ages and the Birth of the Modern Era'', Free Press, 2004. {{ISBN|978-0-7432-2688-2}}, pp. 28–29&lt;/ref&gt;

After 1300, Jews suffered more discrimination and persecution in Christian Europe. Europe's Jewry was mainly urban and literate. The Christians were inclined to regard Jews as obstinate deniers of the truth because in their view the Jews were expected to know of the truth of the Christian doctrines from their knowledge of the Jewish scriptures. Jews were aware of the pressure to accept Christianity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/412 412]}}&lt;/ref&gt; As Catholics were forbidden by the church to loan money for interest, some Jews became prominent moneylenders. Christian rulers gradually saw the advantage of having such a class of people who could supply capital for their use without being liable to excommunication. As a result, the money trade of western Europe became a speciality of the Jews. But, in almost every instance when Jews acquired large amounts through banking transactions, during their lives or upon their deaths, the king would take it over.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england &quot;England&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730231726/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england |date=July 30, 2020 }}, [[Jewish Encyclopedia]] (1906)&lt;/ref&gt; Jews became imperial{{-&quot;}}[[Servi camerae regis|''servi cameræ'']]{{-&quot;}}, the property of the King, who might present them and their possessions to princes or cities.

Jews were frequently massacred and exiled from various European countries. The persecution hit its first peak during the [[Crusades]]. In the [[People's Crusade]] (1096) flourishing Jewish communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed. In the [[Second Crusade]] (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. They were also subjected to attacks by the [[Shepherds' Crusade (1251)|Shepherds' Crusades of 1251]] and [[Shepherds' Crusade (1320)|1320]]. The Crusades were followed by massive expulsions, including the [[Edict of Expulsion|expulsion of the Jews from England in 1290]];&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Robin R. |last=Mundill |title=England's Jewish Solution: Experiment and Expulsion, 1262–1290 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CSKLfi_j110C |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52026-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; in 1396 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and in 1421, thousands were expelled from Austria. Over this time many Jews in Europe, either fleeing or being expelled, migrated to Poland, where they prospered into another [[History of the Jews in Poland#Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572|Golden Age]].

In Italy, Jews were allowed to live in Venice but were required to live in a [[ghetto]], and the practice spread across Italy (see [[Cum nimis absurdum]]) and was adopted in many places in Catholic Europe. Jews outside the Ghetto often had to wear a yellow star.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121 |title=Print of Jews forced to listen to a Christian sermon – Collections Search – United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |website=collections.ushmm.org |access-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-date=November 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129142432/https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;The Jewish-Christian Encounter in Medieval Preaching, Routledge 2015, edited by Jonathan Adams and Jussi Hanska chapter 13, see page 297&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Expulsions of the Jews of Spain and Portugal ===
{{further|Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal}}
[[File:Vicente Cutanda - A los pies del Salvador.jpg|thumb|250px|''At the Feet of the Saviour'', massacre of Jews in [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], oil on canvas by [[Vicente Cutanda]] (1887)]]
[[File:Matanza de judíos en Barcelona - año 1391.jpg|thumb|250px|''Slaughter of Jews in Barcelona in 1391'' by [[Josep Segrelles]], {{circa|1910}}]]
[[File:A Expulsão dos Judeus (Roque Gameiro, Quadros da História de Portugal, 1917).png|250px|thumb|Expulsion of the Jews in 1497, in a 1917 watercolour by [[Alfredo Roque Gameiro]] ]]
[[File:Inquis1.jpg|thumb|250px|Burning of Crypto-Jews in Lisbon, Portugal]]
Significant repression of Spain's numerous community occurred during the 14th century, notably a [[History of the Jews in Spain#Massacres and mass conversions of 1391|major pogrom in 1391]] which resulted in the majority of Spain's 300,000 Jews converting to Catholicism. With the [[Granada War|conquest of the Muslim Kingdom of Granada]] in 1492, the Catholic monarchs issued the [[Alhambra Decree]], and Spain's remaining 100,000 Jews were forced to choose between conversion and exile. The expulsion of the Jews of Spain, is regarded by Jews as the worst catastrophe between the destruction of Jerusalem in 73 CE and the [[Holocaust]] of the 1940s.&lt;ref&gt;European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 1550–1750 by Jonathan Israel, chapter 1 Exodus from the West (page 25)&lt;/ref&gt;

As a result, an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 Jews left Spain, the remainder joining Spain's already numerous [[Converso]] community. Perhaps a quarter of a million Conversos thus were gradually absorbed by the dominant Catholic culture, although those among them who secretly practised Judaism were subject to 40 years of intense repression by the [[Spanish Inquisition]]. This was particularly the case up until 1530, after which the trials of Conversos by the Inquisition dropped to 3% of the total. Similar expulsions of Sephardic Jews occurred 1493 in [[Sicily]] (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Spanish Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire and North Africa and Portugal. A small number also settled in Holland and England.

The expulsion followed a long process of expulsions and bans from what are now England, France, Germany, Austria, and Holland. In January 1492, the [[Emirate of Granada|last Muslim state]] was defeated in Spain and six months later the Jews of Spain (the largest community in the world) were required to [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|convert or leave without their property]]. 100,000 converted with many continuing to [[Marrano|secretly practice Judaism]], for which the Catholic church's inquisition (led by [[Tomás de Torquemada]]) now mandated a sentence of death by public burning. 175,000 left Spain.&lt;ref&gt;The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 138 – 144 / Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-Jews by David Martin Gitlitz, University of New Mexico 2002, pp 75 – 81&lt;/ref&gt;

Many [[Sephardi Jews|Spanish Jews]] moved to North Africa, [[History of the Jews in Poland|Poland]] and the Ottoman Empire, especially [[History of the Jews in Thessaloniki|Thessaloniki]] (now in Greece) which became the world's largest Jewish city. Some groups headed to the Middle East and Palestine, within the domains of the Ottoman Empire. About 100,000 Spanish Jews were allowed into Portugal, however five years later, their children were seized and they were given the choice of conversion or departing without them.&lt;ref&gt;The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 142 – 144&lt;/ref&gt;

==ابتدائي جديد دور==
Historians who study modern Jewry have identified four different paths by which European Jews were &quot;modernized&quot; and thus integrated into the mainstream of European society. A common approach has been to view the process through the lens of the European [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] as Jews faced the promise and the challenges posed by political emancipation. Scholars that use this approach have focused on two social types as paradigms for the decline of Jewish tradition and as agents of the sea changes in Jewish culture that led to the collapse of the [[ghetto]]. The first of these two social types is the [[Court Jew]] who is portrayed as a forerunner of the modern Jew, having achieved integration with and participation in the proto-capitalist economy and court society of central European states such as the [[Habsburg Empire]]. In contrast to the cosmopolitan Court Jew, the second social type presented by historians of modern Jewry is the ''maskil'', (learned person), a proponent of the [[Haskalah]] (Enlightenment). This narrative sees the maskil's pursuit of secular scholarship and his rationalistic critiques of rabbinic tradition as laying a durable intellectual foundation for the secularization of Jewish society and culture. The established paradigm has been one in which Ashkenazic Jews entered modernity through a self-conscious process of westernization led by &quot;highly atypical, Germanized Jewish intellectuals&quot;. Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative movements and planted the seeds of [[Zionism]] while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Reframing Jewish History |date=May 2005 |url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513 |access-date=May 24, 2011 |archive-date=September 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930222143/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
At around the same time that Haskalah was developing, [[Hasidic Judaism]] was spreading as a movement that preached a world view nearly opposed to the Haskalah.

In the 1990s, the concept of the &quot;[[Port Jew]]&quot; has been suggested as an &quot;alternate path to modernity&quot; that was distinct from the European [[Haskalah]]. In contrast to the focus on Ashkenazic Germanized Jews, the concept of the [[Port Jew]] focused on the Sephardi conversos who fled the Inquisition and resettled in European port towns on the coast of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Eastern seaboard of the United States.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fry-2002&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Port Jews: Jewish Communities in Cosmopolitan Maritime Trading Centres, 1550–1950 |first=Helen P. |last=Fry |journal=European Judaism |volume=36 |publisher=Frank Cass Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7146-8286-0 |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002650793 |quote=Port Jews were a social type, usually those who were involved in seafaring and maritime trade, who (like Court Jews) could be seen as the earliest modern Jews. Often arriving as refugees from the Inquisition, they were permitted to settle as merchants and allowed to trade openly in places such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. 'Their Diaspora connections and accumulated expertise lay in exactly the areas of overseas expansion that were then of interest to mercantilist governments.' |access-date=September 1, 2017 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160935/https://www.gale.com/databases/questia?docId=5002650793 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Court Jews ===
[[Court Jew]]s were Jewish bankers or businessmen who lent money and handled the finances of some of the Christian European noble houses. Corresponding historical terms are ''Jewish bailiff'' and ''[[shtadlan]]''.

Examples of what would be later called court Jews emerged when local rulers used services of Jewish bankers for short-term loans. They lent money to nobles and in the process gained social influence. Noble patrons of court Jews employed them as financiers, suppliers, diplomats and [[trade delegate]]s. Court Jews could use their family connections, and connections between each other, to provision their sponsors with, among other things, food, arms, ammunition and precious metals. In return for their services, court Jews gained social privileges, including up to noble status for themselves, and could live outside the Jewish ghettos. Some nobles wanted to keep their bankers in their own courts. And because they were under noble protection, they were exempted from rabbinical jurisdiction.

From medieval times, court Jews could amass personal fortunes and gained political and social influence. Sometimes they were also prominent people in the local Jewish community and could use their influence to protect and influence their brethren. Sometimes they were the only Jews who could interact with the local high society and present petitions of the Jews to the ruler. However, the court Jew had social connections and influence in the Christian world mainly through his Christian patrons. Due to the precarious position of Jews, some nobles could just ignore their debts. If the sponsoring noble died, his Jewish financier could face exile or execution.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

=== Port Jews ===

The [[Port Jew]] is a descriptive term for Jews who were involved in the seafaring and maritime economy of Europe, especially during the 17th and 18th centuries. Helen Fry suggests that they can be considered &quot;the earliest modern Jews&quot;. According to Fry, Port Jews frequently arrived as &quot;refugees from the Inquisition&quot; and the expulsion of Jews from Iberia. They were allowed to settle in port cities because merchants granted them permission to trade in ports such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. Fry notes that their connections to the [[Jewish Diaspora]] and their expertise in maritime trade made them particularly valuable to the mercantilist governments of Europe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fry-2002&quot; /&gt; Lois Dubin describes Port Jews as Jewish merchants who were &quot;valued for their engagement in the international maritime trade upon which such cities thrived&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Dubin, ''The port Jews of Habsburg Trieste: absolutist politics and enlightenment culture'', Stanford University Press, 1999, p. 47&lt;/ref&gt; Sorkin and others have characterized the socio-cultural profile of these men as marked by a flexibility towards religion and a &quot;reluctant cosmopolitanism that was alien to both traditional and 'enlightened' Jewish identities&quot;.

From the 16th to the 18th century, Jewish merchants dominated the chocolate and vanilla trade, exporting to Jewish centres across Europe, mainly Amsterdam, Bayonne, Bordeaux, Hamburg and Livorno.&lt;ref&gt;Encyclopedia of Jewish Food, Gil Marks, HMH, November 17, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ottoman Empire ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire}}

During the Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600), the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well in diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews were the most prominent under the ''[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millets']]'', the apogee of Jewish influence could arguably be the appointment of [[Joseph Nasi]] to [[Sanjak-bey]] (governor, a rank usually only held by Muslims) of the island of [[Naxos]].&lt;ref&gt;Charles Issawi &amp; Dmitri Gondicas; ''Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism'', Princeton, (1999)&lt;/ref&gt;

At the time of the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] when the Levant passed under Muslim Rule, thirty Jewish communities existed in Haifa, Sh'chem, Hebron, Ramleh, Gaza, Jerusalem, and many in the north. Safed became a spiritual centre for the Jews and the [[Shulchan Aruch]] was compiled there as well as many Kabbalistic texts. The first Hebrew printing press, and the first printing in Western Asia began in 1577.

Jews lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey, but more geographically either Anatolia or Asia Minor) for more than 2,400 years. Initial prosperity in Hellenistic times had faded under Christian Byzantine rule, but recovered somewhat under the rule of the various Muslim governments that displaced and succeeded rule from Constantinople. For much of the Ottoman period, Turkey was a safe haven for Jews fleeing persecution, and it continues to have a small Jewish population today. The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economical prosperity at times but were widely persecuted at other times was summarised by G. E. Von Grunebaum:

&lt;blockquote&gt;It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizeable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms.&lt;ref&gt;G. E. Von Grunebaum, ''Eastern Jewry Under Islam'', 1971, p. 369.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Russia, Poland, and Eastern Europe ===
{{Further|History of the Jews in Poland|History of the Jews in Russia|History of the Jews in Ukraine|History of the Jews in Lithuania|History of the Jews in Romania}}
{{expand section|date=October 2025}}

In the 17th century, there were many significant Jewish populations in Western and Central Europe. The relatively tolerant Poland had the largest Jewish population in Europe that dated back to the 13th century, and enjoyed relative prosperity and freedom for nearly four hundred years. However, the calm situation ended when Polish and Lithuanian Jews of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] were slaughtered in the hundreds of thousands by Ukrainian Cossacks during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] (1648) and by the [[Swedish wars]] (1655). Driven by these and other persecutions, some Jews moved back to Western Europe in the 17th century, notably to [[Amsterdam]]. The last ban on Jewish residency in a European nation was revoked in 1654, but periodic expulsions from individual cities still occurred, and Jews were often restricted from land ownership, or forced to live in [[ghetto]]s.

With the [[Partitions of Poland]] in the late 18th century, the Polish-Jewish population was split between the [[Russian Empire]], [[Austria-Hungary]], and German [[Prussia]], which divided Poland among themselves.

=== European Enlightenment and Haskalah (18th century) ===
[[File:Moritz Daniel Oppenheim--Lavater and Lessing Visit Moses Mendelssohn--1856--Magnes Collection.jpg|thumb|right|[[Moses Mendelssohn]] (in red coat), Lavater (at right) and Lessing (standing), in an imaginary portrait by the Jewish artist [[Moritz Daniel Oppenheim]] (1856), [[Magnes Collection of Jewish Art and Life]]]]
During the period of the [[European Renaissance]] and Enlightenment, significant changes occurred within the Jewish community. The [[Haskalah]] movement paralleled the wider Enlightenment, as Jews in the 18th century began to campaign for emancipation from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society. Secular and scientific education was added to the traditional religious instruction received by students, and interest in a national Jewish identity, including a revival in the study of Jewish history and Hebrew, started to grow. Among the prominient Haskalah intellectuals were [[Moses Mendelssohn]], [[Naphtali Hirz Wessely]], [[Isaac Satanow]] and [[Isaac Euchel]].

Haskalah gave birth to the [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] movements in Judaism and planted the seeds of [[Zionism]] while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.

At around the same time another movement was born, one preaching almost the opposite of Haskalah, [[Hasidic Judaism]]. Hasidic Judaism began in the 18th century by [[Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov]], and quickly gained a following with its more exuberant, mystical approach to religion. These two movements, and the traditional orthodox approach to Judaism from which they spring, formed the basis for the modern divisions within Jewish observance.

At the same time, the outside world was changing, and debates began over the potential emancipation of the Jews (granting them equal rights). The first country to do so was France, during the [[French Revolution]] in 1789. Even so, Jews were expected to assimilate, not continue their traditions. This ambivalence is demonstrated in the famous speech of [[Clermont-Tonnerre]] before the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]] in 1789:

&lt;blockquote&gt;We must refuse everything to the Jews as a nation and accord everything to Jews as individuals. We must withdraw recognition from their judges; they should only have our judges. We must refuse legal protection to the maintenance of the so-called laws of their Judaic organization; they should not be allowed to form in the state either a political body or an order. They must be citizens individually. But, some will say to me, they do not want to be citizens. Well then! If they do not want to be citizens, they should say so, and then, we should banish them. It is repugnant to have in the state an association of non-citizens, and a nation within the nation...&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Hasidic Judaism ===
{{See also|Mitnagdim}}
[[File:Maurycy Gottlieb - Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur.jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|Hasidic Jews praying in the synagogue on [[Yom Kippur]], by [[Maurycy Gottlieb]]]]

[[Hasidic Judaism]] is a branch of [[Orthodox Judaism]] that promotes spirituality and joy through the popularisation and internalization of [[Jewish mysticism]] as the fundamental aspects of the [[Jewish faith]]. Hasidism comprises part of contemporary [[Ultra-Orthodox]] Judaism, alongside the previous Talmudic [[Lithuanian Jews|Lithuanian-Yeshiva]] approach and the Oriental [[Sephardi Judaism|Sephardi]] tradition. It was founded in 18th-century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel [[Baal Shem Tov]] as a reaction against overly [[Talmud|legalistic]] Judaism. Opposite to this, Hasidic teachings cherished the sincerity and concealed holiness of the unlettered common folk, and their equality with the scholarly elite. The emphasis on the [[Immanent]] Divine presence in everything gave new value to prayer and deeds of kindness, alongside Rabbinic supremacy of [[Torah study|study]], and replaced historical [[Kabbalah|mystical (kabbalistic)]] and [[Musar literature|ethical (musar)]] [[Asceticism in Judaism|asceticism]] and [[Maggid|admonishment]] with optimism, encouragement, and daily [[Deveikut|fervour]]. This populist emotional revival accompanied the elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine [[Panentheism]], through intellectual articulation of inner dimensions of mystical thought. The adjustment of Jewish values sought to add to required standards of ritual [[Halacha|observance]], while relaxing others where inspiration predominated. Its communal gatherings celebrate soulful [[Nigun|song]] and [[Yiddish literature#Hasidic and Haskalah literature|storytelling]] as forms of mystical devotion.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

==اڻويهين صدي==
[[File:Napoleon stellt den israelitischen Kult wieder her, 30. Mai 1806.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|An 1806 French print depicts [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] emancipating the Jews.]]
Though persecution still existed, [[Jewish emancipation]] spread throughout Europe in the 19th century. [[Napoleon]] invited Jews to leave the [[Jewish ghettos in Europe]] and seek refuge in the newly created tolerant political regimes that offered equality under Napoleonic Law (see [[Napoleon and the Jews]]). Gradually all European nations established in constitutions the principle of equality under the law and abolished all restrictions for Jews.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;&gt;[https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-in-history-the-era-of-nationalism-1800-1918 Antisemitism in History: The Era of Nationalism, 1800–1918]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/emancipation Emancipation]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-emancipation-in-western-europe/ Jewish Emancipation in Western Europe]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://d-nb.info/1175689041/34 Jewish Emancipation in the 18th and 19th Centuries]&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Antisemiticroths.jpg|thumb|A caricature by [[Charles Lucien Léandre]] (France, 1898) showing [[Rothschild family|Rothschild]] with the world in his hands]]
Jews now could own land and enter the civil service. The abolition of restraints on political activism and the broadening of the electoral franchise on the basis of citizenship, not religion, made Jews most visible among [[liberalism|liberal]], [[Radical politics|radical]], and [[Marxism|Marxist]] ([[Social Democracy|Social Democratic]]) political parties.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;/&gt;

For centuries, so-called [[court Jew]]s acted as the principal financiers for the European aristocracys. In the 1760s, one of them, [[Mayer Amschel Rothschild]], established a banking business in Germany that eventually became a vast international conglomerate and yield one of the largest family fortunes in world history. Thus the name of the [[Rothschilds]] became synonymous with Jewish financial power. Across Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, other Jews also created a number of influential banks.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/usury-and-moneylending-in-judaism/ Jews and Finance]&lt;/ref&gt;

The most important branch of Jewish economic life in Eastern Europe was trade. While most remained small shopkeepers, stallholders, and peddlers, others became owners of department stores and shopping arcades. During the 19th century Jews began to move from rural regions to cities, this contributed to the decline of traditional Jewish tavernkeeping. Jews made up a considerable proportion of all craftsmen in the [[Russian Empire]] and [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] during the 19th century, but with the spread of industrialization large factories tended to squeeze out small Jewish-run workshops, and only limited numbers of Jews became employees in these modern factories. Jews were considered less desirable employees since they did not want to work on Saturdays and tended to organize into unions to demand improved working conditions, the foundation of the [[General Jewish Labour Bund|Bund]] in the Russian Empire in 1897 strengthened this process.&lt;ref name=&quot;Economic Life&quot;&gt;[https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/7 Economic Life]&lt;/ref&gt;

The economic achivements of Jews in the 19th century created the impression for some that Jews were being overrepresented in such lucrative occupations as finance, banking, trade, industry, medicine, law, journalism, art, music, literature, and theater. Despite increasing integration of the Jews with secular society, a new form of [[antisemitism]] emerged, [[Racial antisemitism|based on the ideas of race and nationhood]] rather than the religious hatred of the Middle Ages. This form of antisemitism held that Jews were a separate and inferior race from the [[Aryan]] people of Western Europe, and led to the emergence of political parties in France, Germany, and [[Austria-Hungary]] that campaigned on a platform of rolling back emancipation. This form of antisemitism emerged frequently in European culture, most famously in the [[Dreyfus Trial]] in France.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://evolve.reconstructingjudaism.org/anti-semitism-europe-history/ Antisemitism in Europe and America in the Modern Period: Historical Perspectives]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.quest-cdecjournal.it/anti-jewish-prejudices-antisemitic-ideologies-open-violence-antisemitism-in-european-comparison-from-the-1870s-to-the-first-world-war-a-commentary/ Anti-Jewish Prejudices, Antisemitic Ideologies, Open Violence: Antisemitism in European Comparison from the 1870s to the First World War. A Commentary]&lt;/ref&gt;

During this period, Jewish migration to the United States (see [[American Jews]]) created a large new community mostly freed of the restrictions of Europe. Over 2 million Jews arrived in the United States between 1890 and 1924, most from the Russian Empire and Galicia. A similar case occurred in the southern tip of the continent, specifically in the countries of [[Argentina]] and [[Uruguay]].

==ويهين صدي==
===جديد صيهونيت===
[[File:Herzl on a balcony full.jpg|thumb|Theodor Herzl, visionary of the Jewish State, in Basel, photographed during [[World Zionist Congress|Fifth Zionist Congress]] in December 1901, by [[Ephraim Moses Lilien]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Theodor Herzl Signed Photograph, Basel, Switzerland {{!}} Shapell Manuscript Foundation |url=https://www.shapell.org/manuscript/theodor-herzl-signed-photograph-basel-switzerland/ |website=Shapell |access-date=May 10, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to [[Ottoman Syria]] with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and fulfilling the biblical prophecies related to [[Shivat Tzion]]. In 1882 the first Zionist settlement—[[Rishon LeZion]]—was founded by immigrants who belonged to the &quot;[[Hovevei Zion]]&quot; movement. Later on, the &quot;[[Bilu (movement)|Bilu]]&quot; movement established many other settlements in Palestine.

The Zionist movement was officially founded after the [[Kattowitz convention]] (1884) and the [[World Zionist Congress]] (1897), and it was [[Theodor Herzl]] who initiated the struggle to establish a state for the Jews.

After the [[First World War]], it seemed that the conditions that made it possible for the Jews to establish such a state had arrived: The United Kingdom captured [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] from the Ottoman Empire, and the Jews received the promise of a &quot;National Home&quot; from the British in the form of the [[Balfour Declaration]] of 1917, given to [[Chaim Weizmann]].

In 1920, the British Mandate of Palestine was established and the pro-Jewish [[Herbert Samuel]] was appointed High Commissioner of Palestine, the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] was established and several large Jewish immigration waves to Palestine occurred. The Arab inhabitants of Palestine grew hostile to increasing Jewish immigration, and as a result, they began to express their opposition to the establishment of Jewish settlements and the pro-Jewish policy of the British government.

New Jewish immigrants began to create militias and paramilitary groups such as the [[Bar-Giora]] and [[Hashomer]].

Clashes between Jews and Arabs became more frequent. After the [[1920 Nebi Musa riots]], the Jewish leadership in Palestine believed that the British had little desire to involve themselves in these clashes and maintain order. Believing that they could not rely on the British administration for protection, the Jewish leadership created the [[Haganah]] and [[Irgun]] paramilitary organizations in order to protect its community's farms and [[Kibbutz]]im.

These paramilitary organization were involved in major riots, such as the [[Jaffa riots (May 1921)|Jaffa riots]], [[1929 Palestine riots]] and the [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine]]. Arabs, Jews and Britons suffered in this violence.

Due to the increasing violence, the United Kingdom gradually started to backtrack from its original idea of supporting the establishment of a Jewish homeland and it also started to speculate on a [[binational solution]] to the crisis or the establishment of an Arab state that would have a Jewish minority.

===Jews in Europe and the United States after World War I ===
[[File:Yung-teater poster 15.jpg|thumb|Bilingual [[Polish language|Polish]]-[[Yiddish]] poster for the [[Warsaw]] [[Young Theater]]'s production of ''Mississippi'' in 1935, written by [[Leib Malach]]]]
The World War I and subsequent political changes, such as the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917 and the establishment of new nation-states after 1918, led to far-reaching consequenсes for the Jews of Eastern Europe. The authorities of the [[Soviet Union]] viewed private commerce as negative and sought to bring all trade under the aegis of state enterprises. Therefore, many Jews, who had previously made their living from trade, were forced to find other occupations. In Poland, Hungary, and Romania, the authorities adopted policies aimed at ethnicizing their national economies, aiming to exclude Jews as far as possible from the marketplace.&lt;ref name=&quot;Economic Life&quot;/&gt;

Nevertheless, the Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. In Austria in the years between the two World Wars Jews were approximately 3.5% of the population but were 27.3% of university professors. In Germany between 1918 and 1933 Jews were 0.78% of the population but were 16% of the doctors, 15% of the dentists, 25% of the lawyers, 50% of the theatre directors and occupied 80% of the leading positions in the [[Berlin stock exchange]]. In Poland in 1931 Jews were 10.2% of the population but were 56% of the doctors in private practice, 33% of the lawyers, and 24% of the pharmacists. In Russia during the period 1917–1939 Jews were approximately 1.8% of the population, while Jews were 9% of the officers in military academies, 15% of the university graduates, 11% of the doctors and 14% of the university professors.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Lynn | first1=Richard | last2=Kanazawa | first2=Satoshi | title=How to explain high Jewish achievement: The role of intelligence and values | journal=Personality and Individual Differences | date=2008 | volume=44 | issue=4 | pages=801–808 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2007.10.019 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886907003674 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Among those Jews who were generally considered the most famous were the scientist [[Albert Einstein]] and the philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. At that time, a disproportionate number of [[Nobel Prize]] winners were Jewish, as is still the case.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |publisher=jinfo.org |access-date=October 7, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== The Holocaust ===
{{Main|History of the Jews during World War II|The Holocaust}}
[[File:Rows of bodies of dead inmates fill the yard of Lager Nordhausen, a Gestapo concentration camp.jpg|thumb|Bodies of inmates of the [[Mittelbau-Dora]] Nazi concentration camp who died during [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] [[Bombing of Nordhausen in World War II|bombing raids]] on April 3 and 4, 1945]]

In 1933, with [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]]'s rise to power in Germany, the Jewish situation became more severe. [[Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic|Economic crises]], [[Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany|racial Anti-Jewish laws]], and fear of an upcoming war led many Jews to flee from Europe and settle in [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]], the United States and the Soviet Union.

In 1939, [[World War II]] began and until 1945, [[German-occupied Europe|Germany occupied almost all of Europe]], including [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|Poland]]—[[History of the Jews in Poland|where millions of Jews were living at that time]]—and [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|France]]. In 1941, following the [[invasion of the Soviet Union]], the [[Final Solution]] began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe, as well as Jews in European North Africa (pro-Nazi [[Vichy France|Vichy]]-[[French North Africa|North Africa]] and [[Italian Libya]]). This [[genocide]], in which approximately six million Jews were methodically murdered with horrifying cruelty, is known as [[The Holocaust]] or the ''Shoah'' (Hebrew term). In Poland, as many as one million Jews were murdered in [[gas chambers]] at the [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz camp complex]].

The massive scale of the Holocaust, and the horrors that happened during it, were only understood after the war, and they heavily affected the Jewish nation and world public opinion. Efforts were then increased to establish a Jewish state in Palestine.

=== The establishment of the State of Israel ===
{{Main|History of Israel (1948–present)}}
{{Further|Israel|Israeli Declaration of Independence}}
{{History of Israel}}
In 1945 the Jewish resistance organizations in Palestine unified and established the Jewish Resistance Movement. The movement began guerrilla attacks against Arab paramilitaries and the British authorities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html |title=The Jewish Resistance Movement |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=September 7, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160907162736/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} Following the [[King David Hotel bombing]], [[Chaim Weizmann]], president of the [[WZO]] appealed to the movement to cease all further military activity until a decision would be reached by the [[Jewish Agency]]. The Jewish Agency backed Weizmann's recommendation to cease activities, a decision reluctantly accepted by the Haganah, but not by the [[Irgun]] and [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]]. The JRM was dismantled and each of the founding groups continued operating according to their own policy.&lt;ref&gt;Horne, Edward (1982). ''A Job Well Done (Being a History of The Palestine Police Force 1920–1948)''. Anchor. {{ISBN|978-0-9508367-0-6}}. pp. 272, 299. States that Haganah withdrew on July 1, 1946. But remained permanently uncooperative.&lt;/ref&gt;

The Jewish leadership decided to centre the struggle in the illegal immigration to Palestine and began organizing a massive number of Jewish war refugees from Europe, without the approval of the British authorities. This immigration contributed a great deal to the Jewish settlements in Israel in the world public opinion and the British authorities decided to let the United Nations decide upon the fate of Palestine.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

On November 29, 1947, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopted [[Resolution 181]](II) recommending partitioning Palestine into an Arab state, a Jewish state and the City of Jerusalem. The Jewish leadership accepted the decision but the Arab League and the leadership of Palestinian Arabs opposed it. Following a period of [[1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]] the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]] started.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}}

In the middle of the war, after the last British soldiers of the Palestine Mandate left, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed on May 14, 1948, the establishment of a [[Jewish state]] in [[Eretz Israel]] to be known as the [[State of Israel]]. The war ended in 1949 and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of hundreds of thousands of Jews from all over the world, notably [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Arab countries]].

Since 1948, Israel has been involved in a series of major military conflicts, including the 1956 [[Suez Crisis]], 1967 [[Six-Day War]], 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], [[1982 Lebanon War]], and [[2006 Lebanon War]], as well as a nearly constant series of [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict|ongoing minor conflicts]].

Since 1977, an ongoing and largely unsuccessful series of diplomatic efforts have been initiated by Israel, Palestinian organizations, their neighbours, and other parties, including the United States and the European Union, to bring about a [[Israeli–Palestinian peace process|peace process]] to resolve conflicts between Israel and its neighbours, mostly over the fate of the Palestinian people.

==ايڪويهين صدي==
Israel is a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a population of over 8 million people, of whom about 6 million are [[Israeli Jews|Jewish]]. The largest Jewish communities are in Israel and the [[American Jews|United States]], with major communities in France, Argentina, Russia, England, and Canada.

The [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]], created during the [[Soviet]] period, continues to be an [[autonomous oblast]] of the Russian state.&lt;ref&gt;Fishkoff, Sue (October 8, 2008). [http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml &quot;A Jewish revival in Birobidzhan?&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510142551/http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml |date=May 10, 2011 }} ''Jewish News of Greater Phoenix''. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Chief Rabbi]] of [[Birobidzhan]], [[Mordechai Scheiner]], says there are 4,000 Jews in the capital city.&lt;ref&gt;Paxton, Robin (June 1, 2007). [http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&amp;cid=84435&amp;NewsType=80052 &quot;From Tractors to Torah in Russia's Jewish Land&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411050518/http://fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&amp;cid=84435&amp;NewsType=80052 |date=April 11, 2013 }}. Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Governor]] [[Nikolay Mikhaylovich Volkov]] has stated that he intends to, &quot;support every valuable initiative maintained by our local Jewish organizations&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939 &quot;Governor Voices Support for Growing Far East Jewish Community&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518042318/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939 |date=May 18, 2011 }} (November 15, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Birobidzhan Synagogue]] opened in 2004 on the 70th anniversary of the region's founding in 1934.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969 &quot;Far East Community Prepares for 70th Anniversary of Jewish Autonomous Republic&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518041740/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969 |date=May 18, 2011 }} (August 30, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;

The number of people who identified as Jews in [[England and Wales]] rose slightly between 2001 and 2011, with the growth being attributed to the higher birth rate of the [[Haredi]] community.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7411877.stm |title=Jewish population on the increase |date=May 21, 2008 |access-date=March 18, 2020 |archive-date=May 27, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527215725/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7411877.stm |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The estimated [[British Jew]]ish population in [[England]] as of 2011 was 263,346.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2011 Census: KS209EW Religion, local authorities in England and Wales |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262 |publisher=ons.gov.uk |access-date=December 15, 2012 |archive-date=January 5, 2016 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of 2021, per the [[British Census]], the Jewish population of England and Wales was 271,327.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Graham |first1=David |last2=Boyd |first2=Jonathan |title=Jews in Britain in 2021: First results from the Census of England and Wales |url=https://www.jpr.org.uk/reports/jews-britain-2021-first-results-census-england-and-wales |website=Institute for Jewish Policy Research |date=November 29, 2022 |access-date=December 13, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On October 7, 2023, [[Hamas]], along with other [[Palestinian Joint Operations Room|Palestinian militant groups]], [[October 7 attacks|attacked Israel]] from the [[Gaza Strip]], killing 1,139 people. The day is considered the deadliest day in Israel's history, and the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=October 11, 2023 |title=Biden calls Hamas attacks the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust as US death toll ticks up |url=https://apnews.com/article/israel-hamas-us-biden-blinken-99eb4063edabc80fa1fa198fb0bb020e |access-date=November 9, 2023 |work=AP News |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The attack escalated into a [[Gaza war|major war between Israel and Hamas]]. Hundreds of thousands of civilians were displaced, and more than 250 hostages, including Israelis and foreign nationals, were taken by Hamas, [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]], and other Gaza-based militant groups.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last1=Al-Mughrabi |first1=Nidal |last2=Angel |first2=Maytaal |last3=Al-Mughrabi |first3=Nidal |last4=Angel |first4=Maytaal |date=November 8, 2023 |title=Israeli, Hamas fighters in close combat in Gaza City as civilians flee |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/thousands-civilians-flee-north-gaza-israeli-troops-hamas-fighters-clash-2023-11-08/ |access-date=November 9, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[يهوديت]] 
* [[اسلام ۾ ابراهيم]] 
* [[يعقوب عليہ السلام]] 
* [[عيسيٰ عليه السلام]] 
* [[توريت]] 
* [[فلسطين]] 
* [[يروشلم]] 
* [[اسرائيل]] 
* [[فلسطين جي رياست]] 
* [[غزه نسل ڪشي]]
* [[يهوديت جي تاريخ]] 
* [[فلسطين جي تاريخ]] 
* [[يهودي تاريخ جو خاڪو]] 
* [[يهودي تاريخ جو وقت]] 
* [[يهودين جو جينياتي مطالعو]] 
* [[اسرائيل جي سرزمين ۾ يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ]]

==نوٽ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===حوالي جا لکت===
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==ڪتابيات==
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* [[Jacob Neusner|Neusner, Jacob]]; Green, William Scott, eds. (1991). ''The Origins of Judaism. Religion, History, and Literature in Late Antiquity.'' 20-volume Set. New York: Garland Press. (Reprinted scholarly essays, with introductions.)
* [[Jacob Neusner|Neusner, Jacob]] (1999). ''[{{Google books|id=5YFXIUJYgsYC
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=== France ===
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* Taitz, Emily. ''The Jews of Medieval France: The Community of Champagne'' (1994) [https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130202034/https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne |date=November 30, 2018 }}

=== Russia and Eastern Europe ===
* Brinkmann, Tobias.  (2024). ''Between Borders: The Great Jewish Migration from Eastern Europe''. New York: Oxford University Press.

* Darieva, Tsypylma, Darja Klingenberg, and Chen Bram. (2025) &quot;Jews of the Caucasus: multiple entanglements and migration routes.&quot; ''Journal of Modern Jewish Studies'' 24.2 (2025): 557-569.  [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14725886.2025.2518673  online]

* [[David Fishman|Fishman, David]] (1996). ''Russia's First Modern Jews''. New York University Press.
* [[Zvi Gitelman|Gitelman, Zvi]] (2001). ''A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present''.

* Kushkova, Anna. (2025) &quot;From a Shtetl House to an Urban Apartment: The Soviet Jewish Home Negotiated, Transformed, and Reimagined.&quot; ''Jewish Folklore and Ethnology'' 4.1 (2025): 70-125. [https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1028&amp;context=jewishfolklore  online]

* Polonsky, Antony. ''The Jews in Poland and Russia: A Short History'' (2013)

* Sapritsky-Nahum, Marina. (2025) &quot;Identity transformations of Ukrainian Jewry during the Russian–Ukrainian war: Odesa’s communities and religious leaders at home and in exile.&quot; ''Canadian Slavonic Papers'' 67.1-2 (2025): 214-235. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00085006.2025.2500199  online]

* Schapiro, Leonard. &quot;The role of the Jews in the Russian revolutionary movement.&quot; ''Slavonic and East European Review'' (1961): 148-167. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4205328  online]

* Shumsky, Dmitry. (2025) &quot;Beyond Antisemitism: Rethinking Stalin’s Anti-Jewish Campaign, 1948–1953.&quot; ''Journal of Modern History'' 97.2 (2025): 348-386. 
* {{cite book |last1=Weiner |first1=Miriam |last2=Polish State Archives (in cooperation with) |title=Jewish Roots in Poland: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories |date=1997 |publisher=Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation |location=Secaucus, NJ |isbn=978-0-9656508-0-9 |oclc=38756480}}
* {{cite book |last1=Weiner |first1=Miriam |last2=Ukrainian State Archives (in cooperation with) |last3=Moldovan National Archives (in cooperation with) |title=Jewish Roots in Ukraine and Moldova: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories |date=1999 |publisher=Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation |location=Secaucus, NJ |isbn=978-0-9656508-1-6 |oclc=607423469}}
* Yivo Institute for Jewish Research. ''A Century of Ambivalence, Second Expanded Edition: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present'' (Indiana University Press, 2001).

=== United States ===

{{Main|American Jews#Bibliography|History of the{{short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt;
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 063.jpg|thumb|According to Jewish tradition, Jacob, shown [[Jacob wrestling with the angel|wrestling with the angel]] in this painting by [[Rembrandt]], was the father of the [[tribes of Israel]].]]
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|history}}
{{history of religion|religions}}

[[Jews]] originated from the [[Israelites]] and [[Hebrews]] of historical [[Israel and Judah]], two related kingdoms that emerged in the [[Levant]] during the [[Iron Age]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 |date=April 9, 2023 }} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The earliest mention of [[Israelites]] is inscribed on the [[Merneptah Stele]] {{circa|1213–1203 BCE}}; later religious literature tells the story of Israelites going back at least as far as {{cx|1500 BCE}}. Traditionally, the name ''Israel'' is said to originate with the Hebrew patriarch [[Jacob]], who provides a narrative [[etiology]] for the name{{snd}}after wrestling with an angel, Jacob is renamed Israel, meaning &quot;he who struggles with God&quot;. The [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] based in [[Samaria]] fell to the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] {{cx|720 BCE}},&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Kingdom of Judah]] to the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] in 586 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Faust |first=Avraham |title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period |date=August 29, 2012 |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |isbn=978-1-58983-641-9 |pages=1 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28}}&lt;/ref&gt; Part of the Judean population was exiled to [[Babylonia|Babylon]]. The [[Assyrian captivity|Assyrian]] and [[Babylonian captivity|Babylonian captivities]] are regarded as representing the start of the [[Jewish diaspora]].

After the [[Achaemenid Empire]] conquered the region, the exiled Jews were [[Return to Zion|allowed to return]] and [[Second Temple|rebuild the temple]]; these events mark the beginning of the [[Second Temple period]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Jonathan |last1=Stökl |first2=Caroline |last2=Waerzegger |title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context |date=2015 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=7–11, 30, 226}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia Judaica |edition=2nd |volume=3 |page=27}}&lt;/ref&gt; After several centuries of foreign rule, the [[Maccabean Revolt]] against the [[Seleucid Empire]] led to an [[Hasmonean dynasty|independent Hasmonean kingdom]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Peter Fibiger |last1=Bang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&amp;pg=PAPA184 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean |first2=Walter |last2=Scheidel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-518831-8 |pages=184–187}}&lt;/ref&gt; but it was gradually incorporated into the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] imperial system.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=223–239}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Jewish–Roman wars]], a series of unsuccessful revolts against the Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, resulted in the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Zissu |first=Boaz |title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE |date=2018 |isbn=978-90-04-34986-5 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill  |page=19 |chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective |oclc=988856967}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the expulsion of many Jews.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Erwin |last1=Fahlbusch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&amp;pg=PAPA15 |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |first2=Geoffrey William |last2=Bromiley |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5 |page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Jewish population in [[Syria Palaestina]] gradually decreased during the following centuries, enhancing the role of the Jewish diaspora and shifting the spiritual and demographic centre from the depopulated [[Judea]] to [[Galilee]] and then to [[Asoristan|Babylon]], with smaller communities spread out across the [[Roman Empire]]. During the same period, the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]], central Jewish texts, were composed. In the following millennia, the diaspora communities [[Coalescent theory|coalesced]] into three major [[Jewish ethnic divisions|ethnic subdivisions]] according to where their ancestors settled: the [[Ashkenazim]] in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern European Jewry|Eastern Europe]], the [[Sephardim]] initially in [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Iberia]], and the [[Mizrahim]] in the [[History of the Jews under Muslim rule|Middle East]] and [[North Africa]].&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&amp;pg=PA87 &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity.&quot; p. 87.] Eban, Abba Solomon. &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews.&quot; Summit Books Syracuse, New York: 1984. p. 87.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Dosick (2007), pp. 59–60.&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[early Muslim conquests]] ended [[Byzantine]] control over the [[Eastern Mediterranean]], with the newly established [[Rashidun Caliphate]] taking over the [[Levant]], [[Mesopotamia]], and North Africa during the 7th century, and the [[Iberian Peninsula]] during the 8th century. [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain|Jewish culture enjoyed a golden age in Spain]], with Jews becoming widely accepted in society and their religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed before the arrival of the intolerant [[Almohades]]. In 1492 [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|the Jews were forced to leave Spain]] by the Catholic Monarchs [[Catholic Monarchs of Spain|Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand II]], whereafter they migrated in great numbers to the [[History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]] and [[Italian Peninsula|Italy]]. Between the 12th and 15th centuries, Ashkenazi Jews experienced extreme persecution in Central Europe, which prompted their mass migration to [[History of Jews in Poland|Poland]].&lt;ref&gt;Mosk (2013), p. 143. &quot;Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Harshav, Benjamin (1999). ''The Meaning of Yiddish''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. &quot;From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the centre of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The 18th century saw the rise of the [[Haskalah]] intellectual movement. Also starting in the 18th century, Jews began to campaign for [[Jewish emancipation]] from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society.

In the 19th century, when Jews in [[Western Europe]] were increasingly granted equality before the law, Jews in the [[Pale of Settlement]] faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread [[pogrom]]s. During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to [[Ottoman Syria]] with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. The [[Zionist movement]] was officially founded in 1897. The pogroms also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the United States between 1881 and 1924.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lewin |first=Rhoda G. |date=1979 |title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis |url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |journal=Minnesota History |volume=46 |issue=7 |page=259 |access-date=August 10, 2020 |archive-date=July 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. Many [[Nobel Prize]] winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |publisher=jinfo.org |access-date=October 7, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1933, with the rise to power of [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]] in [[Nazi Germany|Germany]], the situation for Jews became severe. Economic crises, racial [[Antisemitism in Europe#The Holocaust|antisemitic laws]], and a fear of an upcoming war led many to flee from Europe to [[Mandatory Palestine]], to the United States and to the [[Soviet Union]]. In 1939, [[World War II]] began and until 1941 Germany [[German-occupied Europe|occupied almost all of Europe]]. In 1941, following the [[Operation Barbarossa|invasion]] of the Soviet Union, the [[Final Solution]] began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe and North Africa. In Poland, three million were murdered in [[gas chambers]] in all concentration camps combined, with one million at the [[Auschwitz]] camp complex alone. This [[genocide]], in which approximately six million Jews were methodically exterminated, is known as [[the Holocaust]].

Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On May 14, 1948, upon the termination of the British Mandate, [[David Ben-Gurion]] declared the creation of the [[State of Israel]], a [[Jewish and democratic state]] in ''[[Eretz Israel]]'' (Land of Israel). Immediately afterwards, all neighbouring Arab states invaded, yet the newly formed [[IDF]] resisted. In 1949, the war ended and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of [[Aliyah]] from all over Europe and [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Middle Eastern countries]]. {{As of|2022|post=,}} Israel is a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a population of 9.6 million people, of whom 7 million are [[Israeli Jews|Jewish]].

The largest Jewish community outside Israel is the [[American Jews|United States]], while large communities also exist in France, Canada, Argentina, Russia, United Kingdom, Australia, and [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]]. Currently, the Jewish ethnicity have two autonomous states under their power to act as sanctuaries, [[Israel]] and the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]].

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Commons category|Jewish history}}
* [http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/ The Jewish History Resource Center]. Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
* [http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/Internetresources/modern/israelindex.htm The State of Israel] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
* [http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/ Jewish History and Culture Encyclopaedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224094628/http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/ |date=December 24, 2008 }} Official Site of the 22-volume Encyclopaedia Judaica
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/jewishsbook.html Internet Jewish History Sourcebook] offering homework help and online texts
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050528023003/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/israelite_religion.htm Israelite Religion to Judaism: the Evolution of the Religion of Israel].
* [https://thinktorah.org/jewish-history/ 2000 Years of Jewish History]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050629084248/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/greek_influence.htm Greek Influence on Judaism from the Hellenistic Period Through the Middle Ages c. 300 BCE–1200 CE].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050604085120/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/jewish_sects.htm Jewish Sects of the Second Temple Period].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101119075635/http://adath-shalom.ca/samaritan_origin.htm The Origin and Nature of the Samaritans and their Relationship to Second Temple Jewish Sects].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051118233741/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/eb2bk.htm Jewish History Tables].
* [http://www.oztorah.com/category/australian-jewry/ Articles on Australian Jewish history].
* [http://www.oztorah.com/category/british-jewry/ Articles on British Jewish history].
* Barnavi, Eli (Ed.). ''A Historical Atlas of the Jewish People''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1992. {{ISBN|978-0-679-40332-6}}
* [http://www.simpletoremember.com/vitals/Jewish_History.htm Crash Course in Jewish History]
* [http://csicso-nagy.uw.hu/fo-o-Csicso-NAGY-A/jewish-families.htm Jewish families in Csicsó – Cicov (Slovakia) until the Holocaust]
* [http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&amp;Volume=36&amp;Issue=1&amp;ArticleID=29 &quot;Under the Influence: Hellenism in Ancient Jewish Life&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229232302/http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&amp;Volume=36&amp;Issue=1&amp;ArticleID=29 |date=February 29, 2012 }} Biblical Archaeology Society
* [http://www.jewishhistory.org/crash-course/ Summary of Jewish History] by Berel Wein
* [http://histclo.com/chron/ancient/heb/heb-hist.html Ancient Hebrew history]
* [http://jewishhistorylectures.org/ Videos of Jewish History Lectures by Henry Abramson of Touro College South]
{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:يهودين جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:يهوديت جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:يهودي نسلي گروهه]]
[[زمرو:تاريخ بلحاظ مذهب]]
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      <text bytes="206305" sha1="tcykj89ko94sn3xi5rjivnbzf0cicfu" xml:space="preserve">يهودي (&lt;small&gt;Jews&lt;/small&gt;) تاريخي اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه، ٻه لاڳاپيل بادشاهتن جيڪيون [[لوهه جو دور|لوهه جي دور]] ۾ [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سرزمين شام (ليونٽ)]] ۾ ظاهر ٿيون،  جي بني اسرائيل ۽ عبرانين مان پيدا ٿيا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|date=2001|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|isbn=978-0-684-86912-4|edition=1st Touchstone|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken2&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229|date=April 9, 2023}} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; بني اسرائيل جو پهريون ذڪر، 1213-1203 ق.م. جو مرنيپتا اسٽيل تي لکيل آهي؛ بعد ۾ مذهبي ادب بني اسرائيلن جي ڪهاڻي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 1500 ق.م. تائين ٻڌائي ٿو. روايتي طور تي، اسرائيل جو نالو عبراني بزرگ [[يعقوب عليہ السلام|يعقوب]] سان شروع ٿيو آهي، جيڪو نالي لاءِ هڪ داستاني ايٽولوجي فراهم ڪري ٿو - هڪ فرشتي سان وڙهڻ کان پوءِ، يعقوب جو نالو اسرائيل رکيو ويو، جنهن جو مطلب آهي &quot;اهو جيڪو خدا سان ويڙهي ٿو&quot;. سامريه ۾ قائم اسرائيل جي بادشاهت 720 ق.م. ڌاري نيو-آشوري سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Broshi|first=Maguen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174|title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2001|isbn=978-1-84127-201-6|page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ 586 ق.م. ڌاري يهودين جي بادشاهت نيو-بابلي سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Faust|first=Avraham|title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period|date=August 29, 2012|publisher=Society of Biblical Literature|isbn=978-1-58983-641-9|pages=1|doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي آبادي جو هڪ حصو [[بابل]] ڏانهن جلاوطن ڪيو ويو. آشور ۽ بابل ۾ قيد ٿيل يهودين کي ڊائاسپورا جي شروعات جي نمائندگي ڪندڙ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.

{{short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt;
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 063.jpg|thumb|يهودي روايت موجب، يعقوب، جيڪو ريمبران جي هن تصوير ۾ ملائڪ سان وڙهندي ڏيکاريو ويو آهي، اسرائيل جي قبيلن جو پيءُ هو. ]][[هخامنشي سلطنت]] طرفان هن علائقي کي فتح ڪرڻ کان پوءِ، جلاوطن يهودين کي واپس اچڻ ۽ مندر کي ٻيهر تعمير ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي؛ اها واقعا ٻئي مندر جي دور جي شروعات جي نشاندهي ڪن ٿا. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Jonathan|last1=Stökl|first2=Caroline|last2=Waerzegger|title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context|date=2015|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|pages=7–11, 30, 226}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia Judaica|edition=2nd|volume=3|page=27}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيترن ئي صدين جي پرڏيهي حڪمراني کانپوءِ، سيليوسڊ سلطنت جي خلاف مڪابي بغاوت هڪ آزاد هاشموني بادشاهت جو سبب بڻي، &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Peter Fibiger|last1=Bang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&amp;pg=PAPA184|title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean|first2=Walter|last2=Scheidel|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-518831-8|pages=184–187}}&lt;/ref&gt; پر ان رياست کي بتدريج [[رومي سلطنت]] ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Abraham|last=Malamat|url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=A History of the Jewish People|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1976|isbn=978-0-674-39731-6|pages=223–239}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي-رومن جنگيون، پهرين ۽ ٻي صدي عيسوي ۾ رومن جي خلاف ناڪام بغاوتن جو هڪ سلسلو، [[يروشلم]] ۽ ٻئي مندر جي تباهي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Zissu|first=Boaz|title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE|date=2018|isbn=978-90-04-34986-5|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|page=19|chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective|oclc=988856967}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ ڪيترن ئي يهودين کي نيڪالي ڏيڻ جو سبب بڻيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Erwin|last1=Fahlbusch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&amp;pg=PAPA15|title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity|first2=Geoffrey William|last2=Bromiley|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5|page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt; سر زمين شام فلسطين ۾ يهودي آبادي ايندڙ صدين دوران بتدريج گهٽجي وئي، يهودي ڊائاسپورا جي ڪردار کي وڌايو ۽ روحاني ۽ آبادي جي مرڪز کي خالي ٿيل يهوديا کان گليلي ۽ پوءِ بابل ڏانهن منتقل ڪيو، يهودين جون ننڍيون برادريون رومن سلطنت ۾ پکڙيل هيون. ساڳئي عرصي دوران، مشناه ۽ تلمود، مرڪزي يهودي متن، ترتيب ڏنا ويا. ايندڙ هزار سالن ۾، ڊائاسپورا برادريون ٽن وڏن نسلي ذيلي تقسيم ۾، جتي انهن جا ابا ڏاڏا آباد ٿيا هئا: وچ ۽ اوڀر يورپ ۾ اشڪنازي، [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|آئبيريا]] ۾ سيفاردي ۽ [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]] ۾ مزراهي طور گڏ ٿي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&amp;pg=PA87 &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity.&quot; p. 87.] Eban, Abba Solomon. &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews.&quot; Summit Books Syracuse, New York: 1984. p. 87.&lt;/ref&gt;  &lt;ref&gt;Dosick (2007), pp. 59–60.&lt;/ref&gt;

شروعاتي اسلامي فتحون اوڀرين رومي سمنڊ جي علائقن تي [[بازنطيني سلطنت|بازنطيني]] ڪنٽرول ختم ڪري ڇڏيو، نئين قائم ٿيل راشدون خلافت 7هين صدي دوران [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|ليونٽ]]، [[ميسوپوٽيميا]] ۽ اتر آفريڪا تي قبضو ڪيو ۽ 8هين صدي دوران [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|آئبيرين جزيره نما]] تي قبضو ڪيو. يهودي ثقافت مسلم [[اندلس]] ۾ هڪ سونهري دور مان لطف اندوز ٿي، يهودين کي سماج ۾ وڏي پيماني تي قبول ڪيو ويو ۽ انهن جي مذهبي، ثقافتي ۽ معاشي زندگي عدم برداشت واري الموحدين جي اچڻ کان اڳ ڦٽي نڪتي. سال 1492ع ۾ ڪيٿولڪ حڪمران، راڻي ازابيل اول ۽ بادشاهه فرڊيننڊ II پاران يهودين کي اسپين ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ڪيو ويو، جنهن کان پوءِ اهي وڏي تعداد ۾ [[عثماني سلطنت]] ۽ [[اٽلي]] ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي. 12هين ۽ 15هين صدي جي وچ ۾، اشڪنازي يهودين وچ يورپ ۾ انتهائي ظلم جو تجربو ڪيو، جنهن جي ڪري انهن جي [[پولينڊ]] ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. &lt;ref&gt;Mosk (2013), p. 143. &quot;Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Harshav, Benjamin (1999). ''The Meaning of Yiddish''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. &quot;From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the centre of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt;هين صدي ۾ هسڪاله دانشورانه تحريڪ جو عروج ڏٺو ويو. &lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt;هين صدي جي شروعات ۾، يهودي يهودين کي پابندين وارن قانونن کان آزاد ڪرڻ ۽ وسيع يورپي سماج ۾ ضم ڪرڻ لاءِ مهم هلائڻ شروع ڪئي.

19هين صدي ۾، جڏهن اولهائين يورپ ۾ يهودين کي قانون جي سامهون برابري ڏني پئي وئي، ته آبادڪاري جي ميدان ۾ يهودين کي وڌندڙ ظلم، قانوني پابندين ۽ وڏي پيماني تي قتل عام جو سامنا ڪرڻ پيو. 1870 ۽ 1880 جي ڏهاڪن دوران، يورپ ۾ يهودي آبادي فلسطين ۾ يهودي رياست کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان عثماني شام ڏانهن هجرت تي وڌيڪ سرگرم بحث ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. صهيوني تحريڪ سرڪاري طور تي سال 1897ع ۾ قائم ڪئي وئي هئي. سال 1881ع ۽ 1924ع جي وچ ۾ [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] ڏانهن 20 لک کان وڌيڪ يهودين جي وڏي پيماني تي هجرت کي به شروع ڪيو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Lewin|first=Rhoda G.|date=1979|title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis|url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf|journal=Minnesota History|volume=46|issue=7|page=259|access-date=August 10, 2020|archive-date=July 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; يورپ ۽ آمريڪا جا يهودي سائنس، ثقافت ۽ معيشت جي شعبن ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪيا. عام طور تي سڀ کان وڌيڪ مشهور سمجهيا ويندڙن ۾ [[البرٽ آئنسٽائن|البرٽ آئن اسٽائن]] ۽ لڊوگ وٽگنسٽائن شامل هئا. هن وقت ڪيترائي [[نوبل انعام حاصل ڪندڙن جي فهرست|نوبل انعام يافته]] يهودي هئا، جيئن اڃا تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners|publisher=jinfo.org|access-date=October 7, 2011|archive-date=December 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سال &lt;small&gt;1933&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، [[جرمنيا|جرمني]] ۾ [[هٽلر|ايڊولف هٽلر]] ۽ نازي پارٽي جي اقتدار ۾ اچڻ سان، يهودين لاءِ صورتحال سخت ٿي وئي. معاشي بحران، نسل پرست يهودي مخالف قانون ۽ ايندڙ جنگ جي خوف سبب ڪيترائي ماڻهو [[يُورَپ|يورپ]] کان [[فلسطين|لازمي فلسطين]]، آمريڪا ۽ [[سوويت يونين]] ڏانهن ڀڄي ويا. سال 1939ع ۾، [[ٻين مھاڀاري جنگ|ٻي مهاڀاري جنگ]] شروع ٿي ۽ سال 1941ع تائين جرمني تقريبن سڄي يورپ تي قبضو ڪري ورتو. سال 1941ع ۾، سوويت يونين جي حملي کان پوءِ، آخري حل شروع ٿيو، هڪ غير معمولي پيماني تي هڪ وسيع منظم آپريشن، جنهن جو مقصد يهودي ماڻهن کي ختم ڪرڻ هو ۽ نتيجي ۾ يورپ ۽ اتر آفريڪا ۾ يهودين جو قتل عام ٿيو. پولينڊ ۾، سڀني ڪنسنٽريشن ڪيمپن ۾ گيس چيمبرن ۾ 30 لک يهودي قتل ڪيا ويا، جن ۾ صرف آشوٽز ڪيمپ ڪمپليڪس ۾ 10 لک شامل هئا. هي نسل ڪشي، جنهن ۾ تقريبن 60 لک يهودين کي طريقي سان ختم ڪيو ويو، هولوڪاسٽ جي نالي سان مشهور آهي. 

هولوڪاسٽ کان اڳ ۽ دوران، يهودين جي وڏي تعداد لازمي فلسطين ڏانهن هجرت ڪئي. 14 مئي 1948ع تي، برطانوي مينڊيٽ جي خاتمي تي، ڊيوڊ بين-گورين ارض اسرائيل (اسرائيل جي سرزمين) ۾ هڪ يهودي ۽ جمهوري رياست، [[اسرائيل]] جي رياست جي قيام جو اعلان ڪيو.

ان کان پوءِ فوري طور تي، سڀني پاڙيسري عرب رياستون اسرائيل تي حملو ڪيو، پر نئين ٺهيل اسرائيلي دفاعي فوج (IDF) مزاحمت ڪئي. سال 1949ع ۾ جنگ ختم ٿي وئي ۽ اسرائيل رياست جي تعمير شروع ڪئي ۽ سڄي يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر جي ملڪن مان ايندڙ يهودين جي وڏين لهرن کي جذب ڪيو. سال 2022ع تائين، اسرائيل هڪ پارلياماني جمهوريت آهي جنهن جي آبادي 96 لک ماڻهن جي آهي، جن مان 70 لک يهودي آهن. ([[غزه جي پٽي|غزا]] ۽ [[فلسطين جي رياست|مغربي ڪناري]] جي 35 لک آبادي کانسواء).

اسرائيل کان ٻاهر سڀ کان وڏي يهودي برادري آمريڪا ۾ آهي، جڏهن ته ٻيون وڏي برادريون [[فرانس]]، [[ڪينيڊا]]، [[ارجنٽائن]]، [[روس]]، [[گڏيل بادشاھت|برطانيه]]، [[آسٽريليا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] ۾ پڻ موجود آهن. هن وقت، يهودي نسل جون ٻه خودمختيار رياستون؛ اسرائيل ۽ روس ۾ يهودي خودمختيار اوبلاست آهن جيڪي انهن جي اختيار هيٺ آهن ته اهي پناهه گاهه طور ڪم ڪن.

==جائزو==
قديم يهودي تاريخ بائيبل ۽ غير بائيبل ذريعن، اپوڪرائيفا ۽ سوڊيپيگرافا، جوزيفس جي لکڻين، گريڪو-رومن ليکڪن ۽ چرچ جي پادرين، گڏوگڏ آثار قديمه جي دريافتن، لکتن، قديم دستاويزن، جهڙوڪ ايليفينٽائن ۽ فيوم مان پيپيري، مردار سمنڊ جا اسڪرول، بار ڪوخبا خط، باباٿا آرڪائيوز ۽ قاهره جينيزا دستاويزن، مان معلوم ٿئي ٿي، جيڪي زباني تاريخ ۽ مدراش ۽ تلمود ۾ تبصرن جي مجموعن سان گڏ آهن. 

ابتدائي جديد دور ۾ پرنٽنگ پريس جي آمد سان، يهودين جي تاريخ ۽ عبراني بائيبل جا شروعاتي ايڊيشن شايع ٿيا جيڪي يهودي مذهب جي تاريخ ۽ وڌندڙ طور تي، يهودين جي قومي تاريخن، يهودي قوم ۽ سڃاڻپ سان لاڳاپيل هئا، هڪ مسودي يا لکندڙ ڪلچر کان هڪ پرنٽنگ ڪلچر ڏانهن منتقلي هئي. يهودي مورخن پنهنجن اجتماعي تجربن جا احوال لکيا، پر سياسي، ثقافتي ۽ سائنسي يا فلسفياتي ڳولا لاءِ تاريخ کي پڻ وڌندڙ طور تي استعمال ڪيو. ليکڪن ثقافتي طور تي ورثي ۾ مليل متن جي هڪ مجموعي کي استعمال ڪيو ته جيئن فن جي حالت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ يا اڳتي وڌائڻ لاءِ هڪ منطقي داستان تيار ڪري سگهجي. جديد يهودي تاريخ نويسي يورپي نشاۃِ ثانيه ۽ روشن خيالي جي دور جهڙين دانشورانه تحريڪن سان جڙيل آهي، پر وچين دور جي آخر ۾ ۽ قديم زماني ۾ مختلف ذريعن ۾ اڳوڻين ڪمن تي ڌيان ڏنو. اڄ، يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ کي اڪثر ست دورن ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي:
# قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه رياست (&lt;small&gt;1200 ق.م. کان 586 ق.م.&lt;/small&gt;) 
# ٻيو مندر وارو دور (&lt;small&gt;516 ق.م. کان 70 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|editor-last=Goodman|editor-first=Martin|chapter=Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period|pages=36–52|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0003|isbn=0-19-928032-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# ربانڪ يا تلمودي دور (&lt;small&gt;70 کان 640 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|editor-last=Goodman|editor-first=Martin|chapter=Historiography on the Jews in the ‘Talmudic Period’ (70–640 ce)|pages=79–114|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0005|isbn=0-19-928032-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# وچين دور (&lt;small&gt;640 کان 1492 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# ابتدائي جديد دور (&lt;small&gt;1492-1750 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# جديد دور (&lt;small&gt;1750ع کان 20هين صدي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# [[صيهونيت]]، [[هولوڪاسٽ]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جو قيام (&lt;small&gt;19 کان 21هين صدي&lt;/small&gt;)
&lt;imagemap&gt;
File:Chronology of Israel eng.png|center|800px
default [[#Time periods in Jewish history|Jewish history]]
rect 658 156 833 176 [[Aliyah|Periods of massive immigration to Palestine]]
rect 564 156 647 175 [[Jewish diaspora|Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in exile]]
rect 460 156 554 175 [[Land of Israel|Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in the southern Levant, with full or partial independence]]
rect 314 156 452 175 [[Temple in Jerusalem|Periods in which a Jewish Temple existed]]
rect 196 156 309 175 [[#Time periods in Jewish history|Jewish history]]
rect 26 102 134 122 [[Book of Judges|Shoftim]]
rect 134 102 265 121 [[Books of Kings|Melakhim]]
rect 146 83 266 104 [[First Temple]]
rect 286 83 418 103 [[Second Temple]]
rect 341 103 392 121 [[Zugot]]
rect 393 103 453 121 [[Tannaim]]
rect 452 102 534 221 [[Amoraim]]
rect 534 102 560 121 [[Savoraim]]
rect 559 103 691 121 [[Geonim]]
rect 691 102 825 121 [[Rishonim]]
rect 825 100 940 120 [[Acharonim]]
rect 939 94 959 120 [[Aliyah|Aliyot]]
rect 957 65 975 121 [[Israel]]
rect 940 62 958 94 [[The Holocaust]]
rect 825 62 941 100 [[Jewish diaspora|Diaspora]]
rect 808 61 825 101 [[Alhambra decree|Expulsion from Spain]]
rect 428 62 808 103 [[Dispersion of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Roman exile]]
poly 226 82 410 82 410 92 428 92 428 61 226 62 [[Ten Lost Tribes|Assyrian Exile (Ten Lost Tribes)]]
rect 264 82 284 122 [[Babylonian captivity]]
rect 283 103 341 121 [[Second Temple of Jerusalem|Second Temple period]]
poly 26 121 17 121 17 63 225 63 226 81 145 82 145 101 26 101 [[Chronology of the Bible|Ancient Jewish History]]
rect 58 136 375 146 [[Chronology of the Bible]]
rect 356 122 373 135 [[Common Era]]
desc none
&lt;/imagemap&gt;

==قديم اسرائيل==
{{Main|يهوديت جي اصل}}
===شروعاتي بني اسرائيل===
{{Main|بني اسرائيل}}
[[File:Ruins atop Tel Megiddo with circular altar-like shrine and a series of temples on top of the other dating from the early bronze-age through the iron-age periods, Tel Meggido, Israel (19888642855).jpg|thumb|تل ميگيدو، هڪ ڪنعاني ۽ بعد ۾ اسرائيلي شهر جا کنڊر]]

ابتدائي يهودين ۽ انهن جي پاڙيسرين جي تاريخ، ميڊيٽرينين سمنڊ جي زرخيز هلال ۽ اوڀر ساحل تي مرڪز آهي. اها انهن ماڻهن سان شروع ٿئي ٿي جيڪا [[نيل درياھہ|نيل]] ۽ [[ميسوپوٽيميا]] جي وچ واري علائقي تي قبضو ڪيو هو. مصر ۽ بابل ۾ ثقافت جي قديم مرڪزن، عرب جي ريگستانن ۽ ايشيا ڪوچڪ جي ميدان جي اهي، ڪنعان جي زمين (تقريبن جديد اسرائيل، فلسطين، اردن ۽ لبنان سان ملندڙ جلندڙ) تهذيبن جي ميلاپ جو هنڌ هئي.

[[File:Map Israel Judea 926 BC-fr.svg|thumb|سال 926 ق.م. ۾ اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه جون بادشاهتون]]
اسرائيل جي نالي سان هڪ قوم جو سڀ کان پهريون رڪارڊ ٿيل ثبوت قديم مصر جي مرنيپتاه اسٽيلئ ۾ نظر اچي ٿو، جيڪو 1200 ق.م. جو آهي. جديد آثار قديمه جي حساب موجب، اسرائيلي ۽ انهن جي ثقافت هڪ الڳ مونولئٽرسٽڪ ۽ پوء توحيد پرست (monotheistic) مذهب جي ترقي ذريعي ڪنعاني ماڻهن ۽ انهن جي ثقافتن مان نڪتل هئي، جيڪا هڪ قومي خدا &quot;يهواه&quot; تي مرڪوز هو.&lt;ref&gt;Mark Smith in &quot;The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel&quot; states &quot;Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000&amp;nbsp;BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period.&quot; (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) &quot;The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel&quot; (Eerdman's)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rendsberg, Gary (2008). &quot;Israel without the Bible&quot;. In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Gnuse |first1=Robert Karl |title=No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel |date=1997 |publisher=Sheffield Academic Press Ltd |isbn=1-85075-657-0 |location=England |pages=28, 31}}&lt;/ref&gt; اها عبراني ٻولي جي هڪ قديم شڪل ڳالهائيندا هئا، جيڪا اڄ بائيبل جي عبراني جي نالي سان مشهور آهي.&lt;ref&gt;Steiner, Richard C. (1997), &quot;Ancient Hebrew&quot;, in Hetzron, Robert (ed.), ''The Semitic Languages'', Routledge, pp. 145–173, {{ISBN|978-0-415-05767-7}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

پهرين صدي قبل مسيح جي وچ کان، يهودين کي روايتي طور تي پنهنجي تاريخ جي جيڪا سمجھ هئي، اها عبراني بائيبل ۾ بيان ڪيل روايتن جي چوڌاري مرڪوز هئي. هن خيال موجب، ابراهيم (اهو ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته هو يهودين جو حياتياتي پيشوا ۽ يهوديت جو پيءُ آهي) پهريون يهودي آهي.{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=3}} بعد ۾ اسحاق ابراهيم مان پيدا ٿيو ۽ يعقوب اسحاق مان پيدا ٿيو. هڪ ملائڪ سان ويڙهه کان پوءِ، يعقوب کي اسرائيل جو نالو ڏنو ويو. سخت ڏڪار کانپوءِ، يعقوب ۽ سندس ٻارهن پٽ مصر ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي ويا، جتي انهن آخرڪار اسرائيل جا ٻارهن قبيلا ٺاهيا. بعد ۾ بني اسرائيل کي مصر جي غلامي مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ موسيٰ طرفان ڪنعان آندو ويو. انهن آخرڪار يوشع جي اڳواڻي ۾ ڪنعان کي فتح ڪيو.

جديد عالم متفق آهن ته بائيبل بني اسرائيل جي اصليت جو مستند احوال فراهم نٿو ڪري. اتفاق راءِ ان ڳالهه جي حمايت ڪري ٿو ته آثار قديمه جا ثبوت وڏي پيماني تي اسرائيل جي اصليت کي 1200 کان 1000 ق.م. ۾ ڪنعان ۾ ڏيکارين ٿا، مصر ۾ نه. اهو &quot;زبردست&quot; آهي ۽ &quot;مصر مان نڪرڻ يا سينائي ​​جي بيابان ذريعي 40 سالن جي زيارت لاءِ ڪا به گنجائش نه ٿو ڇڏي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dever-2002&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William G. |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8028-2126-3}} p. 99&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪيترا ئي آثار قديمه جا ماهر موسيٰ ۽ خروج جي آثار قديمه جي تحقيق کي &quot;هڪ بيڪار جستجو&quot; طور ڇڏي ڏنو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dever-2002&quot; /&gt; بهرحال، اهو قبول ڪيو ويو آهي، ته هن داستان جو هڪ &quot;تاريخي بنياد&quot; آهي.&lt;ref&gt;For more about the historicity of Jewish history as it pertains to [[Oral Torah|rabbinic]] sources, see {{cite journal |first1=Reuven Chaim |last1=Klein |date=2023 |title=Are historical sections of the Talmud actually historical? Critical tools for understanding historical claims in rabbinic literature |url=https://www.academia.edu/127965994 |journal=Journal of Philological Pedagogy |volume=12 |publisher=Chandler School of Education |pages=42–75 |doi=10.17613/rjp5a-md343 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Faust|2015|loc=p.476: &quot;While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt..&quot;}}{{sfn|Redmount|2001|p=61|ps=: &quot;A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative.&quot;}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2001 |isbn=3-927120-37-5 |pages=98–99 |quote=After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible &quot;historical figures&quot; [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.}}&lt;/ref&gt; آثار قديمه جي ماهرن ۽ مصريات جي ماهرن جي هڪ صدي جي تحقيق ۾ ڪو به ثبوت نه مليو آهي، جيڪو مصري قيد ۽ فرار ۽ بيابان مان سفر جي خروج جي داستان سان سڌو سنئون لاڳاپيل ٿي سگهي ٿو، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ اهو مشورو ڏنو ويو آهي ته لوهه جي دور جو اسرائيل - يهودا ۽ اسرائيل جي بادشاهتن جي اصل ڪنعان ۾ آهي، مصر ۾ نه.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |editor-last1=Finkelstein |editor-first1=Israel |editor-first2=Nadav |editor-last2=Naaman |title=From Nomadism to Monarchy: Archaeological and Historical Aspects of Early Israel |publisher=[[Israel Exploration Society]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-880317-20-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Compare: {{cite book |first=Ian |last=Shaw |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&amp;q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&amp;pg=PA313 |title=A Dictionary of Archaeology |author2=Robert Jameson |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-631-23583-5 |editor=Ian Shaw |edition=New |page=313 |quote=The Biblical account of the origins of the people of Israel (principally recounted in Numbers, Joshua and Judges) often conflicts with non-Biblical textual sources and with the archaeological evidence for the settlement of Canaan in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age. [...] Israel is first textually attested as a political entity in Egyptian texts of the late 13th century BCE and the Egyptologist Donald Redford argues that the Israelites must have been emerging as a distinct group within the Canaanite culture during the century or so prior to this. It has been suggested that the early Israelites were an oppressed rural group of Canaanites who rebelled against the more urbanized coastal Canaanites (Gottwald 1979). Alternatively, it has been argued that the Israelites were survivors of the decline in the fortunes of Canaan who established themselves in the highlands at the end of the late Bronze Age (Ahlstrom 1986: 27). Redford, however, makes a good case for equating the very earliest Israelites with a semi-nomadic people in the highlands of central Palestine whom the Egyptians called Shasu (Redford 1992:2689–80; although see Stager 1985 for strong arguments against the identification with the Shasu). These Shasu were a persistent thorn in the side of the Ramessid pharaohs' empire in Syria-Palestine, well-attested in Egyptian texts, but their pastoral lifestyle has left scant traces in the archaeological record. By the end of the 13th century BCE, however, the Shasu/Israelites were beginning to establish small settlements in the uplands, the architecture of which closely resembles contemporary Canaanite villages. |author-link=Israel, Israelites |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160406/https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&amp;q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&amp;pg=PA313 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; ابتدائي اسرائيلي آبادين جي ثقافت ڪنعاني آهي. انهن جي گروهي-شيون ڪنعاني ديوتا ايل، برتن، مقامي ڪنعاني روايت ۽ استعمال ٿيل الفابيٽ ابتدائي ڪنعاني آهن، ۾ رهي ٿو. &quot;اسرائيلي&quot; ڳوٺن کي ڪنعاني جڳهن کان ڌار ڪرڻ لاء واحد نشان سوئر جي هڏن جي غير موجودگي آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ڇا اهو نسلي نشان طور ورتو وڃي ٿو يا ٻين عنصرن جي ڪري آهي، اهو تڪرار جو موضوع رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Killebrew |first=Ann E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC |title=Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E. |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-58983-097-4 |location=Atlanta |page=176 |quote=Much has been made of the scarcity of pig bones at highland sites. Since small quantities of pig bones do appear in Late Bronze Age assemblages, some archaeologists have interpreted this to indicate that the ethnic identity of the highland inhabitants was distinct from Late Bronze Age indigenous peoples (see Finkelstein 1997, 227–230). Brian Hesse and Paula Wapnish (1997) advise caution, however, since the lack of pig bones at Iron I highland settlements could be a result of other factors that have little to do with ethnicity. |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=January 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117055402/https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

بائبل جي داستان مطابق، اسرائيل جي سرزمين ٻارهن قبيلن جي هڪ ڪنفيڊريشن ۾ منظم هئي جنهن تي ڪيترن ئي سؤ سالن تائين قاضين جي هڪ سلسلي جي حڪومت هئي.

=== قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهودا ===
&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; قديم اسرائيل جي تاريخ

=== Ancient Israel and Judah ===
{{Main|History of ancient Israel and Judah}}
[[File:LMLK, Ezekiah seals.jpg|thumb|A stamped bulla ([[LMLK seal]]) of [[Hezekiah]], &quot;Of Hezekiah (son of) Ahaz King of Judah&quot;, [[Israel Museum]]]]
Two Israelite kingdoms emerged during Iron Age II: [[Israel and Judah]]. The Bible portrays Israel and Judah as the successors of an earlier [[United Kingdom of Israel]], although [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)#Archaeological record|its historicity is disputed]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Zachary |date=April 22, 2016 |title=Debating the United Monarchy: Let's See How Far We've Come |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146107916639208 |journal=Biblical Theology Bulletin |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=59–69 |doi=10.1177/0146107916639208 |issn=0146-1079 |s2cid=147053561 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lipschits |first1=Oded |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |title=The Jewish Study Bible |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-997846-5 |editor1-last=Berlin |editor1-first=Adele |edition=2nd |pages=2107–2119 |language=en |chapter=The history of Israel in the biblical period |quote=As this essay will show, however, the premonarchic period long ago became a literary description of the mythological roots, the early beginnings of the nation and the way to describe the right of Israel on its land. The archeological evidence also does not support the existence of a united monarchy under David and Solomon as described in the Bible, so the rubric of &quot;united monarchy&quot; is best abandoned, although it remains useful for discussing how the Bible views the Israelite past. [...] Although the kingdom of Judah is mentioned in some ancient inscriptions, they never suggest that it was part of a unit {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} Israel and Judah. There are no extrabiblical indications of a united monarchy called &quot;Israel.&quot; |editor2-last=Brettler |editor2-first=Marc Zvi |access-date=August 19, 2022 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160917/https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Historians and archaeologists agree that the northern [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] existed from {{circa|900 BCE}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|169–195}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Wright |first1=Jacob L. |date=July 2014 |title=David, King of Judah (Not Israel) |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301164250/http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |archive-date=March 1, 2021 |access-date=May 15, 2021 |website=The Bible and Interpretation}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that the [[Kingdom of Judah]] existed from {{Abbr|ca.|circa}} 700 BCE.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 |date=April 9, 2023 }} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Tel Dan Stele]], discovered in 1993, shows that the kingdom, at least in some form, existed by the middle of the 9th century BCE, but it does not indicate the extent of its power.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kcVmBAEo5rcC&amp;pg=PA333 |title=Ahab Agonistes: The Rise and Fall of the Omri Dynasty |date=April 28, 2007 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-567-25171-8 |quote=The Tel Dan inscription generated a good deal of debate and a flurry of articles when it first appeared, but it is now widely regarded (a) as genuine and (b) as referring to the Davidic dynasty and the Aramaic kingdom of Damascus. |access-date=August 19, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Cline |first=Eric H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uGzRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA61 |title=Biblical Archaeology: A Very Short Introduction |date=September 28, 2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-971162-8 |quote=Today, after much further discussion in academic journals, it is accepted by most archaeologists that the inscription is not only genuine but that the reference is indeed to the House of David, thus representing the first allusion found anywhere outside the Bible to the biblical David. |access-date=August 19, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Mykytiuk |first=Lawrence J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eprY1Qd0veAC&amp;pg=PA113 |title=Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200-539 B.C.E. |date=January 1, 2004 |publisher=Society of Biblical Lit |isbn=978-1-58983-062-2 |quote=Some unfounded accusations of forgery have had little or no effect on the scholarly acceptance of this inscription as genuine.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Biblical tradition tells that the Israelite monarchy was established in 1037 BCE under [[Saul]], who was anointed by the prophet Samuel,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Who Was the First King of Israel? |url=https://shopisrael.com/blogs/about-israel/first-king-of-israel |access-date=February 5, 2025 |website=Shop Israel |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and continued under [[David]] and his son, [[Solomon]]. David greatly expanded the kingdom's borders and [[Siege of Jebus|conquered Jerusalem]] from the [[Jebusites]], turning it into the national, political and religious capital of the kingdom. Solomon, his son, later built the [[First Temple]] on [[Moriah|Mount Moriah]] in Jerusalem. Upon his death, traditionally dated to c. 930 BCE, a civil war erupted between the ten northern Israelite tribes, and the tribes of [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] ([[Tribe of Simeon|Simeon]] was absorbed into Judah) and [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]] in the south. The kingdom then split into the Kingdom of Israel in the north, and the Kingdom of Judah in the south.

The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two kingdoms and soon developed into a regional power.{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|pp=146-147|loc=Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power}} During the days of the [[Omride Dynasty|Omride dynasty]], it controlled [[Samaria]], [[Galilee]], the upper [[Jordan Valley]], the [[Sharon plain|Sharon]] and large parts of the [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |first=Israel |last=Finkelstein |title=The forgotten kingdom : the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |isbn=978-1-58983-910-6 |pages=74 |oclc=949151323}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Samaria (ancient city)|Samaria]], the capital, was home to one of the largest Iron Age palaces in the Levant.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |title=The Forgotten Kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-58983-911-3 |pages=65–66; 73; 78; 87–94 |oclc=880456140}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |date=November 1, 2011 |title=Observations on the Layout of Iron Age Samaria |url=https://doi.org/10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |journal=Tel Aviv |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=194–207 |doi=10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |issn=0334-4355 |s2cid=128814117 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; The kingdom of Israel was destroyed {{cx|720 BCE}}, when it was [[Samerina|conquered]] by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Kingdom of Judah, with its capital in [[Jerusalem]], controlled the [[Judaean Mountains]], the [[Shephelah]], the [[Judaean Desert]] and parts of the [[Negev]]. After the fall of Israel, Judah became a [[client state]] of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In the 7th century BCE, the kingdom's population increased greatly, prospering under [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] [[Vassal state|vassalage]], despite [[Hezekiah#Assyrian invasion|Hezekiah's revolt]] against the Assyrian king [[Sennacherib]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |editor-last=Ben-Sasson |editor-first=Haim Hillel |editor-link=H. H. Ben-Sasson |page=142 |quote=Sargon's heir, Sennacherib (705–681), could not deal with Hezekiah's revolt until he gained control of Babylon in 702 BCE.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Mesad Hashavyahu ostracon.jpg|thumb|ياون-يام آسٽراڪون، هڪ قديم عبراني لکت جيڪا يهوديه ۾ انتظاميه کي دستاويز ڪري ٿي.]]
هن دور ۾ عبراني بائيبل جا وڏا حصا لکيا ويا، جن ۾  ناحوم{{sfn|O'Brien|2002|p=14}}  ۽ زيفانياه{{sfn|Gelston|2003c|p=715}} سان گڏ  هوشيه، {{sfn|Kelle|2005|p=9}} يسعياه، {{sfn|Brettler|2010|pp=161–162}} عاموس{{sfn|Radine|2010|pp=71–72}} ۽ ميڪاه{{sfn|Rogerson|2003a|p=690}} جا ابتدائي حصا، استثناء جي تاريخ جو گهڻو حصو، {{sfn|Rogerson|2003b|p=154}} استثنا جي تاريخ جو پهريون ايڊيشن (يوشوا/ججز/سموئيل/بادشاهن جون ڪتابون) {{sfn|Campbell|O'Brien|2000|p=2 and fn.6}} ۽ حبقوق شامل آهن.{{sfn|Gelston|2003a|p=710}}

سال 605 ق.م ۾ نو-آشوري سلطنت جي خاتمي سان، مصر ۽ نو-بابلي سلطنت جي وچ ۾ [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|ليوانت]] (شام، اردن ۽ فلسطين) جي ڪنٽرول لاءِ طاقت جي جدوجهد پيدا ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bickerman |first=E. J. |title=Nebuchadnezzar And Jerusalem |date=January 1, 2007 |work=Studies in Jewish and Christian History (2 vols) |pages=961–974 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789047420729/Bej.9789004152946.i-1242_044.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004152946.i-1242.280 |isbn=978-90-474-2072-9 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; جن جي نتيجي ۾ يهوديه جي رياست جو تيزي سان زوال ٿيو. سال 601 ق.م ۾. يهوديه جي بادشاهه يهوياخم، جيڪو تازو ئي بابل جي تابع ٿيو هو، سلطنت جي خلاف بغاوت ڪئي. جلد ئي سندس پٽ، يهوياخن سندس جاءِ تي آيو، جنهن پنهنجي پيءُ جي پاليسي جاري رکيو ۽ بابلي حملي جو سامنا ڪيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; مارچ 597 ق.م. ۾. يهوياخن بابليين جي آڏو هٿيار ڦٽا ڪيا ۽ انهن کيس قيد ڪري بابل کڻي ويا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Galil |first=Gershon |date=1991 |title=The Babylonian Calendar and the Chronology of the Last Kings of Judah |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42611193 |journal=Biblica |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=367–378 |jstor=42611193 |issn=0006-0887 |quote=All the scholars, without exception, establish the date of the surrender of Jehoiachin, king of Judah, as the second day of Adar, the seventh year of Nebuchadnezzar II, king of Babylon (March 16, 597 BC), following the Babylonian chronicle ... This unique date is undoubtedly the most precise in Israelite history during the biblical period.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; هي شڪست بابلي تاريخن ۾ درج ٿيل آهي. پوءِ بابلي ماڻهن صدقياه، يهوياخن جي چاچي کي بادشاهه مقرر ڪيو. 

In March 597 BCE, Jehoiachin surrendered to the Babylonians and was taken captive to Babylon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; This defeat is documented in the [[Babylonian Chronicles]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BCE) |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030154541/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |archive-date=October 30, 2014 |access-date=October 30, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle) – Livius |url=https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505195611/https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html |archive-date=May 5, 2019 |access-date=March 26, 2020 |website=www.livius.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Zedekiah]], Jehoiachin's uncle, was then installed as king by the Babylonians.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt;

سال 587 يا 586 ق.م ۾، بخت نصر بيون يهوديه ۾ ٻي بغاوت جي جواب ۾، يروشلم جو گهيرو ڪيو ۽ تباهه ڪري ڇڏيو. پهرين مندر کي تباهه ڪيو ويو ۽ ان جي مقدس برتنن کي مال غنيمت جي طور تي ضبط ڪيو ويو. تباهي کان پوءِ وڏي پيماني تي جلاوطني ڪئي وئي. شهر جي بچيل رهاڪن کي آبادي جي ٻين حصن سميت، ميسوپوٽيميا ڏانهن کڻي ويا، جيڪا يهودي تاريخ ۾ &quot;بابلي قيد&quot; جي نالي سان مشهور دور جي شروعات جي نشاندهي ڪندي آهي. صدقياه پاڻ گرفتار ڪيو ويو، انڌو ڪيو ويو ۽ بابل ڏانهن منتقل ڪيو ويو. ٻيا مصر ڏانهن ڀڄي ويا. يهودين پنهنجي رياست ۽ جلاوطن ماڻهن، پنهنجو وطن وڃائي ڇڏيا. بادشاهت جي خاتمي کان پوءِ، اڳوڻي يهوديه بادشاهت کي بابلي سلطنت جي هڪ صوبي جي طور تي ملائي ڇڏيو ويو.


587 or 586 BCE, [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], responding to a second revolt in Judah, [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|besieged and destroyed Jerusalem]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Shalom |first1=N. |last2=Vaknin |first2=Y. |last3=Shaar |first3=R. |last4=Ben-Yosef |first4=E. |last5=Lipschits |first5=O. |last6=Shalev |first6=Y. |last7=Gadot |first7=Y. |last8=Boaretto |first8=E. |date=2023 |title=Destruction by fire: Reconstructing the evidence of the 586 BCE Babylonian destruction in a monumental building in Jerusalem |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305440323001036 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=157 |article-number=105823 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2023.105823 |bibcode=2023JArSc.157j5823S |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt; The [[First Temple]] was razed, and its sacred vessels were seized as spoils.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bedford |first=Peter Ross |title=Introduction |date=2001 |work=Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah |pages=1–39 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s004.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004498051_004 |isbn=978-90-04-49805-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; The destruction was followed by a mass exile: the surviving inhabitants of the city, including other segments of the population, were carried off to Mesopotamia,&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt; marking the onset of the era known in Jewish history as the &quot;[[Babylonian Captivity]]&quot;. Zedekiah himself was captured, blinded, and transported to Babylon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt; Others [[History of the Jews in Egypt|fled to Egypt]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} The people of Judah lost their statehood, and, for those in exile, their homeland.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001b&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bedford |first=Peter Ross |title=Living Without the Jerusalem Temple—In Judah and Babylonia |date=January 1, 2001 |work=Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah |page=42 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s005.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004498051_005 |isbn=978-90-04-49805-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Following the dissolution of the monarchy, the former kingdom was annexed as a province of the Babylonian Empire.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot; /&gt;

=== خروج ۽ بابل ۾ قيد (587 - 538 ق.م.) ===
{{Main|يهودين جي بابل ۾ قيد}}
[[File:Tissot The Flight of the Prisoners.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|قديم يهودين جو خروج ۽ [[بابل]] ڏانهن جلاوطني ۽ [[يروشلم]] ۽ [[سليمان عليہ السلام|سليمان]] جي مندر جي تباهي جو ڏيک. هڪ مصور پاران ]]يهوديه جي رياست جي زوال ۽ فارسي حڪمراني هيٺ وطن ڏانهن انهن جي واپسي جي وچ ۾ ڪيترن ئي ڏهاڪن دوران، يهودي تاريخ هڪ غير واضح مرحلي ۾ داخل ٿئي ٿي. ڪيترائي يهودي بابل (عراق)، ايلام (ايران) ۽ مصر ۾ جلاوطن ڪيا ويا، جڏهن ته ٻيا بابلي حڪمراني هيٺ يهوديه ۾ رهيا. يرمياه مصر ۾ برادرين جو حوالو ڏئي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ميگڊول، طهپانحيس، نوف ۽ پاٿروس ۾ آباديون شامل آهن. ان کانسواء، هڪ يهودي فوجي ڪالوني ايليفينٽائن ۾ موجود هئي، جيڪا جلاوطني کان اڳ قائم ڪئي وئي هئي، جتي انهن پنهنجو مزار ٺاهيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001b&quot; /&gt; توره جي باب استثنا کي وڌايو ويو ۽ اڳوڻي صحيفن کي جلاوطني جي دور ۾ ايڊٽ ڪيو ويو. يرمياه جو پهريون ايڊيشن، حزقيل جو ڪتاب، عبيدياه جو اڪثريت ۽ اها سڀ جن جو تحقيق ۾ &quot;ٻيو يسعياه&quot; جي نالي سان حوالو ڏنو ويو آهي، اهي سڀ هن دور ۾ لکيل هئا.

==هيڪل سليماني جي ٻيهر تعمير==
===&lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Post-exilic_period&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;هخامنشي دور (332 کان 538ع)&lt;!--&quot;Post-exilic period&quot;, &quot;Post-Exilic period&quot;, &quot;Post-exilic&quot;, &quot;Post-Exilic&quot;, Postexilic, &quot;Pre-exilic period&quot;, &quot;Pre-Exilic period&quot;, &quot;Pre-Exilic&quot; and &quot;Pre-exilic&quot; redirect here--&gt;===
[[File:109.Ezra Reads the Law to the People.jpg|thumb|[[عزير عليہ السلام|عزير]] ماڻهن کي [[توريت|تورات]] پڙهي ٻڌائي رهيو آهي. گستاو ڊور پاران پينٽنگ]]
عزير جي ڪتاب جي مطابق، [[سائرس اعظم|سائرس]] [[سائرس اعظم|اعظم]]، هخامنشي سلطنت جو بادشاهه، بابل جي فتح کان هڪ سال پوءِ،&lt;ref&gt;''Harper's Bible Dictionary'', ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper &amp; Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103&lt;/ref&gt; سال 538 ق.م ۾ بابلي جلاوطني جو خاتمو آندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Biu.ac.il22&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html|access-date=March 15, 2014|publisher=Biu.ac.il}}&lt;/ref&gt; واپس ڪندڙ يهودين جي اڳواڻي زربابل، [[داؤد عليہ السلام|دائود]] جي شاهي نسل مان هڪ شهزادو ۽ جوشوا، مندر جي اڳوڻي اعليٰ پادرين مان اولاد ڪئي، جنهن ٻئي مندر جي تعمير جي نگراني ڪيا، جيڪا سال &lt;small&gt;521&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;516&lt;/small&gt; ق.م. جي وچ ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Biu.ac.il2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html|access-date=March 15, 2014|publisher=Biu.ac.il}}&lt;/ref&gt;۽ هخامنشي سلطنت جي حصي جي طور تي، يهودين جي اڳوڻي بادشاهت، مختلف حدن سان، هڪ ننڍڙو علائقو ڍڪيندي، يهودين جو صوبو بڻجي وئي.&lt;ref&gt;Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew Yehuda, or &quot;Judah&quot;, and &quot;medinata&quot; the word for province&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Grabbe|first=Lester L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-MnE5T_0RbMC&amp;q=gave+the+Jews+permission+to+return+to+Yehud+province+and+to+rebuild+the&amp;pg=PA355|title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah|volume=1|publisher=T&amp;T Clark|year=2004|isbn=978-0-567-08998-4|page=355}}&lt;/ref&gt; همعصر عالم بتدريج واپسي جي عمل ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا، جيڪي 6هين صدي ق.م. جي آخر ۽ 5هين صدي ق.م. جي شروعات تائين وڌائي وئي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last=Lipschits|first=Oded|title=Judah in the Biblical Period|chapter=Between Archaeology and Text: A Reevaluation of the Development Process of Jerusalem in the Persian Period|date=March 18, 2024|page=374|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110487442-020/html|access-date=July 1, 2024|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110487442-020|isbn=978-3-11-048744-2}}&lt;/ref&gt; فارسي يهودين جي آبادي بادشاهت جي دور کان تمام گهٽجي وئي. آثار قديمه جا سروي پنجين ۽ چوٿين صدي ق.م. دوران تقريبن &lt;small&gt;'''30,000'''&lt;/small&gt; جي آبادي ڏيکارن ٿا. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|date=2001|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|isbn=0-684-86912-8|edition=1st Touchstone|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

آخري توريت کي وڏي پيماني تي فارسي دور (&lt;small&gt;539&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;کان 333&lt;/small&gt; ق.م يا &lt;small&gt;450-350&lt;/small&gt; ق.م.) جي پيداوار طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو،{{Sfn|Frei|2001|p=6}} هي اتفاق راءِ هڪ روايتي يهودي نظريي جو گونج آهي ته [[عزير عليہ السلام|عزير عليه السلام]]، بابل کان واپسي تي يهودي برادري جا اڳواڻ، تورات جي اشاعت ۾ هڪ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{sfn|Romer|2008|p=2 and fn.3}}

ٽي نبي، جيڪا يهودي روايت ۾ آخري سمجهيا وڃن ٿا هن دور ۾ سرگرم هئا: حجائي، زڪريا ۽ ملاڪي.&lt;ref&gt;[[Jerusalem Bible]] (1966), ''Haggai'', ''Zechariah'', ''Malachi'' in ''Introduction to the Prophets'', London: Darton, Longman &amp; Todd, pp. 1138–1140&lt;/ref&gt; بني اسرائيل جي آخري نبي جي وفات کانپوءِ ۽ اڃا تائين فارسي حڪمراني هيٺ، يهودي ماڻهن جي قيادت اڳواڻن جي پنجن مسلسل نسلن جي زگوٽ (جوڙن) جي هٿن ۾ منتقل ٿي وئي. اهي پهرين فارسين جي دور ۾ ۽ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾ ترقي ڪيا ۽ نتيجي طور تي، انهن مان ٻه گروه، فريسي ۽ صدوقي ٺهيا. فارسين جي دور ۾ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾، يهودي سڪا يهوديه ۾ يهودي سڪن جي طور تي ٺاهيا ويا.

=== Hellenistic period (c. 332–110 BCE) ===
{{Main|Hellenistic Judaism}}
[[File:Jews Byzantine Greek Alexander Manuscript (cropped).JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Alexander the Great]], clad as a [[Byzantine emperor]], receives a delegation of Jewish [[rabbi]]s. Miniature from the 14th-century ''Alexander Romance'']]

In 332 BCE, [[Alexander the Great]] of [[Macedon]] defeated the Persians. After Alexander's death and the division of his empire among his generals, the [[Seleucid Kingdom]] was formed.

The Alexandrian conquests spread Greek culture to the Levant. During this time, currents of Judaism were influenced by [[Hellenistic philosophy]] developed from the 3rd century BCE, notably the [[Jewish diaspora]] in [[Alexandrian Jews|Alexandria]], culminating in the compilation of the [[Septuagint]]. An important advocate of the symbiosis of Jewish theology and Hellenistic thought is [[Philo]].

=== Hasmonean dynasty (110–63 BCE) ===
{{Main|Hasmonean dynasty}}
[[File:John Hyrcanus.jpg|thumb|JUDAEA, Hasmoneans. John Hyrcanus I (Yehohanan). 135–104 BCE. Æ Prutah (13mm, 2.02&amp;nbsp;gm, 12h). &quot;Yehohanan the High Priest and the Council of the Jews&quot; (in Hebrew) in five lines within wreath / Double cornucopiae adorned with ribbons; pomegranate between horns; small A to lower left. Meshorer Group B, 11; Hendin 457.]]

Triggered by anti-Jewish decrees from Seleucid king [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] and tensions between Hellenized and conservative Jews, the [[Maccabean Revolt]] erupted in Judea in 167 BCE under the leadership of [[Mattathias]]. His son, [[Judas Maccabeus]], recaptured Jerusalem in 164 BCE, purifying the Second Temple and reinstating sacrificial worship.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atkinson-2016&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Atkinson |first=Kenneth |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/949219870 |title=A History of the Hasmonean State: Josephus and Beyond |date=2016 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-66902-5 |series=T&amp;T Clark Jewish and Christian texts series |location=London; New York |pages=2, 23–28 |oclc=949219870}}&lt;/ref&gt; The successful revolt eventually led to the formation of an independent Jewish state under the [[Hasmonean dynasty]], which lasted from 165 to 63 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;See:

*[[William David Davies]]. ''The Hellenistic Age''. Volume 2 of Cambridge History of Judaism. Cambridge University Press, 1989. {{ISBN|978-0-521-21929-7}}. pp. 292–312.
*Jeff S. Anderson. ''The Internal Diversification of Second Temple Judaism: An Introduction to the Second Temple Period''. University Press of America, 2002. {{ISBN|978-0-7618-2327-8}}. pp. 37–38.
*Howard N. Lupovitch. ''Jews and Judaism in World History''. Taylor &amp; Francis. 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-415-46205-1}}. pp. 26–30.&lt;/ref&gt;

Initially governing as both political leaders and High Priests, the [[Hasmoneans]] later assumed the title of kings. They employed military campaigns and diplomacy to consolidate power.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atkinson-2016&quot; /&gt; Under the rule of [[Alexander Jannaeus]] and [[Salome Alexandra]], [[Hasmonean Judea]] reached its zenith in size and influence. However, internal strife erupted between Salome Alexandra's sons, [[Hyrcanus II]] and [[Aristobulus II]], leading to civil war and appeals to Roman authorities for intervention. Responding to these appeals, Pompey led a Roman campaign of conquest and annexation, which marked the end of Hasmonean sovereignty and ushered in Roman rule over Judea.&lt;ref&gt;Hooker, Richard. {{cite web |title=The Hebrews: The Diaspora |url=http://www.wsu.edu:8000/~dee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM |access-date=April 7, 2018 |archive-date=August 29, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829230214/http://www.wsu.edu:8000/%7Edee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM |url-status=dead}}  World Civilizations Learning Modules.  Washington State University, 1999.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Roman period (63 BCE – 135 CE) ===
{{Main|Herodian dynasty|History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Roman Palestine|Judaea (Roman province)|Jewish–Roman wars}}
[[File:Monnaie - Prutah, bronze, Jérusalem, Judée, Mattathias Antigonos - btv1b8480202s (1 of 2).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Hasmonean coinage|Hasmonean coin]] of [[Antigonus II Mattathias]], depicting the [[Temple menorah]]]]

Judea had been an independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmoneans, but it was [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BCE)|conquered and reorganized as a client state by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE]]. [[Roman expansion]] was going on in other areas as well, and it would continue for more than a hundred and fifty years. Later, [[Herod the Great]] was appointed &quot;King of the Jews&quot; by the [[Roman Senate]], supplanting the Hasmonean dynasty. Some of his offspring held various positions after him, known as the [[Herodian dynasty]]. Briefly, from 4 BCE to 6 CE, [[Herod Archelaus]] ruled the [[Tetrarchy (Judea)|tetrarchy of Judea]] as [[ethnarch]], the Romans denying him the title of King.

After the [[Census of Quirinius]] in 6 CE, the [[Roman province of Judaea]] was formed as a satellite of [[Roman Syria]] under the rule of a [[prefect]] (as was [[Roman Egypt]]) until 41 CE, then [[Procurator (Roman)|procurators]] after 44 CE. The empire was often callous and brutal in its treatment of its Jewish subjects, (see [[Anti-Judaism#Pre-Christian Roman Empire|Anti-Judaism in the pre-Christian Roman Empire]]). In 30 CE (or 33 CE), [[Jesus of Nazareth]], an itinerant [[rabbi]] from [[Galilee]], and the central figure of [[Christianity]], was put to death by [[crucifixion]] in Jerusalem under the Roman prefect of [[Judaea]], [[Pontius Pilate]].&lt;ref&gt;Charlesworth, James H. (2008). The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide. {{ISBN|978-1-4267-2475-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For a short time Judea was reunited and semi-independent under [[Agrippa the Great]] who had good relations with both the Roman aristocracy and local Jewish citizens. After his death Judea was again annexed by Rome and his less popular son [[Herod Agrippa II]] was made ethnarch.&lt;ref&gt;Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, livre XVIII, § V, 4, (132).&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:19 Shrine of the Book 005 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of the [[Second Temple]], following renovations by [[Herod the Great|Herod]] in the 1st century CE]]
[[File:Roberts Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans]] (1850 painting by [[David Roberts (painter)|David Roberts]])]]

Roman oppressive rule, combined with economic, religious, and ethnic tensions, eventually led to the outbreak of the [[First Jewish–Roman War]], also known as the Great Revolt, in 66 CE. Future emperor [[Vespasian]] quelled the rebellion in [[Galilee]] by 67 CE, capturing key strongholds.&lt;ref&gt;Jensen, M. H. (2014). The Political History in Galilee from the First Century BCE to the end of the Second Century CE. ''Galilee in the late Second Temple and Mishnaic periods. Volume 1. Life, culture and society'', pp. 69-70. &quot;According to Jewish War, Vespasian laid siege to and conquered all the major strongholds of Galilee [...] Since the entire campaign was short and lasted only for some months in the spring and summer of 67, there is no reason to believe that Galilee was entirely devastated when the Romans set their course south. However, the places that were conquered, were in a typical Roman fashion levelled more or less to the ground and many people sold of as slaves.&lt;/ref&gt; He was succeeded by his son [[Titus]], who led the brutal [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|siege of Jerusalem]], culminating in the city's fall in 70 CE. The Romans burned Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Weksler-Bdolah |first=Shlomit |title=Aelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman period: in light of archaeological research |publisher=Brill |year=2019 |isbn=978-90-04-41707-6 |page=3 |oclc=1170143447 |quote=The historical description is consistent with the archeological finds. Collapses of massive stones from the walls of the Temple Mount were exposed lying over the Herodian street running along the Western Wall of the Temple Mount. The residential buildings of the Ophel and the Upper City were destroyed by great fire. The large urban drainage channel and the Pool of Siloam in the Lower City silted up and ceased to function, and in many places the city walls collapsed. [...] Following the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, a new era began in the city's history. The Herodian city was destroyed and a military camp of the Tenth Roman Legion established on part of the ruins.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Reich |first=Ronny |date=2009 |title=The Sack of Jerusalem in 70 CE: Flavius Josephus' Description and the Archaeological Record |script-title=he:חורבן ירושלים בשנת 70 לסה&quot;נ: תיאורו של יוסף בן מתתיהו והממצא הארכאולוגי  |journal=Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv |script-journal=he:קתדרה: לתולדות ארץ ישראל ויישובה |issue=131 |pages=25–42 |issn=0334-4657 |jstor=23407359}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Roman victory was celebrated with a [[Roman triumph|triumph]] in Rome, showcasing Jewish artefacts like the [[Temple menorah|menorah]], which were then put on display in the new [[Temple of Peace, Rome|Temple of Peace]].&lt;ref&gt;Huitink, Luuk. &quot;Between Triumph and Tragedy: Josephus, Bellum Judaicum 7.121–157.&quot; ''Reading Greek, Hellenistic and Roman spolia. Objects, appropriation and cultural change, Euhormos: Greco-Roman Studies in Anchoring Innovation. Leiden: Brill'' (2023). pp. 215–216, 234&lt;/ref&gt; The Flavian dynasty leveraged this victory for political gain, erecting monuments in Rome and minting [[Judaea Capta coinage|Judaea Capta coins]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Overman |first1=J. Andrew |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781134518326 |title=The First Jewish Revolt |last2=Overman |first2=J. Andrew |date=September 2, 2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-51832-6 |chapter=The First Revolt and Flavian politics |doi=10.4324/9780203167441}}&lt;/ref&gt; The war concluded with the [[siege of Masada]] (73–74 CE). The Jewish population suffered widespread devastation, with displacement, enslavement, and Roman confiscation of Jewish-owned land.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Herr |first=Moshe David |title=The History of Eretz Israel: The Roman Byzantine period: the Roman period from the conquest to the Ben Kozba War (63 B.C.E-135 C.E.) |publisher=Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi |year=1984 |editor-last=Shtern |editor-first=Menahem |location=Jerusalem |page=288}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The destruction of the Second Temple marked a cataclysmic event in Jewish history, triggering far-reaching transformations within Judaism.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Maclean Rogers |first=Guy |title=For the Freedom of Zion: The Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66–74 CE |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-300-26256-8 |location=New Haven and London |pages=3–5 |oclc=1294393934}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=Judaism in a Time of Crisis: Four Responses to the Destruction of the Second Temple |date=November 28, 2017 |work=Neusner on Judaism |pages=399–413 |editor-last1=Hinnells |editor-first1=John |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781351152761-20 |access-date=May 22, 2022 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781351152761-20 |isbn=978-1-351-15276-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Karesh-2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Karesh |first=Sara E. |title=Encyclopedia of Judaism |publisher=Facts On File |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-78785-171-9 |oclc=1162305378 |quote=Until the modern period, the destruction of the Temple was the most cataclysmic moment in the history of the Jewish people. Without the Temple, the Sadducees no longer had any claim to authority, and they faded away. The sage Yochanan ben Zakkai, with permission from Rome, set up the outpost of Yavneh to continue develop of Pharisaic, or rabbinic, Judaism.}}&lt;/ref&gt; With the central role of sacrificial worship obliterated, religious practices shifted towards [[Jewish prayer|prayer]], [[Torah study]], and communal gatherings in [[synagogue]]s. According to Rabbinic tradition, Yohanan ben Zakkai secured permission from the Romans to establish a center for Torah study in [[Yavne]]h, which then served as a focal point for Jewish religious and cultural life for a generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stemberger-2003&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Stemberger |first=Guenter |title=The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism, 70–640 CE |date=2003 |work=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism |pages=78–79 |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470758014.ch5 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Wiley |language=en |doi=10.1002/9780470758014.ch5 |isbn=978-1-57718-058-6 |editor2-last=Avery-Peck |editor2-first=Alan J. |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-judaism/3F4F0A32983FC0DCDB414553888DC394 |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |volume=4 |page=268 |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488 |quote=Under the leadership of R. Yohanan ben Zakkai and his circle at Yavneh, Judaism sought to reconstitute itself and find a new equilibrium in the face of the disaster of 70.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=Religion (Judentum: Palästinisches Judentum &amp;#91;Forts.&amp;#93;) |date=September 26, 2016 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-083904-3 |editor-last1=Haase |editor-first1=Wolfgang |language=de |chapter=The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism: Yavneh (Jamnia) from A.D. 70 to 100 |pages=3–42 |doi=10.1515/9783110839043-002 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110839043-002/html}}&lt;/ref&gt; Judaism also underwent a significant shift away from its sectarian divisions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Shaye J. D. |date=1984 |title=The Significance of Yavneh: Pharisees, Rabbis, and the End of Jewish Sectarianism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507609 |journal=Hebrew Union College Annual |volume=55 |page=29 |jstor=23507609 |issn=0360-9049 |quote=The goal was not the triumph over other sects but the elimination of the need for sectarianism itself. [...] The destruction of the temple provided the impetus for this process: it warned the Jews of the dangers of internal divisiveness and it removed one of the major focal points of Jewish sectarianism.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Jodi |last=Magness |title=Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History?: On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-04-21744-7 |editor-first=Daniel R. |editor-last=Schwartz |chapter=Sectarianism before and after 70 CE |editor-first2=Zeev |editor-last2=Weiss |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VecxAQAAQBAJ&amp;q=diaspora+70+ce&amp;pg=PA189}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Sadducees]] and [[Essenes]], two prominent sects in the late Second Temple period, faded into obscurity,&lt;ref name=&quot;Karesh-2006&quot; /&gt; while the traditions of the [[Pharisees]], including their halakhic interpretations, the centrality of the [[Oral Torah]], and [[Jewish eschatology|belief in resurrection]] became the foundation of [[Rabbinic Judaism]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Stemberger-2003&quot; /&gt;[[File:Arch of Titus Menorah.png|upright=1.15|thumb|The sack of Jerusalem depicted on the inside wall of the [[Arch of Titus]] in [[Rome]]]]

=== Diaspora during the Second Temple period ===
{{Main|Jewish diaspora}}
The [[Jewish diaspora]] existed well before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and had been ongoing for centuries, with the dispersal driven by both forced expulsions and voluntary migrations.&lt;ref&gt;[[Erich S. Gruen]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=t1IR4WtFjGUC&amp;pg=PA3 Diaspora: Jews Amidst Greeks and Romans] [[Harvard University Press]], 2009 pp. 3–4, 233–234: 'Compulsory dislocation, .…cannot have accounted for more than a fraction of the diaspora. … The vast bulk of Jews who dwelled abroad in the Second Temple Period did so voluntarily.' (2)' .Diaspora did not await the fall of Jerusalem to Roman power and destructiveness. The scattering of Jews had begun long before-occasionally through forced expulsion, much more frequently through voluntary migration.'&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Martin |title=A History of Judaism |date=2018 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-18127-1 |location=Princeton Oxford |pages=21, 232}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Mesopotamia, a testimony to the beginnings of the Jewish community can be found in [[Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets|Joachin's ration tablets]], listing provisions allotted to the exiled Judean king and his family by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], and further evidence are the [[Al-Yahudu Tablets|Al-Yahudu tablets]], dated to the 6th-5th centuries BCE and related to the exiles from Judea arriving after the destruction of the [[First Temple]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Luke |date=February 3, 2017 |title=Ancient tablets reveal life of Jews in Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203 |newspaper=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt; though there is ample evidence for the presence of Jews in Babylonia even from 626 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;Zadok R. Judeans in Babylonia–Updating the Dossier. in U. Gabbay and Sh. Secunda. (eds.). ''Encounters by the Rivers of Babylon: Scholarly Conversations between Jews, Iranians and Babylonians in Antiquity'', Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 160. Tübingen: MohrSiebeck. pp. 109–110.&lt;/ref&gt; In Egypt, the [[Elephantine papyri and ostraca|documents from Elephantine]] reveal the trials of a community founded by a Persian Jewish garrison at two fortresses on the frontier during the 5th-4th centuries BCE, and according to [[Josephus]] the Jewish community in Alexandria existed since the founding of the city in the 4th century BCE by [[Alexander the Great]].&lt;ref&gt;Josephus Flavius, ''Against Appion''. 4.II&lt;/ref&gt; By 200 BCE, there were well established Jewish communities both in Egypt and Mesopotamia (&quot;[[History of the Jews in Iraq|Babylonia]]&quot; in Jewish sources) and in the two centuries that followed, Jewish populations were also present in [[Asia Minor]], [[Greece]], [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]], [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]], and, beginning in the middle of the 1st century BCE, in the city of [[Rome]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=E. Mary |last=Smallwood |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period, Volume 3 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-521-24377-3 |editor1=William David Davies |chapter=The Diaspora in the Roman period before AD 70 |editor2=Louis Finkelstein |editor3=William Horbury |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AW2BuWcalXIC&amp;q=Diaspora+before+70&amp;pg=PA168}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot; /&gt;

In the first centuries CE, as a result of the [[Jewish–Roman wars]],&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot;&gt;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת &quot;עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום&quot;, ע&quot;מ 95. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth – &quot;The People of Israel – the history of 4000 years – from the days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty&quot;, 1981, p. 95)&lt;/ref&gt; a large number of Jews were taken as captives, sold into slavery, or compelled to flee from the regions affected by the wars, contributing to the formation and expansion of Jewish communities across the [[Roman Empire]] as well as in Arabia and Mesopotamia. Jewish communities across Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Egypt were almost entirely obliterated due to the harsh Roman response to the Diaspora Revolt.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006b&quot; /&gt;

The [[New Testament]] Book of [[Acts]], as well as other [[Pauline epistles|Pauline]] texts, make frequent reference to the large populations of [[Hellenized Jews]] in the cities of the Roman world. These Hellenized Jews were affected by the diaspora only in its spiritual sense, absorbing the feeling of loss and homelessness that became a cornerstone of the Jewish creed, much supported by persecutions in various parts of the world. Of critical importance to the reshaping of Jewish tradition from the Temple-based religion to the rabbinic traditions of the Diaspora, was the development of the interpretations of the Torah found in the [[Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]].

==تالمود وارو دور==
===پھرين يهودي بغاوت (115 کان 117ع)===
During the [[Diaspora Revolt]] (115–117 CE), [[Jewish diaspora]] communities across several eastern provinces of the [[Roman Empire]] engaged in widespread rebellion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006a&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=June 22, 2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |pages=93–106 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=September 8, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Driven by messianic fervor and hopes for the [[Gathering of Israel|ingathering of exiles]] and the [[Third Temple|reconstruction of the Temple]], these communities may have sought to spark a broader movement possibly aimed at returning to [[Judea]] and rebuilding Jerusalem.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Smallwood |first=E. Mary |title=The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian |publisher=SBL Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-90-04-50204-8 |pages=394–397}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Horbury |first=William |title=Jewish War under Trajan and Hadrian |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-139-04905-4 |pages=276}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Barclay |first=John M. G. |title=Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: from Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE) |date=1998 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-08651-8 |edition= |location=Edinburgh |pages=241}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient sources describe the revolt as extremely brutal, with cases of cannibalism and mutilation, though modern scholars often consider these accounts to be exaggerated.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006a&quot; /&gt; The Roman suppression of the revolt was marked by severe measures, including [[ethnic cleansing]], leading to the near-total destruction of Jewish diaspora communities in [[Roman Libya|Libya]], [[Roman Cyprus|Cyprus]] and [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last1=Kerkeslager |first1=Allen |title=The Diaspora from 66 to c. 235 ce |date=2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |volume=4 |pages=62–63 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/diaspora-from-66-to-c-235-ce/5AECAD54BE6CA31C7968EED92D6CA36A |access-date=September 10, 2024 |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.004 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |last2=Setzer |first2=Claudia |last3=Trebilco |first3=Paul |last4=Goodblatt |first4=David}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006b&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=June 22, 2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |page=98 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=September 8, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; including the significant and influential community in [[Alexandria]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot; /&gt;

===بار ڪوخبا بغاوت (132 کان 136ع===
{{Main|بار ڪوخبا بغاوت}}
[[File:Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg|thumb|A tetradrachm minted during the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], featuring the former Second Temple, a ''lulav'', and the slogan 'to the freedom of Jerusalem']]
From 132 to 136 CE, Judaea was the center of the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], triggered by Hadrian's decision to establish the pagan colony of [[Aelia Capitolina]] on the ruins of Jerusalem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Eck |first=Werner |editor-first1=Werner |editor-last1=Eck |title=Bar Kokhba |date=July 30, 2015 |work=Oxford Classical Dictionary |url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-1056 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1056 |isbn=978-0-19-938113-5 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Early successes led to the establishment of a short-lived Jewish state in Judea under the leadership of [[Simon Bar Kokhba]], styled as ''[[Nasi (Hebrew title)|nasi]]'' or prince of Israel.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt; The [[Bar Kokhba revolt coinage|rebel state's coinage]] proclaimed &quot;Freedom of Israel&quot; and &quot;For the Freedom of Jerusalem&quot;, using [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|ancient Hebrew script]] for nationalistic symbolism.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-1999&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Eck |first=Werner |date=1999 |title=The Bar Kokhba Revolt: The Roman Point of View |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-studies/article/abs/bar-kokhba-revolt-the-roman-point-of-view/27E95F52A627562F93178F17A51D5FD4 |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |volume=89 |pages=76, 80 |doi=10.2307/300735 |jstor=300735 |issn=1753-528X |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt; However, the Romans soon amassed six legions and additional auxiliaries under [[Julius Severus]], who then brutally crushed the uprising. Historical accounts report the destruction of fifty major strongholds and 985 villages, resulting in 580,000 Jewish deaths and widespread famine and disease.&lt;ref name=&quot;Raviv-2021&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Raviv |first1=Dvir |last2=David |first2=Chaim Ben |date=2021 |title=Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account? |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=585–607 |doi=10.1017/S1047759421000271 |issn=1047-7594 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Archaeological research confirms the widespread destruction and depopulation of the Jewish heartland in [[Judea]] proper, where most of the Jewish population was either killed, sold into slavery, expelled, or forced to flee.&lt;ref name=&quot;Raviv-2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=A. H. M. |title=The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces |publisher=Oxford |year=1971 |edition=2nd |pages=277 |quote=This provoked the last Jewish war, which seems from our meager accounts [...] to have resulted in the desolation of Judaea and the practical extermination of its Jewish population.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Mor|2016|pp=483–484}}: &quot;Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the [[Sicaricon|sikarikon laws]] were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The Romans also suffered heavy losses.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-1999&quot; /&gt; Post-revolt, Jews were prohibited from entering Jerusalem, and Hadrian issued religious edicts,&lt;ref&gt;Hanan Eshel,[[iarchive:cambridgehis xxxx 1984 004 8494287/page/n1082|&lt;!-- pg=105 --&gt; 'The Bar Kochba revolt, 132-135,']] in William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, Steven T. Katz (eds.) ''The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period,'' pp. 105-127, p. 105.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Eshel |first=Hanan |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=T. Katz |editor-first=Steven |volume=4. The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period  |pages=105–127 |chapter=4: The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132 – 135 |oclc=7672733}}&lt;/ref&gt; including a ban on circumcision, later repealed by [[Antoninus Pius]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} The province of Judaea was renamed [[Syria Palaestina]] as a punitive act against the Jews, aimed at placating non-Jewish residents and erasing Jewish historical ties to the land.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, {{ISBN|0-674-39731-2}}, page 334: &quot;In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ariel Lewin. ''The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine''. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. &quot;It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land.&quot; {{ISBN|0-89236-800-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; Christians refused to participate in the revolt and from this point the Jews regarded Christianity as a separate religion.&lt;ref&gt;M. Avi-Yonah, ''The Jews under Roman and Byzantine Rule'', Jerusalem 1984 p. 143&lt;/ref&gt; The Jewish defeat marked the termination of efforts to reestablish a Jewish state until the modern era.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |title=An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History And Religion Of The Jews In The Time Of Nehemiah, The Maccabees, Hillel, And Jesus |date=2010 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-55248-8 |location=Edinburgh |page=78 |quote=It was the total defeat and the massive destruction of the 132–35 war which put paid to any hopes of a revived Jewish state for another 1800 years.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A rabbi of this period, [[Simeon bar Yochai]], is regarded as the author of the [[Zohar]], the foundational text for Kabbalistic thought. However, modern scholars believe it was written in Medieval Spain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |title=Zohar |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&amp;letter=Z#406 |access-date=May 19, 2014 |last=Jacobs |first=Joseph |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007024121/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&amp;letter=Z#406 |archive-date=October 7, 2011 |author2=Broydé, Isaac |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Late Roman period in the Land of Israel ===
{{further|Byzantine Palestine|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}}
The relations of the Jews with the Roman Empire in the region continued to be complicated. [[Constantine the Great and Judaism|Constantine I]] allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once a year on [[Tisha B'Av]] at the [[Western Wall]]. In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched [[Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus|yet another revolt]], provoking heavy retribution.&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lazare and Robert Wistrich, Antisemitism: Its History and Causes, University of Nebraska Press, 1995, I, pp. 46–47.&lt;/ref&gt; The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the [[Constantinian dynasty]]. In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]], the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who unlike his predecessors defied Christianity. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sasanian Persia, in keeping with his effort to foster religions other than Christianity, he ordered the Jewish Temple rebuilt.&lt;ref&gt;Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'', 23.1.2–3.&lt;/ref&gt; The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic [[Galilee earthquake of 363]] and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire. Divine intervention was the common view among Christian historians of the time.&lt;ref&gt;See [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html &quot;Julian and the Jews 361–363 CE&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520080932/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html |date=May 20, 2012 }} (Fordham University, The Jesuit University of New York) and [https://web.archive.org/web/20051020130904/http://www.gibsoncondo.com/~david/convert/history.html &quot;Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple&quot;].&lt;/ref&gt; Julian's support of Jews caused Jews to call him &quot;Julian the [[Hellenes (religion)|Hellene]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Falk |first1=Avner |title=A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews |year=1996 |pages=343 |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press |isbn=978-0-8386-3660-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z10-Xz9Kno4C&amp;q=julian&amp;pg=PA343 |access-date=August 3, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Julian's fatal wound in the Persian campaign and his consequent death had put an end to Jewish aspirations, and Julian's successors embraced Christianity through the entire timeline of Byzantine rule of Jerusalem, preventing any Jewish claims.

In 438 CE, when the Empress [[Licinia Eudoxia|Eudocia]] removed the ban on Jews' praying at the [[Temple Mount|Temple site]], the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call &quot;to the great and mighty people of the Jews&quot; which began: &quot;Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!&quot; However, the Christian population of the city, who saw this as a threat to their primacy, did not allow it and a riot erupted after which they chased away the Jews from the city.&lt;ref&gt;Avraham Yaari, ''Igrot Eretz Yisrael'' (Tel Aviv, 1943), p. 46.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Andrew S. Jacobs |title=Remains of the Jews: The Holy Land and Christian Empire in Late Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8O95ErDSZQgC&amp;pg=PA157 |year=2004 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-4705-9 |page=157 |access-date=April 19, 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of [[Samaritan Revolts|Samaritan insurrections]] broke out across the [[Palaestina Prima]] province. Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in almost the entire annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the Samaritan [[Samaritan Revolts|Revolt of 556]] was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered a brutal suppression of Israelite religion.

In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an [[Jewish revolt against Heraclius|alliance]] with the [[Sassanid Empire|Persians]], who invaded Palaestina Prima in 614, fought at their side, overwhelmed the [[Byzantine]] garrison in Jerusalem, and were given Jerusalem to be governed as an autonomy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Itineraria Phoenicia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&amp;q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&amp;pg=PA542 |author=Edward Lipiński |publisher=Peeters |pages=542–543 |year=2004 |isbn=978-90-429-1344-8 |access-date=March 11, 2014 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409161013/https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&amp;q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&amp;pg=PA542 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, their autonomy was brief: the [[Nehemiah ben Hushiel|Jewish leader]] in Jerusalem was shortly assassinated during a Christian revolt and though Jerusalem was reconquered by Persians and Jews within 3 weeks, it fell into anarchy. With the consequent withdrawal of Persian forces, Jews surrendered to Byzantines in 625 or 628 CE, but were massacred by Christian radicals in 629 CE, with the survivors fleeing to Egypt. The Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) control of the region was finally lost to the Muslim Arab armies in 637 CE, when [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] completed the conquest of Akko.

=== Jews of pre-Muslim Babylonia (219–638 CE) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in Iraq}}

After the fall of Jerusalem, Babylonia would become the focus of Judaism for more than a thousand years. The first Jewish communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by [[Jehoiachin]] in 597 BCE as well as after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; Many more Jews migrated to Babylon in 135 CE after the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] and in the centuries after.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; Babylonia, where some of the largest and most prominent Jewish cities and communities were established, became the centre of Jewish life up to the 13th century. By the 1st century, Babylonia already held a speedily growing&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; population of an estimated 1,000,000 Jews, which increased to an estimated 2 million&lt;ref name=&quot;Solomon Gryazel&quot;&gt;Solomon Gryazel, ''History of the Jews: From the destruction of Judah in 586 BCE to the present Arab Israeli conflict'', p. 137.&lt;/ref&gt; between the years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from Judea, making up about 1/6 of the world Jewish population at that era.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solomon Gryazel&quot; /&gt; It was there that they would write the Babylonian Talmud in the languages used by the Jews of ancient Babylonia: [[Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]]. The Jews established [[Talmudic Academies in Babylonia]], also known as the Geonic Academies (from &quot;Geonim&quot;, meaning &quot;splendour&quot; in Biblical Hebrew or &quot;geniuses&quot;), which became the centre for Jewish scholarship and the development of Jewish law in Babylonia from roughly 500 CE to 1038 CE. The two most famous academies were the [[Pumbedita Academy]] and the [[Sura Academy]]. Major yeshivot were also located at [[Nehardea]] and Mahuza.&lt;ref&gt;''Codex Judaica'', pp. 161–174, Kantor, Zichron Press, NY 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; The Talmudic [[Yeshiva]] Academies became a main part of Jewish culture and education, and Jews continued establishing Yeshiva Academies in Western and Eastern Europe, North Africa, and in later centuries, in America and other countries around the world where Jews lived in the Diaspora. Talmudic study in Yeshiva academies, most of them located in The United States and Israel, continues today.

These Talmudic [[Yeshiva]] academies of Babylonia followed the era of the [[Amoraim]] (expounders)—the sages of the Talmud who were active (both in Judah and in Babylon) during the end of the era of the sealing of the [[Mishnah]] and until the times of the sealing of the Talmud (220–500 CE), and following the [[Savoraim]] (reasoners)—the sages of beth midrash (Torah study places) in Babylon from the end of the era of the Amoraim (5th century) and until the beginning of the era of the [[Geonim]]. The Geonim were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura and Pumbedita, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of the worldwide Jewish community in the early medieval era, in contrast to the [[Resh Galuta]] (Exilarch) who wielded secular authority over the Jews in Islamic lands. According to traditions, the [[Resh Galuta]] were descendants of Judean kings, which is why the kings of [[Parthia]] would treat them with much honour.&lt;ref&gt;[מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס. רותת &quot;עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום&quot;, ע&quot;מ 97. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth ''The People of Israel: The History of 4,000 Years, from the Days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty'', 1981, p. 97)&lt;/ref&gt;

For the Jews of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the yeshivot of Babylonia served much the same function as the ancient [[Sanhedrin]]—that is, as a council of Jewish religious authorities. The academies were founded in pre-Islamic Babylonia under the Zoroastrian Sassanid dynasty and were located not far from the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, which at that time was the largest city in the world. After the conquest of Persia in the 7th century, the academies subsequently operated for four hundred years under the Islamic caliphate. The first gaon of Sura, according to [[Sherira Gaon]], was Mar bar Rab Chanan, who assumed office in 609. The last gaon of [[Sura]] was [[Samuel ben Hofni]], who died in 1034; the last gaon of Pumbedita was [[Hezekiah Gaon]], who was tortured to death in 1040; hence the activity of the Geonim covers a period of nearly 450 years.

One of principal seats of Babylonian Judaism was [[Nehardea]], which was then a very large city made up mostly of Jews.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; A very ancient synagogue, built, it was believed, by King Jehoiachin, existed in Nehardea. At Huzal, near Nehardea, there was another synagogue, not far from which could be seen the ruins of Ezra's academy. In the period before Hadrian, Akiba, on his arrival at Nehardea on a mission from the Sanhedrin, entered into a discussion with a resident scholar on a point of matrimonial law (Mishnah Yeb., end). At the same time there was at Nisibis (northern [[Mesopotamia]]), an excellent Jewish college, at the head of which stood [[Judah ben Bathyra]], and in which many Judean scholars found refuge at the time of the persecutions. A certain temporary importance was also attained by a school at [[Nehar Pekod|Nehar-Pekod]], founded by the Judean immigrant Hananiah, nephew of [[Joshua ben Hananiah]], which school might have been the cause of a schism between the Jews of Babylonia and those of Judea-Israel, had not the Judean authorities promptly checked Hananiah's ambition.

=== Byzantine period (324–638 CE) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}}

Jews were also widespread throughout the Roman Empire, and this carried on to a lesser extent in the period of Byzantine rule in the central and eastern Mediterranean. The militant and exclusive Christianity and [[caesaropapism]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] did not treat Jews well, and the condition and influence of diaspora Jews in the Empire declined dramatically.

It was official Christian policy to convert Jews to Christianity, and the Christian leadership used the official power of Rome in their attempts. In 351 CE the Jews revolted against the added pressures of their governor, [[Constantius Gallus]]. Gallus put down the revolt and destroyed the major cities in the Galilee area where the revolt had started. Tzippori and Lydda (site of two of the major legal academies) never recovered.

In this period, the Nasi in Tiberias, [[Hillel II]], created an official calendar, which needed no monthly sightings of the moon. The months were set, and the calendar needed no further authority from Judea. At about the same time, the Jewish academy at Tiberius began to collate the combined Mishnah, [[braitot]], explanations, and interpretations developed by generations of scholars who studied after the death of [[Judah HaNasi]]. The text was organized according to the order of the Mishna: each paragraph of Mishnah was followed by a compilation of all of the interpretations, stories, and responses associated with that Mishnah. This text is called the ''[[Jerusalem Talmud]].''

The Jews of Judea received a brief respite from official persecution during the rule of the Emperor [[Julian the Apostate]]. Julian's policy was to return the Roman Empire to Hellenism, and he encouraged the Jews to rebuild Jerusalem. As Julian's rule lasted only from 361 to 363, the Jews could not rebuild sufficiently before Roman Christian rule was restored over the Empire. Beginning in 398 with the consecration of [[St. John Chrysostom]] as [[Patriarch]], Christian rhetoric against Jews grew sharper; he preached sermons with titles such as &quot;Against the Jews&quot; and &quot;On the Statues, Homily 17&quot;, in which John preaches against &quot;the Jewish sickness&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Wendy Mayer and [[Pauline Allen]], ''John Chrysostom: The Early Church Fathers'' (London, 2000), pp. 113, 146.&lt;/ref&gt; Such heated language contributed to a climate of Christian distrust and hate toward the large Jewish settlements, such as those in [[Antioch]] and [[Constantinople]].

In the beginning of the 5th century, the [[Emperor Theodosius]] issued a set of decrees establishing official persecution of Jews. Jews were not allowed to own slaves, build new synagogues, hold public office or try cases between a Jew and a non-Jew. Intermarriage between Jew and non-Jew was made a capital offence, as was the conversion of Christians to Judaism. Theodosius did away with the [[Sanhedrin]] and abolished the post of [[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]]. Under the [[Emperor Justinian]], the authorities further restricted the civil rights of Jews,&lt;ref&gt;Cod., I., v. 12&lt;/ref&gt; and threatened their religious privileges.&lt;ref&gt;Procopius, ''Historia Arcana'', 28&lt;/ref&gt; The emperor interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue,&lt;ref&gt;Nov., cxlvi., February 8, 553&lt;/ref&gt; and forbade, for instance, the use of the Hebrew language in divine worship. Those who disobeyed the restrictions were threatened with corporal penalties, exile, and loss of property. The Jews at Borium, not far from Syrtis Major, who resisted the Byzantine general [[Belisarius]] in his campaign against the [[Vandals]], were forced to embrace Christianity, and their synagogue was converted to a church.&lt;ref&gt;Procopius, ''De Aedificiis'', vi. 2&lt;/ref&gt;

Justinian and his successors had concerns outside the province of Judea, and he had insufficient troops to enforce these regulations. As a result, the 5th century was a period when a wave of new synagogues were built, many with beautiful mosaic floors. Jews adopted the rich art forms of the Byzantine culture. Jewish mosaics of the period portray people, animals, menorahs, zodiacs, and Biblical characters. Excellent examples of these synagogue floors have been found at Beit Alpha (which includes the scene of Abraham sacrificing a ram instead of his son Isaac along with a zodiac), Tiberius, Beit Shean, and Tzippori.

The precarious existence of Jews under Byzantine rule did not long endure, largely due to the explosion of the Muslim religion out of the remote Arabian peninsula (where large populations of Jews resided, see [[History of the Jews under Muslim Rule]] for more). The [[Muslim]] [[Caliphate]] ejected the Byzantines from the Holy Land (or the Levant, defined as modern Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria) within a few years of their victory at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] in 636. Numerous Jews fled the remaining Byzantine territories in favour of residence in the Caliphate over the subsequent centuries.

The size of the Jewish community in the Byzantine Empire was not affected by attempts by some emperors to forcibly convert the Jews of Anatolia to Christianity, as these attempts met with very little success.&lt;ref&gt;[[G. Ostrogorsky]], ''History of the Byzantine State''&lt;/ref&gt; Historians continue to research the status of the Jews in Asia Minor under Byzantine rule. (for a sample of views, see, for instance, J. Starr ''The Jews in the Byzantine Empire, 641–1204''; S. Bowman, ''The Jews of Byzantium''; R. Jenkins ''Byzantium''; Averil Cameron, &quot;Byzantines and Jews: Recent Work on Early Byzantium&quot;, ''Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies'' 20 (1996)). No systematic persecution of the type endemic at that time in Western Europe (pogroms, the stake, mass [[Expulsions and exoduses of Jews|expulsions]], etc.) has been recorded in Byzantium.&lt;ref&gt;''The Oxford History of Byzantium'', C. Mango (Ed) (2002)&lt;/ref&gt; Much of the Jewish population of Constantinople remained in place after the conquest of the city by [[Mehmet II]].{{citation needed|date=November 2013}}

&lt;gallery widths=&quot;180&quot;&gt;
File:Roman. Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog, 6th century C.E.jpg|''Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog'', 6th century [[Brooklyn Museum]]
File:Beit alfa01.jpg|Mosaic pavement of a synagogue at [[Beit Alpha]] (5th century)
File:ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg|Mosaic in the [[Tzippori Synagogue]] (5th century)
File:Hammat Gader.JPG|Mosaic pavement recovered from the [[Hamat Gader]] synagogue (5th or 6th century)
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Diaspora communities ===
[[File:Arrival of the Jewish pilgrims at Coachin, A.D. 68.jpg|thumb|Arrival of the Jewish pilgrims at Cochin, 68 CE]]
Cochin Jewish tradition holds that the roots of their community go back to the arrival of Jews at [[Kodungallur|Shingly]] in 72 CE, after the [[Destruction of the Second Temple]]. It also states that a Jewish kingdom, understood to mean the granting of autonomy by a local [[Tamils|Tamil]] king, [[Cheraman Perumal Nayanar]], to the community, under their leader Joseph Rabban, in 379 CE. The first synagogue there was built in 1568. The legend of the founding of Indian [[Christianity in Kerala]] by [[Thomas the Apostle]] relates that on his arrival there, he encountered a local girl who understood Hebrew.&lt;ref&gt;Nathan Katz, [https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA22 ''Who Are the Jews of India?,''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160937/https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA22|date=April 9, 2023}} [[University of California Press]], 2000 {{isbn|978-0-520-92072-9}} pp. 13–14, 17–18&lt;/ref&gt;

Perhaps in the 4th century, the [[Kingdom of Semien]], a Jewish nation in modern [[Beta Israel|Ethiopia]] was established, lasting until the 17th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exploring a Forgotten Jewish Land – Archaeology Magazine |url=https://www.archaeology.org/issues/498-2301/letter-from/11057-ethiopia-beta-israel |access-date=November 9, 2023 |website=www.archaeology.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وچين دور==
===اسلامي دور===
[[File:Education (T-S K5.13) (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|قاهره جينيزا جو ٽڪرو، ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي لائبريري&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Cairo Genizah : Education|url=https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-TS-K-00005-00013|access-date=2025-10-18|website=Cambridge Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
سال 638 عيسوي ۾ [[بازنطيني سلطنت]] [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سر زمين شام]] جو ڪنٽرول وڃائي ڇڏيو. خليفي [[عمر بن خطاب|عمر]] [[عمر بن خطاب|رضي الله تعالى عنه]] جي اڳواڻي ۾ [[پهرين اسلامي رياست|عرب اسلامي سلطنت]] [[يروشلم]]، [[ميسوپوٽيميا]]، [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سر زمين شام]] ([[شام]]، [[اردن]] ۽ [[فلسطين]]) ۽ [[مصر]] جي زمينن کي فتح ڪيو. هڪ سياسي نظام جي طور تي، [[اسلام]] يهودين جي معاشي، سماجي ۽ ذهني ترقي لاءِ بنيادي طور تي نوان حالات پيدا ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;Ehrlich, Mark. ''Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1''. ABC-CLIO, 2009, p. 152.({{ISBN|978-1-85109-873-6}})&lt;/ref&gt;عمر رضي الله تعالى عنه يهودين کي، 500 سالن جي وقفي کان پوءِ، [[يروشلم]] ۾ پنهنجي موجودگي کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني (ڏسو:عمر جي يقين دهاني).&lt;ref name=&quot;Bashan-20072&quot;&gt;{{cite EJ|last=Bashan|first=Eliezer|volume=15|page=419|title=Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي روايتون عمر کي هڪ مهربان حڪمران جي طور تي ڏسي ٿي ۽ مدراش (&lt;small&gt;نست&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;اروت دي-راو شمعون بار يوحائي&lt;/small&gt;) کيس &quot;بني اسرائيل جي دوست&quot; طور حوالو ڏئي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bashan-20073&quot;&gt;{{cite EJ|last=Bashan|first=Eliezer|volume=15|page=419|title=Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

عرب جاگرافيدان المقدسي جي مطابق، &lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land|author=Joseph E. Katz|year=2001|publisher=EretzYisroel.Org|access-date=August 12, 2012|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي &quot;سڪن جي چڪاس ڪندڙ، رنگ ڪندڙ، چمڙي جا ماهر ۽ مهاجن&quot; طور ڪم ڪندا هئا. [[فاطمي خلافت|فاطمي دور]] ۾، ڪيترن ئي يهودي عملدارن حڪومت ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏنيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-20013&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land|author=Joseph E. Katz|year=2001|publisher=EretzYisroel.Org|access-date=August 12, 2012|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; پروفيسر موشئ گل جو خيال آهي، ته 7هين صدي ۾ عرب فتح جي وقت، يروشلم جي آبادي جي اڪثريت عيسائي ۽ يهودي هئي.&lt;ref&gt;Moshe Gil, ''A History of Palestine: 634–1099'' pp. 170, 220–221.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن وقت دوران يهودي سڄي قديم بابل ۾ خوشحال برادرين ۾ رهندا هئا. جيونڪ دور (650-1250 عيسوي) ۾، بابلي يشيوا اڪيڊميون يهودي سکيا جا مکيه مرڪز هئا. جيونم (جن جو معنيٰ آهي &quot;شان&quot; يا &quot;جينيئس&quot;) انهن اسڪولن جا سربراهه هئا. انهن کي يهودي قانون ۾ اعليٰ اختيارين طور تسليم ڪيو ويو. 7هين صدي ۾، غير مسلمن جي زمينن تي حڪمران جزيو (&lt;small&gt;Poll&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Tax&lt;/small&gt;) عائد ڪيو، جن جي ڪري بابلي يهودين جي ڳوٺاڻن علائقن مان [[بغداد]] جهڙن شهرن ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. ان جي نتيجي ۾ يهودي برادري ۾ وڌيڪ دولت ۽ بين الاقوامي اثر ۽ انهي سان گڏ يهودي مفڪرن جو هڪ وڌيڪ عالمگير نقطه نظر،جهڙوڪ سعديه گاون، جيڪو هاڻي پهريون ڀيرو مغربي فلسفي سان تمام گهڻي دلچسپي رکن ٿا، پيدا ٿيو.  جڏهن 10هين صدي ۾ [[عباسي خلافت]] ۽ بغداد شهر جو زوال ٿيو، ڪيترائي بابلي يهودي [[رومي (ڀونوچ) سمنڊ|رومي ڀونوچ سمنڊ]] جي علائقن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪيا. سڄي يهودي دنيا ۾ بابلي يهودي رسمن جي پکيڙ ۾ حصو ورتو.&lt;ref&gt;[[Marina Rustow]], [http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/ Baghdad in the West: Migration and the Making of Medieval Jewish Traditions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711065105/http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/|date=July 11, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور (711-1031) ===
&lt;nowiki&gt;{{اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[[اندلس]] ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور [[يُورَپ|يورپ]] ۾ [[وچون دور|وچين دور]] سان گڏ هو، جيڪو سڃي [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|جزيري نما آئبيريا]] تي مسلمانن جي حڪمراني جو دور هو.

=== Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain (711–1031) ===
{{Main|Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain}}
The golden age of Jewish culture in Spain coincided with the [[Middle Ages]] in Europe, a period of [[Al-Andalus|Muslim rule]] throughout much of the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. During that time, Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed.

A period of tolerance thus dawned for the Jews of the [[Iberian Peninsula]], whose number was considerably augmented by immigration from Africa in the wake of the Muslim conquest. Especially after 912, during the reign of [[Abd-ar-Rahman III]] and his son, [[al-Hakam II]], the Jews prospered, devoting themselves to the service of the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]], to the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially to trading in silk and slaves, in this way promoting the prosperity of the country. Jewish economic expansion was unparalleled. In [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], Jews were involved in translating Arabic texts to the [[Romance languages]], as well as translating Greek and Hebrew texts into Arabic. Jews also contributed to botany, geography, medicine, mathematics, poetry and philosophy.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sephardim Archived September 7&quot;&gt;[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html Sephardim] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |date=September 7, 2012 }} by Rebecca Weiner.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ahmed, M.I. Muslim-Jewish Harmony: A Politically-Contingent Reality. Religions 2022, 13, 535. {{doi|10.3390/rel13060535|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to [[Bernard Lewis]]:

{{Blockquote|Generally, the Jewish people were allowed to practice their religion and live according to the laws and scriptures of their community. Furthermore, the restrictions to which they were subject were social and symbolic rather than tangible and practical in character. That is to say, these regulations served to define the relationship between the two communities, and not to oppress the Jewish population.&lt;ref&gt;Lewis, Bernard W (1984). ''The Jews of Islam''&lt;/ref&gt;|}}

'Abd al-Rahman's court physician and minister was Hasdai ben Isaac ibn Shaprut, the patron of Menahem ben Saruq, Dunash ben Labrat, and other Jewish scholars and poets. Jewish thought during this period flourished under famous figures such as Samuel Ha-Nagid, Moses ibn Ezra, Solomon ibn Gabirol [[Judah Halevi]] and [[Moses Maimonides]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Sephardim Archived September 7&quot; /&gt; During 'Abd al-Rahman's term of power, the scholar [[Moses ben Enoch]] was appointed [[rabbi]] of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], and as a consequence [[al-Andalus]] became the centre of Talmudic study, and [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] the meeting-place of Jewish savants.

The Golden Age ended with the invasion of al-Andalus by the [[Almohads]], a conservative dynasty originating in North Africa, who were highly intolerant of religious minorities.

=== Jews and the Crusades (1099–1260) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews and the Crusades}}
{{See also|Siege of Jerusalem (1099)}}
[[File:1099jerusalem.jpg|thumb|left|[[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|Capture of Jerusalem]], 1099]]
Sermonical messages to avenge the death of Jesus encouraged Christians to participate in the Crusades. The 12th-century Jewish narration from R. Solomon ben Samson records that crusaders en route to the Holy Land decided that before combating the Ishmaelites they would massacre the Jews residing in their midst to avenge the [[crucifixion of Christ]]. The massacres began at [[Rouen]] and Jewish communities in [[Rhine Valley]] were seriously affected.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/413 413]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Crusading attacks were made upon Jews in the territory around Heidelberg. A huge loss of Jewish life took place. Many were forcibly converted to Christianity and many committed suicide to avoid baptism. A major driving factor behind the choice to commit suicide was the Jewish realisation that upon being slain their children could be taken to be raised as Christians. The Jews were living in the middle of Christian lands and felt this danger acutely.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/416 416]}}&lt;/ref&gt; This massacre is seen as the first in a sequence of antisemitic events which culminated in the Holocaust.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=David Nirenberg |editor=Gerd Althoff |others=Johannes Fried |title=Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual, Memory, Historiography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MxS6-pQZzGsC&amp;pg=PA279 |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-78066-7 |pages=279–}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jewish populations felt that they had been abandoned by their Christian neighbours and rulers during the massacres and lost faith in all promises and charters.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/419 419]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Many Jews chose self-defence. But their means of self-defence were limited and their casualties only increased. Most of the forced conversions proved ineffective. Many Jews reverted to their original faith later. The pope protested this but Emperor Henry IV agreed to permitting these reversions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot; /&gt; The massacres began a new epoch for Jewry in Christendom. The Jews had preserved their faith from social pressure, now they had to preserve it at sword point. The massacres during the crusades strengthened Jewry from within spiritually. The Jewish perspective was that their struggle was Israel's struggle to hallow the name of God.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/414 414]–}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1099, Jews helped the Arabs to defend Jerusalem against the [[Crusaders]]. When the city fell, the Crusaders gathered many Jews in a synagogue and set it on fire.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot; /&gt; In Haifa, the Jews almost single-handedly defended the town against the Crusaders, holding out for a month, (June–July 1099).&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html |title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land |author=Joseph E. Katz |year=2001 |publisher=EretzYisroel.Org |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=January 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; At this time there were Jewish communities scattered all over the country, including Jerusalem, Tiberias, Ramleh, Ashkelon, Caesarea, and [[Gaza City|Gaza]]. As Jews were not allowed to hold land during the Crusader period, they worked at trades and commerce in the coastal towns during times of quiescence. Most were artisans: glassblowers in [[Sidon]], furriers and dyers in Jerusalem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot; /&gt;

During this period, the [[Masoretes]] of Tiberias established the ''[[niqqud]]'', a system of [[diacritic]]s used to represent vowels or distinguish between alternative pronunciations of letters of the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. Numerous [[piyutim]] and [[midrash]]im were recorded in Palestine at this time.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot; /&gt;

[[Maimonides]] wrote that in 1165 he visited Jerusalem and went to the Temple Mount, where he prayed in the &quot;great, holy house&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Sefer HaCharedim Mitzvat Tshuva Chapter 3&lt;/ref&gt; Maimonides established a yearly holiday for himself and his sons, the 6th of [[Cheshvan]], commemorating the day he went up to pray on the Temple Mount, and another, the 9th of Cheshvan, commemorating the day he merited to pray at the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]] in [[Hebron]].

In 1141 [[Yehuda Halevi]] issued a call to Jews to emigrate to Palestine and took on the long journey himself. After a stormy passage from [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]], he arrived in Egyptian [[Alexandria]], where he was enthusiastically greeted by friends and admirers. At [[Damietta]], he had to struggle against his heart, and the pleadings of his friend Ḥalfon ha-Levi, that he remain in Egypt, where he would be free from intolerant oppression. He started on the rough route overland. He was met along the way by Jews in [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] and [[Damascus]]. Jewish legend relates that as he came near Jerusalem, overpowered by the sight of the Holy City, he sang his most beautiful elegy, the celebrated &quot;Zionide&quot; (''Zion ha-lo Tish'ali''). At that instant, an Arab had galloped out of a gate and rode him down; he was killed in the accident.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}}

=== Mamluk period (1260–1517) ===
[[Nahmanides]] is recorded as settling in the Old City of Jerusalem in 1267. He moved to [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], where he was active in spreading Jewish learning, which was at that time neglected in the Holy Land. He gathered a circle of pupils around him, and people came in crowds, even from the district of the Euphrates, to hear him. [[Karaite Judaism|Karaites]] were said to have attended his lectures, among them Aaron ben Joseph the Elder. He later became one of the greatest [[Karaite (Jewish sect)|Karaite]] authorities. Shortly after Nahmanides' arrival in Jerusalem, he addressed a letter to his son Nahman, in which he described the desolation of the Holy City. At the time, it had only two Jewish inhabitants—two brothers, dyers by trade. In a later letter from Acre, Nahmanides counsels his son to cultivate humility, which he considers to be the first of virtues. In another, addressed to his second son, who occupied an official position at the [[Crown of Castile|Castilian]] court, Nahmanides recommends the recitation of the daily prayers and warns above all against immorality. Nahmanides died after reaching seventy-six, and his remains were interred at [[Haifa]], by the grave of [[Yechiel of Paris]].

Yechiel had [[aliyah|emigrated]] to Acre in 1260, along with his son and a large group of followers.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html |title=Jewish Zionist Education |publisher=Jafi.org.il |date=May 15, 2005 |access-date=August 13, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013142810/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html |archive-date=October 13, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf |title=Hadrat Melech |access-date=April 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502035808/http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf |archive-date=May 2, 2014 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; There he established the Talmudic academy ''Midrash haGadol d'Paris''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&amp;content=content/segal_ch17 |title=Section III: The Biblical Age: Chapter Seventeen: Awaiting the Messiah |author=Benjamin J. Segal |work=Returning, the Land of Israel as a Focus in Jewish History |publisher=JewishHistory.com |access-date=August 12, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227184802/http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&amp;content=content%2Fsegal_ch17 |archive-date=February 27, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; He is believed to have died there between 1265 and 1268. In 1488 [[Obadiah ben Abraham]], commentator on the [[Mishnah]], arrived in Jerusalem; this marked a new period of return for the Jewish community in the land.

==== Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East ====
{{Main|History of the Jews in Spain}}
{{See also|Islam and Judaism|Mizrahi Jew|History of the Jews under Muslim rule}}
[[File:Hebrew Bible Spain.jpg|right|thumb|Sephardic Hebrew Bible from Spain, 1300&lt;ref&gt;[https://lccn.loc.gov/2021667534]&lt;/ref&gt;]]
During the Middle Ages, Jews were generally better treated by Islamic rulers than Christian ones. Despite second-class citizenship, Jews played prominent roles in Muslim courts, and experienced a Golden Age in [[Moorish Spain]] about 900–1100, though the situation deteriorated after that time. Riots resulting in the deaths of Jews did however occur in North Africa through the centuries and especially in [[Morocco]], [[Libya]] and [[Algeria]], where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos.&lt;ref&gt;Maurice Roumani, ''The Case of the Jews from Arab Countries: A Neglected Issue'', 1977, pp. 26–27.&lt;/ref&gt;

During the 11th century, Muslims in Spain conducted pogroms against the Jews; those occurred in Cordoba in 1011 and in [[1066 Granada massacre|Granada in 1066]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |title=Granada |url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |access-date=August 12, 2012 |year=1906 |archive-date=April 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412000424/https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the Middle Ages, the governments of Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen enacted decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues. At certain times, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and [[Baghdad]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_%28gen%29.html |title=The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries |author=Mitchell Bard |year=2012 |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=October 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007003054/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_(gen).html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} The [[Almohad]]s, who had taken control of much of Islamic Iberia by 1172, surpassed the [[Almoravides]] in fundamentalist outlook. They treated the ''[[dhimmi]]s'' harshly. They expelled both Jews and Christians from Morocco and Islamic Spain. Faced with the choice of death or conversion, many Jews emigrated.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=66&amp;Itemid=39 The Forgotten Refugees] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928051923/http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=66&amp;Itemid=39 |date=September 28, 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Some, such as the family of [[Maimonides]], fled south and east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |title=Sephardim |author=Rebecca Weiner |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=September 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Kraemer, Joel L., &quot;Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait,&quot; ''The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides'', pp. 16–17 (2005)&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}}

=== Europe ===
{{Main|History of European Jews in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:Mishnah (Ms. 3173; De Rossi 138), Palatina.jpg|right|thumb|11th century ''[[mishnah]]'' codex from Italy, [[Biblioteca Palatina, Parma]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=adkim |date=2014-02-28 |title=The Biblioteca Palatina and the National Library of Israel |url=https://primolevicenter.org/printed-matter/the-biblioteca-palatina-and-the-national-library-of-israel/ |access-date=2025-10-15 |website=Printed_Matter |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
According to [[James P. Carrol]], &quot;Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, James. ''[[Constantine's Sword]]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) {{ISBN|978-0-395-77927-9}} p. 26&lt;/ref&gt;

Jewish populations have existed in Europe, especially in the area of the former Roman Empire, from very early times. As Jewish males had emigrated, some sometimes took wives from local populations, as is shown by the various [[MtDNA]], compared to [[Y-DNA#Genetic genealogy|Y-DNA]] among Jewish populations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html |title=In DNA, New Clues to Jewish Roots |first=Nicholas |last=Wade |date=May 14, 2002 |work=The New York Times |access-date=June 16, 2013 |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126180104/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; These groups were joined by traders and later on by members of the diaspora.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}} Records of Jewish communities in France (see [[History of the Jews in France]]) and Germany (see [[History of the Jews in Germany]]) date from the 4th century, and substantial Jewish communities in Spain were noted even earlier.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}}

The historian [[Norman Cantor]] and other 20th-century scholars dispute the tradition that the Middle Ages was a uniformly difficult time for Jews. Before the Church became fully organized as an institution with an increasing array of rules, early medieval society was tolerant. Between 800 and 1100, an estimated 1.5 million Jews lived in Christian Europe. As they were not Christians, they were not included as a [[Estates of the realm|division]] of the feudal system of clergy, knights and serfs. This means that they did not have to satisfy the oppressive demands for labour and military conscription that Christian commoners suffered. In relations with the Christian society, the Jews were protected by kings, princes and bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: finance, administration and medicine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Norman F&quot; /&gt; The lack of political strengths did leave Jews vulnerable to exploitation through extreme taxation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Ebenhard |last=Isenmann |editor-first=Richard |editor-last=Bonney |title=The Rise of the Fiscal State in Europe c. 1200–1815 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U24lRLy_qT8C&amp;pg=PA259 |date=1999 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-154220-6 |page=259}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Christian scholars interested in the Bible consulted with Talmudic rabbis. As the Roman Catholic Church strengthened as an institution, the Franciscan and Dominican preaching orders were founded, and there was a rise of competitive middle-class, town-dwelling Christians. By 1300, the friars and local priests staged the Passion Plays during Holy Week, which depicted Jews (in contemporary dress) killing Christ, according to Gospel accounts. From this period, persecution of Jews and deportations became endemic. Around 1500, Jews found relative security and a renewal of prosperity in present-day [[Poland]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Norman F&quot;&gt;Norman F. Cantor, ''The Last Knight: The Twilight of the Middle Ages and the Birth of the Modern Era'', Free Press, 2004. {{ISBN|978-0-7432-2688-2}}, pp. 28–29&lt;/ref&gt;

After 1300, Jews suffered more discrimination and persecution in Christian Europe. Europe's Jewry was mainly urban and literate. The Christians were inclined to regard Jews as obstinate deniers of the truth because in their view the Jews were expected to know of the truth of the Christian doctrines from their knowledge of the Jewish scriptures. Jews were aware of the pressure to accept Christianity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/412 412]}}&lt;/ref&gt; As Catholics were forbidden by the church to loan money for interest, some Jews became prominent moneylenders. Christian rulers gradually saw the advantage of having such a class of people who could supply capital for their use without being liable to excommunication. As a result, the money trade of western Europe became a speciality of the Jews. But, in almost every instance when Jews acquired large amounts through banking transactions, during their lives or upon their deaths, the king would take it over.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england &quot;England&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730231726/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england |date=July 30, 2020 }}, [[Jewish Encyclopedia]] (1906)&lt;/ref&gt; Jews became imperial{{-&quot;}}[[Servi camerae regis|''servi cameræ'']]{{-&quot;}}, the property of the King, who might present them and their possessions to princes or cities.

Jews were frequently massacred and exiled from various European countries. The persecution hit its first peak during the [[Crusades]]. In the [[People's Crusade]] (1096) flourishing Jewish communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed. In the [[Second Crusade]] (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. They were also subjected to attacks by the [[Shepherds' Crusade (1251)|Shepherds' Crusades of 1251]] and [[Shepherds' Crusade (1320)|1320]]. The Crusades were followed by massive expulsions, including the [[Edict of Expulsion|expulsion of the Jews from England in 1290]];&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Robin R. |last=Mundill |title=England's Jewish Solution: Experiment and Expulsion, 1262–1290 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CSKLfi_j110C |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52026-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; in 1396 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and in 1421, thousands were expelled from Austria. Over this time many Jews in Europe, either fleeing or being expelled, migrated to Poland, where they prospered into another [[History of the Jews in Poland#Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572|Golden Age]].

In Italy, Jews were allowed to live in Venice but were required to live in a [[ghetto]], and the practice spread across Italy (see [[Cum nimis absurdum]]) and was adopted in many places in Catholic Europe. Jews outside the Ghetto often had to wear a yellow star.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121 |title=Print of Jews forced to listen to a Christian sermon – Collections Search – United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |website=collections.ushmm.org |access-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-date=November 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129142432/https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;The Jewish-Christian Encounter in Medieval Preaching, Routledge 2015, edited by Jonathan Adams and Jussi Hanska chapter 13, see page 297&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Expulsions of the Jews of Spain and Portugal ===
{{further|Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal}}
[[File:Vicente Cutanda - A los pies del Salvador.jpg|thumb|250px|''At the Feet of the Saviour'', massacre of Jews in [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], oil on canvas by [[Vicente Cutanda]] (1887)]]
[[File:Matanza de judíos en Barcelona - año 1391.jpg|thumb|250px|''Slaughter of Jews in Barcelona in 1391'' by [[Josep Segrelles]], {{circa|1910}}]]
[[File:A Expulsão dos Judeus (Roque Gameiro, Quadros da História de Portugal, 1917).png|250px|thumb|Expulsion of the Jews in 1497, in a 1917 watercolour by [[Alfredo Roque Gameiro]] ]]
[[File:Inquis1.jpg|thumb|250px|Burning of Crypto-Jews in Lisbon, Portugal]]
Significant repression of Spain's numerous community occurred during the 14th century, notably a [[History of the Jews in Spain#Massacres and mass conversions of 1391|major pogrom in 1391]] which resulted in the majority of Spain's 300,000 Jews converting to Catholicism. With the [[Granada War|conquest of the Muslim Kingdom of Granada]] in 1492, the Catholic monarchs issued the [[Alhambra Decree]], and Spain's remaining 100,000 Jews were forced to choose between conversion and exile. The expulsion of the Jews of Spain, is regarded by Jews as the worst catastrophe between the destruction of Jerusalem in 73 CE and the [[Holocaust]] of the 1940s.&lt;ref&gt;European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 1550–1750 by Jonathan Israel, chapter 1 Exodus from the West (page 25)&lt;/ref&gt;

As a result, an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 Jews left Spain, the remainder joining Spain's already numerous [[Converso]] community. Perhaps a quarter of a million Conversos thus were gradually absorbed by the dominant Catholic culture, although those among them who secretly practised Judaism were subject to 40 years of intense repression by the [[Spanish Inquisition]]. This was particularly the case up until 1530, after which the trials of Conversos by the Inquisition dropped to 3% of the total. Similar expulsions of Sephardic Jews occurred 1493 in [[Sicily]] (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Spanish Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire and North Africa and Portugal. A small number also settled in Holland and England.

The expulsion followed a long process of expulsions and bans from what are now England, France, Germany, Austria, and Holland. In January 1492, the [[Emirate of Granada|last Muslim state]] was defeated in Spain and six months later the Jews of Spain (the largest community in the world) were required to [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|convert or leave without their property]]. 100,000 converted with many continuing to [[Marrano|secretly practice Judaism]], for which the Catholic church's inquisition (led by [[Tomás de Torquemada]]) now mandated a sentence of death by public burning. 175,000 left Spain.&lt;ref&gt;The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 138 – 144 / Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-Jews by David Martin Gitlitz, University of New Mexico 2002, pp 75 – 81&lt;/ref&gt;

Many [[Sephardi Jews|Spanish Jews]] moved to North Africa, [[History of the Jews in Poland|Poland]] and the Ottoman Empire, especially [[History of the Jews in Thessaloniki|Thessaloniki]] (now in Greece) which became the world's largest Jewish city. Some groups headed to the Middle East and Palestine, within the domains of the Ottoman Empire. About 100,000 Spanish Jews were allowed into Portugal, however five years later, their children were seized and they were given the choice of conversion or departing without them.&lt;ref&gt;The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 142 – 144&lt;/ref&gt;

==ابتدائي جديد دور==
Historians who study modern Jewry have identified four different paths by which European Jews were &quot;modernized&quot; and thus integrated into the mainstream of European society. A common approach has been to view the process through the lens of the European [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] as Jews faced the promise and the challenges posed by political emancipation. Scholars that use this approach have focused on two social types as paradigms for the decline of Jewish tradition and as agents of the sea changes in Jewish culture that led to the collapse of the [[ghetto]]. The first of these two social types is the [[Court Jew]] who is portrayed as a forerunner of the modern Jew, having achieved integration with and participation in the proto-capitalist economy and court society of central European states such as the [[Habsburg Empire]]. In contrast to the cosmopolitan Court Jew, the second social type presented by historians of modern Jewry is the ''maskil'', (learned person), a proponent of the [[Haskalah]] (Enlightenment). This narrative sees the maskil's pursuit of secular scholarship and his rationalistic critiques of rabbinic tradition as laying a durable intellectual foundation for the secularization of Jewish society and culture. The established paradigm has been one in which Ashkenazic Jews entered modernity through a self-conscious process of westernization led by &quot;highly atypical, Germanized Jewish intellectuals&quot;. Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative movements and planted the seeds of [[Zionism]] while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Reframing Jewish History |date=May 2005 |url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513 |access-date=May 24, 2011 |archive-date=September 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930222143/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
At around the same time that Haskalah was developing, [[Hasidic Judaism]] was spreading as a movement that preached a world view nearly opposed to the Haskalah.

In the 1990s, the concept of the &quot;[[Port Jew]]&quot; has been suggested as an &quot;alternate path to modernity&quot; that was distinct from the European [[Haskalah]]. In contrast to the focus on Ashkenazic Germanized Jews, the concept of the [[Port Jew]] focused on the Sephardi conversos who fled the Inquisition and resettled in European port towns on the coast of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Eastern seaboard of the United States.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fry-2002&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Port Jews: Jewish Communities in Cosmopolitan Maritime Trading Centres, 1550–1950 |first=Helen P. |last=Fry |journal=European Judaism |volume=36 |publisher=Frank Cass Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7146-8286-0 |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002650793 |quote=Port Jews were a social type, usually those who were involved in seafaring and maritime trade, who (like Court Jews) could be seen as the earliest modern Jews. Often arriving as refugees from the Inquisition, they were permitted to settle as merchants and allowed to trade openly in places such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. 'Their Diaspora connections and accumulated expertise lay in exactly the areas of overseas expansion that were then of interest to mercantilist governments.' |access-date=September 1, 2017 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160935/https://www.gale.com/databases/questia?docId=5002650793 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Court Jews ===
[[Court Jew]]s were Jewish bankers or businessmen who lent money and handled the finances of some of the Christian European noble houses. Corresponding historical terms are ''Jewish bailiff'' and ''[[shtadlan]]''.

Examples of what would be later called court Jews emerged when local rulers used services of Jewish bankers for short-term loans. They lent money to nobles and in the process gained social influence. Noble patrons of court Jews employed them as financiers, suppliers, diplomats and [[trade delegate]]s. Court Jews could use their family connections, and connections between each other, to provision their sponsors with, among other things, food, arms, ammunition and precious metals. In return for their services, court Jews gained social privileges, including up to noble status for themselves, and could live outside the Jewish ghettos. Some nobles wanted to keep their bankers in their own courts. And because they were under noble protection, they were exempted from rabbinical jurisdiction.

From medieval times, court Jews could amass personal fortunes and gained political and social influence. Sometimes they were also prominent people in the local Jewish community and could use their influence to protect and influence their brethren. Sometimes they were the only Jews who could interact with the local high society and present petitions of the Jews to the ruler. However, the court Jew had social connections and influence in the Christian world mainly through his Christian patrons. Due to the precarious position of Jews, some nobles could just ignore their debts. If the sponsoring noble died, his Jewish financier could face exile or execution.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

=== Port Jews ===

The [[Port Jew]] is a descriptive term for Jews who were involved in the seafaring and maritime economy of Europe, especially during the 17th and 18th centuries. Helen Fry suggests that they can be considered &quot;the earliest modern Jews&quot;. According to Fry, Port Jews frequently arrived as &quot;refugees from the Inquisition&quot; and the expulsion of Jews from Iberia. They were allowed to settle in port cities because merchants granted them permission to trade in ports such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. Fry notes that their connections to the [[Jewish Diaspora]] and their expertise in maritime trade made them particularly valuable to the mercantilist governments of Europe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fry-2002&quot; /&gt; Lois Dubin describes Port Jews as Jewish merchants who were &quot;valued for their engagement in the international maritime trade upon which such cities thrived&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Dubin, ''The port Jews of Habsburg Trieste: absolutist politics and enlightenment culture'', Stanford University Press, 1999, p. 47&lt;/ref&gt; Sorkin and others have characterized the socio-cultural profile of these men as marked by a flexibility towards religion and a &quot;reluctant cosmopolitanism that was alien to both traditional and 'enlightened' Jewish identities&quot;.

From the 16th to the 18th century, Jewish merchants dominated the chocolate and vanilla trade, exporting to Jewish centres across Europe, mainly Amsterdam, Bayonne, Bordeaux, Hamburg and Livorno.&lt;ref&gt;Encyclopedia of Jewish Food, Gil Marks, HMH, November 17, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ottoman Empire ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire}}

During the Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600), the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well in diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews were the most prominent under the ''[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millets']]'', the apogee of Jewish influence could arguably be the appointment of [[Joseph Nasi]] to [[Sanjak-bey]] (governor, a rank usually only held by Muslims) of the island of [[Naxos]].&lt;ref&gt;Charles Issawi &amp; Dmitri Gondicas; ''Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism'', Princeton, (1999)&lt;/ref&gt;

At the time of the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] when the Levant passed under Muslim Rule, thirty Jewish communities existed in Haifa, Sh'chem, Hebron, Ramleh, Gaza, Jerusalem, and many in the north. Safed became a spiritual centre for the Jews and the [[Shulchan Aruch]] was compiled there as well as many Kabbalistic texts. The first Hebrew printing press, and the first printing in Western Asia began in 1577.

Jews lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey, but more geographically either Anatolia or Asia Minor) for more than 2,400 years. Initial prosperity in Hellenistic times had faded under Christian Byzantine rule, but recovered somewhat under the rule of the various Muslim governments that displaced and succeeded rule from Constantinople. For much of the Ottoman period, Turkey was a safe haven for Jews fleeing persecution, and it continues to have a small Jewish population today. The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economical prosperity at times but were widely persecuted at other times was summarised by G. E. Von Grunebaum:

&lt;blockquote&gt;It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizeable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms.&lt;ref&gt;G. E. Von Grunebaum, ''Eastern Jewry Under Islam'', 1971, p. 369.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Russia, Poland, and Eastern Europe ===
{{Further|History of the Jews in Poland|History of the Jews in Russia|History of the Jews in Ukraine|History of the Jews in Lithuania|History of the Jews in Romania}}
{{expand section|date=October 2025}}

In the 17th century, there were many significant Jewish populations in Western and Central Europe. The relatively tolerant Poland had the largest Jewish population in Europe that dated back to the 13th century, and enjoyed relative prosperity and freedom for nearly four hundred years. However, the calm situation ended when Polish and Lithuanian Jews of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] were slaughtered in the hundreds of thousands by Ukrainian Cossacks during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] (1648) and by the [[Swedish wars]] (1655). Driven by these and other persecutions, some Jews moved back to Western Europe in the 17th century, notably to [[Amsterdam]]. The last ban on Jewish residency in a European nation was revoked in 1654, but periodic expulsions from individual cities still occurred, and Jews were often restricted from land ownership, or forced to live in [[ghetto]]s.

With the [[Partitions of Poland]] in the late 18th century, the Polish-Jewish population was split between the [[Russian Empire]], [[Austria-Hungary]], and German [[Prussia]], which divided Poland among themselves.

=== European Enlightenment and Haskalah (18th century) ===
[[File:Moritz Daniel Oppenheim--Lavater and Lessing Visit Moses Mendelssohn--1856--Magnes Collection.jpg|thumb|right|[[Moses Mendelssohn]] (in red coat), Lavater (at right) and Lessing (standing), in an imaginary portrait by the Jewish artist [[Moritz Daniel Oppenheim]] (1856), [[Magnes Collection of Jewish Art and Life]]]]
During the period of the [[European Renaissance]] and Enlightenment, significant changes occurred within the Jewish community. The [[Haskalah]] movement paralleled the wider Enlightenment, as Jews in the 18th century began to campaign for emancipation from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society. Secular and scientific education was added to the traditional religious instruction received by students, and interest in a national Jewish identity, including a revival in the study of Jewish history and Hebrew, started to grow. Among the prominient Haskalah intellectuals were [[Moses Mendelssohn]], [[Naphtali Hirz Wessely]], [[Isaac Satanow]] and [[Isaac Euchel]].

Haskalah gave birth to the [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] movements in Judaism and planted the seeds of [[Zionism]] while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.

At around the same time another movement was born, one preaching almost the opposite of Haskalah, [[Hasidic Judaism]]. Hasidic Judaism began in the 18th century by [[Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov]], and quickly gained a following with its more exuberant, mystical approach to religion. These two movements, and the traditional orthodox approach to Judaism from which they spring, formed the basis for the modern divisions within Jewish observance.

At the same time, the outside world was changing, and debates began over the potential emancipation of the Jews (granting them equal rights). The first country to do so was France, during the [[French Revolution]] in 1789. Even so, Jews were expected to assimilate, not continue their traditions. This ambivalence is demonstrated in the famous speech of [[Clermont-Tonnerre]] before the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]] in 1789:

&lt;blockquote&gt;We must refuse everything to the Jews as a nation and accord everything to Jews as individuals. We must withdraw recognition from their judges; they should only have our judges. We must refuse legal protection to the maintenance of the so-called laws of their Judaic organization; they should not be allowed to form in the state either a political body or an order. They must be citizens individually. But, some will say to me, they do not want to be citizens. Well then! If they do not want to be citizens, they should say so, and then, we should banish them. It is repugnant to have in the state an association of non-citizens, and a nation within the nation...&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Hasidic Judaism ===
{{See also|Mitnagdim}}
[[File:Maurycy Gottlieb - Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur.jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|Hasidic Jews praying in the synagogue on [[Yom Kippur]], by [[Maurycy Gottlieb]]]]

[[Hasidic Judaism]] is a branch of [[Orthodox Judaism]] that promotes spirituality and joy through the popularisation and internalization of [[Jewish mysticism]] as the fundamental aspects of the [[Jewish faith]]. Hasidism comprises part of contemporary [[Ultra-Orthodox]] Judaism, alongside the previous Talmudic [[Lithuanian Jews|Lithuanian-Yeshiva]] approach and the Oriental [[Sephardi Judaism|Sephardi]] tradition. It was founded in 18th-century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel [[Baal Shem Tov]] as a reaction against overly [[Talmud|legalistic]] Judaism. Opposite to this, Hasidic teachings cherished the sincerity and concealed holiness of the unlettered common folk, and their equality with the scholarly elite. The emphasis on the [[Immanent]] Divine presence in everything gave new value to prayer and deeds of kindness, alongside Rabbinic supremacy of [[Torah study|study]], and replaced historical [[Kabbalah|mystical (kabbalistic)]] and [[Musar literature|ethical (musar)]] [[Asceticism in Judaism|asceticism]] and [[Maggid|admonishment]] with optimism, encouragement, and daily [[Deveikut|fervour]]. This populist emotional revival accompanied the elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine [[Panentheism]], through intellectual articulation of inner dimensions of mystical thought. The adjustment of Jewish values sought to add to required standards of ritual [[Halacha|observance]], while relaxing others where inspiration predominated. Its communal gatherings celebrate soulful [[Nigun|song]] and [[Yiddish literature#Hasidic and Haskalah literature|storytelling]] as forms of mystical devotion.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

==اڻويهين صدي==
[[File:Napoleon stellt den israelitischen Kult wieder her, 30. Mai 1806.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|An 1806 French print depicts [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] emancipating the Jews.]]
Though persecution still existed, [[Jewish emancipation]] spread throughout Europe in the 19th century. [[Napoleon]] invited Jews to leave the [[Jewish ghettos in Europe]] and seek refuge in the newly created tolerant political regimes that offered equality under Napoleonic Law (see [[Napoleon and the Jews]]). Gradually all European nations established in constitutions the principle of equality under the law and abolished all restrictions for Jews.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;&gt;[https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-in-history-the-era-of-nationalism-1800-1918 Antisemitism in History: The Era of Nationalism, 1800–1918]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/emancipation Emancipation]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-emancipation-in-western-europe/ Jewish Emancipation in Western Europe]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://d-nb.info/1175689041/34 Jewish Emancipation in the 18th and 19th Centuries]&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Antisemiticroths.jpg|thumb|A caricature by [[Charles Lucien Léandre]] (France, 1898) showing [[Rothschild family|Rothschild]] with the world in his hands]]
Jews now could own land and enter the civil service. The abolition of restraints on political activism and the broadening of the electoral franchise on the basis of citizenship, not religion, made Jews most visible among [[liberalism|liberal]], [[Radical politics|radical]], and [[Marxism|Marxist]] ([[Social Democracy|Social Democratic]]) political parties.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;/&gt;

For centuries, so-called [[court Jew]]s acted as the principal financiers for the European aristocracys. In the 1760s, one of them, [[Mayer Amschel Rothschild]], established a banking business in Germany that eventually became a vast international conglomerate and yield one of the largest family fortunes in world history. Thus the name of the [[Rothschilds]] became synonymous with Jewish financial power. Across Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, other Jews also created a number of influential banks.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/usury-and-moneylending-in-judaism/ Jews and Finance]&lt;/ref&gt;

The most important branch of Jewish economic life in Eastern Europe was trade. While most remained small shopkeepers, stallholders, and peddlers, others became owners of department stores and shopping arcades. During the 19th century Jews began to move from rural regions to cities, this contributed to the decline of traditional Jewish tavernkeeping. Jews made up a considerable proportion of all craftsmen in the [[Russian Empire]] and [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] during the 19th century, but with the spread of industrialization large factories tended to squeeze out small Jewish-run workshops, and only limited numbers of Jews became employees in these modern factories. Jews were considered less desirable employees since they did not want to work on Saturdays and tended to organize into unions to demand improved working conditions, the foundation of the [[General Jewish Labour Bund|Bund]] in the Russian Empire in 1897 strengthened this process.&lt;ref name=&quot;Economic Life&quot;&gt;[https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/7 Economic Life]&lt;/ref&gt;

The economic achivements of Jews in the 19th century created the impression for some that Jews were being overrepresented in such lucrative occupations as finance, banking, trade, industry, medicine, law, journalism, art, music, literature, and theater. Despite increasing integration of the Jews with secular society, a new form of [[antisemitism]] emerged, [[Racial antisemitism|based on the ideas of race and nationhood]] rather than the religious hatred of the Middle Ages. This form of antisemitism held that Jews were a separate and inferior race from the [[Aryan]] people of Western Europe, and led to the emergence of political parties in France, Germany, and [[Austria-Hungary]] that campaigned on a platform of rolling back emancipation. This form of antisemitism emerged frequently in European culture, most famously in the [[Dreyfus Trial]] in France.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://evolve.reconstructingjudaism.org/anti-semitism-europe-history/ Antisemitism in Europe and America in the Modern Period: Historical Perspectives]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.quest-cdecjournal.it/anti-jewish-prejudices-antisemitic-ideologies-open-violence-antisemitism-in-european-comparison-from-the-1870s-to-the-first-world-war-a-commentary/ Anti-Jewish Prejudices, Antisemitic Ideologies, Open Violence: Antisemitism in European Comparison from the 1870s to the First World War. A Commentary]&lt;/ref&gt;

During this period, Jewish migration to the United States (see [[American Jews]]) created a large new community mostly freed of the restrictions of Europe. Over 2 million Jews arrived in the United States between 1890 and 1924, most from the Russian Empire and Galicia. A similar case occurred in the southern tip of the continent, specifically in the countries of [[Argentina]] and [[Uruguay]].

==ويهين صدي==
===جديد صيهونيت===
[[File:Herzl on a balcony full.jpg|thumb|Theodor Herzl, visionary of the Jewish State, in Basel, photographed during [[World Zionist Congress|Fifth Zionist Congress]] in December 1901, by [[Ephraim Moses Lilien]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Theodor Herzl Signed Photograph, Basel, Switzerland {{!}} Shapell Manuscript Foundation |url=https://www.shapell.org/manuscript/theodor-herzl-signed-photograph-basel-switzerland/ |website=Shapell |access-date=May 10, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to [[Ottoman Syria]] with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and fulfilling the biblical prophecies related to [[Shivat Tzion]]. In 1882 the first Zionist settlement—[[Rishon LeZion]]—was founded by immigrants who belonged to the &quot;[[Hovevei Zion]]&quot; movement. Later on, the &quot;[[Bilu (movement)|Bilu]]&quot; movement established many other settlements in Palestine.

The Zionist movement was officially founded after the [[Kattowitz convention]] (1884) and the [[World Zionist Congress]] (1897), and it was [[Theodor Herzl]] who initiated the struggle to establish a state for the Jews.

After the [[First World War]], it seemed that the conditions that made it possible for the Jews to establish such a state had arrived: The United Kingdom captured [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] from the Ottoman Empire, and the Jews received the promise of a &quot;National Home&quot; from the British in the form of the [[Balfour Declaration]] of 1917, given to [[Chaim Weizmann]].

In 1920, the British Mandate of Palestine was established and the pro-Jewish [[Herbert Samuel]] was appointed High Commissioner of Palestine, the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] was established and several large Jewish immigration waves to Palestine occurred. The Arab inhabitants of Palestine grew hostile to increasing Jewish immigration, and as a result, they began to express their opposition to the establishment of Jewish settlements and the pro-Jewish policy of the British government.

New Jewish immigrants began to create militias and paramilitary groups such as the [[Bar-Giora]] and [[Hashomer]].

Clashes between Jews and Arabs became more frequent. After the [[1920 Nebi Musa riots]], the Jewish leadership in Palestine believed that the British had little desire to involve themselves in these clashes and maintain order. Believing that they could not rely on the British administration for protection, the Jewish leadership created the [[Haganah]] and [[Irgun]] paramilitary organizations in order to protect its community's farms and [[Kibbutz]]im.

These paramilitary organization were involved in major riots, such as the [[Jaffa riots (May 1921)|Jaffa riots]], [[1929 Palestine riots]] and the [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine]]. Arabs, Jews and Britons suffered in this violence.

Due to the increasing violence, the United Kingdom gradually started to backtrack from its original idea of supporting the establishment of a Jewish homeland and it also started to speculate on a [[binational solution]] to the crisis or the establishment of an Arab state that would have a Jewish minority.

===Jews in Europe and the United States after World War I ===
[[File:Yung-teater poster 15.jpg|thumb|Bilingual [[Polish language|Polish]]-[[Yiddish]] poster for the [[Warsaw]] [[Young Theater]]'s production of ''Mississippi'' in 1935, written by [[Leib Malach]]]]
The World War I and subsequent political changes, such as the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917 and the establishment of new nation-states after 1918, led to far-reaching consequenсes for the Jews of Eastern Europe. The authorities of the [[Soviet Union]] viewed private commerce as negative and sought to bring all trade under the aegis of state enterprises. Therefore, many Jews, who had previously made their living from trade, were forced to find other occupations. In Poland, Hungary, and Romania, the authorities adopted policies aimed at ethnicizing their national economies, aiming to exclude Jews as far as possible from the marketplace.&lt;ref name=&quot;Economic Life&quot;/&gt;

Nevertheless, the Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. In Austria in the years between the two World Wars Jews were approximately 3.5% of the population but were 27.3% of university professors. In Germany between 1918 and 1933 Jews were 0.78% of the population but were 16% of the doctors, 15% of the dentists, 25% of the lawyers, 50% of the theatre directors and occupied 80% of the leading positions in the [[Berlin stock exchange]]. In Poland in 1931 Jews were 10.2% of the population but were 56% of the doctors in private practice, 33% of the lawyers, and 24% of the pharmacists. In Russia during the period 1917–1939 Jews were approximately 1.8% of the population, while Jews were 9% of the officers in military academies, 15% of the university graduates, 11% of the doctors and 14% of the university professors.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Lynn | first1=Richard | last2=Kanazawa | first2=Satoshi | title=How to explain high Jewish achievement: The role of intelligence and values | journal=Personality and Individual Differences | date=2008 | volume=44 | issue=4 | pages=801–808 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2007.10.019 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886907003674 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Among those Jews who were generally considered the most famous were the scientist [[Albert Einstein]] and the philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. At that time, a disproportionate number of [[Nobel Prize]] winners were Jewish, as is still the case.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |publisher=jinfo.org |access-date=October 7, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== The Holocaust ===
{{Main|History of the Jews during World War II|The Holocaust}}
[[File:Rows of bodies of dead inmates fill the yard of Lager Nordhausen, a Gestapo concentration camp.jpg|thumb|Bodies of inmates of the [[Mittelbau-Dora]] Nazi concentration camp who died during [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] [[Bombing of Nordhausen in World War II|bombing raids]] on April 3 and 4, 1945]]

In 1933, with [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]]'s rise to power in Germany, the Jewish situation became more severe. [[Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic|Economic crises]], [[Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany|racial Anti-Jewish laws]], and fear of an upcoming war led many Jews to flee from Europe and settle in [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]], the United States and the Soviet Union.

In 1939, [[World War II]] began and until 1945, [[German-occupied Europe|Germany occupied almost all of Europe]], including [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|Poland]]—[[History of the Jews in Poland|where millions of Jews were living at that time]]—and [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|France]]. In 1941, following the [[invasion of the Soviet Union]], the [[Final Solution]] began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe, as well as Jews in European North Africa (pro-Nazi [[Vichy France|Vichy]]-[[French North Africa|North Africa]] and [[Italian Libya]]). This [[genocide]], in which approximately six million Jews were methodically murdered with horrifying cruelty, is known as [[The Holocaust]] or the ''Shoah'' (Hebrew term). In Poland, as many as one million Jews were murdered in [[gas chambers]] at the [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz camp complex]].

The massive scale of the Holocaust, and the horrors that happened during it, were only understood after the war, and they heavily affected the Jewish nation and world public opinion. Efforts were then increased to establish a Jewish state in Palestine.

=== The establishment of the State of Israel ===
{{Main|History of Israel (1948–present)}}
{{Further|Israel|Israeli Declaration of Independence}}
{{History of Israel}}
In 1945 the Jewish resistance organizations in Palestine unified and established the Jewish Resistance Movement. The movement began guerrilla attacks against Arab paramilitaries and the British authorities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html |title=The Jewish Resistance Movement |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=September 7, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160907162736/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} Following the [[King David Hotel bombing]], [[Chaim Weizmann]], president of the [[WZO]] appealed to the movement to cease all further military activity until a decision would be reached by the [[Jewish Agency]]. The Jewish Agency backed Weizmann's recommendation to cease activities, a decision reluctantly accepted by the Haganah, but not by the [[Irgun]] and [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]]. The JRM was dismantled and each of the founding groups continued operating according to their own policy.&lt;ref&gt;Horne, Edward (1982). ''A Job Well Done (Being a History of The Palestine Police Force 1920–1948)''. Anchor. {{ISBN|978-0-9508367-0-6}}. pp. 272, 299. States that Haganah withdrew on July 1, 1946. But remained permanently uncooperative.&lt;/ref&gt;

The Jewish leadership decided to centre the struggle in the illegal immigration to Palestine and began organizing a massive number of Jewish war refugees from Europe, without the approval of the British authorities. This immigration contributed a great deal to the Jewish settlements in Israel in the world public opinion and the British authorities decided to let the United Nations decide upon the fate of Palestine.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

On November 29, 1947, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopted [[Resolution 181]](II) recommending partitioning Palestine into an Arab state, a Jewish state and the City of Jerusalem. The Jewish leadership accepted the decision but the Arab League and the leadership of Palestinian Arabs opposed it. Following a period of [[1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]] the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]] started.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}}

In the middle of the war, after the last British soldiers of the Palestine Mandate left, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed on May 14, 1948, the establishment of a [[Jewish state]] in [[Eretz Israel]] to be known as the [[State of Israel]]. The war ended in 1949 and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of hundreds of thousands of Jews from all over the world, notably [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Arab countries]].

Since 1948, Israel has been involved in a series of major military conflicts, including the 1956 [[Suez Crisis]], 1967 [[Six-Day War]], 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], [[1982 Lebanon War]], and [[2006 Lebanon War]], as well as a nearly constant series of [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict|ongoing minor conflicts]].

Since 1977, an ongoing and largely unsuccessful series of diplomatic efforts have been initiated by Israel, Palestinian organizations, their neighbours, and other parties, including the United States and the European Union, to bring about a [[Israeli–Palestinian peace process|peace process]] to resolve conflicts between Israel and its neighbours, mostly over the fate of the Palestinian people.

==ايڪويهين صدي==
Israel is a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a population of over 8 million people, of whom about 6 million are [[Israeli Jews|Jewish]]. The largest Jewish communities are in Israel and the [[American Jews|United States]], with major communities in France, Argentina, Russia, England, and Canada.

The [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]], created during the [[Soviet]] period, continues to be an [[autonomous oblast]] of the Russian state.&lt;ref&gt;Fishkoff, Sue (October 8, 2008). [http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml &quot;A Jewish revival in Birobidzhan?&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510142551/http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml |date=May 10, 2011 }} ''Jewish News of Greater Phoenix''. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Chief Rabbi]] of [[Birobidzhan]], [[Mordechai Scheiner]], says there are 4,000 Jews in the capital city.&lt;ref&gt;Paxton, Robin (June 1, 2007). [http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&amp;cid=84435&amp;NewsType=80052 &quot;From Tractors to Torah in Russia's Jewish Land&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411050518/http://fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&amp;cid=84435&amp;NewsType=80052 |date=April 11, 2013 }}. Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Governor]] [[Nikolay Mikhaylovich Volkov]] has stated that he intends to, &quot;support every valuable initiative maintained by our local Jewish organizations&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939 &quot;Governor Voices Support for Growing Far East Jewish Community&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518042318/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939 |date=May 18, 2011 }} (November 15, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Birobidzhan Synagogue]] opened in 2004 on the 70th anniversary of the region's founding in 1934.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969 &quot;Far East Community Prepares for 70th Anniversary of Jewish Autonomous Republic&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518041740/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969 |date=May 18, 2011 }} (August 30, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;

The number of people who identified as Jews in [[England and Wales]] rose slightly between 2001 and 2011, with the growth being attributed to the higher birth rate of the [[Haredi]] community.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7411877.stm |title=Jewish population on the increase |date=May 21, 2008 |access-date=March 18, 2020 |archive-date=May 27, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527215725/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7411877.stm |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The estimated [[British Jew]]ish population in [[England]] as of 2011 was 263,346.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2011 Census: KS209EW Religion, local authorities in England and Wales |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262 |publisher=ons.gov.uk |access-date=December 15, 2012 |archive-date=January 5, 2016 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of 2021, per the [[British Census]], the Jewish population of England and Wales was 271,327.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Graham |first1=David |last2=Boyd |first2=Jonathan |title=Jews in Britain in 2021: First results from the Census of England and Wales |url=https://www.jpr.org.uk/reports/jews-britain-2021-first-results-census-england-and-wales |website=Institute for Jewish Policy Research |date=November 29, 2022 |access-date=December 13, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On October 7, 2023, [[Hamas]], along with other [[Palestinian Joint Operations Room|Palestinian militant groups]], [[October 7 attacks|attacked Israel]] from the [[Gaza Strip]], killing 1,139 people. The day is considered the deadliest day in Israel's history, and the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=October 11, 2023 |title=Biden calls Hamas attacks the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust as US death toll ticks up |url=https://apnews.com/article/israel-hamas-us-biden-blinken-99eb4063edabc80fa1fa198fb0bb020e |access-date=November 9, 2023 |work=AP News |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The attack escalated into a [[Gaza war|major war between Israel and Hamas]]. Hundreds of thousands of civilians were displaced, and more than 250 hostages, including Israelis and foreign nationals, were taken by Hamas, [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]], and other Gaza-based militant groups.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last1=Al-Mughrabi |first1=Nidal |last2=Angel |first2=Maytaal |last3=Al-Mughrabi |first3=Nidal |last4=Angel |first4=Maytaal |date=November 8, 2023 |title=Israeli, Hamas fighters in close combat in Gaza City as civilians flee |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/thousands-civilians-flee-north-gaza-israeli-troops-hamas-fighters-clash-2023-11-08/ |access-date=November 9, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[يهوديت]] 
* [[اسلام ۾ ابراهيم]] 
* [[يعقوب عليہ السلام]] 
* [[عيسيٰ عليه السلام]] 
* [[توريت]] 
* [[فلسطين]] 
* [[يروشلم]] 
* [[اسرائيل]] 
* [[فلسطين جي رياست]] 
* [[غزه نسل ڪشي]]
* [[يهوديت جي تاريخ]] 
* [[فلسطين جي تاريخ]] 
* [[يهودي تاريخ جو خاڪو]] 
* [[يهودي تاريخ جو وقت]] 
* [[يهودين جو جينياتي مطالعو]] 
* [[اسرائيل جي سرزمين ۾ يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ]]

==نوٽ==
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* Scheindlin, Raymond P. ''A short history of the Jewish people from legendary times to modern statehood'' (1998) [https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofje00sche online free to borrow]
* {{cite book |surname=Sweeney |given=Marvin A. |author-link=Marvin A. Sweeney |chapter=The Religious World of Ancient Israel to 586&amp;nbsp;BCE |editor-surname=Neusner |editor-given=Jacob |editor-link=Jacob Neusner |editor2-surname=Avery-Peck |editor2-given=Alan J. |title=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism |year=2003 |orig-year=2000 |edition=Reprint |pages=20–36 |publisher=Blackwell Publ. |place=Malden, Mass |chapter-url= |url={{Google books |id=bEyD_MaeqP4C |plainurl=y |page= |keywords= |text=}} |isbn=1-57718-058-5}}
* {{cite book |year=2018 |orig-year=1999 |editor-surname=Visotzky |editor-given=Burton L. |editor-link=Burton Visotzky |editor-surname2=Fishman |editor-given2=David E. |editor-link2=David Fishman |title=From Mesopotamia to Modernity: Ten Introductions to Jewish History and Literature |place=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |edition=Reprint |url={{Google books |id=x1JPDwAAQBAJ |plainurl=y |page= |keywords= |text=}} |isbn=978-0-8133-6717-0}}

=== France ===
* Benbassa, Esther. ''The Jews of France: A History from Antiquity to the Present'' (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/Jews-France-History-Antiquity-Present/dp/0691090149/  excerpt and text search]; [https://www.questia.com/library/99832821/the-jews-of-france-a-history-from-antiquity-to-the online]
* Birnbaum, Pierre, and Jane Todd. ''The Jews of the Republic: A Political History of State Jews in France from Gambetta to Vichy'' (1996).
* Birnbaum, Pierre; Kochan, Miriam. ''Anti-Semitism in France: A Political History from Léon Blum to the Present'' (1992) 317p.
* Cahm, Eric. ''The Dreyfus affair in French society and politics'' (Routledge, 2014).
* Debré, Simon. &quot;The Jews of France.&quot; ''Jewish Quarterly Review'' 3.3 (1891): 367–435. long scholarly description. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1450008.pdf online free]
* Graetz, Michael, and Jane Todd. ''The Jews in Nineteenth-Century France: From the French Revolution to the Alliance Israelite Universelle'' (1996)
* Hyman, Paula E. ''The Jews of Modern France'' (1998) [https://www.amazon.com/Modern-France-Jewish-Communities-World/dp/0520209257/  excerpt and text search]
* Hyman, Paula. ''From Dreyfus to Vichy: The Remaking of French Jewry, 1906–1939'' (Columbia UP, 1979). [https://archive.org/details/fromdreyfustovic0000hyma online free to borrow]
* Schechter, Ronald. ''Obstinate Hebrews: Representations of Jews in France, 1715–1815'' (Univ of California Press, 2003)
* Taitz, Emily. ''The Jews of Medieval France: The Community of Champagne'' (1994) [https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130202034/https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne |date=November 30, 2018 }}

=== Russia and Eastern Europe ===
* Brinkmann, Tobias.  (2024). ''Between Borders: The Great Jewish Migration from Eastern Europe''. New York: Oxford University Press.

* Darieva, Tsypylma, Darja Klingenberg, and Chen Bram. (2025) &quot;Jews of the Caucasus: multiple entanglements and migration routes.&quot; ''Journal of Modern Jewish Studies'' 24.2 (2025): 557-569.  [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14725886.2025.2518673  online]

* [[David Fishman|Fishman, David]] (1996). ''Russia's First Modern Jews''. New York University Press.
* [[Zvi Gitelman|Gitelman, Zvi]] (2001). ''A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present''.

* Kushkova, Anna. (2025) &quot;From a Shtetl House to an Urban Apartment: The Soviet Jewish Home Negotiated, Transformed, and Reimagined.&quot; ''Jewish Folklore and Ethnology'' 4.1 (2025): 70-125. [https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1028&amp;context=jewishfolklore  online]

* Polonsky, Antony. ''The Jews in Poland and Russia: A Short History'' (2013)

* Sapritsky-Nahum, Marina. (2025) &quot;Identity transformations of Ukrainian Jewry during the Russian–Ukrainian war: Odesa’s communities and religious leaders at home and in exile.&quot; ''Canadian Slavonic Papers'' 67.1-2 (2025): 214-235. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00085006.2025.2500199  online]

* Schapiro, Leonard. &quot;The role of the Jews in the Russian revolutionary movement.&quot; ''Slavonic and East European Review'' (1961): 148-167. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4205328  online]

* Shumsky, Dmitry. (2025) &quot;Beyond Antisemitism: Rethinking Stalin’s Anti-Jewish Campaign, 1948–1953.&quot; ''Journal of Modern History'' 97.2 (2025): 348-386. 
* {{cite book |last1=Weiner |first1=Miriam |last2=Polish State Archives (in cooperation with) |title=Jewish Roots in Poland: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories |date=1997 |publisher=Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation |location=Secaucus, NJ |isbn=978-0-9656508-0-9 |oclc=38756480}}
* {{cite book |last1=Weiner |first1=Miriam |last2=Ukrainian State Archives (in cooperation with) |last3=Moldovan National Archives (in cooperation with) |title=Jewish Roots in Ukraine and Moldova: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories |date=1999 |publisher=Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation |location=Secaucus, NJ |isbn=978-0-9656508-1-6 |oclc=607423469}}
* Yivo Institute for Jewish Research. ''A Century of Ambivalence, Second Expanded Edition: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present'' (Indiana University Press, 2001).

=== United States ===

{{Main|American Jews#Bibliography|History of the{{short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt;
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2025}}
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[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 063.jpg|thumb|According to Jewish tradition, Jacob, shown [[Jacob wrestling with the angel|wrestling with the angel]] in this painting by [[Rembrandt]], was the father of the [[tribes of Israel]].]]
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|history}}
{{history of religion|religions}}

[[Jews]] originated from the [[Israelites]] and [[Hebrews]] of historical [[Israel and Judah]], two related kingdoms that emerged in the [[Levant]] during the [[Iron Age]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 |date=April 9, 2023 }} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The earliest mention of [[Israelites]] is inscribed on the [[Merneptah Stele]] {{circa|1213–1203 BCE}}; later religious literature tells the story of Israelites going back at least as far as {{cx|1500 BCE}}. Traditionally, the name ''Israel'' is said to originate with the Hebrew patriarch [[Jacob]], who provides a narrative [[etiology]] for the name{{snd}}after wrestling with an angel, Jacob is renamed Israel, meaning &quot;he who struggles with God&quot;. The [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] based in [[Samaria]] fell to the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] {{cx|720 BCE}},&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Kingdom of Judah]] to the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] in 586 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Faust |first=Avraham |title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period |date=August 29, 2012 |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |isbn=978-1-58983-641-9 |pages=1 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28}}&lt;/ref&gt; Part of the Judean population was exiled to [[Babylonia|Babylon]]. The [[Assyrian captivity|Assyrian]] and [[Babylonian captivity|Babylonian captivities]] are regarded as representing the start of the [[Jewish diaspora]].

After the [[Achaemenid Empire]] conquered the region, the exiled Jews were [[Return to Zion|allowed to return]] and [[Second Temple|rebuild the temple]]; these events mark the beginning of the [[Second Temple period]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Jonathan |last1=Stökl |first2=Caroline |last2=Waerzegger |title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context |date=2015 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=7–11, 30, 226}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia Judaica |edition=2nd |volume=3 |page=27}}&lt;/ref&gt; After several centuries of foreign rule, the [[Maccabean Revolt]] against the [[Seleucid Empire]] led to an [[Hasmonean dynasty|independent Hasmonean kingdom]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Peter Fibiger |last1=Bang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&amp;pg=PAPA184 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean |first2=Walter |last2=Scheidel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-518831-8 |pages=184–187}}&lt;/ref&gt; but it was gradually incorporated into the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] imperial system.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=223–239}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Jewish–Roman wars]], a series of unsuccessful revolts against the Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, resulted in the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Zissu |first=Boaz |title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE |date=2018 |isbn=978-90-04-34986-5 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill  |page=19 |chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective |oclc=988856967}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the expulsion of many Jews.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Erwin |last1=Fahlbusch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&amp;pg=PAPA15 |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |first2=Geoffrey William |last2=Bromiley |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5 |page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Jewish population in [[Syria Palaestina]] gradually decreased during the following centuries, enhancing the role of the Jewish diaspora and shifting the spiritual and demographic centre from the depopulated [[Judea]] to [[Galilee]] and then to [[Asoristan|Babylon]], with smaller communities spread out across the [[Roman Empire]]. During the same period, the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]], central Jewish texts, were composed. In the following millennia, the diaspora communities [[Coalescent theory|coalesced]] into three major [[Jewish ethnic divisions|ethnic subdivisions]] according to where their ancestors settled: the [[Ashkenazim]] in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern European Jewry|Eastern Europe]], the [[Sephardim]] initially in [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Iberia]], and the [[Mizrahim]] in the [[History of the Jews under Muslim rule|Middle East]] and [[North Africa]].&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&amp;pg=PA87 &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity.&quot; p. 87.] Eban, Abba Solomon. &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews.&quot; Summit Books Syracuse, New York: 1984. p. 87.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Dosick (2007), pp. 59–60.&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[early Muslim conquests]] ended [[Byzantine]] control over the [[Eastern Mediterranean]], with the newly established [[Rashidun Caliphate]] taking over the [[Levant]], [[Mesopotamia]], and North Africa during the 7th century, and the [[Iberian Peninsula]] during the 8th century. [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain|Jewish culture enjoyed a golden age in Spain]], with Jews becoming widely accepted in society and their religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed before the arrival of the intolerant [[Almohades]]. In 1492 [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|the Jews were forced to leave Spain]] by the Catholic Monarchs [[Catholic Monarchs of Spain|Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand II]], whereafter they migrated in great numbers to the [[History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]] and [[Italian Peninsula|Italy]]. Between the 12th and 15th centuries, Ashkenazi Jews experienced extreme persecution in Central Europe, which prompted their mass migration to [[History of Jews in Poland|Poland]].&lt;ref&gt;Mosk (2013), p. 143. &quot;Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Harshav, Benjamin (1999). ''The Meaning of Yiddish''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. &quot;From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the centre of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The 18th century saw the rise of the [[Haskalah]] intellectual movement. Also starting in the 18th century, Jews began to campaign for [[Jewish emancipation]] from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society.

In the 19th century, when Jews in [[Western Europe]] were increasingly granted equality before the law, Jews in the [[Pale of Settlement]] faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread [[pogrom]]s. During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to [[Ottoman Syria]] with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. The [[Zionist movement]] was officially founded in 1897. The pogroms also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the United States between 1881 and 1924.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lewin |first=Rhoda G. |date=1979 |title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis |url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |journal=Minnesota History |volume=46 |issue=7 |page=259 |access-date=August 10, 2020 |archive-date=July 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. Many [[Nobel Prize]] winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |publisher=jinfo.org |access-date=October 7, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1933, with the rise to power of [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]] in [[Nazi Germany|Germany]], the situation for Jews became severe. Economic crises, racial [[Antisemitism in Europe#The Holocaust|antisemitic laws]], and a fear of an upcoming war led many to flee from Europe to [[Mandatory Palestine]], to the United States and to the [[Soviet Union]]. In 1939, [[World War II]] began and until 1941 Germany [[German-occupied Europe|occupied almost all of Europe]]. In 1941, following the [[Operation Barbarossa|invasion]] of the Soviet Union, the [[Final Solution]] began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe and North Africa. In Poland, three million were murdered in [[gas chambers]] in all concentration camps combined, with one million at the [[Auschwitz]] camp complex alone. This [[genocide]], in which approximately six million Jews were methodically exterminated, is known as [[the Holocaust]].

Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On May 14, 1948, upon the termination of the British Mandate, [[David Ben-Gurion]] declared the creation of the [[State of Israel]], a [[Jewish and democratic state]] in ''[[Eretz Israel]]'' (Land of Israel). Immediately afterwards, all neighbouring Arab states invaded, yet the newly formed [[IDF]] resisted. In 1949, the war ended and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of [[Aliyah]] from all over Europe and [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Middle Eastern countries]]. {{As of|2022|post=,}} Israel is a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a population of 9.6 million people, of whom 7 million are [[Israeli Jews|Jewish]].

The largest Jewish community outside Israel is the [[American Jews|United States]], while large communities also exist in France, Canada, Argentina, Russia, United Kingdom, Australia, and [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]]. Currently, the Jewish ethnicity have two autonomous states under their power to act as sanctuaries, [[Israel]] and the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]].

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Commons category|Jewish history}}
* [http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/ The Jewish History Resource Center]. Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
* [http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/Internetresources/modern/israelindex.htm The State of Israel] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
* [http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/ Jewish History and Culture Encyclopaedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224094628/http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/ |date=December 24, 2008 }} Official Site of the 22-volume Encyclopaedia Judaica
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/jewishsbook.html Internet Jewish History Sourcebook] offering homework help and online texts
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050528023003/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/israelite_religion.htm Israelite Religion to Judaism: the Evolution of the Religion of Israel].
* [https://thinktorah.org/jewish-history/ 2000 Years of Jewish History]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050629084248/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/greek_influence.htm Greek Influence on Judaism from the Hellenistic Period Through the Middle Ages c. 300 BCE–1200 CE].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050604085120/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/jewish_sects.htm Jewish Sects of the Second Temple Period].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101119075635/http://adath-shalom.ca/samaritan_origin.htm The Origin and Nature of the Samaritans and their Relationship to Second Temple Jewish Sects].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051118233741/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/eb2bk.htm Jewish History Tables].
* [http://www.oztorah.com/category/australian-jewry/ Articles on Australian Jewish history].
* [http://www.oztorah.com/category/british-jewry/ Articles on British Jewish history].
* Barnavi, Eli (Ed.). ''A Historical Atlas of the Jewish People''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1992. {{ISBN|978-0-679-40332-6}}
* [http://www.simpletoremember.com/vitals/Jewish_History.htm Crash Course in Jewish History]
* [http://csicso-nagy.uw.hu/fo-o-Csicso-NAGY-A/jewish-families.htm Jewish families in Csicsó – Cicov (Slovakia) until the Holocaust]
* [http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&amp;Volume=36&amp;Issue=1&amp;ArticleID=29 &quot;Under the Influence: Hellenism in Ancient Jewish Life&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229232302/http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&amp;Volume=36&amp;Issue=1&amp;ArticleID=29 |date=February 29, 2012 }} Biblical Archaeology Society
* [http://www.jewishhistory.org/crash-course/ Summary of Jewish History] by Berel Wein
* [http://histclo.com/chron/ancient/heb/heb-hist.html Ancient Hebrew history]
* [http://jewishhistorylectures.org/ Videos of Jewish History Lectures by Henry Abramson of Touro College South]
{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:يهودين جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:يهوديت جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:يهودي نسلي گروهه]]
[[زمرو:تاريخ بلحاظ مذهب]]
[[زمرو:نسلن جي تاريخون]] 
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      <text bytes="204727" sha1="kvkxhappmd0grd5sgnm9o9estu82efh" xml:space="preserve">يهودي (&lt;small&gt;Jews&lt;/small&gt;) تاريخي اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه، ٻه لاڳاپيل بادشاهتن جيڪيون [[لوهه جو دور|لوهه جي دور]] ۾ [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سرزمين شام (ليونٽ)]] ۾ ظاهر ٿيون،  جي بني اسرائيل ۽ عبرانين مان پيدا ٿيا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|date=2001|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|isbn=978-0-684-86912-4|edition=1st Touchstone|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken2&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229|date=April 9, 2023}} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; بني اسرائيل جو پهريون ذڪر، 1213-1203 ق.م. جو مرنيپتا اسٽيل تي لکيل آهي؛ بعد ۾ مذهبي ادب بني اسرائيلن جي ڪهاڻي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 1500 ق.م. تائين ٻڌائي ٿو. روايتي طور تي، اسرائيل جو نالو عبراني بزرگ [[يعقوب عليہ السلام|يعقوب]] سان شروع ٿيو آهي، جيڪو نالي لاءِ هڪ داستاني ايٽولوجي فراهم ڪري ٿو - هڪ فرشتي سان وڙهڻ کان پوءِ، يعقوب جو نالو اسرائيل رکيو ويو، جنهن جو مطلب آهي &quot;اهو جيڪو خدا سان ويڙهي ٿو&quot;. سامريه ۾ قائم اسرائيل جي بادشاهت 720 ق.م. ڌاري نيو-آشوري سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Broshi|first=Maguen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174|title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2001|isbn=978-1-84127-201-6|page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ 586 ق.م. ڌاري يهودين جي بادشاهت نيو-بابلي سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Faust|first=Avraham|title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period|date=August 29, 2012|publisher=Society of Biblical Literature|isbn=978-1-58983-641-9|pages=1|doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي آبادي جو هڪ حصو [[بابل]] ڏانهن جلاوطن ڪيو ويو. آشور ۽ بابل ۾ قيد ٿيل يهودين کي ڊائاسپورا جي شروعات جي نمائندگي ڪندڙ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.

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{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 063.jpg|thumb|يهودي روايت موجب، يعقوب، جيڪو ريمبران جي هن تصوير ۾ ملائڪ سان وڙهندي ڏيکاريو ويو آهي، اسرائيل جي قبيلن جو پيءُ هو. ]][[هخامنشي سلطنت]] طرفان هن علائقي کي فتح ڪرڻ کان پوءِ، جلاوطن يهودين کي واپس اچڻ ۽ مندر کي ٻيهر تعمير ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي؛ اها واقعا ٻئي مندر جي دور جي شروعات جي نشاندهي ڪن ٿا. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Jonathan|last1=Stökl|first2=Caroline|last2=Waerzegger|title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context|date=2015|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|pages=7–11, 30, 226}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia Judaica|edition=2nd|volume=3|page=27}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيترن ئي صدين جي پرڏيهي حڪمراني کانپوءِ، سيليوسڊ سلطنت جي خلاف مڪابي بغاوت هڪ آزاد هاشموني بادشاهت جو سبب بڻي، &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Peter Fibiger|last1=Bang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&amp;pg=PAPA184|title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean|first2=Walter|last2=Scheidel|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-518831-8|pages=184–187}}&lt;/ref&gt; پر ان رياست کي بتدريج [[رومي سلطنت]] ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Abraham|last=Malamat|url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=A History of the Jewish People|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1976|isbn=978-0-674-39731-6|pages=223–239}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي-رومن جنگيون، پهرين ۽ ٻي صدي عيسوي ۾ رومن جي خلاف ناڪام بغاوتن جو هڪ سلسلو، [[يروشلم]] ۽ ٻئي مندر جي تباهي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Zissu|first=Boaz|title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE|date=2018|isbn=978-90-04-34986-5|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|page=19|chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective|oclc=988856967}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ ڪيترن ئي يهودين کي نيڪالي ڏيڻ جو سبب بڻيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Erwin|last1=Fahlbusch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&amp;pg=PAPA15|title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity|first2=Geoffrey William|last2=Bromiley|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5|page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt; سر زمين شام فلسطين ۾ يهودي آبادي ايندڙ صدين دوران بتدريج گهٽجي وئي، يهودي ڊائاسپورا جي ڪردار کي وڌايو ۽ روحاني ۽ آبادي جي مرڪز کي خالي ٿيل يهوديا کان گليلي ۽ پوءِ بابل ڏانهن منتقل ڪيو، يهودين جون ننڍيون برادريون رومن سلطنت ۾ پکڙيل هيون. ساڳئي عرصي دوران، مشناه ۽ تلمود، مرڪزي يهودي متن، ترتيب ڏنا ويا. ايندڙ هزار سالن ۾، ڊائاسپورا برادريون ٽن وڏن نسلي ذيلي تقسيم ۾، جتي انهن جا ابا ڏاڏا آباد ٿيا هئا: وچ ۽ اوڀر يورپ ۾ اشڪنازي، [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|آئبيريا]] ۾ سيفاردي ۽ [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]] ۾ مزراهي طور گڏ ٿي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&amp;pg=PA87 &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity.&quot; p. 87.] Eban, Abba Solomon. &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews.&quot; Summit Books Syracuse, New York: 1984. p. 87.&lt;/ref&gt;  &lt;ref&gt;Dosick (2007), pp. 59–60.&lt;/ref&gt;

شروعاتي اسلامي فتحون اوڀرين رومي سمنڊ جي علائقن تي [[بازنطيني سلطنت|بازنطيني]] ڪنٽرول ختم ڪري ڇڏيو، نئين قائم ٿيل راشدون خلافت 7هين صدي دوران [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|ليونٽ]]، [[ميسوپوٽيميا]] ۽ اتر آفريڪا تي قبضو ڪيو ۽ 8هين صدي دوران [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|آئبيرين جزيره نما]] تي قبضو ڪيو. يهودي ثقافت مسلم [[اندلس]] ۾ هڪ سونهري دور مان لطف اندوز ٿي، يهودين کي سماج ۾ وڏي پيماني تي قبول ڪيو ويو ۽ انهن جي مذهبي، ثقافتي ۽ معاشي زندگي عدم برداشت واري الموحدين جي اچڻ کان اڳ ڦٽي نڪتي. سال 1492ع ۾ ڪيٿولڪ حڪمران، راڻي ازابيل اول ۽ بادشاهه فرڊيننڊ II پاران يهودين کي اسپين ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ڪيو ويو، جنهن کان پوءِ اهي وڏي تعداد ۾ [[عثماني سلطنت]] ۽ [[اٽلي]] ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي. 12هين ۽ 15هين صدي جي وچ ۾، اشڪنازي يهودين وچ يورپ ۾ انتهائي ظلم جو تجربو ڪيو، جنهن جي ڪري انهن جي [[پولينڊ]] ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. &lt;ref&gt;Mosk (2013), p. 143. &quot;Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Harshav, Benjamin (1999). ''The Meaning of Yiddish''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. &quot;From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the centre of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt;هين صدي ۾ هسڪاله دانشورانه تحريڪ جو عروج ڏٺو ويو. &lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt;هين صدي جي شروعات ۾، يهودي يهودين کي پابندين وارن قانونن کان آزاد ڪرڻ ۽ وسيع يورپي سماج ۾ ضم ڪرڻ لاءِ مهم هلائڻ شروع ڪئي.

19هين صدي ۾، جڏهن اولهائين يورپ ۾ يهودين کي قانون جي سامهون برابري ڏني پئي وئي، ته آبادڪاري جي ميدان ۾ يهودين کي وڌندڙ ظلم، قانوني پابندين ۽ وڏي پيماني تي قتل عام جو سامنا ڪرڻ پيو. 1870 ۽ 1880 جي ڏهاڪن دوران، يورپ ۾ يهودي آبادي فلسطين ۾ يهودي رياست کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان عثماني شام ڏانهن هجرت تي وڌيڪ سرگرم بحث ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. صهيوني تحريڪ سرڪاري طور تي سال 1897ع ۾ قائم ڪئي وئي هئي. سال 1881ع ۽ 1924ع جي وچ ۾ [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] ڏانهن 20 لک کان وڌيڪ يهودين جي وڏي پيماني تي هجرت کي به شروع ڪيو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Lewin|first=Rhoda G.|date=1979|title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis|url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf|journal=Minnesota History|volume=46|issue=7|page=259|access-date=August 10, 2020|archive-date=July 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; يورپ ۽ آمريڪا جا يهودي سائنس، ثقافت ۽ معيشت جي شعبن ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪيا. عام طور تي سڀ کان وڌيڪ مشهور سمجهيا ويندڙن ۾ [[البرٽ آئنسٽائن|البرٽ آئن اسٽائن]] ۽ لڊوگ وٽگنسٽائن شامل هئا. هن وقت ڪيترائي [[نوبل انعام حاصل ڪندڙن جي فهرست|نوبل انعام يافته]] يهودي هئا، جيئن اڃا تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners|publisher=jinfo.org|access-date=October 7, 2011|archive-date=December 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سال &lt;small&gt;1933&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، [[جرمنيا|جرمني]] ۾ [[هٽلر|ايڊولف هٽلر]] ۽ نازي پارٽي جي اقتدار ۾ اچڻ سان، يهودين لاءِ صورتحال سخت ٿي وئي. معاشي بحران، نسل پرست يهودي مخالف قانون ۽ ايندڙ جنگ جي خوف سبب ڪيترائي ماڻهو [[يُورَپ|يورپ]] کان [[فلسطين|لازمي فلسطين]]، آمريڪا ۽ [[سوويت يونين]] ڏانهن ڀڄي ويا. سال 1939ع ۾، [[ٻين مھاڀاري جنگ|ٻي مهاڀاري جنگ]] شروع ٿي ۽ سال 1941ع تائين جرمني تقريبن سڄي يورپ تي قبضو ڪري ورتو. سال 1941ع ۾، سوويت يونين جي حملي کان پوءِ، آخري حل شروع ٿيو، هڪ غير معمولي پيماني تي هڪ وسيع منظم آپريشن، جنهن جو مقصد يهودي ماڻهن کي ختم ڪرڻ هو ۽ نتيجي ۾ يورپ ۽ اتر آفريڪا ۾ يهودين جو قتل عام ٿيو. پولينڊ ۾، سڀني ڪنسنٽريشن ڪيمپن ۾ گيس چيمبرن ۾ 30 لک يهودي قتل ڪيا ويا، جن ۾ صرف آشوٽز ڪيمپ ڪمپليڪس ۾ 10 لک شامل هئا. هي نسل ڪشي، جنهن ۾ تقريبن 60 لک يهودين کي طريقي سان ختم ڪيو ويو، هولوڪاسٽ جي نالي سان مشهور آهي. 

هولوڪاسٽ کان اڳ ۽ دوران، يهودين جي وڏي تعداد لازمي فلسطين ڏانهن هجرت ڪئي. 14 مئي 1948ع تي، برطانوي مينڊيٽ جي خاتمي تي، ڊيوڊ بين-گورين ارض اسرائيل (اسرائيل جي سرزمين) ۾ هڪ يهودي ۽ جمهوري رياست، [[اسرائيل]] جي رياست جي قيام جو اعلان ڪيو.

ان کان پوءِ فوري طور تي، سڀني پاڙيسري عرب رياستون اسرائيل تي حملو ڪيو، پر نئين ٺهيل اسرائيلي دفاعي فوج (IDF) مزاحمت ڪئي. سال 1949ع ۾ جنگ ختم ٿي وئي ۽ اسرائيل رياست جي تعمير شروع ڪئي ۽ سڄي يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر جي ملڪن مان ايندڙ يهودين جي وڏين لهرن کي جذب ڪيو. سال 2022ع تائين، اسرائيل هڪ پارلياماني جمهوريت آهي جنهن جي آبادي 96 لک ماڻهن جي آهي، جن مان 70 لک يهودي آهن. ([[غزه جي پٽي|غزا]] ۽ [[فلسطين جي رياست|مغربي ڪناري]] جي 35 لک آبادي کانسواء).

اسرائيل کان ٻاهر سڀ کان وڏي يهودي برادري آمريڪا ۾ آهي، جڏهن ته ٻيون وڏي برادريون [[فرانس]]، [[ڪينيڊا]]، [[ارجنٽائن]]، [[روس]]، [[گڏيل بادشاھت|برطانيه]]، [[آسٽريليا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] ۾ پڻ موجود آهن. هن وقت، يهودي نسل جون ٻه خودمختيار رياستون؛ اسرائيل ۽ روس ۾ يهودي خودمختيار اوبلاست آهن جيڪي انهن جي اختيار هيٺ آهن ته اهي پناهه گاهه طور ڪم ڪن.

==جائزو==
قديم يهودي تاريخ بائيبل ۽ غير بائيبل ذريعن، اپوڪرائيفا ۽ سوڊيپيگرافا، جوزيفس جي لکڻين، گريڪو-رومن ليکڪن ۽ چرچ جي پادرين، گڏوگڏ آثار قديمه جي دريافتن، لکتن، قديم دستاويزن، جهڙوڪ ايليفينٽائن ۽ فيوم مان پيپيري، مردار سمنڊ جا اسڪرول، بار ڪوخبا خط، باباٿا آرڪائيوز ۽ قاهره جينيزا دستاويزن، مان معلوم ٿئي ٿي، جيڪي زباني تاريخ ۽ مدراش ۽ تلمود ۾ تبصرن جي مجموعن سان گڏ آهن. 

ابتدائي جديد دور ۾ پرنٽنگ پريس جي آمد سان، يهودين جي تاريخ ۽ عبراني بائيبل جا شروعاتي ايڊيشن شايع ٿيا جيڪي يهودي مذهب جي تاريخ ۽ وڌندڙ طور تي، يهودين جي قومي تاريخن، يهودي قوم ۽ سڃاڻپ سان لاڳاپيل هئا، هڪ مسودي يا لکندڙ ڪلچر کان هڪ پرنٽنگ ڪلچر ڏانهن منتقلي هئي. يهودي مورخن پنهنجن اجتماعي تجربن جا احوال لکيا، پر سياسي، ثقافتي ۽ سائنسي يا فلسفياتي ڳولا لاءِ تاريخ کي پڻ وڌندڙ طور تي استعمال ڪيو. ليکڪن ثقافتي طور تي ورثي ۾ مليل متن جي هڪ مجموعي کي استعمال ڪيو ته جيئن فن جي حالت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ يا اڳتي وڌائڻ لاءِ هڪ منطقي داستان تيار ڪري سگهجي. جديد يهودي تاريخ نويسي يورپي نشاۃِ ثانيه ۽ روشن خيالي جي دور جهڙين دانشورانه تحريڪن سان جڙيل آهي، پر وچين دور جي آخر ۾ ۽ قديم زماني ۾ مختلف ذريعن ۾ اڳوڻين ڪمن تي ڌيان ڏنو. اڄ، يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ کي اڪثر ست دورن ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي:
# قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه رياست (&lt;small&gt;1200 ق.م. کان 586 ق.م.&lt;/small&gt;) 
# ٻيو مندر وارو دور (&lt;small&gt;516 ق.م. کان 70 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|editor-last=Goodman|editor-first=Martin|chapter=Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period|pages=36–52|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0003|isbn=0-19-928032-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# ربانڪ يا تلمودي دور (&lt;small&gt;70 کان 640 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|editor-last=Goodman|editor-first=Martin|chapter=Historiography on the Jews in the ‘Talmudic Period’ (70–640 ce)|pages=79–114|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0005|isbn=0-19-928032-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# وچين دور (&lt;small&gt;640 کان 1492 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# ابتدائي جديد دور (&lt;small&gt;1492-1750 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# جديد دور (&lt;small&gt;1750ع کان 20هين صدي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# [[صيهونيت]]، [[هولوڪاسٽ]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جو قيام (&lt;small&gt;19 کان 21هين صدي&lt;/small&gt;)
&lt;imagemap&gt;
File:Chronology of Israel eng.png|center|800px
default [[#Time periods in Jewish history|Jewish history]]
rect 658 156 833 176 [[Aliyah|Periods of massive immigration to Palestine]]
rect 564 156 647 175 [[Jewish diaspora|Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in exile]]
rect 460 156 554 175 [[Land of Israel|Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in the southern Levant, with full or partial independence]]
rect 314 156 452 175 [[Temple in Jerusalem|Periods in which a Jewish Temple existed]]
rect 196 156 309 175 [[#Time periods in Jewish history|Jewish history]]
rect 26 102 134 122 [[Book of Judges|Shoftim]]
rect 134 102 265 121 [[Books of Kings|Melakhim]]
rect 146 83 266 104 [[First Temple]]
rect 286 83 418 103 [[Second Temple]]
rect 341 103 392 121 [[Zugot]]
rect 393 103 453 121 [[Tannaim]]
rect 452 102 534 221 [[Amoraim]]
rect 534 102 560 121 [[Savoraim]]
rect 559 103 691 121 [[Geonim]]
rect 691 102 825 121 [[Rishonim]]
rect 825 100 940 120 [[Acharonim]]
rect 939 94 959 120 [[Aliyah|Aliyot]]
rect 957 65 975 121 [[Israel]]
rect 940 62 958 94 [[The Holocaust]]
rect 825 62 941 100 [[Jewish diaspora|Diaspora]]
rect 808 61 825 101 [[Alhambra decree|Expulsion from Spain]]
rect 428 62 808 103 [[Dispersion of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Roman exile]]
poly 226 82 410 82 410 92 428 92 428 61 226 62 [[Ten Lost Tribes|Assyrian Exile (Ten Lost Tribes)]]
rect 264 82 284 122 [[Babylonian captivity]]
rect 283 103 341 121 [[Second Temple of Jerusalem|Second Temple period]]
poly 26 121 17 121 17 63 225 63 226 81 145 82 145 101 26 101 [[Chronology of the Bible|Ancient Jewish History]]
rect 58 136 375 146 [[Chronology of the Bible]]
rect 356 122 373 135 [[Common Era]]
desc none
&lt;/imagemap&gt;

==قديم اسرائيل==
{{Main|يهوديت جي اصل}}
===شروعاتي بني اسرائيل===
{{Main|بني اسرائيل}}
[[File:Ruins atop Tel Megiddo with circular altar-like shrine and a series of temples on top of the other dating from the early bronze-age through the iron-age periods, Tel Meggido, Israel (19888642855).jpg|thumb|تل ميگيدو، هڪ ڪنعاني ۽ بعد ۾ اسرائيلي شهر جا کنڊر]]

ابتدائي يهودين ۽ انهن جي پاڙيسرين جي تاريخ، ميڊيٽرينين سمنڊ جي زرخيز هلال ۽ اوڀر ساحل تي مرڪز آهي. اها انهن ماڻهن سان شروع ٿئي ٿي جيڪا [[نيل درياھہ|نيل]] ۽ [[ميسوپوٽيميا]] جي وچ واري علائقي تي قبضو ڪيو هو. مصر ۽ بابل ۾ ثقافت جي قديم مرڪزن، عرب جي ريگستانن ۽ ايشيا ڪوچڪ جي ميدان جي اهي، ڪنعان جي زمين (تقريبن جديد اسرائيل، فلسطين، اردن ۽ لبنان سان ملندڙ جلندڙ) تهذيبن جي ميلاپ جو هنڌ هئي.

[[File:Map Israel Judea 926 BC-fr.svg|thumb|سال 926 ق.م. ۾ اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه جون بادشاهتون]]
اسرائيل جي نالي سان هڪ قوم جو سڀ کان پهريون رڪارڊ ٿيل ثبوت قديم مصر جي مرنيپتاه اسٽيلئ ۾ نظر اچي ٿو، جيڪو 1200 ق.م. جو آهي. جديد آثار قديمه جي حساب موجب، اسرائيلي ۽ انهن جي ثقافت هڪ الڳ مونولئٽرسٽڪ ۽ پوء توحيد پرست (monotheistic) مذهب جي ترقي ذريعي ڪنعاني ماڻهن ۽ انهن جي ثقافتن مان نڪتل هئي، جيڪا هڪ قومي خدا &quot;يهواه&quot; تي مرڪوز هو.&lt;ref&gt;Mark Smith in &quot;The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel&quot; states &quot;Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000&amp;nbsp;BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period.&quot; (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) &quot;The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel&quot; (Eerdman's)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rendsberg, Gary (2008). &quot;Israel without the Bible&quot;. In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Gnuse |first1=Robert Karl |title=No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel |date=1997 |publisher=Sheffield Academic Press Ltd |isbn=1-85075-657-0 |location=England |pages=28, 31}}&lt;/ref&gt; اها عبراني ٻولي جي هڪ قديم شڪل ڳالهائيندا هئا، جيڪا اڄ بائيبل جي عبراني جي نالي سان مشهور آهي.&lt;ref&gt;Steiner, Richard C. (1997), &quot;Ancient Hebrew&quot;, in Hetzron, Robert (ed.), ''The Semitic Languages'', Routledge, pp. 145–173, {{ISBN|978-0-415-05767-7}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

پهرين صدي قبل مسيح جي وچ کان، يهودين کي روايتي طور تي پنهنجي تاريخ جي جيڪا سمجھ هئي، اها عبراني بائيبل ۾ بيان ڪيل روايتن جي چوڌاري مرڪوز هئي. هن خيال موجب، ابراهيم (اهو ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته هو يهودين جو حياتياتي پيشوا ۽ يهوديت جو پيءُ آهي) پهريون يهودي آهي.{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=3}} بعد ۾ اسحاق ابراهيم مان پيدا ٿيو ۽ يعقوب اسحاق مان پيدا ٿيو. هڪ ملائڪ سان ويڙهه کان پوءِ، يعقوب کي اسرائيل جو نالو ڏنو ويو. سخت ڏڪار کانپوءِ، يعقوب ۽ سندس ٻارهن پٽ مصر ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي ويا، جتي انهن آخرڪار اسرائيل جا ٻارهن قبيلا ٺاهيا. بعد ۾ بني اسرائيل کي مصر جي غلامي مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ موسيٰ طرفان ڪنعان آندو ويو. انهن آخرڪار يوشع جي اڳواڻي ۾ ڪنعان کي فتح ڪيو.

جديد عالم متفق آهن ته بائيبل بني اسرائيل جي اصليت جو مستند احوال فراهم نٿو ڪري. اتفاق راءِ ان ڳالهه جي حمايت ڪري ٿو ته آثار قديمه جا ثبوت وڏي پيماني تي اسرائيل جي اصليت کي 1200 کان 1000 ق.م. ۾ ڪنعان ۾ ڏيکارين ٿا، مصر ۾ نه. اهو &quot;زبردست&quot; آهي ۽ &quot;مصر مان نڪرڻ يا سينائي ​​جي بيابان ذريعي 40 سالن جي زيارت لاءِ ڪا به گنجائش نه ٿو ڇڏي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dever-2002&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William G. |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8028-2126-3}} p. 99&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪيترا ئي آثار قديمه جا ماهر موسيٰ ۽ خروج جي آثار قديمه جي تحقيق کي &quot;هڪ بيڪار جستجو&quot; طور ڇڏي ڏنو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dever-2002&quot; /&gt; بهرحال، اهو قبول ڪيو ويو آهي، ته هن داستان جو هڪ &quot;تاريخي بنياد&quot; آهي.&lt;ref&gt;For more about the historicity of Jewish history as it pertains to [[Oral Torah|rabbinic]] sources, see {{cite journal |first1=Reuven Chaim |last1=Klein |date=2023 |title=Are historical sections of the Talmud actually historical? Critical tools for understanding historical claims in rabbinic literature |url=https://www.academia.edu/127965994 |journal=Journal of Philological Pedagogy |volume=12 |publisher=Chandler School of Education |pages=42–75 |doi=10.17613/rjp5a-md343 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Faust|2015|loc=p.476: &quot;While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt..&quot;}}{{sfn|Redmount|2001|p=61|ps=: &quot;A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative.&quot;}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2001 |isbn=3-927120-37-5 |pages=98–99 |quote=After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible &quot;historical figures&quot; [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.}}&lt;/ref&gt; آثار قديمه جي ماهرن ۽ مصريات جي ماهرن جي هڪ صدي جي تحقيق ۾ ڪو به ثبوت نه مليو آهي، جيڪو مصري قيد ۽ فرار ۽ بيابان مان سفر جي خروج جي داستان سان سڌو سنئون لاڳاپيل ٿي سگهي ٿو، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ اهو مشورو ڏنو ويو آهي ته لوهه جي دور جو اسرائيل - يهودا ۽ اسرائيل جي بادشاهتن جي اصل ڪنعان ۾ آهي، مصر ۾ نه.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |editor-last1=Finkelstein |editor-first1=Israel |editor-first2=Nadav |editor-last2=Naaman |title=From Nomadism to Monarchy: Archaeological and Historical Aspects of Early Israel |publisher=[[Israel Exploration Society]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-880317-20-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Compare: {{cite book |first=Ian |last=Shaw |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&amp;q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&amp;pg=PA313 |title=A Dictionary of Archaeology |author2=Robert Jameson |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-631-23583-5 |editor=Ian Shaw |edition=New |page=313 |quote=The Biblical account of the origins of the people of Israel (principally recounted in Numbers, Joshua and Judges) often conflicts with non-Biblical textual sources and with the archaeological evidence for the settlement of Canaan in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age. [...] Israel is first textually attested as a political entity in Egyptian texts of the late 13th century BCE and the Egyptologist Donald Redford argues that the Israelites must have been emerging as a distinct group within the Canaanite culture during the century or so prior to this. It has been suggested that the early Israelites were an oppressed rural group of Canaanites who rebelled against the more urbanized coastal Canaanites (Gottwald 1979). Alternatively, it has been argued that the Israelites were survivors of the decline in the fortunes of Canaan who established themselves in the highlands at the end of the late Bronze Age (Ahlstrom 1986: 27). Redford, however, makes a good case for equating the very earliest Israelites with a semi-nomadic people in the highlands of central Palestine whom the Egyptians called Shasu (Redford 1992:2689–80; although see Stager 1985 for strong arguments against the identification with the Shasu). These Shasu were a persistent thorn in the side of the Ramessid pharaohs' empire in Syria-Palestine, well-attested in Egyptian texts, but their pastoral lifestyle has left scant traces in the archaeological record. By the end of the 13th century BCE, however, the Shasu/Israelites were beginning to establish small settlements in the uplands, the architecture of which closely resembles contemporary Canaanite villages. |author-link=Israel, Israelites |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160406/https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&amp;q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&amp;pg=PA313 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; ابتدائي اسرائيلي آبادين جي ثقافت ڪنعاني آهي. انهن جي گروهي-شيون ڪنعاني ديوتا ايل، برتن، مقامي ڪنعاني روايت ۽ استعمال ٿيل الفابيٽ ابتدائي ڪنعاني آهن، ۾ رهي ٿو. &quot;اسرائيلي&quot; ڳوٺن کي ڪنعاني جڳهن کان ڌار ڪرڻ لاء واحد نشان سوئر جي هڏن جي غير موجودگي آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ڇا اهو نسلي نشان طور ورتو وڃي ٿو يا ٻين عنصرن جي ڪري آهي، اهو تڪرار جو موضوع رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Killebrew |first=Ann E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC |title=Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E. |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-58983-097-4 |location=Atlanta |page=176 |quote=Much has been made of the scarcity of pig bones at highland sites. Since small quantities of pig bones do appear in Late Bronze Age assemblages, some archaeologists have interpreted this to indicate that the ethnic identity of the highland inhabitants was distinct from Late Bronze Age indigenous peoples (see Finkelstein 1997, 227–230). Brian Hesse and Paula Wapnish (1997) advise caution, however, since the lack of pig bones at Iron I highland settlements could be a result of other factors that have little to do with ethnicity. |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=January 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117055402/https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

بائبل جي داستان مطابق، اسرائيل جي سرزمين ٻارهن قبيلن جي هڪ ڪنفيڊريشن ۾ منظم هئي جنهن تي ڪيترن ئي سؤ سالن تائين قاضين جي هڪ سلسلي جي حڪومت هئي.

=== قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهودا ===
&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; قديم اسرائيل جي تاريخ

=== Ancient Israel and Judah ===
{{Main|History of ancient Israel and Judah}}
[[File:LMLK, Ezekiah seals.jpg|thumb|A stamped bulla ([[LMLK seal]]) of [[Hezekiah]], &quot;Of Hezekiah (son of) Ahaz King of Judah&quot;, [[Israel Museum]]]]
Two Israelite kingdoms emerged during Iron Age II: [[Israel and Judah]]. The Bible portrays Israel and Judah as the successors of an earlier [[United Kingdom of Israel]], although [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)#Archaeological record|its historicity is disputed]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Zachary |date=April 22, 2016 |title=Debating the United Monarchy: Let's See How Far We've Come |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146107916639208 |journal=Biblical Theology Bulletin |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=59–69 |doi=10.1177/0146107916639208 |issn=0146-1079 |s2cid=147053561 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lipschits |first1=Oded |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |title=The Jewish Study Bible |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-997846-5 |editor1-last=Berlin |editor1-first=Adele |edition=2nd |pages=2107–2119 |language=en |chapter=The history of Israel in the biblical period |quote=As this essay will show, however, the premonarchic period long ago became a literary description of the mythological roots, the early beginnings of the nation and the way to describe the right of Israel on its land. The archeological evidence also does not support the existence of a united monarchy under David and Solomon as described in the Bible, so the rubric of &quot;united monarchy&quot; is best abandoned, although it remains useful for discussing how the Bible views the Israelite past. [...] Although the kingdom of Judah is mentioned in some ancient inscriptions, they never suggest that it was part of a unit {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} Israel and Judah. There are no extrabiblical indications of a united monarchy called &quot;Israel.&quot; |editor2-last=Brettler |editor2-first=Marc Zvi |access-date=August 19, 2022 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160917/https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Historians and archaeologists agree that the northern [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] existed from {{circa|900 BCE}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|169–195}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Wright |first1=Jacob L. |date=July 2014 |title=David, King of Judah (Not Israel) |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301164250/http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |archive-date=March 1, 2021 |access-date=May 15, 2021 |website=The Bible and Interpretation}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that the [[Kingdom of Judah]] existed from {{Abbr|ca.|circa}} 700 BCE.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 |date=April 9, 2023 }} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Tel Dan Stele]], discovered in 1993, shows that the kingdom, at least in some form, existed by the middle of the 9th century BCE, but it does not indicate the extent of its power.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kcVmBAEo5rcC&amp;pg=PA333 |title=Ahab Agonistes: The Rise and Fall of the Omri Dynasty |date=April 28, 2007 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-567-25171-8 |quote=The Tel Dan inscription generated a good deal of debate and a flurry of articles when it first appeared, but it is now widely regarded (a) as genuine and (b) as referring to the Davidic dynasty and the Aramaic kingdom of Damascus. |access-date=August 19, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Cline |first=Eric H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uGzRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA61 |title=Biblical Archaeology: A Very Short Introduction |date=September 28, 2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-971162-8 |quote=Today, after much further discussion in academic journals, it is accepted by most archaeologists that the inscription is not only genuine but that the reference is indeed to the House of David, thus representing the first allusion found anywhere outside the Bible to the biblical David. |access-date=August 19, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Mykytiuk |first=Lawrence J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eprY1Qd0veAC&amp;pg=PA113 |title=Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200-539 B.C.E. |date=January 1, 2004 |publisher=Society of Biblical Lit |isbn=978-1-58983-062-2 |quote=Some unfounded accusations of forgery have had little or no effect on the scholarly acceptance of this inscription as genuine.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Biblical tradition tells that the Israelite monarchy was established in 1037 BCE under [[Saul]], who was anointed by the prophet Samuel,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Who Was the First King of Israel? |url=https://shopisrael.com/blogs/about-israel/first-king-of-israel |access-date=February 5, 2025 |website=Shop Israel |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and continued under [[David]] and his son, [[Solomon]]. David greatly expanded the kingdom's borders and [[Siege of Jebus|conquered Jerusalem]] from the [[Jebusites]], turning it into the national, political and religious capital of the kingdom. Solomon, his son, later built the [[First Temple]] on [[Moriah|Mount Moriah]] in Jerusalem. Upon his death, traditionally dated to c. 930 BCE, a civil war erupted between the ten northern Israelite tribes, and the tribes of [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] ([[Tribe of Simeon|Simeon]] was absorbed into Judah) and [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]] in the south. The kingdom then split into the Kingdom of Israel in the north, and the Kingdom of Judah in the south.

The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two kingdoms and soon developed into a regional power.{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|pp=146-147|loc=Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power}} During the days of the [[Omride Dynasty|Omride dynasty]], it controlled [[Samaria]], [[Galilee]], the upper [[Jordan Valley]], the [[Sharon plain|Sharon]] and large parts of the [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |first=Israel |last=Finkelstein |title=The forgotten kingdom : the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |isbn=978-1-58983-910-6 |pages=74 |oclc=949151323}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Samaria (ancient city)|Samaria]], the capital, was home to one of the largest Iron Age palaces in the Levant.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |title=The Forgotten Kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-58983-911-3 |pages=65–66; 73; 78; 87–94 |oclc=880456140}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |date=November 1, 2011 |title=Observations on the Layout of Iron Age Samaria |url=https://doi.org/10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |journal=Tel Aviv |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=194–207 |doi=10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |issn=0334-4355 |s2cid=128814117 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; The kingdom of Israel was destroyed {{cx|720 BCE}}, when it was [[Samerina|conquered]] by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Kingdom of Judah, with its capital in [[Jerusalem]], controlled the [[Judaean Mountains]], the [[Shephelah]], the [[Judaean Desert]] and parts of the [[Negev]]. After the fall of Israel, Judah became a [[client state]] of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In the 7th century BCE, the kingdom's population increased greatly, prospering under [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] [[Vassal state|vassalage]], despite [[Hezekiah#Assyrian invasion|Hezekiah's revolt]] against the Assyrian king [[Sennacherib]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |editor-last=Ben-Sasson |editor-first=Haim Hillel |editor-link=H. H. Ben-Sasson |page=142 |quote=Sargon's heir, Sennacherib (705–681), could not deal with Hezekiah's revolt until he gained control of Babylon in 702 BCE.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Mesad Hashavyahu ostracon.jpg|thumb|ياون-يام آسٽراڪون، هڪ قديم عبراني لکت جيڪا يهوديه ۾ انتظاميه کي دستاويز ڪري ٿي.]]
هن دور ۾ عبراني بائيبل جا وڏا حصا لکيا ويا، جن ۾  ناحوم  ۽ زيفانه سان گڏ  هوشه، يسعياه، اموس ۽ ميڪاه جا ابتدائي حصا، استثناء جي تاريخ جو گهڻو حصو، استثنا جي تاريخ جو پهريون ايڊيشن (&lt;small&gt;يوشوا/ججز/سموئيل/بادشاهن جون ڪتابون&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ حبقوق شامل آهن.

سال 605 ق.م ۾ نو-آشوري سلطنت جي خاتمي سان، مصر ۽ نو-بابلي سلطنت جي وچ ۾ [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|ليوانت]] (شام، اردن ۽ فلسطين) جي ڪنٽرول لاءِ طاقت جي جدوجهد پيدا ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bickerman |first=E. J. |title=Nebuchadnezzar And Jerusalem |date=January 1, 2007 |work=Studies in Jewish and Christian History (2 vols) |pages=961–974 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789047420729/Bej.9789004152946.i-1242_044.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004152946.i-1242.280 |isbn=978-90-474-2072-9 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; جن جي نتيجي ۾ يهوديه جي رياست جو تيزي سان زوال ٿيو. سال 601 ق.م ۾. يهوديه جي بادشاهه يهوياخم، جيڪو تازو ئي بابل جي تابع ٿيو هو، سلطنت جي خلاف بغاوت ڪئي. جلد ئي سندس پٽ، يهوياخن سندس جاءِ تي آيو، جنهن پنهنجي پيءُ جي پاليسي جاري رکيو ۽ بابلي حملي جو سامنا ڪيو. مارچ 597 ق.م. ۾. يهوياخن بابليين جي آڏو هٿيار ڦٽا ڪيا ۽ انهن کيس قيد ڪري بابل کڻي ويا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Galil |first=Gershon |date=1991 |title=The Babylonian Calendar and the Chronology of the Last Kings of Judah |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42611193 |journal=Biblica |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=367–378 |jstor=42611193 |issn=0006-0887 |quote=All the scholars, without exception, establish the date of the surrender of Jehoiachin, king of Judah, as the second day of Adar, the seventh year of Nebuchadnezzar II, king of Babylon (March 16, 597 BC), following the Babylonian chronicle ... This unique date is undoubtedly the most precise in Israelite history during the biblical period.}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي شڪست بابلي تاريخن ۾ درج ٿيل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BCE) |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030154541/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |archive-date=October 30, 2014 |access-date=October 30, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; پوءِ بابلي ماڻهن صدقياه، يهوياخن جي چاچي کي بادشاهه مقرر ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle) – Livius |url=https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505195611/https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html |archive-date=May 5, 2019 |access-date=March 26, 2020 |website=www.livius.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

سال 587 يا 586 ق.م ۾، بخت نصر بيون يهوديه ۾ ٻي بغاوت جي جواب ۾، يروشلم جو گهيرو ڪيو ۽ تباهه ڪري ڇڏيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Shalom |first1=N. |last2=Vaknin |first2=Y. |last3=Shaar |first3=R. |last4=Ben-Yosef |first4=E. |last5=Lipschits |first5=O. |last6=Shalev |first6=Y. |last7=Gadot |first7=Y. |last8=Boaretto |first8=E. |date=2023 |title=Destruction by fire: Reconstructing the evidence of the 586 BCE Babylonian destruction in a monumental building in Jerusalem |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305440323001036 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=157 |article-number=105823 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2023.105823 |bibcode=2023JArSc.157j5823S |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;     پهرين مندر کي تباهه ڪيو ويو ۽ ان جي مقدس برتنن کي مال غنيمت جي طور تي ضبط ڪيو ويو. تباهي کان پوءِ وڏي پيماني تي جلاوطني ڪئي وئي. شهر جي بچيل رهاڪن کي آبادي جي ٻين حصن سميت، ميسوپوٽيميا ڏانهن کڻي ويا، جيڪا يهودي تاريخ ۾ &quot;بابلي قيد&quot; جي نالي سان مشهور دور جي شروعات جي نشاندهي ڪندي آهي. صدقياه پاڻ گرفتار ڪيو ويو، انڌو ڪيو ويو ۽ بابل ڏانهن منتقل ڪيو ويو. ٻيا مصر ڏانهن ڀڄي ويا. يهودين پنهنجي رياست ۽ جلاوطن ماڻهن، پنهنجو وطن وڃائي ڇڏيا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001b&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bedford |first=Peter Ross |title=Living Without the Jerusalem Temple—In Judah and Babylonia |date=January 1, 2001 |work=Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah |page=42 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s005.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004498051_005 |isbn=978-90-04-49805-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; بادشاهت جي خاتمي کان پوءِ، اڳوڻي يهوديه بادشاهت کي بابلي سلطنت جي هڪ صوبي جي طور تي ملائي ڇڏيو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bedford |first=Peter Ross |title=Introduction |date=2001 |work=Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah |pages=1–39 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s004.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004498051_004 |isbn=978-90-04-49805-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== خروج ۽ بابل ۾ قيد (587 - 538 ق.م.) ===
{{Main|يهودين جي بابل ۾ قيد}}
[[File:Tissot The Flight of the Prisoners.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|قديم يهودين جو خروج ۽ [[بابل]] ڏانهن جلاوطني ۽ [[يروشلم]] ۽ [[سليمان عليہ السلام|سليمان]] جي مندر جي تباهي جو ڏيک. هڪ مصور پاران ]]يهوديه جي رياست جي زوال ۽ فارسي حڪمراني هيٺ وطن ڏانهن انهن جي واپسي جي وچ ۾ ڪيترن ئي ڏهاڪن دوران، يهودي تاريخ هڪ غير واضح مرحلي ۾ داخل ٿئي ٿي. ڪيترائي يهودي بابل (عراق)، ايلام (ايران) ۽ مصر ۾ جلاوطن ڪيا ويا، جڏهن ته ٻيا بابلي حڪمراني هيٺ يهوديه ۾ رهيا. يرمياه مصر ۾ برادرين جو حوالو ڏئي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ميگڊول، طهپانحيس، نوف ۽ پاٿروس ۾ آباديون شامل آهن. ان کانسواء، هڪ يهودي فوجي ڪالوني ايليفينٽائن ۾ موجود هئي، جيڪا جلاوطني کان اڳ قائم ڪئي وئي هئي، جتي انهن پنهنجو مزار ٺاهيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001b&quot; /&gt; توره جي باب استثنا کي وڌايو ويو ۽ اڳوڻي صحيفن کي جلاوطني جي دور ۾ ايڊٽ ڪيو ويو. يرمياه جو پهريون ايڊيشن، حزقيل جو ڪتاب، عبيدياه جو اڪثريت ۽ اها سڀ جن جو تحقيق ۾ &quot;ٻيو يسعياه&quot; جي نالي سان حوالو ڏنو ويو آهي، اهي سڀ هن دور ۾ لکيل هئا.

==هيڪل سليماني جي ٻيهر تعمير==
===&lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Post-exilic_period&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;هخامنشي دور (332 کان 538ع)&lt;!--&quot;Post-exilic period&quot;, &quot;Post-Exilic period&quot;, &quot;Post-exilic&quot;, &quot;Post-Exilic&quot;, Postexilic, &quot;Pre-exilic period&quot;, &quot;Pre-Exilic period&quot;, &quot;Pre-Exilic&quot; and &quot;Pre-exilic&quot; redirect here--&gt;===
[[File:109.Ezra Reads the Law to the People.jpg|thumb|[[عزير عليہ السلام|عزير]] ماڻهن کي [[توريت|تورات]] پڙهي ٻڌائي رهيو آهي. گستاو ڊور پاران پينٽنگ]]
عزير جي ڪتاب جي مطابق، [[سائرس اعظم|سائرس]] [[سائرس اعظم|اعظم]]، هخامنشي سلطنت جو بادشاهه، بابل جي فتح کان هڪ سال پوءِ،&lt;ref&gt;''Harper's Bible Dictionary'', ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper &amp; Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103&lt;/ref&gt; سال 538 ق.م ۾ بابلي جلاوطني جو خاتمو آندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Biu.ac.il22&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html|access-date=March 15, 2014|publisher=Biu.ac.il}}&lt;/ref&gt; واپس ڪندڙ يهودين جي اڳواڻي زربابل، [[داؤد عليہ السلام|دائود]] جي شاهي نسل مان هڪ شهزادو ۽ جوشوا، مندر جي اڳوڻي اعليٰ پادرين مان اولاد ڪئي، جنهن ٻئي مندر جي تعمير جي نگراني ڪيا، جيڪا سال &lt;small&gt;521&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;516&lt;/small&gt; ق.م. جي وچ ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Biu.ac.il2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html|access-date=March 15, 2014|publisher=Biu.ac.il}}&lt;/ref&gt;۽ هخامنشي سلطنت جي حصي جي طور تي، يهودين جي اڳوڻي بادشاهت، مختلف حدن سان، هڪ ننڍڙو علائقو ڍڪيندي، يهودين جو صوبو بڻجي وئي.&lt;ref&gt;Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew Yehuda, or &quot;Judah&quot;, and &quot;medinata&quot; the word for province&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Grabbe|first=Lester L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-MnE5T_0RbMC&amp;q=gave+the+Jews+permission+to+return+to+Yehud+province+and+to+rebuild+the&amp;pg=PA355|title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah|volume=1|publisher=T&amp;T Clark|year=2004|isbn=978-0-567-08998-4|page=355}}&lt;/ref&gt; همعصر عالم بتدريج واپسي جي عمل ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا، جيڪي 6هين صدي ق.م. جي آخر ۽ 5هين صدي ق.م. جي شروعات تائين وڌائي وئي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last=Lipschits|first=Oded|title=Judah in the Biblical Period|chapter=Between Archaeology and Text: A Reevaluation of the Development Process of Jerusalem in the Persian Period|date=March 18, 2024|page=374|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110487442-020/html|access-date=July 1, 2024|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110487442-020|isbn=978-3-11-048744-2}}&lt;/ref&gt; فارسي يهودين جي آبادي بادشاهت جي دور کان تمام گهٽجي وئي. آثار قديمه جا سروي پنجين ۽ چوٿين صدي ق.م. دوران تقريبن &lt;small&gt;'''30,000'''&lt;/small&gt; جي آبادي ڏيکارن ٿا. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|date=2001|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|isbn=0-684-86912-8|edition=1st Touchstone|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

آخري توريت کي وڏي پيماني تي فارسي دور (&lt;small&gt;539&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;کان 333&lt;/small&gt; ق.م يا &lt;small&gt;450-350&lt;/small&gt; ق.م.) جي پيداوار طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو،{{Sfn|Frei|2001|p=6}} هي اتفاق راءِ هڪ روايتي يهودي نظريي جو گونج آهي ته [[عزير عليہ السلام|عزير عليه السلام]]، بابل کان واپسي تي يهودي برادري جا اڳواڻ، تورات جي اشاعت ۾ هڪ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{sfn|Romer|2008|p=2 and fn.3}}

ٽي نبي، جيڪا يهودي روايت ۾ آخري سمجهيا وڃن ٿا هن دور ۾ سرگرم هئا: حجائي، زڪريا ۽ ملاڪي.&lt;ref&gt;[[Jerusalem Bible]] (1966), ''Haggai'', ''Zechariah'', ''Malachi'' in ''Introduction to the Prophets'', London: Darton, Longman &amp; Todd, pp. 1138–1140&lt;/ref&gt; بني اسرائيل جي آخري نبي جي وفات کانپوءِ ۽ اڃا تائين فارسي حڪمراني هيٺ، يهودي ماڻهن جي قيادت اڳواڻن جي پنجن مسلسل نسلن جي زگوٽ (جوڙن) جي هٿن ۾ منتقل ٿي وئي. اهي پهرين فارسين جي دور ۾ ۽ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾ ترقي ڪيا ۽ نتيجي طور تي، انهن مان ٻه گروه، فريسي ۽ صدوقي ٺهيا. فارسين جي دور ۾ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾، يهودي سڪا يهوديه ۾ يهودي سڪن جي طور تي ٺاهيا ويا.

=== Hellenistic period (c. 332–110 BCE) ===
{{Main|Hellenistic Judaism}}
[[File:Jews Byzantine Greek Alexander Manuscript (cropped).JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Alexander the Great]], clad as a [[Byzantine emperor]], receives a delegation of Jewish [[rabbi]]s. Miniature from the 14th-century ''Alexander Romance'']]

In 332 BCE, [[Alexander the Great]] of [[Macedon]] defeated the Persians. After Alexander's death and the division of his empire among his generals, the [[Seleucid Kingdom]] was formed.

The Alexandrian conquests spread Greek culture to the Levant. During this time, currents of Judaism were influenced by [[Hellenistic philosophy]] developed from the 3rd century BCE, notably the [[Jewish diaspora]] in [[Alexandrian Jews|Alexandria]], culminating in the compilation of the [[Septuagint]]. An important advocate of the symbiosis of Jewish theology and Hellenistic thought is [[Philo]].

=== Hasmonean dynasty (110–63 BCE) ===
{{Main|Hasmonean dynasty}}
[[File:John Hyrcanus.jpg|thumb|JUDAEA, Hasmoneans. John Hyrcanus I (Yehohanan). 135–104 BCE. Æ Prutah (13mm, 2.02&amp;nbsp;gm, 12h). &quot;Yehohanan the High Priest and the Council of the Jews&quot; (in Hebrew) in five lines within wreath / Double cornucopiae adorned with ribbons; pomegranate between horns; small A to lower left. Meshorer Group B, 11; Hendin 457.]]

Triggered by anti-Jewish decrees from Seleucid king [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] and tensions between Hellenized and conservative Jews, the [[Maccabean Revolt]] erupted in Judea in 167 BCE under the leadership of [[Mattathias]]. His son, [[Judas Maccabeus]], recaptured Jerusalem in 164 BCE, purifying the Second Temple and reinstating sacrificial worship.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atkinson-2016&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Atkinson |first=Kenneth |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/949219870 |title=A History of the Hasmonean State: Josephus and Beyond |date=2016 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-66902-5 |series=T&amp;T Clark Jewish and Christian texts series |location=London; New York |pages=2, 23–28 |oclc=949219870}}&lt;/ref&gt; The successful revolt eventually led to the formation of an independent Jewish state under the [[Hasmonean dynasty]], which lasted from 165 to 63 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;See:

*[[William David Davies]]. ''The Hellenistic Age''. Volume 2 of Cambridge History of Judaism. Cambridge University Press, 1989. {{ISBN|978-0-521-21929-7}}. pp. 292–312.
*Jeff S. Anderson. ''The Internal Diversification of Second Temple Judaism: An Introduction to the Second Temple Period''. University Press of America, 2002. {{ISBN|978-0-7618-2327-8}}. pp. 37–38.
*Howard N. Lupovitch. ''Jews and Judaism in World History''. Taylor &amp; Francis. 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-415-46205-1}}. pp. 26–30.&lt;/ref&gt;

Initially governing as both political leaders and High Priests, the [[Hasmoneans]] later assumed the title of kings. They employed military campaigns and diplomacy to consolidate power.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atkinson-2016&quot; /&gt; Under the rule of [[Alexander Jannaeus]] and [[Salome Alexandra]], [[Hasmonean Judea]] reached its zenith in size and influence. However, internal strife erupted between Salome Alexandra's sons, [[Hyrcanus II]] and [[Aristobulus II]], leading to civil war and appeals to Roman authorities for intervention. Responding to these appeals, Pompey led a Roman campaign of conquest and annexation, which marked the end of Hasmonean sovereignty and ushered in Roman rule over Judea.&lt;ref&gt;Hooker, Richard. {{cite web |title=The Hebrews: The Diaspora |url=http://www.wsu.edu:8000/~dee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM |access-date=April 7, 2018 |archive-date=August 29, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829230214/http://www.wsu.edu:8000/%7Edee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM |url-status=dead}}  World Civilizations Learning Modules.  Washington State University, 1999.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Roman period (63 BCE – 135 CE) ===
{{Main|Herodian dynasty|History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Roman Palestine|Judaea (Roman province)|Jewish–Roman wars}}
[[File:Monnaie - Prutah, bronze, Jérusalem, Judée, Mattathias Antigonos - btv1b8480202s (1 of 2).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Hasmonean coinage|Hasmonean coin]] of [[Antigonus II Mattathias]], depicting the [[Temple menorah]]]]

Judea had been an independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmoneans, but it was [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BCE)|conquered and reorganized as a client state by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE]]. [[Roman expansion]] was going on in other areas as well, and it would continue for more than a hundred and fifty years. Later, [[Herod the Great]] was appointed &quot;King of the Jews&quot; by the [[Roman Senate]], supplanting the Hasmonean dynasty. Some of his offspring held various positions after him, known as the [[Herodian dynasty]]. Briefly, from 4 BCE to 6 CE, [[Herod Archelaus]] ruled the [[Tetrarchy (Judea)|tetrarchy of Judea]] as [[ethnarch]], the Romans denying him the title of King.

After the [[Census of Quirinius]] in 6 CE, the [[Roman province of Judaea]] was formed as a satellite of [[Roman Syria]] under the rule of a [[prefect]] (as was [[Roman Egypt]]) until 41 CE, then [[Procurator (Roman)|procurators]] after 44 CE. The empire was often callous and brutal in its treatment of its Jewish subjects, (see [[Anti-Judaism#Pre-Christian Roman Empire|Anti-Judaism in the pre-Christian Roman Empire]]). In 30 CE (or 33 CE), [[Jesus of Nazareth]], an itinerant [[rabbi]] from [[Galilee]], and the central figure of [[Christianity]], was put to death by [[crucifixion]] in Jerusalem under the Roman prefect of [[Judaea]], [[Pontius Pilate]].&lt;ref&gt;Charlesworth, James H. (2008). The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide. {{ISBN|978-1-4267-2475-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For a short time Judea was reunited and semi-independent under [[Agrippa the Great]] who had good relations with both the Roman aristocracy and local Jewish citizens. After his death Judea was again annexed by Rome and his less popular son [[Herod Agrippa II]] was made ethnarch.&lt;ref&gt;Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, livre XVIII, § V, 4, (132).&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:19 Shrine of the Book 005 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of the [[Second Temple]], following renovations by [[Herod the Great|Herod]] in the 1st century CE]]
[[File:Roberts Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans]] (1850 painting by [[David Roberts (painter)|David Roberts]])]]

Roman oppressive rule, combined with economic, religious, and ethnic tensions, eventually led to the outbreak of the [[First Jewish–Roman War]], also known as the Great Revolt, in 66 CE. Future emperor [[Vespasian]] quelled the rebellion in [[Galilee]] by 67 CE, capturing key strongholds.&lt;ref&gt;Jensen, M. H. (2014). The Political History in Galilee from the First Century BCE to the end of the Second Century CE. ''Galilee in the late Second Temple and Mishnaic periods. Volume 1. Life, culture and society'', pp. 69-70. &quot;According to Jewish War, Vespasian laid siege to and conquered all the major strongholds of Galilee [...] Since the entire campaign was short and lasted only for some months in the spring and summer of 67, there is no reason to believe that Galilee was entirely devastated when the Romans set their course south. However, the places that were conquered, were in a typical Roman fashion levelled more or less to the ground and many people sold of as slaves.&lt;/ref&gt; He was succeeded by his son [[Titus]], who led the brutal [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|siege of Jerusalem]], culminating in the city's fall in 70 CE. The Romans burned Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Weksler-Bdolah |first=Shlomit |title=Aelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman period: in light of archaeological research |publisher=Brill |year=2019 |isbn=978-90-04-41707-6 |page=3 |oclc=1170143447 |quote=The historical description is consistent with the archeological finds. Collapses of massive stones from the walls of the Temple Mount were exposed lying over the Herodian street running along the Western Wall of the Temple Mount. The residential buildings of the Ophel and the Upper City were destroyed by great fire. The large urban drainage channel and the Pool of Siloam in the Lower City silted up and ceased to function, and in many places the city walls collapsed. [...] Following the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, a new era began in the city's history. The Herodian city was destroyed and a military camp of the Tenth Roman Legion established on part of the ruins.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Reich |first=Ronny |date=2009 |title=The Sack of Jerusalem in 70 CE: Flavius Josephus' Description and the Archaeological Record |script-title=he:חורבן ירושלים בשנת 70 לסה&quot;נ: תיאורו של יוסף בן מתתיהו והממצא הארכאולוגי  |journal=Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv |script-journal=he:קתדרה: לתולדות ארץ ישראל ויישובה |issue=131 |pages=25–42 |issn=0334-4657 |jstor=23407359}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Roman victory was celebrated with a [[Roman triumph|triumph]] in Rome, showcasing Jewish artefacts like the [[Temple menorah|menorah]], which were then put on display in the new [[Temple of Peace, Rome|Temple of Peace]].&lt;ref&gt;Huitink, Luuk. &quot;Between Triumph and Tragedy: Josephus, Bellum Judaicum 7.121–157.&quot; ''Reading Greek, Hellenistic and Roman spolia. Objects, appropriation and cultural change, Euhormos: Greco-Roman Studies in Anchoring Innovation. Leiden: Brill'' (2023). pp. 215–216, 234&lt;/ref&gt; The Flavian dynasty leveraged this victory for political gain, erecting monuments in Rome and minting [[Judaea Capta coinage|Judaea Capta coins]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Overman |first1=J. Andrew |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781134518326 |title=The First Jewish Revolt |last2=Overman |first2=J. Andrew |date=September 2, 2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-51832-6 |chapter=The First Revolt and Flavian politics |doi=10.4324/9780203167441}}&lt;/ref&gt; The war concluded with the [[siege of Masada]] (73–74 CE). The Jewish population suffered widespread devastation, with displacement, enslavement, and Roman confiscation of Jewish-owned land.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Herr |first=Moshe David |title=The History of Eretz Israel: The Roman Byzantine period: the Roman period from the conquest to the Ben Kozba War (63 B.C.E-135 C.E.) |publisher=Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi |year=1984 |editor-last=Shtern |editor-first=Menahem |location=Jerusalem |page=288}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The destruction of the Second Temple marked a cataclysmic event in Jewish history, triggering far-reaching transformations within Judaism.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Maclean Rogers |first=Guy |title=For the Freedom of Zion: The Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66–74 CE |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-300-26256-8 |location=New Haven and London |pages=3–5 |oclc=1294393934}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=Judaism in a Time of Crisis: Four Responses to the Destruction of the Second Temple |date=November 28, 2017 |work=Neusner on Judaism |pages=399–413 |editor-last1=Hinnells |editor-first1=John |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781351152761-20 |access-date=May 22, 2022 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781351152761-20 |isbn=978-1-351-15276-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Karesh-2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Karesh |first=Sara E. |title=Encyclopedia of Judaism |publisher=Facts On File |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-78785-171-9 |oclc=1162305378 |quote=Until the modern period, the destruction of the Temple was the most cataclysmic moment in the history of the Jewish people. Without the Temple, the Sadducees no longer had any claim to authority, and they faded away. The sage Yochanan ben Zakkai, with permission from Rome, set up the outpost of Yavneh to continue develop of Pharisaic, or rabbinic, Judaism.}}&lt;/ref&gt; With the central role of sacrificial worship obliterated, religious practices shifted towards [[Jewish prayer|prayer]], [[Torah study]], and communal gatherings in [[synagogue]]s. According to Rabbinic tradition, Yohanan ben Zakkai secured permission from the Romans to establish a center for Torah study in [[Yavne]]h, which then served as a focal point for Jewish religious and cultural life for a generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stemberger-2003&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Stemberger |first=Guenter |title=The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism, 70–640 CE |date=2003 |work=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism |pages=78–79 |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470758014.ch5 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Wiley |language=en |doi=10.1002/9780470758014.ch5 |isbn=978-1-57718-058-6 |editor2-last=Avery-Peck |editor2-first=Alan J. |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-judaism/3F4F0A32983FC0DCDB414553888DC394 |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |volume=4 |page=268 |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488 |quote=Under the leadership of R. Yohanan ben Zakkai and his circle at Yavneh, Judaism sought to reconstitute itself and find a new equilibrium in the face of the disaster of 70.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=Religion (Judentum: Palästinisches Judentum &amp;#91;Forts.&amp;#93;) |date=September 26, 2016 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-083904-3 |editor-last1=Haase |editor-first1=Wolfgang |language=de |chapter=The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism: Yavneh (Jamnia) from A.D. 70 to 100 |pages=3–42 |doi=10.1515/9783110839043-002 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110839043-002/html}}&lt;/ref&gt; Judaism also underwent a significant shift away from its sectarian divisions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Shaye J. D. |date=1984 |title=The Significance of Yavneh: Pharisees, Rabbis, and the End of Jewish Sectarianism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507609 |journal=Hebrew Union College Annual |volume=55 |page=29 |jstor=23507609 |issn=0360-9049 |quote=The goal was not the triumph over other sects but the elimination of the need for sectarianism itself. [...] The destruction of the temple provided the impetus for this process: it warned the Jews of the dangers of internal divisiveness and it removed one of the major focal points of Jewish sectarianism.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Jodi |last=Magness |title=Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History?: On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-04-21744-7 |editor-first=Daniel R. |editor-last=Schwartz |chapter=Sectarianism before and after 70 CE |editor-first2=Zeev |editor-last2=Weiss |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VecxAQAAQBAJ&amp;q=diaspora+70+ce&amp;pg=PA189}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Sadducees]] and [[Essenes]], two prominent sects in the late Second Temple period, faded into obscurity,&lt;ref name=&quot;Karesh-2006&quot; /&gt; while the traditions of the [[Pharisees]], including their halakhic interpretations, the centrality of the [[Oral Torah]], and [[Jewish eschatology|belief in resurrection]] became the foundation of [[Rabbinic Judaism]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Stemberger-2003&quot; /&gt;[[File:Arch of Titus Menorah.png|upright=1.15|thumb|The sack of Jerusalem depicted on the inside wall of the [[Arch of Titus]] in [[Rome]]]]

=== Diaspora during the Second Temple period ===
{{Main|Jewish diaspora}}
The [[Jewish diaspora]] existed well before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and had been ongoing for centuries, with the dispersal driven by both forced expulsions and voluntary migrations.&lt;ref&gt;[[Erich S. Gruen]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=t1IR4WtFjGUC&amp;pg=PA3 Diaspora: Jews Amidst Greeks and Romans] [[Harvard University Press]], 2009 pp. 3–4, 233–234: 'Compulsory dislocation, .…cannot have accounted for more than a fraction of the diaspora. … The vast bulk of Jews who dwelled abroad in the Second Temple Period did so voluntarily.' (2)' .Diaspora did not await the fall of Jerusalem to Roman power and destructiveness. The scattering of Jews had begun long before-occasionally through forced expulsion, much more frequently through voluntary migration.'&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Martin |title=A History of Judaism |date=2018 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-18127-1 |location=Princeton Oxford |pages=21, 232}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Mesopotamia, a testimony to the beginnings of the Jewish community can be found in [[Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets|Joachin's ration tablets]], listing provisions allotted to the exiled Judean king and his family by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], and further evidence are the [[Al-Yahudu Tablets|Al-Yahudu tablets]], dated to the 6th-5th centuries BCE and related to the exiles from Judea arriving after the destruction of the [[First Temple]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Luke |date=February 3, 2017 |title=Ancient tablets reveal life of Jews in Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203 |newspaper=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt; though there is ample evidence for the presence of Jews in Babylonia even from 626 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;Zadok R. Judeans in Babylonia–Updating the Dossier. in U. Gabbay and Sh. Secunda. (eds.). ''Encounters by the Rivers of Babylon: Scholarly Conversations between Jews, Iranians and Babylonians in Antiquity'', Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 160. Tübingen: MohrSiebeck. pp. 109–110.&lt;/ref&gt; In Egypt, the [[Elephantine papyri and ostraca|documents from Elephantine]] reveal the trials of a community founded by a Persian Jewish garrison at two fortresses on the frontier during the 5th-4th centuries BCE, and according to [[Josephus]] the Jewish community in Alexandria existed since the founding of the city in the 4th century BCE by [[Alexander the Great]].&lt;ref&gt;Josephus Flavius, ''Against Appion''. 4.II&lt;/ref&gt; By 200 BCE, there were well established Jewish communities both in Egypt and Mesopotamia (&quot;[[History of the Jews in Iraq|Babylonia]]&quot; in Jewish sources) and in the two centuries that followed, Jewish populations were also present in [[Asia Minor]], [[Greece]], [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]], [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]], and, beginning in the middle of the 1st century BCE, in the city of [[Rome]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=E. Mary |last=Smallwood |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period, Volume 3 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-521-24377-3 |editor1=William David Davies |chapter=The Diaspora in the Roman period before AD 70 |editor2=Louis Finkelstein |editor3=William Horbury |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AW2BuWcalXIC&amp;q=Diaspora+before+70&amp;pg=PA168}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot; /&gt;

In the first centuries CE, as a result of the [[Jewish–Roman wars]],&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot;&gt;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת &quot;עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום&quot;, ע&quot;מ 95. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth – &quot;The People of Israel – the history of 4000 years – from the days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty&quot;, 1981, p. 95)&lt;/ref&gt; a large number of Jews were taken as captives, sold into slavery, or compelled to flee from the regions affected by the wars, contributing to the formation and expansion of Jewish communities across the [[Roman Empire]] as well as in Arabia and Mesopotamia. Jewish communities across Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Egypt were almost entirely obliterated due to the harsh Roman response to the Diaspora Revolt.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006b&quot; /&gt;

The [[New Testament]] Book of [[Acts]], as well as other [[Pauline epistles|Pauline]] texts, make frequent reference to the large populations of [[Hellenized Jews]] in the cities of the Roman world. These Hellenized Jews were affected by the diaspora only in its spiritual sense, absorbing the feeling of loss and homelessness that became a cornerstone of the Jewish creed, much supported by persecutions in various parts of the world. Of critical importance to the reshaping of Jewish tradition from the Temple-based religion to the rabbinic traditions of the Diaspora, was the development of the interpretations of the Torah found in the [[Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]].

==تالمود وارو دور==
===پھرين يهودي بغاوت (115 کان 117ع)===
During the [[Diaspora Revolt]] (115–117 CE), [[Jewish diaspora]] communities across several eastern provinces of the [[Roman Empire]] engaged in widespread rebellion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006a&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=June 22, 2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |pages=93–106 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=September 8, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Driven by messianic fervor and hopes for the [[Gathering of Israel|ingathering of exiles]] and the [[Third Temple|reconstruction of the Temple]], these communities may have sought to spark a broader movement possibly aimed at returning to [[Judea]] and rebuilding Jerusalem.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Smallwood |first=E. Mary |title=The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian |publisher=SBL Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-90-04-50204-8 |pages=394–397}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Horbury |first=William |title=Jewish War under Trajan and Hadrian |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-139-04905-4 |pages=276}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Barclay |first=John M. G. |title=Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: from Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE) |date=1998 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-08651-8 |edition= |location=Edinburgh |pages=241}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient sources describe the revolt as extremely brutal, with cases of cannibalism and mutilation, though modern scholars often consider these accounts to be exaggerated.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006a&quot; /&gt; The Roman suppression of the revolt was marked by severe measures, including [[ethnic cleansing]], leading to the near-total destruction of Jewish diaspora communities in [[Roman Libya|Libya]], [[Roman Cyprus|Cyprus]] and [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last1=Kerkeslager |first1=Allen |title=The Diaspora from 66 to c. 235 ce |date=2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |volume=4 |pages=62–63 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/diaspora-from-66-to-c-235-ce/5AECAD54BE6CA31C7968EED92D6CA36A |access-date=September 10, 2024 |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.004 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |last2=Setzer |first2=Claudia |last3=Trebilco |first3=Paul |last4=Goodblatt |first4=David}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006b&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=June 22, 2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |page=98 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=September 8, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; including the significant and influential community in [[Alexandria]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot; /&gt;

===بار ڪوخبا بغاوت (132 کان 136ع===
{{Main|بار ڪوخبا بغاوت}}
[[File:Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg|thumb|A tetradrachm minted during the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], featuring the former Second Temple, a ''lulav'', and the slogan 'to the freedom of Jerusalem']]
From 132 to 136 CE, Judaea was the center of the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], triggered by Hadrian's decision to establish the pagan colony of [[Aelia Capitolina]] on the ruins of Jerusalem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Eck |first=Werner |editor-first1=Werner |editor-last1=Eck |title=Bar Kokhba |date=July 30, 2015 |work=Oxford Classical Dictionary |url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-1056 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1056 |isbn=978-0-19-938113-5 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Early successes led to the establishment of a short-lived Jewish state in Judea under the leadership of [[Simon Bar Kokhba]], styled as ''[[Nasi (Hebrew title)|nasi]]'' or prince of Israel.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt; The [[Bar Kokhba revolt coinage|rebel state's coinage]] proclaimed &quot;Freedom of Israel&quot; and &quot;For the Freedom of Jerusalem&quot;, using [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|ancient Hebrew script]] for nationalistic symbolism.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-1999&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Eck |first=Werner |date=1999 |title=The Bar Kokhba Revolt: The Roman Point of View |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-studies/article/abs/bar-kokhba-revolt-the-roman-point-of-view/27E95F52A627562F93178F17A51D5FD4 |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |volume=89 |pages=76, 80 |doi=10.2307/300735 |jstor=300735 |issn=1753-528X |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt; However, the Romans soon amassed six legions and additional auxiliaries under [[Julius Severus]], who then brutally crushed the uprising. Historical accounts report the destruction of fifty major strongholds and 985 villages, resulting in 580,000 Jewish deaths and widespread famine and disease.&lt;ref name=&quot;Raviv-2021&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Raviv |first1=Dvir |last2=David |first2=Chaim Ben |date=2021 |title=Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account? |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=585–607 |doi=10.1017/S1047759421000271 |issn=1047-7594 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Archaeological research confirms the widespread destruction and depopulation of the Jewish heartland in [[Judea]] proper, where most of the Jewish population was either killed, sold into slavery, expelled, or forced to flee.&lt;ref name=&quot;Raviv-2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=A. H. M. |title=The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces |publisher=Oxford |year=1971 |edition=2nd |pages=277 |quote=This provoked the last Jewish war, which seems from our meager accounts [...] to have resulted in the desolation of Judaea and the practical extermination of its Jewish population.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Mor|2016|pp=483–484}}: &quot;Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the [[Sicaricon|sikarikon laws]] were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The Romans also suffered heavy losses.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-1999&quot; /&gt; Post-revolt, Jews were prohibited from entering Jerusalem, and Hadrian issued religious edicts,&lt;ref&gt;Hanan Eshel,[[iarchive:cambridgehis xxxx 1984 004 8494287/page/n1082|&lt;!-- pg=105 --&gt; 'The Bar Kochba revolt, 132-135,']] in William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, Steven T. Katz (eds.) ''The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period,'' pp. 105-127, p. 105.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Eshel |first=Hanan |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=T. Katz |editor-first=Steven |volume=4. The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period  |pages=105–127 |chapter=4: The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132 – 135 |oclc=7672733}}&lt;/ref&gt; including a ban on circumcision, later repealed by [[Antoninus Pius]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} The province of Judaea was renamed [[Syria Palaestina]] as a punitive act against the Jews, aimed at placating non-Jewish residents and erasing Jewish historical ties to the land.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, {{ISBN|0-674-39731-2}}, page 334: &quot;In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ariel Lewin. ''The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine''. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. &quot;It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land.&quot; {{ISBN|0-89236-800-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; Christians refused to participate in the revolt and from this point the Jews regarded Christianity as a separate religion.&lt;ref&gt;M. Avi-Yonah, ''The Jews under Roman and Byzantine Rule'', Jerusalem 1984 p. 143&lt;/ref&gt; The Jewish defeat marked the termination of efforts to reestablish a Jewish state until the modern era.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |title=An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History And Religion Of The Jews In The Time Of Nehemiah, The Maccabees, Hillel, And Jesus |date=2010 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-55248-8 |location=Edinburgh |page=78 |quote=It was the total defeat and the massive destruction of the 132–35 war which put paid to any hopes of a revived Jewish state for another 1800 years.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A rabbi of this period, [[Simeon bar Yochai]], is regarded as the author of the [[Zohar]], the foundational text for Kabbalistic thought. However, modern scholars believe it was written in Medieval Spain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |title=Zohar |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&amp;letter=Z#406 |access-date=May 19, 2014 |last=Jacobs |first=Joseph |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007024121/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&amp;letter=Z#406 |archive-date=October 7, 2011 |author2=Broydé, Isaac |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Late Roman period in the Land of Israel ===
{{further|Byzantine Palestine|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}}
The relations of the Jews with the Roman Empire in the region continued to be complicated. [[Constantine the Great and Judaism|Constantine I]] allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once a year on [[Tisha B'Av]] at the [[Western Wall]]. In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched [[Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus|yet another revolt]], provoking heavy retribution.&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lazare and Robert Wistrich, Antisemitism: Its History and Causes, University of Nebraska Press, 1995, I, pp. 46–47.&lt;/ref&gt; The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the [[Constantinian dynasty]]. In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]], the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who unlike his predecessors defied Christianity. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sasanian Persia, in keeping with his effort to foster religions other than Christianity, he ordered the Jewish Temple rebuilt.&lt;ref&gt;Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'', 23.1.2–3.&lt;/ref&gt; The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic [[Galilee earthquake of 363]] and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire. Divine intervention was the common view among Christian historians of the time.&lt;ref&gt;See [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html &quot;Julian and the Jews 361–363 CE&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520080932/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html |date=May 20, 2012 }} (Fordham University, The Jesuit University of New York) and [https://web.archive.org/web/20051020130904/http://www.gibsoncondo.com/~david/convert/history.html &quot;Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple&quot;].&lt;/ref&gt; Julian's support of Jews caused Jews to call him &quot;Julian the [[Hellenes (religion)|Hellene]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Falk |first1=Avner |title=A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews |year=1996 |pages=343 |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press |isbn=978-0-8386-3660-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z10-Xz9Kno4C&amp;q=julian&amp;pg=PA343 |access-date=August 3, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Julian's fatal wound in the Persian campaign and his consequent death had put an end to Jewish aspirations, and Julian's successors embraced Christianity through the entire timeline of Byzantine rule of Jerusalem, preventing any Jewish claims.

In 438 CE, when the Empress [[Licinia Eudoxia|Eudocia]] removed the ban on Jews' praying at the [[Temple Mount|Temple site]], the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call &quot;to the great and mighty people of the Jews&quot; which began: &quot;Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!&quot; However, the Christian population of the city, who saw this as a threat to their primacy, did not allow it and a riot erupted after which they chased away the Jews from the city.&lt;ref&gt;Avraham Yaari, ''Igrot Eretz Yisrael'' (Tel Aviv, 1943), p. 46.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Andrew S. Jacobs |title=Remains of the Jews: The Holy Land and Christian Empire in Late Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8O95ErDSZQgC&amp;pg=PA157 |year=2004 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-4705-9 |page=157 |access-date=April 19, 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of [[Samaritan Revolts|Samaritan insurrections]] broke out across the [[Palaestina Prima]] province. Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in almost the entire annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the Samaritan [[Samaritan Revolts|Revolt of 556]] was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered a brutal suppression of Israelite religion.

In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an [[Jewish revolt against Heraclius|alliance]] with the [[Sassanid Empire|Persians]], who invaded Palaestina Prima in 614, fought at their side, overwhelmed the [[Byzantine]] garrison in Jerusalem, and were given Jerusalem to be governed as an autonomy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Itineraria Phoenicia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&amp;q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&amp;pg=PA542 |author=Edward Lipiński |publisher=Peeters |pages=542–543 |year=2004 |isbn=978-90-429-1344-8 |access-date=March 11, 2014 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409161013/https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&amp;q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&amp;pg=PA542 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, their autonomy was brief: the [[Nehemiah ben Hushiel|Jewish leader]] in Jerusalem was shortly assassinated during a Christian revolt and though Jerusalem was reconquered by Persians and Jews within 3 weeks, it fell into anarchy. With the consequent withdrawal of Persian forces, Jews surrendered to Byzantines in 625 or 628 CE, but were massacred by Christian radicals in 629 CE, with the survivors fleeing to Egypt. The Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) control of the region was finally lost to the Muslim Arab armies in 637 CE, when [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] completed the conquest of Akko.

=== Jews of pre-Muslim Babylonia (219–638 CE) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in Iraq}}

After the fall of Jerusalem, Babylonia would become the focus of Judaism for more than a thousand years. The first Jewish communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by [[Jehoiachin]] in 597 BCE as well as after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; Many more Jews migrated to Babylon in 135 CE after the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] and in the centuries after.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; Babylonia, where some of the largest and most prominent Jewish cities and communities were established, became the centre of Jewish life up to the 13th century. By the 1st century, Babylonia already held a speedily growing&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; population of an estimated 1,000,000 Jews, which increased to an estimated 2 million&lt;ref name=&quot;Solomon Gryazel&quot;&gt;Solomon Gryazel, ''History of the Jews: From the destruction of Judah in 586 BCE to the present Arab Israeli conflict'', p. 137.&lt;/ref&gt; between the years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from Judea, making up about 1/6 of the world Jewish population at that era.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solomon Gryazel&quot; /&gt; It was there that they would write the Babylonian Talmud in the languages used by the Jews of ancient Babylonia: [[Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]]. The Jews established [[Talmudic Academies in Babylonia]], also known as the Geonic Academies (from &quot;Geonim&quot;, meaning &quot;splendour&quot; in Biblical Hebrew or &quot;geniuses&quot;), which became the centre for Jewish scholarship and the development of Jewish law in Babylonia from roughly 500 CE to 1038 CE. The two most famous academies were the [[Pumbedita Academy]] and the [[Sura Academy]]. Major yeshivot were also located at [[Nehardea]] and Mahuza.&lt;ref&gt;''Codex Judaica'', pp. 161–174, Kantor, Zichron Press, NY 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; The Talmudic [[Yeshiva]] Academies became a main part of Jewish culture and education, and Jews continued establishing Yeshiva Academies in Western and Eastern Europe, North Africa, and in later centuries, in America and other countries around the world where Jews lived in the Diaspora. Talmudic study in Yeshiva academies, most of them located in The United States and Israel, continues today.

These Talmudic [[Yeshiva]] academies of Babylonia followed the era of the [[Amoraim]] (expounders)—the sages of the Talmud who were active (both in Judah and in Babylon) during the end of the era of the sealing of the [[Mishnah]] and until the times of the sealing of the Talmud (220–500 CE), and following the [[Savoraim]] (reasoners)—the sages of beth midrash (Torah study places) in Babylon from the end of the era of the Amoraim (5th century) and until the beginning of the era of the [[Geonim]]. The Geonim were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura and Pumbedita, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of the worldwide Jewish community in the early medieval era, in contrast to the [[Resh Galuta]] (Exilarch) who wielded secular authority over the Jews in Islamic lands. According to traditions, the [[Resh Galuta]] were descendants of Judean kings, which is why the kings of [[Parthia]] would treat them with much honour.&lt;ref&gt;[מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס. רותת &quot;עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום&quot;, ע&quot;מ 97. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth ''The People of Israel: The History of 4,000 Years, from the Days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty'', 1981, p. 97)&lt;/ref&gt;

For the Jews of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the yeshivot of Babylonia served much the same function as the ancient [[Sanhedrin]]—that is, as a council of Jewish religious authorities. The academies were founded in pre-Islamic Babylonia under the Zoroastrian Sassanid dynasty and were located not far from the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, which at that time was the largest city in the world. After the conquest of Persia in the 7th century, the academies subsequently operated for four hundred years under the Islamic caliphate. The first gaon of Sura, according to [[Sherira Gaon]], was Mar bar Rab Chanan, who assumed office in 609. The last gaon of [[Sura]] was [[Samuel ben Hofni]], who died in 1034; the last gaon of Pumbedita was [[Hezekiah Gaon]], who was tortured to death in 1040; hence the activity of the Geonim covers a period of nearly 450 years.

One of principal seats of Babylonian Judaism was [[Nehardea]], which was then a very large city made up mostly of Jews.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; A very ancient synagogue, built, it was believed, by King Jehoiachin, existed in Nehardea. At Huzal, near Nehardea, there was another synagogue, not far from which could be seen the ruins of Ezra's academy. In the period before Hadrian, Akiba, on his arrival at Nehardea on a mission from the Sanhedrin, entered into a discussion with a resident scholar on a point of matrimonial law (Mishnah Yeb., end). At the same time there was at Nisibis (northern [[Mesopotamia]]), an excellent Jewish college, at the head of which stood [[Judah ben Bathyra]], and in which many Judean scholars found refuge at the time of the persecutions. A certain temporary importance was also attained by a school at [[Nehar Pekod|Nehar-Pekod]], founded by the Judean immigrant Hananiah, nephew of [[Joshua ben Hananiah]], which school might have been the cause of a schism between the Jews of Babylonia and those of Judea-Israel, had not the Judean authorities promptly checked Hananiah's ambition.

=== Byzantine period (324–638 CE) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}}

Jews were also widespread throughout the Roman Empire, and this carried on to a lesser extent in the period of Byzantine rule in the central and eastern Mediterranean. The militant and exclusive Christianity and [[caesaropapism]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] did not treat Jews well, and the condition and influence of diaspora Jews in the Empire declined dramatically.

It was official Christian policy to convert Jews to Christianity, and the Christian leadership used the official power of Rome in their attempts. In 351 CE the Jews revolted against the added pressures of their governor, [[Constantius Gallus]]. Gallus put down the revolt and destroyed the major cities in the Galilee area where the revolt had started. Tzippori and Lydda (site of two of the major legal academies) never recovered.

In this period, the Nasi in Tiberias, [[Hillel II]], created an official calendar, which needed no monthly sightings of the moon. The months were set, and the calendar needed no further authority from Judea. At about the same time, the Jewish academy at Tiberius began to collate the combined Mishnah, [[braitot]], explanations, and interpretations developed by generations of scholars who studied after the death of [[Judah HaNasi]]. The text was organized according to the order of the Mishna: each paragraph of Mishnah was followed by a compilation of all of the interpretations, stories, and responses associated with that Mishnah. This text is called the ''[[Jerusalem Talmud]].''

The Jews of Judea received a brief respite from official persecution during the rule of the Emperor [[Julian the Apostate]]. Julian's policy was to return the Roman Empire to Hellenism, and he encouraged the Jews to rebuild Jerusalem. As Julian's rule lasted only from 361 to 363, the Jews could not rebuild sufficiently before Roman Christian rule was restored over the Empire. Beginning in 398 with the consecration of [[St. John Chrysostom]] as [[Patriarch]], Christian rhetoric against Jews grew sharper; he preached sermons with titles such as &quot;Against the Jews&quot; and &quot;On the Statues, Homily 17&quot;, in which John preaches against &quot;the Jewish sickness&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Wendy Mayer and [[Pauline Allen]], ''John Chrysostom: The Early Church Fathers'' (London, 2000), pp. 113, 146.&lt;/ref&gt; Such heated language contributed to a climate of Christian distrust and hate toward the large Jewish settlements, such as those in [[Antioch]] and [[Constantinople]].

In the beginning of the 5th century, the [[Emperor Theodosius]] issued a set of decrees establishing official persecution of Jews. Jews were not allowed to own slaves, build new synagogues, hold public office or try cases between a Jew and a non-Jew. Intermarriage between Jew and non-Jew was made a capital offence, as was the conversion of Christians to Judaism. Theodosius did away with the [[Sanhedrin]] and abolished the post of [[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]]. Under the [[Emperor Justinian]], the authorities further restricted the civil rights of Jews,&lt;ref&gt;Cod., I., v. 12&lt;/ref&gt; and threatened their religious privileges.&lt;ref&gt;Procopius, ''Historia Arcana'', 28&lt;/ref&gt; The emperor interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue,&lt;ref&gt;Nov., cxlvi., February 8, 553&lt;/ref&gt; and forbade, for instance, the use of the Hebrew language in divine worship. Those who disobeyed the restrictions were threatened with corporal penalties, exile, and loss of property. The Jews at Borium, not far from Syrtis Major, who resisted the Byzantine general [[Belisarius]] in his campaign against the [[Vandals]], were forced to embrace Christianity, and their synagogue was converted to a church.&lt;ref&gt;Procopius, ''De Aedificiis'', vi. 2&lt;/ref&gt;

Justinian and his successors had concerns outside the province of Judea, and he had insufficient troops to enforce these regulations. As a result, the 5th century was a period when a wave of new synagogues were built, many with beautiful mosaic floors. Jews adopted the rich art forms of the Byzantine culture. Jewish mosaics of the period portray people, animals, menorahs, zodiacs, and Biblical characters. Excellent examples of these synagogue floors have been found at Beit Alpha (which includes the scene of Abraham sacrificing a ram instead of his son Isaac along with a zodiac), Tiberius, Beit Shean, and Tzippori.

The precarious existence of Jews under Byzantine rule did not long endure, largely due to the explosion of the Muslim religion out of the remote Arabian peninsula (where large populations of Jews resided, see [[History of the Jews under Muslim Rule]] for more). The [[Muslim]] [[Caliphate]] ejected the Byzantines from the Holy Land (or the Levant, defined as modern Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria) within a few years of their victory at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] in 636. Numerous Jews fled the remaining Byzantine territories in favour of residence in the Caliphate over the subsequent centuries.

The size of the Jewish community in the Byzantine Empire was not affected by attempts by some emperors to forcibly convert the Jews of Anatolia to Christianity, as these attempts met with very little success.&lt;ref&gt;[[G. Ostrogorsky]], ''History of the Byzantine State''&lt;/ref&gt; Historians continue to research the status of the Jews in Asia Minor under Byzantine rule. (for a sample of views, see, for instance, J. Starr ''The Jews in the Byzantine Empire, 641–1204''; S. Bowman, ''The Jews of Byzantium''; R. Jenkins ''Byzantium''; Averil Cameron, &quot;Byzantines and Jews: Recent Work on Early Byzantium&quot;, ''Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies'' 20 (1996)). No systematic persecution of the type endemic at that time in Western Europe (pogroms, the stake, mass [[Expulsions and exoduses of Jews|expulsions]], etc.) has been recorded in Byzantium.&lt;ref&gt;''The Oxford History of Byzantium'', C. Mango (Ed) (2002)&lt;/ref&gt; Much of the Jewish population of Constantinople remained in place after the conquest of the city by [[Mehmet II]].{{citation needed|date=November 2013}}

&lt;gallery widths=&quot;180&quot;&gt;
File:Roman. Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog, 6th century C.E.jpg|''Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog'', 6th century [[Brooklyn Museum]]
File:Beit alfa01.jpg|Mosaic pavement of a synagogue at [[Beit Alpha]] (5th century)
File:ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg|Mosaic in the [[Tzippori Synagogue]] (5th century)
File:Hammat Gader.JPG|Mosaic pavement recovered from the [[Hamat Gader]] synagogue (5th or 6th century)
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Diaspora communities ===
[[File:Arrival of the Jewish pilgrims at Coachin, A.D. 68.jpg|thumb|Arrival of the Jewish pilgrims at Cochin, 68 CE]]
Cochin Jewish tradition holds that the roots of their community go back to the arrival of Jews at [[Kodungallur|Shingly]] in 72 CE, after the [[Destruction of the Second Temple]]. It also states that a Jewish kingdom, understood to mean the granting of autonomy by a local [[Tamils|Tamil]] king, [[Cheraman Perumal Nayanar]], to the community, under their leader Joseph Rabban, in 379 CE. The first synagogue there was built in 1568. The legend of the founding of Indian [[Christianity in Kerala]] by [[Thomas the Apostle]] relates that on his arrival there, he encountered a local girl who understood Hebrew.&lt;ref&gt;Nathan Katz, [https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA22 ''Who Are the Jews of India?,''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160937/https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA22|date=April 9, 2023}} [[University of California Press]], 2000 {{isbn|978-0-520-92072-9}} pp. 13–14, 17–18&lt;/ref&gt;

Perhaps in the 4th century, the [[Kingdom of Semien]], a Jewish nation in modern [[Beta Israel|Ethiopia]] was established, lasting until the 17th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exploring a Forgotten Jewish Land – Archaeology Magazine |url=https://www.archaeology.org/issues/498-2301/letter-from/11057-ethiopia-beta-israel |access-date=November 9, 2023 |website=www.archaeology.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وچين دور==
===اسلامي دور===
[[File:Education (T-S K5.13) (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|قاهره جينيزا جو ٽڪرو، ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي لائبريري&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Cairo Genizah : Education|url=https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-TS-K-00005-00013|access-date=2025-10-18|website=Cambridge Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
سال 638 عيسوي ۾ [[بازنطيني سلطنت]] [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سر زمين شام]] جو ڪنٽرول وڃائي ڇڏيو. خليفي [[عمر بن خطاب|عمر]] [[عمر بن خطاب|رضي الله تعالى عنه]] جي اڳواڻي ۾ [[پهرين اسلامي رياست|عرب اسلامي سلطنت]] [[يروشلم]]، [[ميسوپوٽيميا]]، [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سر زمين شام]] ([[شام]]، [[اردن]] ۽ [[فلسطين]]) ۽ [[مصر]] جي زمينن کي فتح ڪيو. هڪ سياسي نظام جي طور تي، [[اسلام]] يهودين جي معاشي، سماجي ۽ ذهني ترقي لاءِ بنيادي طور تي نوان حالات پيدا ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;Ehrlich, Mark. ''Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1''. ABC-CLIO, 2009, p. 152.({{ISBN|978-1-85109-873-6}})&lt;/ref&gt;عمر رضي الله تعالى عنه يهودين کي، 500 سالن جي وقفي کان پوءِ، [[يروشلم]] ۾ پنهنجي موجودگي کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني (ڏسو:عمر جي يقين دهاني).&lt;ref name=&quot;Bashan-20072&quot;&gt;{{cite EJ|last=Bashan|first=Eliezer|volume=15|page=419|title=Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي روايتون عمر کي هڪ مهربان حڪمران جي طور تي ڏسي ٿي ۽ مدراش (&lt;small&gt;نست&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;اروت دي-راو شمعون بار يوحائي&lt;/small&gt;) کيس &quot;بني اسرائيل جي دوست&quot; طور حوالو ڏئي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bashan-20073&quot;&gt;{{cite EJ|last=Bashan|first=Eliezer|volume=15|page=419|title=Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

عرب جاگرافيدان المقدسي جي مطابق، &lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land|author=Joseph E. Katz|year=2001|publisher=EretzYisroel.Org|access-date=August 12, 2012|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي &quot;سڪن جي چڪاس ڪندڙ، رنگ ڪندڙ، چمڙي جا ماهر ۽ مهاجن&quot; طور ڪم ڪندا هئا. [[فاطمي خلافت|فاطمي دور]] ۾، ڪيترن ئي يهودي عملدارن حڪومت ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏنيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-20013&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land|author=Joseph E. Katz|year=2001|publisher=EretzYisroel.Org|access-date=August 12, 2012|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; پروفيسر موشئ گل جو خيال آهي، ته 7هين صدي ۾ عرب فتح جي وقت، يروشلم جي آبادي جي اڪثريت عيسائي ۽ يهودي هئي.&lt;ref&gt;Moshe Gil, ''A History of Palestine: 634–1099'' pp. 170, 220–221.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن وقت دوران يهودي سڄي قديم بابل ۾ خوشحال برادرين ۾ رهندا هئا. جيونڪ دور (650-1250 عيسوي) ۾، بابلي يشيوا اڪيڊميون يهودي سکيا جا مکيه مرڪز هئا. جيونم (جن جو معنيٰ آهي &quot;شان&quot; يا &quot;جينيئس&quot;) انهن اسڪولن جا سربراهه هئا. انهن کي يهودي قانون ۾ اعليٰ اختيارين طور تسليم ڪيو ويو. 7هين صدي ۾، غير مسلمن جي زمينن تي حڪمران جزيو (&lt;small&gt;Poll&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Tax&lt;/small&gt;) عائد ڪيو، جن جي ڪري بابلي يهودين جي ڳوٺاڻن علائقن مان [[بغداد]] جهڙن شهرن ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. ان جي نتيجي ۾ يهودي برادري ۾ وڌيڪ دولت ۽ بين الاقوامي اثر ۽ انهي سان گڏ يهودي مفڪرن جو هڪ وڌيڪ عالمگير نقطه نظر،جهڙوڪ سعديه گاون، جيڪو هاڻي پهريون ڀيرو مغربي فلسفي سان تمام گهڻي دلچسپي رکن ٿا، پيدا ٿيو.  جڏهن 10هين صدي ۾ [[عباسي خلافت]] ۽ بغداد شهر جو زوال ٿيو، ڪيترائي بابلي يهودي [[رومي (ڀونوچ) سمنڊ|رومي ڀونوچ سمنڊ]] جي علائقن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪيا. سڄي يهودي دنيا ۾ بابلي يهودي رسمن جي پکيڙ ۾ حصو ورتو.&lt;ref&gt;[[Marina Rustow]], [http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/ Baghdad in the West: Migration and the Making of Medieval Jewish Traditions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711065105/http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/|date=July 11, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور (711-1031) ===
&lt;nowiki&gt;{{اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[[اندلس]] ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور [[يُورَپ|يورپ]] ۾ [[وچون دور|وچين دور]] سان گڏ هو، جيڪو سڃي [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|جزيري نما آئبيريا]] تي مسلمانن جي حڪمراني جو دور هو.

=== Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain (711–1031) ===
{{Main|Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain}}
The golden age of Jewish culture in Spain coincided with the [[Middle Ages]] in Europe, a period of [[Al-Andalus|Muslim rule]] throughout much of the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. During that time, Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed.

A period of tolerance thus dawned for the Jews of the [[Iberian Peninsula]], whose number was considerably augmented by immigration from Africa in the wake of the Muslim conquest. Especially after 912, during the reign of [[Abd-ar-Rahman III]] and his son, [[al-Hakam II]], the Jews prospered, devoting themselves to the service of the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]], to the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially to trading in silk and slaves, in this way promoting the prosperity of the country. Jewish economic expansion was unparalleled. In [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], Jews were involved in translating Arabic texts to the [[Romance languages]], as well as translating Greek and Hebrew texts into Arabic. Jews also contributed to botany, geography, medicine, mathematics, poetry and philosophy.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sephardim Archived September 7&quot;&gt;[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html Sephardim] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |date=September 7, 2012 }} by Rebecca Weiner.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ahmed, M.I. Muslim-Jewish Harmony: A Politically-Contingent Reality. Religions 2022, 13, 535. {{doi|10.3390/rel13060535|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to [[Bernard Lewis]]:

{{Blockquote|Generally, the Jewish people were allowed to practice their religion and live according to the laws and scriptures of their community. Furthermore, the restrictions to which they were subject were social and symbolic rather than tangible and practical in character. That is to say, these regulations served to define the relationship between the two communities, and not to oppress the Jewish population.&lt;ref&gt;Lewis, Bernard W (1984). ''The Jews of Islam''&lt;/ref&gt;|}}

'Abd al-Rahman's court physician and minister was Hasdai ben Isaac ibn Shaprut, the patron of Menahem ben Saruq, Dunash ben Labrat, and other Jewish scholars and poets. Jewish thought during this period flourished under famous figures such as Samuel Ha-Nagid, Moses ibn Ezra, Solomon ibn Gabirol [[Judah Halevi]] and [[Moses Maimonides]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Sephardim Archived September 7&quot; /&gt; During 'Abd al-Rahman's term of power, the scholar [[Moses ben Enoch]] was appointed [[rabbi]] of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], and as a consequence [[al-Andalus]] became the centre of Talmudic study, and [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] the meeting-place of Jewish savants.

The Golden Age ended with the invasion of al-Andalus by the [[Almohads]], a conservative dynasty originating in North Africa, who were highly intolerant of religious minorities.

=== Jews and the Crusades (1099–1260) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews and the Crusades}}
{{See also|Siege of Jerusalem (1099)}}
[[File:1099jerusalem.jpg|thumb|left|[[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|Capture of Jerusalem]], 1099]]
Sermonical messages to avenge the death of Jesus encouraged Christians to participate in the Crusades. The 12th-century Jewish narration from R. Solomon ben Samson records that crusaders en route to the Holy Land decided that before combating the Ishmaelites they would massacre the Jews residing in their midst to avenge the [[crucifixion of Christ]]. The massacres began at [[Rouen]] and Jewish communities in [[Rhine Valley]] were seriously affected.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/413 413]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Crusading attacks were made upon Jews in the territory around Heidelberg. A huge loss of Jewish life took place. Many were forcibly converted to Christianity and many committed suicide to avoid baptism. A major driving factor behind the choice to commit suicide was the Jewish realisation that upon being slain their children could be taken to be raised as Christians. The Jews were living in the middle of Christian lands and felt this danger acutely.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/416 416]}}&lt;/ref&gt; This massacre is seen as the first in a sequence of antisemitic events which culminated in the Holocaust.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=David Nirenberg |editor=Gerd Althoff |others=Johannes Fried |title=Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual, Memory, Historiography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MxS6-pQZzGsC&amp;pg=PA279 |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-78066-7 |pages=279–}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jewish populations felt that they had been abandoned by their Christian neighbours and rulers during the massacres and lost faith in all promises and charters.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/419 419]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Many Jews chose self-defence. But their means of self-defence were limited and their casualties only increased. Most of the forced conversions proved ineffective. Many Jews reverted to their original faith later. The pope protested this but Emperor Henry IV agreed to permitting these reversions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot; /&gt; The massacres began a new epoch for Jewry in Christendom. The Jews had preserved their faith from social pressure, now they had to preserve it at sword point. The massacres during the crusades strengthened Jewry from within spiritually. The Jewish perspective was that their struggle was Israel's struggle to hallow the name of God.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/414 414]–}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1099, Jews helped the Arabs to defend Jerusalem against the [[Crusaders]]. When the city fell, the Crusaders gathered many Jews in a synagogue and set it on fire.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot; /&gt; In Haifa, the Jews almost single-handedly defended the town against the Crusaders, holding out for a month, (June–July 1099).&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html |title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land |author=Joseph E. Katz |year=2001 |publisher=EretzYisroel.Org |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=January 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; At this time there were Jewish communities scattered all over the country, including Jerusalem, Tiberias, Ramleh, Ashkelon, Caesarea, and [[Gaza City|Gaza]]. As Jews were not allowed to hold land during the Crusader period, they worked at trades and commerce in the coastal towns during times of quiescence. Most were artisans: glassblowers in [[Sidon]], furriers and dyers in Jerusalem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot; /&gt;

During this period, the [[Masoretes]] of Tiberias established the ''[[niqqud]]'', a system of [[diacritic]]s used to represent vowels or distinguish between alternative pronunciations of letters of the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. Numerous [[piyutim]] and [[midrash]]im were recorded in Palestine at this time.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot; /&gt;

[[Maimonides]] wrote that in 1165 he visited Jerusalem and went to the Temple Mount, where he prayed in the &quot;great, holy house&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Sefer HaCharedim Mitzvat Tshuva Chapter 3&lt;/ref&gt; Maimonides established a yearly holiday for himself and his sons, the 6th of [[Cheshvan]], commemorating the day he went up to pray on the Temple Mount, and another, the 9th of Cheshvan, commemorating the day he merited to pray at the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]] in [[Hebron]].

In 1141 [[Yehuda Halevi]] issued a call to Jews to emigrate to Palestine and took on the long journey himself. After a stormy passage from [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]], he arrived in Egyptian [[Alexandria]], where he was enthusiastically greeted by friends and admirers. At [[Damietta]], he had to struggle against his heart, and the pleadings of his friend Ḥalfon ha-Levi, that he remain in Egypt, where he would be free from intolerant oppression. He started on the rough route overland. He was met along the way by Jews in [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] and [[Damascus]]. Jewish legend relates that as he came near Jerusalem, overpowered by the sight of the Holy City, he sang his most beautiful elegy, the celebrated &quot;Zionide&quot; (''Zion ha-lo Tish'ali''). At that instant, an Arab had galloped out of a gate and rode him down; he was killed in the accident.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}}

=== Mamluk period (1260–1517) ===
[[Nahmanides]] is recorded as settling in the Old City of Jerusalem in 1267. He moved to [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], where he was active in spreading Jewish learning, which was at that time neglected in the Holy Land. He gathered a circle of pupils around him, and people came in crowds, even from the district of the Euphrates, to hear him. [[Karaite Judaism|Karaites]] were said to have attended his lectures, among them Aaron ben Joseph the Elder. He later became one of the greatest [[Karaite (Jewish sect)|Karaite]] authorities. Shortly after Nahmanides' arrival in Jerusalem, he addressed a letter to his son Nahman, in which he described the desolation of the Holy City. At the time, it had only two Jewish inhabitants—two brothers, dyers by trade. In a later letter from Acre, Nahmanides counsels his son to cultivate humility, which he considers to be the first of virtues. In another, addressed to his second son, who occupied an official position at the [[Crown of Castile|Castilian]] court, Nahmanides recommends the recitation of the daily prayers and warns above all against immorality. Nahmanides died after reaching seventy-six, and his remains were interred at [[Haifa]], by the grave of [[Yechiel of Paris]].

Yechiel had [[aliyah|emigrated]] to Acre in 1260, along with his son and a large group of followers.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html |title=Jewish Zionist Education |publisher=Jafi.org.il |date=May 15, 2005 |access-date=August 13, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013142810/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html |archive-date=October 13, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf |title=Hadrat Melech |access-date=April 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502035808/http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf |archive-date=May 2, 2014 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; There he established the Talmudic academy ''Midrash haGadol d'Paris''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&amp;content=content/segal_ch17 |title=Section III: The Biblical Age: Chapter Seventeen: Awaiting the Messiah |author=Benjamin J. Segal |work=Returning, the Land of Israel as a Focus in Jewish History |publisher=JewishHistory.com |access-date=August 12, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227184802/http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&amp;content=content%2Fsegal_ch17 |archive-date=February 27, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; He is believed to have died there between 1265 and 1268. In 1488 [[Obadiah ben Abraham]], commentator on the [[Mishnah]], arrived in Jerusalem; this marked a new period of return for the Jewish community in the land.

==== Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East ====
{{Main|History of the Jews in Spain}}
{{See also|Islam and Judaism|Mizrahi Jew|History of the Jews under Muslim rule}}
[[File:Hebrew Bible Spain.jpg|right|thumb|Sephardic Hebrew Bible from Spain, 1300&lt;ref&gt;[https://lccn.loc.gov/2021667534]&lt;/ref&gt;]]
During the Middle Ages, Jews were generally better treated by Islamic rulers than Christian ones. Despite second-class citizenship, Jews played prominent roles in Muslim courts, and experienced a Golden Age in [[Moorish Spain]] about 900–1100, though the situation deteriorated after that time. Riots resulting in the deaths of Jews did however occur in North Africa through the centuries and especially in [[Morocco]], [[Libya]] and [[Algeria]], where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos.&lt;ref&gt;Maurice Roumani, ''The Case of the Jews from Arab Countries: A Neglected Issue'', 1977, pp. 26–27.&lt;/ref&gt;

During the 11th century, Muslims in Spain conducted pogroms against the Jews; those occurred in Cordoba in 1011 and in [[1066 Granada massacre|Granada in 1066]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |title=Granada |url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |access-date=August 12, 2012 |year=1906 |archive-date=April 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412000424/https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the Middle Ages, the governments of Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen enacted decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues. At certain times, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and [[Baghdad]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_%28gen%29.html |title=The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries |author=Mitchell Bard |year=2012 |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=October 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007003054/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_(gen).html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} The [[Almohad]]s, who had taken control of much of Islamic Iberia by 1172, surpassed the [[Almoravides]] in fundamentalist outlook. They treated the ''[[dhimmi]]s'' harshly. They expelled both Jews and Christians from Morocco and Islamic Spain. Faced with the choice of death or conversion, many Jews emigrated.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=66&amp;Itemid=39 The Forgotten Refugees] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928051923/http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=66&amp;Itemid=39 |date=September 28, 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Some, such as the family of [[Maimonides]], fled south and east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |title=Sephardim |author=Rebecca Weiner |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=September 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Kraemer, Joel L., &quot;Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait,&quot; ''The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides'', pp. 16–17 (2005)&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}}

=== Europe ===
{{Main|History of European Jews in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:Mishnah (Ms. 3173; De Rossi 138), Palatina.jpg|right|thumb|11th century ''[[mishnah]]'' codex from Italy, [[Biblioteca Palatina, Parma]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=adkim |date=2014-02-28 |title=The Biblioteca Palatina and the National Library of Israel |url=https://primolevicenter.org/printed-matter/the-biblioteca-palatina-and-the-national-library-of-israel/ |access-date=2025-10-15 |website=Printed_Matter |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
According to [[James P. Carrol]], &quot;Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, James. ''[[Constantine's Sword]]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) {{ISBN|978-0-395-77927-9}} p. 26&lt;/ref&gt;

Jewish populations have existed in Europe, especially in the area of the former Roman Empire, from very early times. As Jewish males had emigrated, some sometimes took wives from local populations, as is shown by the various [[MtDNA]], compared to [[Y-DNA#Genetic genealogy|Y-DNA]] among Jewish populations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html |title=In DNA, New Clues to Jewish Roots |first=Nicholas |last=Wade |date=May 14, 2002 |work=The New York Times |access-date=June 16, 2013 |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126180104/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; These groups were joined by traders and later on by members of the diaspora.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}} Records of Jewish communities in France (see [[History of the Jews in France]]) and Germany (see [[History of the Jews in Germany]]) date from the 4th century, and substantial Jewish communities in Spain were noted even earlier.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}}

The historian [[Norman Cantor]] and other 20th-century scholars dispute the tradition that the Middle Ages was a uniformly difficult time for Jews. Before the Church became fully organized as an institution with an increasing array of rules, early medieval society was tolerant. Between 800 and 1100, an estimated 1.5 million Jews lived in Christian Europe. As they were not Christians, they were not included as a [[Estates of the realm|division]] of the feudal system of clergy, knights and serfs. This means that they did not have to satisfy the oppressive demands for labour and military conscription that Christian commoners suffered. In relations with the Christian society, the Jews were protected by kings, princes and bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: finance, administration and medicine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Norman F&quot; /&gt; The lack of political strengths did leave Jews vulnerable to exploitation through extreme taxation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Ebenhard |last=Isenmann |editor-first=Richard |editor-last=Bonney |title=The Rise of the Fiscal State in Europe c. 1200–1815 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U24lRLy_qT8C&amp;pg=PA259 |date=1999 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-154220-6 |page=259}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Christian scholars interested in the Bible consulted with Talmudic rabbis. As the Roman Catholic Church strengthened as an institution, the Franciscan and Dominican preaching orders were founded, and there was a rise of competitive middle-class, town-dwelling Christians. By 1300, the friars and local priests staged the Passion Plays during Holy Week, which depicted Jews (in contemporary dress) killing Christ, according to Gospel accounts. From this period, persecution of Jews and deportations became endemic. Around 1500, Jews found relative security and a renewal of prosperity in present-day [[Poland]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Norman F&quot;&gt;Norman F. Cantor, ''The Last Knight: The Twilight of the Middle Ages and the Birth of the Modern Era'', Free Press, 2004. {{ISBN|978-0-7432-2688-2}}, pp. 28–29&lt;/ref&gt;

After 1300, Jews suffered more discrimination and persecution in Christian Europe. Europe's Jewry was mainly urban and literate. The Christians were inclined to regard Jews as obstinate deniers of the truth because in their view the Jews were expected to know of the truth of the Christian doctrines from their knowledge of the Jewish scriptures. Jews were aware of the pressure to accept Christianity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/412 412]}}&lt;/ref&gt; As Catholics were forbidden by the church to loan money for interest, some Jews became prominent moneylenders. Christian rulers gradually saw the advantage of having such a class of people who could supply capital for their use without being liable to excommunication. As a result, the money trade of western Europe became a speciality of the Jews. But, in almost every instance when Jews acquired large amounts through banking transactions, during their lives or upon their deaths, the king would take it over.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england &quot;England&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730231726/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england |date=July 30, 2020 }}, [[Jewish Encyclopedia]] (1906)&lt;/ref&gt; Jews became imperial{{-&quot;}}[[Servi camerae regis|''servi cameræ'']]{{-&quot;}}, the property of the King, who might present them and their possessions to princes or cities.

Jews were frequently massacred and exiled from various European countries. The persecution hit its first peak during the [[Crusades]]. In the [[People's Crusade]] (1096) flourishing Jewish communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed. In the [[Second Crusade]] (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. They were also subjected to attacks by the [[Shepherds' Crusade (1251)|Shepherds' Crusades of 1251]] and [[Shepherds' Crusade (1320)|1320]]. The Crusades were followed by massive expulsions, including the [[Edict of Expulsion|expulsion of the Jews from England in 1290]];&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Robin R. |last=Mundill |title=England's Jewish Solution: Experiment and Expulsion, 1262–1290 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CSKLfi_j110C |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52026-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; in 1396 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and in 1421, thousands were expelled from Austria. Over this time many Jews in Europe, either fleeing or being expelled, migrated to Poland, where they prospered into another [[History of the Jews in Poland#Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572|Golden Age]].

In Italy, Jews were allowed to live in Venice but were required to live in a [[ghetto]], and the practice spread across Italy (see [[Cum nimis absurdum]]) and was adopted in many places in Catholic Europe. Jews outside the Ghetto often had to wear a yellow star.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121 |title=Print of Jews forced to listen to a Christian sermon – Collections Search – United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |website=collections.ushmm.org |access-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-date=November 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129142432/https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;The Jewish-Christian Encounter in Medieval Preaching, Routledge 2015, edited by Jonathan Adams and Jussi Hanska chapter 13, see page 297&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Expulsions of the Jews of Spain and Portugal ===
{{further|Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal}}
[[File:Vicente Cutanda - A los pies del Salvador.jpg|thumb|250px|''At the Feet of the Saviour'', massacre of Jews in [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], oil on canvas by [[Vicente Cutanda]] (1887)]]
[[File:Matanza de judíos en Barcelona - año 1391.jpg|thumb|250px|''Slaughter of Jews in Barcelona in 1391'' by [[Josep Segrelles]], {{circa|1910}}]]
[[File:A Expulsão dos Judeus (Roque Gameiro, Quadros da História de Portugal, 1917).png|250px|thumb|Expulsion of the Jews in 1497, in a 1917 watercolour by [[Alfredo Roque Gameiro]] ]]
[[File:Inquis1.jpg|thumb|250px|Burning of Crypto-Jews in Lisbon, Portugal]]
Significant repression of Spain's numerous community occurred during the 14th century, notably a [[History of the Jews in Spain#Massacres and mass conversions of 1391|major pogrom in 1391]] which resulted in the majority of Spain's 300,000 Jews converting to Catholicism. With the [[Granada War|conquest of the Muslim Kingdom of Granada]] in 1492, the Catholic monarchs issued the [[Alhambra Decree]], and Spain's remaining 100,000 Jews were forced to choose between conversion and exile. The expulsion of the Jews of Spain, is regarded by Jews as the worst catastrophe between the destruction of Jerusalem in 73 CE and the [[Holocaust]] of the 1940s.&lt;ref&gt;European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 1550–1750 by Jonathan Israel, chapter 1 Exodus from the West (page 25)&lt;/ref&gt;

As a result, an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 Jews left Spain, the remainder joining Spain's already numerous [[Converso]] community. Perhaps a quarter of a million Conversos thus were gradually absorbed by the dominant Catholic culture, although those among them who secretly practised Judaism were subject to 40 years of intense repression by the [[Spanish Inquisition]]. This was particularly the case up until 1530, after which the trials of Conversos by the Inquisition dropped to 3% of the total. Similar expulsions of Sephardic Jews occurred 1493 in [[Sicily]] (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Spanish Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire and North Africa and Portugal. A small number also settled in Holland and England.

The expulsion followed a long process of expulsions and bans from what are now England, France, Germany, Austria, and Holland. In January 1492, the [[Emirate of Granada|last Muslim state]] was defeated in Spain and six months later the Jews of Spain (the largest community in the world) were required to [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|convert or leave without their property]]. 100,000 converted with many continuing to [[Marrano|secretly practice Judaism]], for which the Catholic church's inquisition (led by [[Tomás de Torquemada]]) now mandated a sentence of death by public burning. 175,000 left Spain.&lt;ref&gt;The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 138 – 144 / Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-Jews by David Martin Gitlitz, University of New Mexico 2002, pp 75 – 81&lt;/ref&gt;

Many [[Sephardi Jews|Spanish Jews]] moved to North Africa, [[History of the Jews in Poland|Poland]] and the Ottoman Empire, especially [[History of the Jews in Thessaloniki|Thessaloniki]] (now in Greece) which became the world's largest Jewish city. Some groups headed to the Middle East and Palestine, within the domains of the Ottoman Empire. About 100,000 Spanish Jews were allowed into Portugal, however five years later, their children were seized and they were given the choice of conversion or departing without them.&lt;ref&gt;The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 142 – 144&lt;/ref&gt;

==ابتدائي جديد دور==
Historians who study modern Jewry have identified four different paths by which European Jews were &quot;modernized&quot; and thus integrated into the mainstream of European society. A common approach has been to view the process through the lens of the European [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] as Jews faced the promise and the challenges posed by political emancipation. Scholars that use this approach have focused on two social types as paradigms for the decline of Jewish tradition and as agents of the sea changes in Jewish culture that led to the collapse of the [[ghetto]]. The first of these two social types is the [[Court Jew]] who is portrayed as a forerunner of the modern Jew, having achieved integration with and participation in the proto-capitalist economy and court society of central European states such as the [[Habsburg Empire]]. In contrast to the cosmopolitan Court Jew, the second social type presented by historians of modern Jewry is the ''maskil'', (learned person), a proponent of the [[Haskalah]] (Enlightenment). This narrative sees the maskil's pursuit of secular scholarship and his rationalistic critiques of rabbinic tradition as laying a durable intellectual foundation for the secularization of Jewish society and culture. The established paradigm has been one in which Ashkenazic Jews entered modernity through a self-conscious process of westernization led by &quot;highly atypical, Germanized Jewish intellectuals&quot;. Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative movements and planted the seeds of [[Zionism]] while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Reframing Jewish History |date=May 2005 |url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513 |access-date=May 24, 2011 |archive-date=September 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930222143/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
At around the same time that Haskalah was developing, [[Hasidic Judaism]] was spreading as a movement that preached a world view nearly opposed to the Haskalah.

In the 1990s, the concept of the &quot;[[Port Jew]]&quot; has been suggested as an &quot;alternate path to modernity&quot; that was distinct from the European [[Haskalah]]. In contrast to the focus on Ashkenazic Germanized Jews, the concept of the [[Port Jew]] focused on the Sephardi conversos who fled the Inquisition and resettled in European port towns on the coast of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Eastern seaboard of the United States.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fry-2002&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Port Jews: Jewish Communities in Cosmopolitan Maritime Trading Centres, 1550–1950 |first=Helen P. |last=Fry |journal=European Judaism |volume=36 |publisher=Frank Cass Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7146-8286-0 |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002650793 |quote=Port Jews were a social type, usually those who were involved in seafaring and maritime trade, who (like Court Jews) could be seen as the earliest modern Jews. Often arriving as refugees from the Inquisition, they were permitted to settle as merchants and allowed to trade openly in places such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. 'Their Diaspora connections and accumulated expertise lay in exactly the areas of overseas expansion that were then of interest to mercantilist governments.' |access-date=September 1, 2017 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160935/https://www.gale.com/databases/questia?docId=5002650793 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Court Jews ===
[[Court Jew]]s were Jewish bankers or businessmen who lent money and handled the finances of some of the Christian European noble houses. Corresponding historical terms are ''Jewish bailiff'' and ''[[shtadlan]]''.

Examples of what would be later called court Jews emerged when local rulers used services of Jewish bankers for short-term loans. They lent money to nobles and in the process gained social influence. Noble patrons of court Jews employed them as financiers, suppliers, diplomats and [[trade delegate]]s. Court Jews could use their family connections, and connections between each other, to provision their sponsors with, among other things, food, arms, ammunition and precious metals. In return for their services, court Jews gained social privileges, including up to noble status for themselves, and could live outside the Jewish ghettos. Some nobles wanted to keep their bankers in their own courts. And because they were under noble protection, they were exempted from rabbinical jurisdiction.

From medieval times, court Jews could amass personal fortunes and gained political and social influence. Sometimes they were also prominent people in the local Jewish community and could use their influence to protect and influence their brethren. Sometimes they were the only Jews who could interact with the local high society and present petitions of the Jews to the ruler. However, the court Jew had social connections and influence in the Christian world mainly through his Christian patrons. Due to the precarious position of Jews, some nobles could just ignore their debts. If the sponsoring noble died, his Jewish financier could face exile or execution.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

=== Port Jews ===

The [[Port Jew]] is a descriptive term for Jews who were involved in the seafaring and maritime economy of Europe, especially during the 17th and 18th centuries. Helen Fry suggests that they can be considered &quot;the earliest modern Jews&quot;. According to Fry, Port Jews frequently arrived as &quot;refugees from the Inquisition&quot; and the expulsion of Jews from Iberia. They were allowed to settle in port cities because merchants granted them permission to trade in ports such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. Fry notes that their connections to the [[Jewish Diaspora]] and their expertise in maritime trade made them particularly valuable to the mercantilist governments of Europe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fry-2002&quot; /&gt; Lois Dubin describes Port Jews as Jewish merchants who were &quot;valued for their engagement in the international maritime trade upon which such cities thrived&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Dubin, ''The port Jews of Habsburg Trieste: absolutist politics and enlightenment culture'', Stanford University Press, 1999, p. 47&lt;/ref&gt; Sorkin and others have characterized the socio-cultural profile of these men as marked by a flexibility towards religion and a &quot;reluctant cosmopolitanism that was alien to both traditional and 'enlightened' Jewish identities&quot;.

From the 16th to the 18th century, Jewish merchants dominated the chocolate and vanilla trade, exporting to Jewish centres across Europe, mainly Amsterdam, Bayonne, Bordeaux, Hamburg and Livorno.&lt;ref&gt;Encyclopedia of Jewish Food, Gil Marks, HMH, November 17, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ottoman Empire ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire}}

During the Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600), the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well in diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews were the most prominent under the ''[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millets']]'', the apogee of Jewish influence could arguably be the appointment of [[Joseph Nasi]] to [[Sanjak-bey]] (governor, a rank usually only held by Muslims) of the island of [[Naxos]].&lt;ref&gt;Charles Issawi &amp; Dmitri Gondicas; ''Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism'', Princeton, (1999)&lt;/ref&gt;

At the time of the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] when the Levant passed under Muslim Rule, thirty Jewish communities existed in Haifa, Sh'chem, Hebron, Ramleh, Gaza, Jerusalem, and many in the north. Safed became a spiritual centre for the Jews and the [[Shulchan Aruch]] was compiled there as well as many Kabbalistic texts. The first Hebrew printing press, and the first printing in Western Asia began in 1577.

Jews lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey, but more geographically either Anatolia or Asia Minor) for more than 2,400 years. Initial prosperity in Hellenistic times had faded under Christian Byzantine rule, but recovered somewhat under the rule of the various Muslim governments that displaced and succeeded rule from Constantinople. For much of the Ottoman period, Turkey was a safe haven for Jews fleeing persecution, and it continues to have a small Jewish population today. The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economical prosperity at times but were widely persecuted at other times was summarised by G. E. Von Grunebaum:

&lt;blockquote&gt;It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizeable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms.&lt;ref&gt;G. E. Von Grunebaum, ''Eastern Jewry Under Islam'', 1971, p. 369.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Russia, Poland, and Eastern Europe ===
{{Further|History of the Jews in Poland|History of the Jews in Russia|History of the Jews in Ukraine|History of the Jews in Lithuania|History of the Jews in Romania}}
{{expand section|date=October 2025}}

In the 17th century, there were many significant Jewish populations in Western and Central Europe. The relatively tolerant Poland had the largest Jewish population in Europe that dated back to the 13th century, and enjoyed relative prosperity and freedom for nearly four hundred years. However, the calm situation ended when Polish and Lithuanian Jews of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] were slaughtered in the hundreds of thousands by Ukrainian Cossacks during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] (1648) and by the [[Swedish wars]] (1655). Driven by these and other persecutions, some Jews moved back to Western Europe in the 17th century, notably to [[Amsterdam]]. The last ban on Jewish residency in a European nation was revoked in 1654, but periodic expulsions from individual cities still occurred, and Jews were often restricted from land ownership, or forced to live in [[ghetto]]s.

With the [[Partitions of Poland]] in the late 18th century, the Polish-Jewish population was split between the [[Russian Empire]], [[Austria-Hungary]], and German [[Prussia]], which divided Poland among themselves.

=== European Enlightenment and Haskalah (18th century) ===
[[File:Moritz Daniel Oppenheim--Lavater and Lessing Visit Moses Mendelssohn--1856--Magnes Collection.jpg|thumb|right|[[Moses Mendelssohn]] (in red coat), Lavater (at right) and Lessing (standing), in an imaginary portrait by the Jewish artist [[Moritz Daniel Oppenheim]] (1856), [[Magnes Collection of Jewish Art and Life]]]]
During the period of the [[European Renaissance]] and Enlightenment, significant changes occurred within the Jewish community. The [[Haskalah]] movement paralleled the wider Enlightenment, as Jews in the 18th century began to campaign for emancipation from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society. Secular and scientific education was added to the traditional religious instruction received by students, and interest in a national Jewish identity, including a revival in the study of Jewish history and Hebrew, started to grow. Among the prominient Haskalah intellectuals were [[Moses Mendelssohn]], [[Naphtali Hirz Wessely]], [[Isaac Satanow]] and [[Isaac Euchel]].

Haskalah gave birth to the [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] movements in Judaism and planted the seeds of [[Zionism]] while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.

At around the same time another movement was born, one preaching almost the opposite of Haskalah, [[Hasidic Judaism]]. Hasidic Judaism began in the 18th century by [[Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov]], and quickly gained a following with its more exuberant, mystical approach to religion. These two movements, and the traditional orthodox approach to Judaism from which they spring, formed the basis for the modern divisions within Jewish observance.

At the same time, the outside world was changing, and debates began over the potential emancipation of the Jews (granting them equal rights). The first country to do so was France, during the [[French Revolution]] in 1789. Even so, Jews were expected to assimilate, not continue their traditions. This ambivalence is demonstrated in the famous speech of [[Clermont-Tonnerre]] before the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]] in 1789:

&lt;blockquote&gt;We must refuse everything to the Jews as a nation and accord everything to Jews as individuals. We must withdraw recognition from their judges; they should only have our judges. We must refuse legal protection to the maintenance of the so-called laws of their Judaic organization; they should not be allowed to form in the state either a political body or an order. They must be citizens individually. But, some will say to me, they do not want to be citizens. Well then! If they do not want to be citizens, they should say so, and then, we should banish them. It is repugnant to have in the state an association of non-citizens, and a nation within the nation...&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Hasidic Judaism ===
{{See also|Mitnagdim}}
[[File:Maurycy Gottlieb - Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur.jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|Hasidic Jews praying in the synagogue on [[Yom Kippur]], by [[Maurycy Gottlieb]]]]

[[Hasidic Judaism]] is a branch of [[Orthodox Judaism]] that promotes spirituality and joy through the popularisation and internalization of [[Jewish mysticism]] as the fundamental aspects of the [[Jewish faith]]. Hasidism comprises part of contemporary [[Ultra-Orthodox]] Judaism, alongside the previous Talmudic [[Lithuanian Jews|Lithuanian-Yeshiva]] approach and the Oriental [[Sephardi Judaism|Sephardi]] tradition. It was founded in 18th-century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel [[Baal Shem Tov]] as a reaction against overly [[Talmud|legalistic]] Judaism. Opposite to this, Hasidic teachings cherished the sincerity and concealed holiness of the unlettered common folk, and their equality with the scholarly elite. The emphasis on the [[Immanent]] Divine presence in everything gave new value to prayer and deeds of kindness, alongside Rabbinic supremacy of [[Torah study|study]], and replaced historical [[Kabbalah|mystical (kabbalistic)]] and [[Musar literature|ethical (musar)]] [[Asceticism in Judaism|asceticism]] and [[Maggid|admonishment]] with optimism, encouragement, and daily [[Deveikut|fervour]]. This populist emotional revival accompanied the elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine [[Panentheism]], through intellectual articulation of inner dimensions of mystical thought. The adjustment of Jewish values sought to add to required standards of ritual [[Halacha|observance]], while relaxing others where inspiration predominated. Its communal gatherings celebrate soulful [[Nigun|song]] and [[Yiddish literature#Hasidic and Haskalah literature|storytelling]] as forms of mystical devotion.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

==اڻويهين صدي==
[[File:Napoleon stellt den israelitischen Kult wieder her, 30. Mai 1806.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|An 1806 French print depicts [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] emancipating the Jews.]]
Though persecution still existed, [[Jewish emancipation]] spread throughout Europe in the 19th century. [[Napoleon]] invited Jews to leave the [[Jewish ghettos in Europe]] and seek refuge in the newly created tolerant political regimes that offered equality under Napoleonic Law (see [[Napoleon and the Jews]]). Gradually all European nations established in constitutions the principle of equality under the law and abolished all restrictions for Jews.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;&gt;[https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-in-history-the-era-of-nationalism-1800-1918 Antisemitism in History: The Era of Nationalism, 1800–1918]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/emancipation Emancipation]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-emancipation-in-western-europe/ Jewish Emancipation in Western Europe]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://d-nb.info/1175689041/34 Jewish Emancipation in the 18th and 19th Centuries]&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Antisemiticroths.jpg|thumb|A caricature by [[Charles Lucien Léandre]] (France, 1898) showing [[Rothschild family|Rothschild]] with the world in his hands]]
Jews now could own land and enter the civil service. The abolition of restraints on political activism and the broadening of the electoral franchise on the basis of citizenship, not religion, made Jews most visible among [[liberalism|liberal]], [[Radical politics|radical]], and [[Marxism|Marxist]] ([[Social Democracy|Social Democratic]]) political parties.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;/&gt;

For centuries, so-called [[court Jew]]s acted as the principal financiers for the European aristocracys. In the 1760s, one of them, [[Mayer Amschel Rothschild]], established a banking business in Germany that eventually became a vast international conglomerate and yield one of the largest family fortunes in world history. Thus the name of the [[Rothschilds]] became synonymous with Jewish financial power. Across Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, other Jews also created a number of influential banks.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/usury-and-moneylending-in-judaism/ Jews and Finance]&lt;/ref&gt;

The most important branch of Jewish economic life in Eastern Europe was trade. While most remained small shopkeepers, stallholders, and peddlers, others became owners of department stores and shopping arcades. During the 19th century Jews began to move from rural regions to cities, this contributed to the decline of traditional Jewish tavernkeeping. Jews made up a considerable proportion of all craftsmen in the [[Russian Empire]] and [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] during the 19th century, but with the spread of industrialization large factories tended to squeeze out small Jewish-run workshops, and only limited numbers of Jews became employees in these modern factories. Jews were considered less desirable employees since they did not want to work on Saturdays and tended to organize into unions to demand improved working conditions, the foundation of the [[General Jewish Labour Bund|Bund]] in the Russian Empire in 1897 strengthened this process.&lt;ref name=&quot;Economic Life&quot;&gt;[https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/7 Economic Life]&lt;/ref&gt;

The economic achivements of Jews in the 19th century created the impression for some that Jews were being overrepresented in such lucrative occupations as finance, banking, trade, industry, medicine, law, journalism, art, music, literature, and theater. Despite increasing integration of the Jews with secular society, a new form of [[antisemitism]] emerged, [[Racial antisemitism|based on the ideas of race and nationhood]] rather than the religious hatred of the Middle Ages. This form of antisemitism held that Jews were a separate and inferior race from the [[Aryan]] people of Western Europe, and led to the emergence of political parties in France, Germany, and [[Austria-Hungary]] that campaigned on a platform of rolling back emancipation. This form of antisemitism emerged frequently in European culture, most famously in the [[Dreyfus Trial]] in France.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://evolve.reconstructingjudaism.org/anti-semitism-europe-history/ Antisemitism in Europe and America in the Modern Period: Historical Perspectives]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.quest-cdecjournal.it/anti-jewish-prejudices-antisemitic-ideologies-open-violence-antisemitism-in-european-comparison-from-the-1870s-to-the-first-world-war-a-commentary/ Anti-Jewish Prejudices, Antisemitic Ideologies, Open Violence: Antisemitism in European Comparison from the 1870s to the First World War. A Commentary]&lt;/ref&gt;

During this period, Jewish migration to the United States (see [[American Jews]]) created a large new community mostly freed of the restrictions of Europe. Over 2 million Jews arrived in the United States between 1890 and 1924, most from the Russian Empire and Galicia. A similar case occurred in the southern tip of the continent, specifically in the countries of [[Argentina]] and [[Uruguay]].

==ويهين صدي==
===جديد صيهونيت===
[[File:Herzl on a balcony full.jpg|thumb|Theodor Herzl, visionary of the Jewish State, in Basel, photographed during [[World Zionist Congress|Fifth Zionist Congress]] in December 1901, by [[Ephraim Moses Lilien]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Theodor Herzl Signed Photograph, Basel, Switzerland {{!}} Shapell Manuscript Foundation |url=https://www.shapell.org/manuscript/theodor-herzl-signed-photograph-basel-switzerland/ |website=Shapell |access-date=May 10, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to [[Ottoman Syria]] with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and fulfilling the biblical prophecies related to [[Shivat Tzion]]. In 1882 the first Zionist settlement—[[Rishon LeZion]]—was founded by immigrants who belonged to the &quot;[[Hovevei Zion]]&quot; movement. Later on, the &quot;[[Bilu (movement)|Bilu]]&quot; movement established many other settlements in Palestine.

The Zionist movement was officially founded after the [[Kattowitz convention]] (1884) and the [[World Zionist Congress]] (1897), and it was [[Theodor Herzl]] who initiated the struggle to establish a state for the Jews.

After the [[First World War]], it seemed that the conditions that made it possible for the Jews to establish such a state had arrived: The United Kingdom captured [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] from the Ottoman Empire, and the Jews received the promise of a &quot;National Home&quot; from the British in the form of the [[Balfour Declaration]] of 1917, given to [[Chaim Weizmann]].

In 1920, the British Mandate of Palestine was established and the pro-Jewish [[Herbert Samuel]] was appointed High Commissioner of Palestine, the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] was established and several large Jewish immigration waves to Palestine occurred. The Arab inhabitants of Palestine grew hostile to increasing Jewish immigration, and as a result, they began to express their opposition to the establishment of Jewish settlements and the pro-Jewish policy of the British government.

New Jewish immigrants began to create militias and paramilitary groups such as the [[Bar-Giora]] and [[Hashomer]].

Clashes between Jews and Arabs became more frequent. After the [[1920 Nebi Musa riots]], the Jewish leadership in Palestine believed that the British had little desire to involve themselves in these clashes and maintain order. Believing that they could not rely on the British administration for protection, the Jewish leadership created the [[Haganah]] and [[Irgun]] paramilitary organizations in order to protect its community's farms and [[Kibbutz]]im.

These paramilitary organization were involved in major riots, such as the [[Jaffa riots (May 1921)|Jaffa riots]], [[1929 Palestine riots]] and the [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine]]. Arabs, Jews and Britons suffered in this violence.

Due to the increasing violence, the United Kingdom gradually started to backtrack from its original idea of supporting the establishment of a Jewish homeland and it also started to speculate on a [[binational solution]] to the crisis or the establishment of an Arab state that would have a Jewish minority.

===Jews in Europe and the United States after World War I ===
[[File:Yung-teater poster 15.jpg|thumb|Bilingual [[Polish language|Polish]]-[[Yiddish]] poster for the [[Warsaw]] [[Young Theater]]'s production of ''Mississippi'' in 1935, written by [[Leib Malach]]]]
The World War I and subsequent political changes, such as the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917 and the establishment of new nation-states after 1918, led to far-reaching consequenсes for the Jews of Eastern Europe. The authorities of the [[Soviet Union]] viewed private commerce as negative and sought to bring all trade under the aegis of state enterprises. Therefore, many Jews, who had previously made their living from trade, were forced to find other occupations. In Poland, Hungary, and Romania, the authorities adopted policies aimed at ethnicizing their national economies, aiming to exclude Jews as far as possible from the marketplace.&lt;ref name=&quot;Economic Life&quot;/&gt;

Nevertheless, the Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. In Austria in the years between the two World Wars Jews were approximately 3.5% of the population but were 27.3% of university professors. In Germany between 1918 and 1933 Jews were 0.78% of the population but were 16% of the doctors, 15% of the dentists, 25% of the lawyers, 50% of the theatre directors and occupied 80% of the leading positions in the [[Berlin stock exchange]]. In Poland in 1931 Jews were 10.2% of the population but were 56% of the doctors in private practice, 33% of the lawyers, and 24% of the pharmacists. In Russia during the period 1917–1939 Jews were approximately 1.8% of the population, while Jews were 9% of the officers in military academies, 15% of the university graduates, 11% of the doctors and 14% of the university professors.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Lynn | first1=Richard | last2=Kanazawa | first2=Satoshi | title=How to explain high Jewish achievement: The role of intelligence and values | journal=Personality and Individual Differences | date=2008 | volume=44 | issue=4 | pages=801–808 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2007.10.019 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886907003674 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Among those Jews who were generally considered the most famous were the scientist [[Albert Einstein]] and the philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. At that time, a disproportionate number of [[Nobel Prize]] winners were Jewish, as is still the case.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |publisher=jinfo.org |access-date=October 7, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== The Holocaust ===
{{Main|History of the Jews during World War II|The Holocaust}}
[[File:Rows of bodies of dead inmates fill the yard of Lager Nordhausen, a Gestapo concentration camp.jpg|thumb|Bodies of inmates of the [[Mittelbau-Dora]] Nazi concentration camp who died during [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] [[Bombing of Nordhausen in World War II|bombing raids]] on April 3 and 4, 1945]]

In 1933, with [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]]'s rise to power in Germany, the Jewish situation became more severe. [[Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic|Economic crises]], [[Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany|racial Anti-Jewish laws]], and fear of an upcoming war led many Jews to flee from Europe and settle in [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]], the United States and the Soviet Union.

In 1939, [[World War II]] began and until 1945, [[German-occupied Europe|Germany occupied almost all of Europe]], including [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|Poland]]—[[History of the Jews in Poland|where millions of Jews were living at that time]]—and [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|France]]. In 1941, following the [[invasion of the Soviet Union]], the [[Final Solution]] began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe, as well as Jews in European North Africa (pro-Nazi [[Vichy France|Vichy]]-[[French North Africa|North Africa]] and [[Italian Libya]]). This [[genocide]], in which approximately six million Jews were methodically murdered with horrifying cruelty, is known as [[The Holocaust]] or the ''Shoah'' (Hebrew term). In Poland, as many as one million Jews were murdered in [[gas chambers]] at the [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz camp complex]].

The massive scale of the Holocaust, and the horrors that happened during it, were only understood after the war, and they heavily affected the Jewish nation and world public opinion. Efforts were then increased to establish a Jewish state in Palestine.

=== The establishment of the State of Israel ===
{{Main|History of Israel (1948–present)}}
{{Further|Israel|Israeli Declaration of Independence}}
{{History of Israel}}
In 1945 the Jewish resistance organizations in Palestine unified and established the Jewish Resistance Movement. The movement began guerrilla attacks against Arab paramilitaries and the British authorities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html |title=The Jewish Resistance Movement |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=September 7, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160907162736/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} Following the [[King David Hotel bombing]], [[Chaim Weizmann]], president of the [[WZO]] appealed to the movement to cease all further military activity until a decision would be reached by the [[Jewish Agency]]. The Jewish Agency backed Weizmann's recommendation to cease activities, a decision reluctantly accepted by the Haganah, but not by the [[Irgun]] and [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]]. The JRM was dismantled and each of the founding groups continued operating according to their own policy.&lt;ref&gt;Horne, Edward (1982). ''A Job Well Done (Being a History of The Palestine Police Force 1920–1948)''. Anchor. {{ISBN|978-0-9508367-0-6}}. pp. 272, 299. States that Haganah withdrew on July 1, 1946. But remained permanently uncooperative.&lt;/ref&gt;

The Jewish leadership decided to centre the struggle in the illegal immigration to Palestine and began organizing a massive number of Jewish war refugees from Europe, without the approval of the British authorities. This immigration contributed a great deal to the Jewish settlements in Israel in the world public opinion and the British authorities decided to let the United Nations decide upon the fate of Palestine.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

On November 29, 1947, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopted [[Resolution 181]](II) recommending partitioning Palestine into an Arab state, a Jewish state and the City of Jerusalem. The Jewish leadership accepted the decision but the Arab League and the leadership of Palestinian Arabs opposed it. Following a period of [[1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]] the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]] started.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}}

In the middle of the war, after the last British soldiers of the Palestine Mandate left, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed on May 14, 1948, the establishment of a [[Jewish state]] in [[Eretz Israel]] to be known as the [[State of Israel]]. The war ended in 1949 and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of hundreds of thousands of Jews from all over the world, notably [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Arab countries]].

Since 1948, Israel has been involved in a series of major military conflicts, including the 1956 [[Suez Crisis]], 1967 [[Six-Day War]], 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], [[1982 Lebanon War]], and [[2006 Lebanon War]], as well as a nearly constant series of [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict|ongoing minor conflicts]].

Since 1977, an ongoing and largely unsuccessful series of diplomatic efforts have been initiated by Israel, Palestinian organizations, their neighbours, and other parties, including the United States and the European Union, to bring about a [[Israeli–Palestinian peace process|peace process]] to resolve conflicts between Israel and its neighbours, mostly over the fate of the Palestinian people.

==ايڪويهين صدي==
Israel is a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a population of over 8 million people, of whom about 6 million are [[Israeli Jews|Jewish]]. The largest Jewish communities are in Israel and the [[American Jews|United States]], with major communities in France, Argentina, Russia, England, and Canada.

The [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]], created during the [[Soviet]] period, continues to be an [[autonomous oblast]] of the Russian state.&lt;ref&gt;Fishkoff, Sue (October 8, 2008). [http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml &quot;A Jewish revival in Birobidzhan?&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510142551/http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml |date=May 10, 2011 }} ''Jewish News of Greater Phoenix''. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Chief Rabbi]] of [[Birobidzhan]], [[Mordechai Scheiner]], says there are 4,000 Jews in the capital city.&lt;ref&gt;Paxton, Robin (June 1, 2007). [http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&amp;cid=84435&amp;NewsType=80052 &quot;From Tractors to Torah in Russia's Jewish Land&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411050518/http://fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&amp;cid=84435&amp;NewsType=80052 |date=April 11, 2013 }}. Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Governor]] [[Nikolay Mikhaylovich Volkov]] has stated that he intends to, &quot;support every valuable initiative maintained by our local Jewish organizations&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939 &quot;Governor Voices Support for Growing Far East Jewish Community&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518042318/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939 |date=May 18, 2011 }} (November 15, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Birobidzhan Synagogue]] opened in 2004 on the 70th anniversary of the region's founding in 1934.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969 &quot;Far East Community Prepares for 70th Anniversary of Jewish Autonomous Republic&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518041740/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969 |date=May 18, 2011 }} (August 30, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;

The number of people who identified as Jews in [[England and Wales]] rose slightly between 2001 and 2011, with the growth being attributed to the higher birth rate of the [[Haredi]] community.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7411877.stm |title=Jewish population on the increase |date=May 21, 2008 |access-date=March 18, 2020 |archive-date=May 27, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527215725/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7411877.stm |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The estimated [[British Jew]]ish population in [[England]] as of 2011 was 263,346.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2011 Census: KS209EW Religion, local authorities in England and Wales |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262 |publisher=ons.gov.uk |access-date=December 15, 2012 |archive-date=January 5, 2016 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of 2021, per the [[British Census]], the Jewish population of England and Wales was 271,327.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Graham |first1=David |last2=Boyd |first2=Jonathan |title=Jews in Britain in 2021: First results from the Census of England and Wales |url=https://www.jpr.org.uk/reports/jews-britain-2021-first-results-census-england-and-wales |website=Institute for Jewish Policy Research |date=November 29, 2022 |access-date=December 13, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On October 7, 2023, [[Hamas]], along with other [[Palestinian Joint Operations Room|Palestinian militant groups]], [[October 7 attacks|attacked Israel]] from the [[Gaza Strip]], killing 1,139 people. The day is considered the deadliest day in Israel's history, and the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=October 11, 2023 |title=Biden calls Hamas attacks the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust as US death toll ticks up |url=https://apnews.com/article/israel-hamas-us-biden-blinken-99eb4063edabc80fa1fa198fb0bb020e |access-date=November 9, 2023 |work=AP News |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The attack escalated into a [[Gaza war|major war between Israel and Hamas]]. Hundreds of thousands of civilians were displaced, and more than 250 hostages, including Israelis and foreign nationals, were taken by Hamas, [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]], and other Gaza-based militant groups.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last1=Al-Mughrabi |first1=Nidal |last2=Angel |first2=Maytaal |last3=Al-Mughrabi |first3=Nidal |last4=Angel |first4=Maytaal |date=November 8, 2023 |title=Israeli, Hamas fighters in close combat in Gaza City as civilians flee |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/thousands-civilians-flee-north-gaza-israeli-troops-hamas-fighters-clash-2023-11-08/ |access-date=November 9, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[يهوديت]] 
* [[اسلام ۾ ابراهيم]] 
* [[يعقوب عليہ السلام]] 
* [[عيسيٰ عليه السلام]] 
* [[توريت]] 
* [[فلسطين]] 
* [[يروشلم]] 
* [[اسرائيل]] 
* [[فلسطين جي رياست]] 
* [[غزه نسل ڪشي]]
* [[يهوديت جي تاريخ]] 
* [[فلسطين جي تاريخ]] 
* [[يهودي تاريخ جو خاڪو]] 
* [[يهودي تاريخ جو وقت]] 
* [[يهودين جو جينياتي مطالعو]] 
* [[اسرائيل جي سرزمين ۾ يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ]]

==نوٽ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===حوالي جا لکت===
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==ڪتابيات==
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* [[Jacob Neusner|Neusner, Jacob]]; Green, William Scott, eds. (1991). ''The Origins of Judaism. Religion, History, and Literature in Late Antiquity.'' 20-volume Set. New York: Garland Press. (Reprinted scholarly essays, with introductions.)
* [[Jacob Neusner|Neusner, Jacob]] (1999). ''[{{Google books|id=5YFXIUJYgsYC
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=== France ===
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* Taitz, Emily. ''The Jews of Medieval France: The Community of Champagne'' (1994) [https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130202034/https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne |date=November 30, 2018 }}

=== Russia and Eastern Europe ===
* Brinkmann, Tobias.  (2024). ''Between Borders: The Great Jewish Migration from Eastern Europe''. New York: Oxford University Press.

* Darieva, Tsypylma, Darja Klingenberg, and Chen Bram. (2025) &quot;Jews of the Caucasus: multiple entanglements and migration routes.&quot; ''Journal of Modern Jewish Studies'' 24.2 (2025): 557-569.  [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14725886.2025.2518673  online]

* [[David Fishman|Fishman, David]] (1996). ''Russia's First Modern Jews''. New York University Press.
* [[Zvi Gitelman|Gitelman, Zvi]] (2001). ''A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present''.

* Kushkova, Anna. (2025) &quot;From a Shtetl House to an Urban Apartment: The Soviet Jewish Home Negotiated, Transformed, and Reimagined.&quot; ''Jewish Folklore and Ethnology'' 4.1 (2025): 70-125. [https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1028&amp;context=jewishfolklore  online]

* Polonsky, Antony. ''The Jews in Poland and Russia: A Short History'' (2013)

* Sapritsky-Nahum, Marina. (2025) &quot;Identity transformations of Ukrainian Jewry during the Russian–Ukrainian war: Odesa’s communities and religious leaders at home and in exile.&quot; ''Canadian Slavonic Papers'' 67.1-2 (2025): 214-235. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00085006.2025.2500199  online]

* Schapiro, Leonard. &quot;The role of the Jews in the Russian revolutionary movement.&quot; ''Slavonic and East European Review'' (1961): 148-167. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4205328  online]

* Shumsky, Dmitry. (2025) &quot;Beyond Antisemitism: Rethinking Stalin’s Anti-Jewish Campaign, 1948–1953.&quot; ''Journal of Modern History'' 97.2 (2025): 348-386. 
* {{cite book |last1=Weiner |first1=Miriam |last2=Polish State Archives (in cooperation with) |title=Jewish Roots in Poland: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories |date=1997 |publisher=Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation |location=Secaucus, NJ |isbn=978-0-9656508-0-9 |oclc=38756480}}
* {{cite book |last1=Weiner |first1=Miriam |last2=Ukrainian State Archives (in cooperation with) |last3=Moldovan National Archives (in cooperation with) |title=Jewish Roots in Ukraine and Moldova: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories |date=1999 |publisher=Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation |location=Secaucus, NJ |isbn=978-0-9656508-1-6 |oclc=607423469}}
* Yivo Institute for Jewish Research. ''A Century of Ambivalence, Second Expanded Edition: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present'' (Indiana University Press, 2001).

=== United States ===

{{Main|American Jews#Bibliography|History of the{{short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt;
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 063.jpg|thumb|According to Jewish tradition, Jacob, shown [[Jacob wrestling with the angel|wrestling with the angel]] in this painting by [[Rembrandt]], was the father of the [[tribes of Israel]].]]
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|history}}
{{history of religion|religions}}

[[Jews]] originated from the [[Israelites]] and [[Hebrews]] of historical [[Israel and Judah]], two related kingdoms that emerged in the [[Levant]] during the [[Iron Age]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 |date=April 9, 2023 }} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The earliest mention of [[Israelites]] is inscribed on the [[Merneptah Stele]] {{circa|1213–1203 BCE}}; later religious literature tells the story of Israelites going back at least as far as {{cx|1500 BCE}}. Traditionally, the name ''Israel'' is said to originate with the Hebrew patriarch [[Jacob]], who provides a narrative [[etiology]] for the name{{snd}}after wrestling with an angel, Jacob is renamed Israel, meaning &quot;he who struggles with God&quot;. The [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] based in [[Samaria]] fell to the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] {{cx|720 BCE}},&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Kingdom of Judah]] to the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] in 586 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Faust |first=Avraham |title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period |date=August 29, 2012 |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |isbn=978-1-58983-641-9 |pages=1 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28}}&lt;/ref&gt; Part of the Judean population was exiled to [[Babylonia|Babylon]]. The [[Assyrian captivity|Assyrian]] and [[Babylonian captivity|Babylonian captivities]] are regarded as representing the start of the [[Jewish diaspora]].

After the [[Achaemenid Empire]] conquered the region, the exiled Jews were [[Return to Zion|allowed to return]] and [[Second Temple|rebuild the temple]]; these events mark the beginning of the [[Second Temple period]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Jonathan |last1=Stökl |first2=Caroline |last2=Waerzegger |title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context |date=2015 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=7–11, 30, 226}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia Judaica |edition=2nd |volume=3 |page=27}}&lt;/ref&gt; After several centuries of foreign rule, the [[Maccabean Revolt]] against the [[Seleucid Empire]] led to an [[Hasmonean dynasty|independent Hasmonean kingdom]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Peter Fibiger |last1=Bang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&amp;pg=PAPA184 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean |first2=Walter |last2=Scheidel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-518831-8 |pages=184–187}}&lt;/ref&gt; but it was gradually incorporated into the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] imperial system.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=223–239}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Jewish–Roman wars]], a series of unsuccessful revolts against the Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, resulted in the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Zissu |first=Boaz |title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE |date=2018 |isbn=978-90-04-34986-5 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill  |page=19 |chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective |oclc=988856967}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the expulsion of many Jews.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Erwin |last1=Fahlbusch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&amp;pg=PAPA15 |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |first2=Geoffrey William |last2=Bromiley |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5 |page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Jewish population in [[Syria Palaestina]] gradually decreased during the following centuries, enhancing the role of the Jewish diaspora and shifting the spiritual and demographic centre from the depopulated [[Judea]] to [[Galilee]] and then to [[Asoristan|Babylon]], with smaller communities spread out across the [[Roman Empire]]. During the same period, the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]], central Jewish texts, were composed. In the following millennia, the diaspora communities [[Coalescent theory|coalesced]] into three major [[Jewish ethnic divisions|ethnic subdivisions]] according to where their ancestors settled: the [[Ashkenazim]] in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern European Jewry|Eastern Europe]], the [[Sephardim]] initially in [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Iberia]], and the [[Mizrahim]] in the [[History of the Jews under Muslim rule|Middle East]] and [[North Africa]].&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&amp;pg=PA87 &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity.&quot; p. 87.] Eban, Abba Solomon. &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews.&quot; Summit Books Syracuse, New York: 1984. p. 87.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Dosick (2007), pp. 59–60.&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[early Muslim conquests]] ended [[Byzantine]] control over the [[Eastern Mediterranean]], with the newly established [[Rashidun Caliphate]] taking over the [[Levant]], [[Mesopotamia]], and North Africa during the 7th century, and the [[Iberian Peninsula]] during the 8th century. [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain|Jewish culture enjoyed a golden age in Spain]], with Jews becoming widely accepted in society and their religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed before the arrival of the intolerant [[Almohades]]. In 1492 [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|the Jews were forced to leave Spain]] by the Catholic Monarchs [[Catholic Monarchs of Spain|Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand II]], whereafter they migrated in great numbers to the [[History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]] and [[Italian Peninsula|Italy]]. Between the 12th and 15th centuries, Ashkenazi Jews experienced extreme persecution in Central Europe, which prompted their mass migration to [[History of Jews in Poland|Poland]].&lt;ref&gt;Mosk (2013), p. 143. &quot;Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Harshav, Benjamin (1999). ''The Meaning of Yiddish''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. &quot;From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the centre of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The 18th century saw the rise of the [[Haskalah]] intellectual movement. Also starting in the 18th century, Jews began to campaign for [[Jewish emancipation]] from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society.

In the 19th century, when Jews in [[Western Europe]] were increasingly granted equality before the law, Jews in the [[Pale of Settlement]] faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread [[pogrom]]s. During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to [[Ottoman Syria]] with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. The [[Zionist movement]] was officially founded in 1897. The pogroms also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the United States between 1881 and 1924.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lewin |first=Rhoda G. |date=1979 |title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis |url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |journal=Minnesota History |volume=46 |issue=7 |page=259 |access-date=August 10, 2020 |archive-date=July 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. Many [[Nobel Prize]] winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |publisher=jinfo.org |access-date=October 7, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1933, with the rise to power of [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]] in [[Nazi Germany|Germany]], the situation for Jews became severe. Economic crises, racial [[Antisemitism in Europe#The Holocaust|antisemitic laws]], and a fear of an upcoming war led many to flee from Europe to [[Mandatory Palestine]], to the United States and to the [[Soviet Union]]. In 1939, [[World War II]] began and until 1941 Germany [[German-occupied Europe|occupied almost all of Europe]]. In 1941, following the [[Operation Barbarossa|invasion]] of the Soviet Union, the [[Final Solution]] began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe and North Africa. In Poland, three million were murdered in [[gas chambers]] in all concentration camps combined, with one million at the [[Auschwitz]] camp complex alone. This [[genocide]], in which approximately six million Jews were methodically exterminated, is known as [[the Holocaust]].

Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On May 14, 1948, upon the termination of the British Mandate, [[David Ben-Gurion]] declared the creation of the [[State of Israel]], a [[Jewish and democratic state]] in ''[[Eretz Israel]]'' (Land of Israel). Immediately afterwards, all neighbouring Arab states invaded, yet the newly formed [[IDF]] resisted. In 1949, the war ended and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of [[Aliyah]] from all over Europe and [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Middle Eastern countries]]. {{As of|2022|post=,}} Israel is a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a population of 9.6 million people, of whom 7 million are [[Israeli Jews|Jewish]].

The largest Jewish community outside Israel is the [[American Jews|United States]], while large communities also exist in France, Canada, Argentina, Russia, United Kingdom, Australia, and [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]]. Currently, the Jewish ethnicity have two autonomous states under their power to act as sanctuaries, [[Israel]] and the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]].

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Commons category|Jewish history}}
* [http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/ The Jewish History Resource Center]. Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
* [http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/Internetresources/modern/israelindex.htm The State of Israel] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
* [http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/ Jewish History and Culture Encyclopaedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224094628/http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/ |date=December 24, 2008 }} Official Site of the 22-volume Encyclopaedia Judaica
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/jewishsbook.html Internet Jewish History Sourcebook] offering homework help and online texts
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050528023003/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/israelite_religion.htm Israelite Religion to Judaism: the Evolution of the Religion of Israel].
* [https://thinktorah.org/jewish-history/ 2000 Years of Jewish History]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050629084248/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/greek_influence.htm Greek Influence on Judaism from the Hellenistic Period Through the Middle Ages c. 300 BCE–1200 CE].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050604085120/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/jewish_sects.htm Jewish Sects of the Second Temple Period].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101119075635/http://adath-shalom.ca/samaritan_origin.htm The Origin and Nature of the Samaritans and their Relationship to Second Temple Jewish Sects].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051118233741/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/eb2bk.htm Jewish History Tables].
* [http://www.oztorah.com/category/australian-jewry/ Articles on Australian Jewish history].
* [http://www.oztorah.com/category/british-jewry/ Articles on British Jewish history].
* Barnavi, Eli (Ed.). ''A Historical Atlas of the Jewish People''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1992. {{ISBN|978-0-679-40332-6}}
* [http://www.simpletoremember.com/vitals/Jewish_History.htm Crash Course in Jewish History]
* [http://csicso-nagy.uw.hu/fo-o-Csicso-NAGY-A/jewish-families.htm Jewish families in Csicsó – Cicov (Slovakia) until the Holocaust]
* [http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&amp;Volume=36&amp;Issue=1&amp;ArticleID=29 &quot;Under the Influence: Hellenism in Ancient Jewish Life&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229232302/http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&amp;Volume=36&amp;Issue=1&amp;ArticleID=29 |date=February 29, 2012 }} Biblical Archaeology Society
* [http://www.jewishhistory.org/crash-course/ Summary of Jewish History] by Berel Wein
* [http://histclo.com/chron/ancient/heb/heb-hist.html Ancient Hebrew history]
* [http://jewishhistorylectures.org/ Videos of Jewish History Lectures by Henry Abramson of Touro College South]
{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:يهودين جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:يهوديت جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:يهودي نسلي گروهه]]
[[زمرو:تاريخ بلحاظ مذهب]]
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      <text bytes="206948" sha1="buc8jcif3gsyt3f8te99asvfemws4zh" xml:space="preserve">يهودي (&lt;small&gt;Jews&lt;/small&gt;) تاريخي اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه، ٻه لاڳاپيل بادشاهتن جيڪيون [[لوهه جو دور|لوهه جي دور]] ۾ [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سرزمين شام (ليونٽ)]] ۾ ظاهر ٿيون،  جي بني اسرائيل ۽ عبرانين مان پيدا ٿيا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|date=2001|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|isbn=978-0-684-86912-4|edition=1st Touchstone|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken2&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229|date=April 9, 2023}} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; بني اسرائيل جو پهريون ذڪر، 1213-1203 ق.م. جو مرنيپتا اسٽيل تي لکيل آهي؛ بعد ۾ مذهبي ادب بني اسرائيلن جي ڪهاڻي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 1500 ق.م. تائين ٻڌائي ٿو. روايتي طور تي، اسرائيل جو نالو عبراني بزرگ [[يعقوب عليہ السلام|يعقوب]] سان شروع ٿيو آهي، جيڪو نالي لاءِ هڪ داستاني ايٽولوجي فراهم ڪري ٿو - هڪ فرشتي سان وڙهڻ کان پوءِ، يعقوب جو نالو اسرائيل رکيو ويو، جنهن جو مطلب آهي &quot;اهو جيڪو خدا سان ويڙهي ٿو&quot;. سامريه ۾ قائم اسرائيل جي بادشاهت 720 ق.م. ڌاري نيو-آشوري سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Broshi|first=Maguen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174|title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2001|isbn=978-1-84127-201-6|page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ 586 ق.م. ڌاري يهودين جي بادشاهت نيو-بابلي سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Faust|first=Avraham|title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period|date=August 29, 2012|publisher=Society of Biblical Literature|isbn=978-1-58983-641-9|pages=1|doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي آبادي جو هڪ حصو [[بابل]] ڏانهن جلاوطن ڪيو ويو. آشور ۽ بابل ۾ قيد ٿيل يهودين کي ڊائاسپورا جي شروعات جي نمائندگي ڪندڙ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.

{{short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt;
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 063.jpg|thumb|يهودي روايت موجب، يعقوب، جيڪو ريمبران جي هن تصوير ۾ ملائڪ سان وڙهندي ڏيکاريو ويو آهي، اسرائيل جي قبيلن جو پيءُ هو. ]][[هخامنشي سلطنت]] طرفان هن علائقي کي فتح ڪرڻ کان پوءِ، جلاوطن يهودين کي واپس اچڻ ۽ مندر کي ٻيهر تعمير ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي؛ اها واقعا ٻئي مندر جي دور جي شروعات جي نشاندهي ڪن ٿا. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Jonathan|last1=Stökl|first2=Caroline|last2=Waerzegger|title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context|date=2015|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|pages=7–11, 30, 226}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia Judaica|edition=2nd|volume=3|page=27}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيترن ئي صدين جي پرڏيهي حڪمراني کانپوءِ، سيليوسڊ سلطنت جي خلاف مڪابي بغاوت هڪ آزاد هاشموني بادشاهت جو سبب بڻي، &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Peter Fibiger|last1=Bang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&amp;pg=PAPA184|title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean|first2=Walter|last2=Scheidel|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-518831-8|pages=184–187}}&lt;/ref&gt; پر ان رياست کي بتدريج [[رومي سلطنت]] ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Abraham|last=Malamat|url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=A History of the Jewish People|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1976|isbn=978-0-674-39731-6|pages=223–239}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي-رومن جنگيون، پهرين ۽ ٻي صدي عيسوي ۾ رومن جي خلاف ناڪام بغاوتن جو هڪ سلسلو، [[يروشلم]] ۽ ٻئي مندر جي تباهي &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Zissu|first=Boaz|title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE|date=2018|isbn=978-90-04-34986-5|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|page=19|chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective|oclc=988856967}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ ڪيترن ئي يهودين کي نيڪالي ڏيڻ جو سبب بڻيون.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Erwin|last1=Fahlbusch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&amp;pg=PAPA15|title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity|first2=Geoffrey William|last2=Bromiley|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5|page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt; سر زمين شام فلسطين ۾ يهودي آبادي ايندڙ صدين دوران بتدريج گهٽجي وئي، يهودي ڊائاسپورا جي ڪردار کي وڌايو ۽ روحاني ۽ آبادي جي مرڪز کي خالي ٿيل يهوديا کان گليلي ۽ پوءِ بابل ڏانهن منتقل ڪيو، يهودين جون ننڍيون برادريون رومن سلطنت ۾ پکڙيل هيون. ساڳئي عرصي دوران، مشناه ۽ تلمود، مرڪزي يهودي متن، ترتيب ڏنا ويا. ايندڙ هزار سالن ۾، ڊائاسپورا برادريون ٽن وڏن نسلي ذيلي تقسيم ۾، جتي انهن جا ابا ڏاڏا آباد ٿيا هئا: وچ ۽ اوڀر يورپ ۾ اشڪنازي، [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|آئبيريا]] ۾ سيفاردي ۽ [[وچ اوڀر]] ۽ [[اتر آفريڪا]] ۾ مزراهي طور گڏ ٿي ويون.&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&amp;pg=PA87 &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity.&quot; p. 87.] Eban, Abba Solomon. &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews.&quot; Summit Books Syracuse, New York: 1984. p. 87.&lt;/ref&gt;  &lt;ref&gt;Dosick (2007), pp. 59–60.&lt;/ref&gt;

شروعاتي اسلامي فتحون اوڀرين رومي سمنڊ جي علائقن تي [[بازنطيني سلطنت|بازنطيني]] ڪنٽرول ختم ڪري ڇڏيو، نئين قائم ٿيل راشدون خلافت 7هين صدي دوران [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|ليونٽ]]، [[ميسوپوٽيميا]] ۽ اتر آفريڪا تي قبضو ڪيو ۽ 8هين صدي دوران [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|آئبيرين جزيره نما]] تي قبضو ڪيو. يهودي ثقافت مسلم [[اندلس]] ۾ هڪ سونهري دور مان لطف اندوز ٿي، يهودين کي سماج ۾ وڏي پيماني تي قبول ڪيو ويو ۽ انهن جي مذهبي، ثقافتي ۽ معاشي زندگي عدم برداشت واري الموحدين جي اچڻ کان اڳ ڦٽي نڪتي. سال 1492ع ۾ ڪيٿولڪ حڪمران، راڻي ازابيل اول ۽ بادشاهه فرڊيننڊ II پاران يهودين کي اسپين ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ڪيو ويو، جنهن کان پوءِ اهي وڏي تعداد ۾ [[عثماني سلطنت]] ۽ [[اٽلي]] ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي. 12هين ۽ 15هين صدي جي وچ ۾، اشڪنازي يهودين وچ يورپ ۾ انتهائي ظلم جو تجربو ڪيو، جنهن جي ڪري انهن جي [[پولينڊ]] ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. &lt;ref&gt;Mosk (2013), p. 143. &quot;Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Harshav, Benjamin (1999). ''The Meaning of Yiddish''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. &quot;From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the centre of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt;هين صدي ۾ هسڪاله دانشورانه تحريڪ جو عروج ڏٺو ويو. &lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt;هين صدي جي شروعات ۾، يهودي يهودين کي پابندين وارن قانونن کان آزاد ڪرڻ ۽ وسيع يورپي سماج ۾ ضم ڪرڻ لاءِ مهم هلائڻ شروع ڪئي.

19هين صدي ۾، جڏهن اولهائين يورپ ۾ يهودين کي قانون جي سامهون برابري ڏني پئي وئي، ته آبادڪاري جي ميدان ۾ يهودين کي وڌندڙ ظلم، قانوني پابندين ۽ وڏي پيماني تي قتل عام جو سامنا ڪرڻ پيو. 1870 ۽ 1880 جي ڏهاڪن دوران، يورپ ۾ يهودي آبادي فلسطين ۾ يهودي رياست کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان عثماني شام ڏانهن هجرت تي وڌيڪ سرگرم بحث ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. صهيوني تحريڪ سرڪاري طور تي سال 1897ع ۾ قائم ڪئي وئي هئي. سال 1881ع ۽ 1924ع جي وچ ۾ [[آمريڪا جون گڏيل رياستون|آمريڪا]] ڏانهن 20 لک کان وڌيڪ يهودين جي وڏي پيماني تي هجرت کي به شروع ڪيو. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Lewin|first=Rhoda G.|date=1979|title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis|url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf|journal=Minnesota History|volume=46|issue=7|page=259|access-date=August 10, 2020|archive-date=July 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; يورپ ۽ آمريڪا جا يهودي سائنس، ثقافت ۽ معيشت جي شعبن ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪيا. عام طور تي سڀ کان وڌيڪ مشهور سمجهيا ويندڙن ۾ [[البرٽ آئنسٽائن|البرٽ آئن اسٽائن]] ۽ لڊوگ وٽگنسٽائن شامل هئا. هن وقت ڪيترائي [[نوبل انعام حاصل ڪندڙن جي فهرست|نوبل انعام يافته]] يهودي هئا، جيئن اڃا تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners|publisher=jinfo.org|access-date=October 7, 2011|archive-date=December 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

سال &lt;small&gt;1933&lt;/small&gt;ع ۾، [[جرمنيا|جرمني]] ۾ [[هٽلر|ايڊولف هٽلر]] ۽ نازي پارٽي جي اقتدار ۾ اچڻ سان، يهودين لاءِ صورتحال سخت ٿي وئي. معاشي بحران، نسل پرست يهودي مخالف قانون ۽ ايندڙ جنگ جي خوف سبب ڪيترائي ماڻهو [[يُورَپ|يورپ]] کان [[فلسطين|لازمي فلسطين]]، آمريڪا ۽ [[سوويت يونين]] ڏانهن ڀڄي ويا. سال 1939ع ۾، [[ٻين مھاڀاري جنگ|ٻي مهاڀاري جنگ]] شروع ٿي ۽ سال 1941ع تائين جرمني تقريبن سڄي يورپ تي قبضو ڪري ورتو. سال 1941ع ۾، سوويت يونين جي حملي کان پوءِ، آخري حل شروع ٿيو، هڪ غير معمولي پيماني تي هڪ وسيع منظم آپريشن، جنهن جو مقصد يهودي ماڻهن کي ختم ڪرڻ هو ۽ نتيجي ۾ يورپ ۽ اتر آفريڪا ۾ يهودين جو قتل عام ٿيو. پولينڊ ۾، سڀني ڪنسنٽريشن ڪيمپن ۾ گيس چيمبرن ۾ 30 لک يهودي قتل ڪيا ويا، جن ۾ صرف آشوٽز ڪيمپ ڪمپليڪس ۾ 10 لک شامل هئا. هي نسل ڪشي، جنهن ۾ تقريبن 60 لک يهودين کي طريقي سان ختم ڪيو ويو، هولوڪاسٽ جي نالي سان مشهور آهي. 

هولوڪاسٽ کان اڳ ۽ دوران، يهودين جي وڏي تعداد لازمي فلسطين ڏانهن هجرت ڪئي. 14 مئي 1948ع تي، برطانوي مينڊيٽ جي خاتمي تي، ڊيوڊ بين-گورين ارض اسرائيل (اسرائيل جي سرزمين) ۾ هڪ يهودي ۽ جمهوري رياست، [[اسرائيل]] جي رياست جي قيام جو اعلان ڪيو.

ان کان پوءِ فوري طور تي، سڀني پاڙيسري عرب رياستون اسرائيل تي حملو ڪيو، پر نئين ٺهيل اسرائيلي دفاعي فوج (IDF) مزاحمت ڪئي. سال 1949ع ۾ جنگ ختم ٿي وئي ۽ اسرائيل رياست جي تعمير شروع ڪئي ۽ سڄي يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر جي ملڪن مان ايندڙ يهودين جي وڏين لهرن کي جذب ڪيو. سال 2022ع تائين، اسرائيل هڪ پارلياماني جمهوريت آهي جنهن جي آبادي 96 لک ماڻهن جي آهي، جن مان 70 لک يهودي آهن. ([[غزه جي پٽي|غزا]] ۽ [[فلسطين جي رياست|مغربي ڪناري]] جي 35 لک آبادي کانسواء).

اسرائيل کان ٻاهر سڀ کان وڏي يهودي برادري آمريڪا ۾ آهي، جڏهن ته ٻيون وڏي برادريون [[فرانس]]، [[ڪينيڊا]]، [[ارجنٽائن]]، [[روس]]، [[گڏيل بادشاھت|برطانيه]]، [[آسٽريليا]] ۽ [[جرمني]] ۾ پڻ موجود آهن. هن وقت، يهودي نسل جون ٻه خودمختيار رياستون؛ اسرائيل ۽ روس ۾ يهودي خودمختيار اوبلاست آهن جيڪي انهن جي اختيار هيٺ آهن ته اهي پناهه گاهه طور ڪم ڪن.

==جائزو==
قديم يهودي تاريخ بائيبل ۽ غير بائيبل ذريعن، اپوڪرائيفا ۽ سوڊيپيگرافا، جوزيفس جي لکڻين، گريڪو-رومن ليکڪن ۽ چرچ جي پادرين، گڏوگڏ آثار قديمه جي دريافتن، لکتن، قديم دستاويزن، جهڙوڪ ايليفينٽائن ۽ فيوم مان پيپيري، مردار سمنڊ جا اسڪرول، بار ڪوخبا خط، باباٿا آرڪائيوز ۽ قاهره جينيزا دستاويزن، مان معلوم ٿئي ٿي، جيڪي زباني تاريخ ۽ مدراش ۽ تلمود ۾ تبصرن جي مجموعن سان گڏ آهن. 

ابتدائي جديد دور ۾ پرنٽنگ پريس جي آمد سان، يهودين جي تاريخ ۽ عبراني بائيبل جا شروعاتي ايڊيشن شايع ٿيا جيڪي يهودي مذهب جي تاريخ ۽ وڌندڙ طور تي، يهودين جي قومي تاريخن، يهودي قوم ۽ سڃاڻپ سان لاڳاپيل هئا، هڪ مسودي يا لکندڙ ڪلچر کان هڪ پرنٽنگ ڪلچر ڏانهن منتقلي هئي. يهودي مورخن پنهنجن اجتماعي تجربن جا احوال لکيا، پر سياسي، ثقافتي ۽ سائنسي يا فلسفياتي ڳولا لاءِ تاريخ کي پڻ وڌندڙ طور تي استعمال ڪيو. ليکڪن ثقافتي طور تي ورثي ۾ مليل متن جي هڪ مجموعي کي استعمال ڪيو ته جيئن فن جي حالت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ يا اڳتي وڌائڻ لاءِ هڪ منطقي داستان تيار ڪري سگهجي. جديد يهودي تاريخ نويسي يورپي نشاۃِ ثانيه ۽ روشن خيالي جي دور جهڙين دانشورانه تحريڪن سان جڙيل آهي، پر وچين دور جي آخر ۾ ۽ قديم زماني ۾ مختلف ذريعن ۾ اڳوڻين ڪمن تي ڌيان ڏنو. اڄ، يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ کي اڪثر ست دورن ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي:
# قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه رياست (&lt;small&gt;1200 ق.م. کان 586 ق.م.&lt;/small&gt;) 
# ٻيو مندر وارو دور (&lt;small&gt;516 ق.م. کان 70 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|editor-last=Goodman|editor-first=Martin|chapter=Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period|pages=36–52|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0003|isbn=0-19-928032-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# ربانڪ يا تلمودي دور (&lt;small&gt;70 کان 640 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|editor-last=Goodman|editor-first=Martin|chapter=Historiography on the Jews in the ‘Talmudic Period’ (70–640 ce)|pages=79–114|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0005|isbn=0-19-928032-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# وچين دور (&lt;small&gt;640 کان 1492 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# ابتدائي جديد دور (&lt;small&gt;1492-1750 عيسوي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# جديد دور (&lt;small&gt;1750ع کان 20هين صدي&lt;/small&gt;) 
# [[صيهونيت]]، [[هولوڪاسٽ]] ۽ [[اسرائيل]] جو قيام (&lt;small&gt;19 کان 21هين صدي&lt;/small&gt;)
&lt;imagemap&gt;
File:Chronology of Israel eng.png|center|800px
default [[#Time periods in Jewish history|Jewish history]]
rect 658 156 833 176 [[Aliyah|Periods of massive immigration to Palestine]]
rect 564 156 647 175 [[Jewish diaspora|Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in exile]]
rect 460 156 554 175 [[Land of Israel|Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in the southern Levant, with full or partial independence]]
rect 314 156 452 175 [[Temple in Jerusalem|Periods in which a Jewish Temple existed]]
rect 196 156 309 175 [[#Time periods in Jewish history|Jewish history]]
rect 26 102 134 122 [[Book of Judges|Shoftim]]
rect 134 102 265 121 [[Books of Kings|Melakhim]]
rect 146 83 266 104 [[First Temple]]
rect 286 83 418 103 [[Second Temple]]
rect 341 103 392 121 [[Zugot]]
rect 393 103 453 121 [[Tannaim]]
rect 452 102 534 221 [[Amoraim]]
rect 534 102 560 121 [[Savoraim]]
rect 559 103 691 121 [[Geonim]]
rect 691 102 825 121 [[Rishonim]]
rect 825 100 940 120 [[Acharonim]]
rect 939 94 959 120 [[Aliyah|Aliyot]]
rect 957 65 975 121 [[Israel]]
rect 940 62 958 94 [[The Holocaust]]
rect 825 62 941 100 [[Jewish diaspora|Diaspora]]
rect 808 61 825 101 [[Alhambra decree|Expulsion from Spain]]
rect 428 62 808 103 [[Dispersion of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Roman exile]]
poly 226 82 410 82 410 92 428 92 428 61 226 62 [[Ten Lost Tribes|Assyrian Exile (Ten Lost Tribes)]]
rect 264 82 284 122 [[Babylonian captivity]]
rect 283 103 341 121 [[Second Temple of Jerusalem|Second Temple period]]
poly 26 121 17 121 17 63 225 63 226 81 145 82 145 101 26 101 [[Chronology of the Bible|Ancient Jewish History]]
rect 58 136 375 146 [[Chronology of the Bible]]
rect 356 122 373 135 [[Common Era]]
desc none
&lt;/imagemap&gt;

==قديم اسرائيل==
{{Main|يهوديت جي اصل}}
===شروعاتي بني اسرائيل===
{{Main|بني اسرائيل}}
[[File:Ruins atop Tel Megiddo with circular altar-like shrine and a series of temples on top of the other dating from the early bronze-age through the iron-age periods, Tel Meggido, Israel (19888642855).jpg|thumb|تل ميگيدو، هڪ ڪنعاني ۽ بعد ۾ اسرائيلي شهر جا کنڊر]]

ابتدائي يهودين ۽ انهن جي پاڙيسرين جي تاريخ، ميڊيٽرينين سمنڊ جي زرخيز هلال ۽ اوڀر ساحل تي مرڪز آهي. اها انهن ماڻهن سان شروع ٿئي ٿي جيڪا [[نيل درياھہ|نيل]] ۽ [[ميسوپوٽيميا]] جي وچ واري علائقي تي قبضو ڪيو هو. مصر ۽ بابل ۾ ثقافت جي قديم مرڪزن، عرب جي ريگستانن ۽ ايشيا ڪوچڪ جي ميدان جي اهي، ڪنعان جي زمين (تقريبن جديد اسرائيل، فلسطين، اردن ۽ لبنان سان ملندڙ جلندڙ) تهذيبن جي ميلاپ جو هنڌ هئي.

[[File:Map Israel Judea 926 BC-fr.svg|thumb|سال 926 ق.م. ۾ اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه جون بادشاهتون]]
اسرائيل جي نالي سان هڪ قوم جو سڀ کان پهريون رڪارڊ ٿيل ثبوت قديم مصر جي مرنيپتاه اسٽيلئ ۾ نظر اچي ٿو، جيڪو 1200 ق.م. جو آهي. جديد آثار قديمه جي حساب موجب، اسرائيلي ۽ انهن جي ثقافت هڪ الڳ مونولئٽرسٽڪ ۽ پوء توحيد پرست (monotheistic) مذهب جي ترقي ذريعي ڪنعاني ماڻهن ۽ انهن جي ثقافتن مان نڪتل هئي، جيڪا هڪ قومي خدا &quot;يهواه&quot; تي مرڪوز هو.&lt;ref&gt;Mark Smith in &quot;The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel&quot; states &quot;Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000&amp;nbsp;BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period.&quot; (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) &quot;The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel&quot; (Eerdman's)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Rendsberg, Gary (2008). &quot;Israel without the Bible&quot;. In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Gnuse |first1=Robert Karl |title=No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel |date=1997 |publisher=Sheffield Academic Press Ltd |isbn=1-85075-657-0 |location=England |pages=28, 31}}&lt;/ref&gt; اها عبراني ٻولي جي هڪ قديم شڪل ڳالهائيندا هئا، جيڪا اڄ بائيبل جي عبراني جي نالي سان مشهور آهي.&lt;ref&gt;Steiner, Richard C. (1997), &quot;Ancient Hebrew&quot;, in Hetzron, Robert (ed.), ''The Semitic Languages'', Routledge, pp. 145–173, {{ISBN|978-0-415-05767-7}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

پهرين صدي قبل مسيح جي وچ کان، يهودين کي روايتي طور تي پنهنجي تاريخ جي جيڪا سمجھ هئي، اها عبراني بائيبل ۾ بيان ڪيل روايتن جي چوڌاري مرڪوز هئي. هن خيال موجب، ابراهيم (اهو ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته هو يهودين جو حياتياتي پيشوا ۽ يهوديت جو پيءُ آهي) پهريون يهودي آهي.{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=3}} بعد ۾ اسحاق ابراهيم مان پيدا ٿيو ۽ يعقوب اسحاق مان پيدا ٿيو. هڪ ملائڪ سان ويڙهه کان پوءِ، يعقوب کي اسرائيل جو نالو ڏنو ويو. سخت ڏڪار کانپوءِ، يعقوب ۽ سندس ٻارهن پٽ مصر ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي ويا، جتي انهن آخرڪار اسرائيل جا ٻارهن قبيلا ٺاهيا. بعد ۾ بني اسرائيل کي مصر جي غلامي مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ موسيٰ طرفان ڪنعان آندو ويو. انهن آخرڪار يوشع جي اڳواڻي ۾ ڪنعان کي فتح ڪيو.

جديد عالم متفق آهن ته بائيبل بني اسرائيل جي اصليت جو مستند احوال فراهم نٿو ڪري. اتفاق راءِ ان ڳالهه جي حمايت ڪري ٿو ته آثار قديمه جا ثبوت وڏي پيماني تي اسرائيل جي اصليت کي 1200 کان 1000 ق.م. ۾ ڪنعان ۾ ڏيکارين ٿا، مصر ۾ نه. اهو &quot;زبردست&quot; آهي ۽ &quot;مصر مان نڪرڻ يا سينائي ​​جي بيابان ذريعي 40 سالن جي زيارت لاءِ ڪا به گنجائش نه ٿو ڇڏي&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dever-2002&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William G. |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8028-2126-3}} p. 99&lt;/ref&gt;

ڪيترا ئي آثار قديمه جا ماهر موسيٰ ۽ خروج جي آثار قديمه جي تحقيق کي &quot;هڪ بيڪار جستجو&quot; طور ڇڏي ڏنو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dever-2002&quot; /&gt; بهرحال، اهو قبول ڪيو ويو آهي، ته هن داستان جو هڪ &quot;تاريخي بنياد&quot; آهي.&lt;ref&gt;For more about the historicity of Jewish history as it pertains to [[Oral Torah|rabbinic]] sources, see {{cite journal |first1=Reuven Chaim |last1=Klein |date=2023 |title=Are historical sections of the Talmud actually historical? Critical tools for understanding historical claims in rabbinic literature |url=https://www.academia.edu/127965994 |journal=Journal of Philological Pedagogy |volume=12 |publisher=Chandler School of Education |pages=42–75 |doi=10.17613/rjp5a-md343 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Faust|2015|loc=p.476: &quot;While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt..&quot;}}{{sfn|Redmount|2001|p=61|ps=: &quot;A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative.&quot;}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2001 |isbn=3-927120-37-5 |pages=98–99 |quote=After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible &quot;historical figures&quot; [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.}}&lt;/ref&gt; آثار قديمه جي ماهرن ۽ مصريات جي ماهرن جي هڪ صدي جي تحقيق ۾ ڪو به ثبوت نه مليو آهي، جيڪو مصري قيد ۽ فرار ۽ بيابان مان سفر جي خروج جي داستان سان سڌو سنئون لاڳاپيل ٿي سگهي ٿو، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ اهو مشورو ڏنو ويو آهي ته لوهه جي دور جو اسرائيل - يهودا ۽ اسرائيل جي بادشاهتن جي اصل ڪنعان ۾ آهي، مصر ۾ نه.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |editor-last1=Finkelstein |editor-first1=Israel |editor-first2=Nadav |editor-last2=Naaman |title=From Nomadism to Monarchy: Archaeological and Historical Aspects of Early Israel |publisher=[[Israel Exploration Society]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-880317-20-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Compare: {{cite book |first=Ian |last=Shaw |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&amp;q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&amp;pg=PA313 |title=A Dictionary of Archaeology |author2=Robert Jameson |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-631-23583-5 |editor=Ian Shaw |edition=New |page=313 |quote=The Biblical account of the origins of the people of Israel (principally recounted in Numbers, Joshua and Judges) often conflicts with non-Biblical textual sources and with the archaeological evidence for the settlement of Canaan in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age. [...] Israel is first textually attested as a political entity in Egyptian texts of the late 13th century BCE and the Egyptologist Donald Redford argues that the Israelites must have been emerging as a distinct group within the Canaanite culture during the century or so prior to this. It has been suggested that the early Israelites were an oppressed rural group of Canaanites who rebelled against the more urbanized coastal Canaanites (Gottwald 1979). Alternatively, it has been argued that the Israelites were survivors of the decline in the fortunes of Canaan who established themselves in the highlands at the end of the late Bronze Age (Ahlstrom 1986: 27). Redford, however, makes a good case for equating the very earliest Israelites with a semi-nomadic people in the highlands of central Palestine whom the Egyptians called Shasu (Redford 1992:2689–80; although see Stager 1985 for strong arguments against the identification with the Shasu). These Shasu were a persistent thorn in the side of the Ramessid pharaohs' empire in Syria-Palestine, well-attested in Egyptian texts, but their pastoral lifestyle has left scant traces in the archaeological record. By the end of the 13th century BCE, however, the Shasu/Israelites were beginning to establish small settlements in the uplands, the architecture of which closely resembles contemporary Canaanite villages. |author-link=Israel, Israelites |access-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160406/https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&amp;q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&amp;pg=PA313 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; ابتدائي اسرائيلي آبادين جي ثقافت ڪنعاني آهي. انهن جي گروهي-شيون ڪنعاني ديوتا ايل، برتن، مقامي ڪنعاني روايت ۽ استعمال ٿيل الفابيٽ ابتدائي ڪنعاني آهن، ۾ رهي ٿو. &quot;اسرائيلي&quot; ڳوٺن کي ڪنعاني جڳهن کان ڌار ڪرڻ لاء واحد نشان سوئر جي هڏن جي غير موجودگي آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ڇا اهو نسلي نشان طور ورتو وڃي ٿو يا ٻين عنصرن جي ڪري آهي، اهو تڪرار جو موضوع رهي ٿو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Killebrew |first=Ann E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC |title=Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E. |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-58983-097-4 |location=Atlanta |page=176 |quote=Much has been made of the scarcity of pig bones at highland sites. Since small quantities of pig bones do appear in Late Bronze Age assemblages, some archaeologists have interpreted this to indicate that the ethnic identity of the highland inhabitants was distinct from Late Bronze Age indigenous peoples (see Finkelstein 1997, 227–230). Brian Hesse and Paula Wapnish (1997) advise caution, however, since the lack of pig bones at Iron I highland settlements could be a result of other factors that have little to do with ethnicity. |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=January 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117055402/https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

بائبل جي داستان مطابق، اسرائيل جي سرزمين ٻارهن قبيلن جي هڪ ڪنفيڊريشن ۾ منظم هئي جنهن تي ڪيترن ئي سؤ سالن تائين قاضين جي هڪ سلسلي جي حڪومت هئي.

=== قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهودا ===
&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; قديم اسرائيل جي تاريخ

=== قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه جون رياستون ===
{{Main|قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه جي رياستن جي تاريخ }}
[[File:LMLK, Ezekiah seals.jpg|thumb|A stamped bulla ([[LMLK seal]]) of [[Hezekiah]], &quot;Of Hezekiah (son of) Ahaz King of Judah&quot;, [[Israel Museum]]]]
Two اسرائيل جي عجائب گھر ۾ &quot;يهودا جي بادشاهه احز جي پٽ حزقياه جي&quot; جي هڪ مُهر لڳل بُلا (LMLK مُهر). * 

لوهه جي ٻئي دور جي دوران ٻه اسرائيلي بادشاهتون: اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه اُڀريون. بائيبل اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه کي اسرائيل جي اڳوڻي گڏيل بادشاهت جي جانشين طور پيش ڪري ٿي، پر ان جي تاريخي حيثيت تي تڪرار آهي. تاريخدان ۽ آثار قديمه جا ماهر متفق آهن ته اسرائيل جي اترين بادشاهت 900 ق.م. کان ۽ يهوديه جي بادشاهت 700 ق.م. کان موجود هئي. تل دان اسٽيلئ (1993ع ۾ دريافت ٿيل) ڏيکاري ٿو ته بادشاهت، گهٽ ۾ گهٽ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن شڪل ۾، 9هين صدي قبل مسيح جي وچ تائين موجود هئي، پر اها ان جي طاقت جي حد کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري. 

بائبل جي روايت ٻڌائي ٿي ته اسرائيلي بادشاهت 1037 ق.م. ۾ ساؤل، جيڪو نبي سموئيل پاران مسح ڪيو ويو هو، جي تحت قائم ٿي ۽ دائود ۽ سندس پٽ سليمان جي تحت جاري رهي. دائود بادشاهت جي حدن کي تمام گهڻو وڌايو ۽ يروشلم کي يابوستيئن کان فتح ڪيو ۽ ان کي بادشاهت جي قومي، سياسي ۽ مذهبي راڄڌاني ۾ تبديل ڪيو. سندس پٽ، سليمان بعد ۾ يروشلم ۾ جبل موريه تي پهريون مندر تعمير ڪرايو. سندس وفات کان پوءِ، جن جي تاريخ روايتي طور تي 930 ق.م. جي آهي، ڏهه اتر اسرائيلي قبيلن ۽ يهودا جي قبيلن (شمعون قبيلو يهودا ۾ شامل ٿي ويو) ۽ ڏکڻ ۾ بنيامين جي وچ ۾ هڪ خانه جنگي شروع ٿي. پوءِ بادشاهت اتر ۾ اسرائيل جي بادشاهت ۽ ڏکڻ ۾ يهودا جي بادشاهت ۾ ورهائجي وئي. 


Israelite kingdoms emerged during Iron Age II: [[Israel and Judah]]. The Bible portrays Israel and Judah as the successors of an earlier [[United Kingdom of Israel]], although [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)#Archaeological record|its historicity is disputed]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Zachary |date=April 22, 2016 |title=Debating the United Monarchy: Let's See How Far We've Come |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146107916639208 |journal=Biblical Theology Bulletin |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=59–69 |doi=10.1177/0146107916639208 |issn=0146-1079 |s2cid=147053561 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lipschits |first1=Oded |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |title=The Jewish Study Bible |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-997846-5 |editor1-last=Berlin |editor1-first=Adele |edition=2nd |pages=2107–2119 |language=en |chapter=The history of Israel in the biblical period |quote=As this essay will show, however, the premonarchic period long ago became a literary description of the mythological roots, the early beginnings of the nation and the way to describe the right of Israel on its land. The archeological evidence also does not support the existence of a united monarchy under David and Solomon as described in the Bible, so the rubric of &quot;united monarchy&quot; is best abandoned, although it remains useful for discussing how the Bible views the Israelite past. [...] Although the kingdom of Judah is mentioned in some ancient inscriptions, they never suggest that it was part of a unit {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} Israel and Judah. There are no extrabiblical indications of a united monarchy called &quot;Israel.&quot; |editor2-last=Brettler |editor2-first=Marc Zvi |access-date=August 19, 2022 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160917/https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Historians and archaeologists agree that the northern [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] existed from {{circa|900 BCE}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|169–195}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Wright |first1=Jacob L. |date=July 2014 |title=David, King of Judah (Not Israel) |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301164250/http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |archive-date=March 1, 2021 |access-date=May 15, 2021 |website=The Bible and Interpretation}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that the [[Kingdom of Judah]] existed from {{Abbr|ca.|circa}} 700 BCE.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 |date=April 9, 2023 }} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Tel Dan Stele]], discovered in 1993, shows that the kingdom, at least in some form, existed by the middle of the 9th century BCE, but it does not indicate the extent of its power.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kcVmBAEo5rcC&amp;pg=PA333 |title=Ahab Agonistes: The Rise and Fall of the Omri Dynasty |date=April 28, 2007 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-567-25171-8 |quote=The Tel Dan inscription generated a good deal of debate and a flurry of articles when it first appeared, but it is now widely regarded (a) as genuine and (b) as referring to the Davidic dynasty and the Aramaic kingdom of Damascus. |access-date=August 19, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Cline |first=Eric H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uGzRCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA61 |title=Biblical Archaeology: A Very Short Introduction |date=September 28, 2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-971162-8 |quote=Today, after much further discussion in academic journals, it is accepted by most archaeologists that the inscription is not only genuine but that the reference is indeed to the House of David, thus representing the first allusion found anywhere outside the Bible to the biblical David. |access-date=August 19, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Mykytiuk |first=Lawrence J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eprY1Qd0veAC&amp;pg=PA113 |title=Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200-539 B.C.E. |date=January 1, 2004 |publisher=Society of Biblical Lit |isbn=978-1-58983-062-2 |quote=Some unfounded accusations of forgery have had little or no effect on the scholarly acceptance of this inscription as genuine.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Biblical tradition tells that the Israelite monarchy was established in 1037 BCE under [[Saul]], who was anointed by the prophet Samuel,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Who Was the First King of Israel? |url=https://shopisrael.com/blogs/about-israel/first-king-of-israel |access-date=February 5, 2025 |website=Shop Israel |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and continued under [[David]] and his son, [[Solomon]]. David greatly expanded the kingdom's borders and [[Siege of Jebus|conquered Jerusalem]] from the [[Jebusites]], turning it into the national, political and religious capital of the kingdom. Solomon, his son, later built the [[First Temple]] on [[Moriah|Mount Moriah]] in Jerusalem. Upon his death, traditionally dated to c. 930 BCE, a civil war erupted between the ten northern Israelite tribes, and the tribes of [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] ([[Tribe of Simeon|Simeon]] was absorbed into Judah) and [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]] in the south. The kingdom then split into the Kingdom of Israel in the north, and the Kingdom of Judah in the south.

اسرائيل جي بادشاهت ٻن بادشاهتن مان وڌيڪ خوشحال هئي ۽ جلد ئي هڪ علائقائي طاقت ۾ ترقي ڪئي. عموري خاندان جي ڏينهن دوران، اهو سامريه، گئليلي، مٿيان اردن وادي، شارون ۽ ٽرانس اردن جي وڏن حصن کي ڪنٽرول ڪري چڪي هئي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |first=Israel |last=Finkelstein |title=The forgotten kingdom : the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |isbn=978-1-58983-910-6 |pages=74 |oclc=949151323}}&lt;/ref&gt; راڄڌاني سامريه سر زمين شام ۾ لوهه جي دور جي سڀ کان وڏي محلات مان هڪ جو گهر هئي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |title=The Forgotten Kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-58983-911-3 |pages=65–66; 73; 78; 87–94 |oclc=880456140}}&lt;/ref&gt; اسرائيل جي بادشاهت 700 ق.م ۾ تباهه ٿي وئي، جڏهن ان کي نيو-آشوري سلطنت فتح ڪيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two kingdoms and soon developed into a regional power. During the days of the [[Omride Dynasty|Omride dynasty]], it controlled [[Samaria]], [[Galilee]], the upper [[Jordan Valley]], the [[Sharon plain|Sharon]] and large parts of the [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]]. [[Samaria (ancient city)|Samaria]], the capital, was home to one of the largest Iron Age palaces in the Levant. 

The kingdom of Israel was destroyed {{cx|720 BCE}}, when it was [[Samerina|conquered]] by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]].

The Kingdom of Judah, with its capital in [[Jerusalem]], controlled the [[Judaean Mountains]], the [[Shephelah]], the [[Judaean Desert]] and parts of the [[Negev]]. After the fall of Israel, Judah became a [[client state]] of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In the 7th century BCE, the kingdom's population increased greatly, prospering under [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] [[Vassal state|vassalage]], despite [[Hezekiah#Assyrian invasion|Hezekiah's revolt]] against the Assyrian king [[Sennacherib]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |editor-last=Ben-Sasson |editor-first=Haim Hillel |editor-link=H. H. Ben-Sasson |page=142 |quote=Sargon's heir, Sennacherib (705–681), could not deal with Hezekiah's revolt until he gained control of Babylon in 702 BCE.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Mesad Hashavyahu ostracon.jpg|thumb|ياون-يام آسٽراڪون، هڪ قديم عبراني لکت جيڪا يهوديه ۾ انتظاميه کي دستاويز ڪري ٿي.]]
هن دور ۾ عبراني بائيبل جا وڏا حصا لکيا ويا، جن ۾  ناحوم  ۽ زيفانه سان گڏ  هوشه، يسعياه، اموس ۽ ميڪاه جا ابتدائي حصا، استثناء جي تاريخ جو گهڻو حصو، استثنا جي تاريخ جو پهريون ايڊيشن (&lt;small&gt;يوشوا/ججز/سموئيل/بادشاهن جون ڪتابون&lt;/small&gt;) ۽ حبقوق شامل آهن.

سال 605 ق.م ۾ نو-آشوري سلطنت جي خاتمي سان، مصر ۽ نو-بابلي سلطنت جي وچ ۾ [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|ليوانت]] (شام، اردن ۽ فلسطين) جي ڪنٽرول لاءِ طاقت جي جدوجهد پيدا ٿي.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bickerman-2007&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bickerman |first=E. J. |title=Nebuchadnezzar And Jerusalem |date=January 1, 2007 |work=Studies in Jewish and Christian History (2 vols) |pages=961–974 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789047420729/Bej.9789004152946.i-1242_044.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004152946.i-1242.280 |isbn=978-90-474-2072-9 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; جن جي نتيجي ۾ يهوديه جي رياست جو تيزي سان زوال ٿيو. سال 601 ق.م ۾. يهوديه جي بادشاهه يهوياخم، جيڪو تازو ئي بابل جي تابع ٿيو هو، سلطنت جي خلاف بغاوت ڪئي. جلد ئي سندس پٽ، يهوياخن سندس جاءِ تي آيو، جنهن پنهنجي پيءُ جي پاليسي جاري رکيو ۽ بابلي حملي جو سامنا ڪيو. مارچ 597 ق.م. ۾. يهوياخن بابليين جي آڏو هٿيار ڦٽا ڪيا ۽ انهن کيس قيد ڪري بابل کڻي ويا.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Galil |first=Gershon |date=1991 |title=The Babylonian Calendar and the Chronology of the Last Kings of Judah |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42611193 |journal=Biblica |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=367–378 |jstor=42611193 |issn=0006-0887 |quote=All the scholars, without exception, establish the date of the surrender of Jehoiachin, king of Judah, as the second day of Adar, the seventh year of Nebuchadnezzar II, king of Babylon (March 16, 597 BC), following the Babylonian chronicle ... This unique date is undoubtedly the most precise in Israelite history during the biblical period.}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي شڪست بابلي تاريخن ۾ درج ٿيل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BCE) |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030154541/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx |archive-date=October 30, 2014 |access-date=October 30, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; پوءِ بابلي ماڻهن صدقياه، يهوياخن جي چاچي کي بادشاهه مقرر ڪيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle) – Livius |url=https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505195611/https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html |archive-date=May 5, 2019 |access-date=March 26, 2020 |website=www.livius.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

سال 587 يا 586 ق.م ۾، بخت نصر بيون يهوديه ۾ ٻي بغاوت جي جواب ۾، يروشلم جو گهيرو ڪيو ۽ تباهه ڪري ڇڏيو.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Shalom |first1=N. |last2=Vaknin |first2=Y. |last3=Shaar |first3=R. |last4=Ben-Yosef |first4=E. |last5=Lipschits |first5=O. |last6=Shalev |first6=Y. |last7=Gadot |first7=Y. |last8=Boaretto |first8=E. |date=2023 |title=Destruction by fire: Reconstructing the evidence of the 586 BCE Babylonian destruction in a monumental building in Jerusalem |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305440323001036 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=157 |article-number=105823 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2023.105823 |bibcode=2023JArSc.157j5823S |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;     پهرين مندر کي تباهه ڪيو ويو ۽ ان جي مقدس برتنن کي مال غنيمت جي طور تي ضبط ڪيو ويو. تباهي کان پوءِ وڏي پيماني تي جلاوطني ڪئي وئي. شهر جي بچيل رهاڪن کي آبادي جي ٻين حصن سميت، ميسوپوٽيميا ڏانهن کڻي ويا، جيڪا يهودي تاريخ ۾ &quot;بابلي قيد&quot; جي نالي سان مشهور دور جي شروعات جي نشاندهي ڪندي آهي. صدقياه پاڻ گرفتار ڪيو ويو، انڌو ڪيو ويو ۽ بابل ڏانهن منتقل ڪيو ويو. ٻيا مصر ڏانهن ڀڄي ويا. يهودين پنهنجي رياست ۽ جلاوطن ماڻهن، پنهنجو وطن وڃائي ڇڏيا.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001b&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bedford |first=Peter Ross |title=Living Without the Jerusalem Temple—In Judah and Babylonia |date=January 1, 2001 |work=Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah |page=42 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s005.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004498051_005 |isbn=978-90-04-49805-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; بادشاهت جي خاتمي کان پوءِ، اڳوڻي يهوديه بادشاهت کي بابلي سلطنت جي هڪ صوبي جي طور تي ملائي ڇڏيو ويو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001a&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Bedford |first=Peter Ross |title=Introduction |date=2001 |work=Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah |pages=1–39 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s004.xml |access-date=July 1, 2024 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004498051_004 |isbn=978-90-04-49805-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== خروج ۽ بابل ۾ قيد (587 - 538 ق.م.) ===
{{Main|يهودين جي بابل ۾ قيد}}
[[File:Tissot The Flight of the Prisoners.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|قديم يهودين جو خروج ۽ [[بابل]] ڏانهن جلاوطني ۽ [[يروشلم]] ۽ [[سليمان عليہ السلام|سليمان]] جي مندر جي تباهي جو ڏيک. هڪ مصور پاران ]]يهوديه جي رياست جي زوال ۽ فارسي حڪمراني هيٺ وطن ڏانهن انهن جي واپسي جي وچ ۾ ڪيترن ئي ڏهاڪن دوران، يهودي تاريخ هڪ غير واضح مرحلي ۾ داخل ٿئي ٿي. ڪيترائي يهودي بابل (عراق)، ايلام (ايران) ۽ مصر ۾ جلاوطن ڪيا ويا، جڏهن ته ٻيا بابلي حڪمراني هيٺ يهوديه ۾ رهيا. يرمياه مصر ۾ برادرين جو حوالو ڏئي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ميگڊول، طهپانحيس، نوف ۽ پاٿروس ۾ آباديون شامل آهن. ان کانسواء، هڪ يهودي فوجي ڪالوني ايليفينٽائن ۾ موجود هئي، جيڪا جلاوطني کان اڳ قائم ڪئي وئي هئي، جتي انهن پنهنجو مزار ٺاهيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bedford-2001b&quot; /&gt; توره جي باب استثنا کي وڌايو ويو ۽ اڳوڻي صحيفن کي جلاوطني جي دور ۾ ايڊٽ ڪيو ويو. يرمياه جو پهريون ايڊيشن، حزقيل جو ڪتاب، عبيدياه جو اڪثريت ۽ اها سڀ جن جو تحقيق ۾ &quot;ٻيو يسعياه&quot; جي نالي سان حوالو ڏنو ويو آهي، اهي سڀ هن دور ۾ لکيل هئا.

==هيڪل سليماني جي ٻيهر تعمير==
===&lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Post-exilic_period&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;هخامنشي دور (332 کان 538ع)&lt;!--&quot;Post-exilic period&quot;, &quot;Post-Exilic period&quot;, &quot;Post-exilic&quot;, &quot;Post-Exilic&quot;, Postexilic, &quot;Pre-exilic period&quot;, &quot;Pre-Exilic period&quot;, &quot;Pre-Exilic&quot; and &quot;Pre-exilic&quot; redirect here--&gt;===
[[File:109.Ezra Reads the Law to the People.jpg|thumb|[[عزير عليہ السلام|عزير]] ماڻهن کي [[توريت|تورات]] پڙهي ٻڌائي رهيو آهي. گستاو ڊور پاران پينٽنگ]]
عزير جي ڪتاب جي مطابق، [[سائرس اعظم|سائرس]] [[سائرس اعظم|اعظم]]، هخامنشي سلطنت جو بادشاهه، بابل جي فتح کان هڪ سال پوءِ،&lt;ref&gt;''Harper's Bible Dictionary'', ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper &amp; Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103&lt;/ref&gt; سال 538 ق.م ۾ بابلي جلاوطني جو خاتمو آندو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Biu.ac.il22&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html|access-date=March 15, 2014|publisher=Biu.ac.il}}&lt;/ref&gt; واپس ڪندڙ يهودين جي اڳواڻي زربابل، [[داؤد عليہ السلام|دائود]] جي شاهي نسل مان هڪ شهزادو ۽ جوشوا، مندر جي اڳوڻي اعليٰ پادرين مان اولاد ڪئي، جنهن ٻئي مندر جي تعمير جي نگراني ڪيا، جيڪا سال &lt;small&gt;521&lt;/small&gt; ۽ &lt;small&gt;516&lt;/small&gt; ق.م. جي وچ ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Biu.ac.il2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html|access-date=March 15, 2014|publisher=Biu.ac.il}}&lt;/ref&gt;۽ هخامنشي سلطنت جي حصي جي طور تي، يهودين جي اڳوڻي بادشاهت، مختلف حدن سان، هڪ ننڍڙو علائقو ڍڪيندي، يهودين جو صوبو بڻجي وئي.&lt;ref&gt;Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew Yehuda, or &quot;Judah&quot;, and &quot;medinata&quot; the word for province&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Grabbe|first=Lester L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-MnE5T_0RbMC&amp;q=gave+the+Jews+permission+to+return+to+Yehud+province+and+to+rebuild+the&amp;pg=PA355|title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah|volume=1|publisher=T&amp;T Clark|year=2004|isbn=978-0-567-08998-4|page=355}}&lt;/ref&gt; همعصر عالم بتدريج واپسي جي عمل ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا، جيڪي 6هين صدي ق.م. جي آخر ۽ 5هين صدي ق.م. جي شروعات تائين وڌائي وئي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last=Lipschits|first=Oded|title=Judah in the Biblical Period|chapter=Between Archaeology and Text: A Reevaluation of the Development Process of Jerusalem in the Persian Period|date=March 18, 2024|page=374|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110487442-020/html|access-date=July 1, 2024|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110487442-020|isbn=978-3-11-048744-2}}&lt;/ref&gt; فارسي يهودين جي آبادي بادشاهت جي دور کان تمام گهٽجي وئي. آثار قديمه جا سروي پنجين ۽ چوٿين صدي ق.م. دوران تقريبن &lt;small&gt;'''30,000'''&lt;/small&gt; جي آبادي ڏيکارن ٿا. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Finkelstein|first1=Israel|title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories|last2=Silberman|first2=Neil Asher|date=2001|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|isbn=0-684-86912-8|edition=1st Touchstone|location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

آخري توريت کي وڏي پيماني تي فارسي دور (&lt;small&gt;539&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;کان 333&lt;/small&gt; ق.م يا &lt;small&gt;450-350&lt;/small&gt; ق.م.) جي پيداوار طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو،{{Sfn|Frei|2001|p=6}} هي اتفاق راءِ هڪ روايتي يهودي نظريي جو گونج آهي ته [[عزير عليہ السلام|عزير عليه السلام]]، بابل کان واپسي تي يهودي برادري جا اڳواڻ، تورات جي اشاعت ۾ هڪ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.{{sfn|Romer|2008|p=2 and fn.3}}

ٽي نبي، جيڪا يهودي روايت ۾ آخري سمجهيا وڃن ٿا هن دور ۾ سرگرم هئا: حجائي، زڪريا ۽ ملاڪي.&lt;ref&gt;[[Jerusalem Bible]] (1966), ''Haggai'', ''Zechariah'', ''Malachi'' in ''Introduction to the Prophets'', London: Darton, Longman &amp; Todd, pp. 1138–1140&lt;/ref&gt; بني اسرائيل جي آخري نبي جي وفات کانپوءِ ۽ اڃا تائين فارسي حڪمراني هيٺ، يهودي ماڻهن جي قيادت اڳواڻن جي پنجن مسلسل نسلن جي زگوٽ (جوڙن) جي هٿن ۾ منتقل ٿي وئي. اهي پهرين فارسين جي دور ۾ ۽ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾ ترقي ڪيا ۽ نتيجي طور تي، انهن مان ٻه گروه، فريسي ۽ صدوقي ٺهيا. فارسين جي دور ۾ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾، يهودي سڪا يهوديه ۾ يهودي سڪن جي طور تي ٺاهيا ويا.

=== Hellenistic period (c. 332–110 BCE) ===
{{Main|Hellenistic Judaism}}
[[File:Jews Byzantine Greek Alexander Manuscript (cropped).JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Alexander the Great]], clad as a [[Byzantine emperor]], receives a delegation of Jewish [[rabbi]]s. Miniature from the 14th-century ''Alexander Romance'']]

In 332 BCE, [[Alexander the Great]] of [[Macedon]] defeated the Persians. After Alexander's death and the division of his empire among his generals, the [[Seleucid Kingdom]] was formed.

The Alexandrian conquests spread Greek culture to the Levant. During this time, currents of Judaism were influenced by [[Hellenistic philosophy]] developed from the 3rd century BCE, notably the [[Jewish diaspora]] in [[Alexandrian Jews|Alexandria]], culminating in the compilation of the [[Septuagint]]. An important advocate of the symbiosis of Jewish theology and Hellenistic thought is [[Philo]].

=== Hasmonean dynasty (110–63 BCE) ===
{{Main|Hasmonean dynasty}}
[[File:John Hyrcanus.jpg|thumb|JUDAEA, Hasmoneans. John Hyrcanus I (Yehohanan). 135–104 BCE. Æ Prutah (13mm, 2.02&amp;nbsp;gm, 12h). &quot;Yehohanan the High Priest and the Council of the Jews&quot; (in Hebrew) in five lines within wreath / Double cornucopiae adorned with ribbons; pomegranate between horns; small A to lower left. Meshorer Group B, 11; Hendin 457.]]

Triggered by anti-Jewish decrees from Seleucid king [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] and tensions between Hellenized and conservative Jews, the [[Maccabean Revolt]] erupted in Judea in 167 BCE under the leadership of [[Mattathias]]. His son, [[Judas Maccabeus]], recaptured Jerusalem in 164 BCE, purifying the Second Temple and reinstating sacrificial worship.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atkinson-2016&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Atkinson |first=Kenneth |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/949219870 |title=A History of the Hasmonean State: Josephus and Beyond |date=2016 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-66902-5 |series=T&amp;T Clark Jewish and Christian texts series |location=London; New York |pages=2, 23–28 |oclc=949219870}}&lt;/ref&gt; The successful revolt eventually led to the formation of an independent Jewish state under the [[Hasmonean dynasty]], which lasted from 165 to 63 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;See:

*[[William David Davies]]. ''The Hellenistic Age''. Volume 2 of Cambridge History of Judaism. Cambridge University Press, 1989. {{ISBN|978-0-521-21929-7}}. pp. 292–312.
*Jeff S. Anderson. ''The Internal Diversification of Second Temple Judaism: An Introduction to the Second Temple Period''. University Press of America, 2002. {{ISBN|978-0-7618-2327-8}}. pp. 37–38.
*Howard N. Lupovitch. ''Jews and Judaism in World History''. Taylor &amp; Francis. 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-415-46205-1}}. pp. 26–30.&lt;/ref&gt;

Initially governing as both political leaders and High Priests, the [[Hasmoneans]] later assumed the title of kings. They employed military campaigns and diplomacy to consolidate power.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atkinson-2016&quot; /&gt; Under the rule of [[Alexander Jannaeus]] and [[Salome Alexandra]], [[Hasmonean Judea]] reached its zenith in size and influence. However, internal strife erupted between Salome Alexandra's sons, [[Hyrcanus II]] and [[Aristobulus II]], leading to civil war and appeals to Roman authorities for intervention. Responding to these appeals, Pompey led a Roman campaign of conquest and annexation, which marked the end of Hasmonean sovereignty and ushered in Roman rule over Judea.&lt;ref&gt;Hooker, Richard. {{cite web |title=The Hebrews: The Diaspora |url=http://www.wsu.edu:8000/~dee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM |access-date=April 7, 2018 |archive-date=August 29, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829230214/http://www.wsu.edu:8000/%7Edee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM |url-status=dead}}  World Civilizations Learning Modules.  Washington State University, 1999.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Roman period (63 BCE – 135 CE) ===
{{Main|Herodian dynasty|History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Roman Palestine|Judaea (Roman province)|Jewish–Roman wars}}
[[File:Monnaie - Prutah, bronze, Jérusalem, Judée, Mattathias Antigonos - btv1b8480202s (1 of 2).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Hasmonean coinage|Hasmonean coin]] of [[Antigonus II Mattathias]], depicting the [[Temple menorah]]]]

Judea had been an independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmoneans, but it was [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BCE)|conquered and reorganized as a client state by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE]]. [[Roman expansion]] was going on in other areas as well, and it would continue for more than a hundred and fifty years. Later, [[Herod the Great]] was appointed &quot;King of the Jews&quot; by the [[Roman Senate]], supplanting the Hasmonean dynasty. Some of his offspring held various positions after him, known as the [[Herodian dynasty]]. Briefly, from 4 BCE to 6 CE, [[Herod Archelaus]] ruled the [[Tetrarchy (Judea)|tetrarchy of Judea]] as [[ethnarch]], the Romans denying him the title of King.

After the [[Census of Quirinius]] in 6 CE, the [[Roman province of Judaea]] was formed as a satellite of [[Roman Syria]] under the rule of a [[prefect]] (as was [[Roman Egypt]]) until 41 CE, then [[Procurator (Roman)|procurators]] after 44 CE. The empire was often callous and brutal in its treatment of its Jewish subjects, (see [[Anti-Judaism#Pre-Christian Roman Empire|Anti-Judaism in the pre-Christian Roman Empire]]). In 30 CE (or 33 CE), [[Jesus of Nazareth]], an itinerant [[rabbi]] from [[Galilee]], and the central figure of [[Christianity]], was put to death by [[crucifixion]] in Jerusalem under the Roman prefect of [[Judaea]], [[Pontius Pilate]].&lt;ref&gt;Charlesworth, James H. (2008). The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide. {{ISBN|978-1-4267-2475-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For a short time Judea was reunited and semi-independent under [[Agrippa the Great]] who had good relations with both the Roman aristocracy and local Jewish citizens. After his death Judea was again annexed by Rome and his less popular son [[Herod Agrippa II]] was made ethnarch.&lt;ref&gt;Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, livre XVIII, § V, 4, (132).&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:19 Shrine of the Book 005 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of the [[Second Temple]], following renovations by [[Herod the Great|Herod]] in the 1st century CE]]
[[File:Roberts Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans]] (1850 painting by [[David Roberts (painter)|David Roberts]])]]

Roman oppressive rule, combined with economic, religious, and ethnic tensions, eventually led to the outbreak of the [[First Jewish–Roman War]], also known as the Great Revolt, in 66 CE. Future emperor [[Vespasian]] quelled the rebellion in [[Galilee]] by 67 CE, capturing key strongholds.&lt;ref&gt;Jensen, M. H. (2014). The Political History in Galilee from the First Century BCE to the end of the Second Century CE. ''Galilee in the late Second Temple and Mishnaic periods. Volume 1. Life, culture and society'', pp. 69-70. &quot;According to Jewish War, Vespasian laid siege to and conquered all the major strongholds of Galilee [...] Since the entire campaign was short and lasted only for some months in the spring and summer of 67, there is no reason to believe that Galilee was entirely devastated when the Romans set their course south. However, the places that were conquered, were in a typical Roman fashion levelled more or less to the ground and many people sold of as slaves.&lt;/ref&gt; He was succeeded by his son [[Titus]], who led the brutal [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|siege of Jerusalem]], culminating in the city's fall in 70 CE. The Romans burned Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Weksler-Bdolah |first=Shlomit |title=Aelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman period: in light of archaeological research |publisher=Brill |year=2019 |isbn=978-90-04-41707-6 |page=3 |oclc=1170143447 |quote=The historical description is consistent with the archeological finds. Collapses of massive stones from the walls of the Temple Mount were exposed lying over the Herodian street running along the Western Wall of the Temple Mount. The residential buildings of the Ophel and the Upper City were destroyed by great fire. The large urban drainage channel and the Pool of Siloam in the Lower City silted up and ceased to function, and in many places the city walls collapsed. [...] Following the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, a new era began in the city's history. The Herodian city was destroyed and a military camp of the Tenth Roman Legion established on part of the ruins.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Reich |first=Ronny |date=2009 |title=The Sack of Jerusalem in 70 CE: Flavius Josephus' Description and the Archaeological Record |script-title=he:חורבן ירושלים בשנת 70 לסה&quot;נ: תיאורו של יוסף בן מתתיהו והממצא הארכאולוגי  |journal=Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv |script-journal=he:קתדרה: לתולדות ארץ ישראל ויישובה |issue=131 |pages=25–42 |issn=0334-4657 |jstor=23407359}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Roman victory was celebrated with a [[Roman triumph|triumph]] in Rome, showcasing Jewish artefacts like the [[Temple menorah|menorah]], which were then put on display in the new [[Temple of Peace, Rome|Temple of Peace]].&lt;ref&gt;Huitink, Luuk. &quot;Between Triumph and Tragedy: Josephus, Bellum Judaicum 7.121–157.&quot; ''Reading Greek, Hellenistic and Roman spolia. Objects, appropriation and cultural change, Euhormos: Greco-Roman Studies in Anchoring Innovation. Leiden: Brill'' (2023). pp. 215–216, 234&lt;/ref&gt; The Flavian dynasty leveraged this victory for political gain, erecting monuments in Rome and minting [[Judaea Capta coinage|Judaea Capta coins]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Overman |first1=J. Andrew |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781134518326 |title=The First Jewish Revolt |last2=Overman |first2=J. Andrew |date=September 2, 2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-51832-6 |chapter=The First Revolt and Flavian politics |doi=10.4324/9780203167441}}&lt;/ref&gt; The war concluded with the [[siege of Masada]] (73–74 CE). The Jewish population suffered widespread devastation, with displacement, enslavement, and Roman confiscation of Jewish-owned land.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Herr |first=Moshe David |title=The History of Eretz Israel: The Roman Byzantine period: the Roman period from the conquest to the Ben Kozba War (63 B.C.E-135 C.E.) |publisher=Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi |year=1984 |editor-last=Shtern |editor-first=Menahem |location=Jerusalem |page=288}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The destruction of the Second Temple marked a cataclysmic event in Jewish history, triggering far-reaching transformations within Judaism.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Maclean Rogers |first=Guy |title=For the Freedom of Zion: The Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66–74 CE |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-300-26256-8 |location=New Haven and London |pages=3–5 |oclc=1294393934}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=Judaism in a Time of Crisis: Four Responses to the Destruction of the Second Temple |date=November 28, 2017 |work=Neusner on Judaism |pages=399–413 |editor-last1=Hinnells |editor-first1=John |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781351152761-20 |access-date=May 22, 2022 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781351152761-20 |isbn=978-1-351-15276-1 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Karesh-2006&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Karesh |first=Sara E. |title=Encyclopedia of Judaism |publisher=Facts On File |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-78785-171-9 |oclc=1162305378 |quote=Until the modern period, the destruction of the Temple was the most cataclysmic moment in the history of the Jewish people. Without the Temple, the Sadducees no longer had any claim to authority, and they faded away. The sage Yochanan ben Zakkai, with permission from Rome, set up the outpost of Yavneh to continue develop of Pharisaic, or rabbinic, Judaism.}}&lt;/ref&gt; With the central role of sacrificial worship obliterated, religious practices shifted towards [[Jewish prayer|prayer]], [[Torah study]], and communal gatherings in [[synagogue]]s. According to Rabbinic tradition, Yohanan ben Zakkai secured permission from the Romans to establish a center for Torah study in [[Yavne]]h, which then served as a focal point for Jewish religious and cultural life for a generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stemberger-2003&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Stemberger |first=Guenter |title=The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism, 70–640 CE |date=2003 |work=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism |pages=78–79 |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470758014.ch5 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Wiley |language=en |doi=10.1002/9780470758014.ch5 |isbn=978-1-57718-058-6 |editor2-last=Avery-Peck |editor2-first=Alan J. |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-judaism/3F4F0A32983FC0DCDB414553888DC394 |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |volume=4 |page=268 |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488 |quote=Under the leadership of R. Yohanan ben Zakkai and his circle at Yavneh, Judaism sought to reconstitute itself and find a new equilibrium in the face of the disaster of 70.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=Religion (Judentum: Palästinisches Judentum &amp;#91;Forts.&amp;#93;) |date=September 26, 2016 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-083904-3 |editor-last1=Haase |editor-first1=Wolfgang |language=de |chapter=The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism: Yavneh (Jamnia) from A.D. 70 to 100 |pages=3–42 |doi=10.1515/9783110839043-002 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110839043-002/html}}&lt;/ref&gt; Judaism also underwent a significant shift away from its sectarian divisions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Shaye J. D. |date=1984 |title=The Significance of Yavneh: Pharisees, Rabbis, and the End of Jewish Sectarianism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507609 |journal=Hebrew Union College Annual |volume=55 |page=29 |jstor=23507609 |issn=0360-9049 |quote=The goal was not the triumph over other sects but the elimination of the need for sectarianism itself. [...] The destruction of the temple provided the impetus for this process: it warned the Jews of the dangers of internal divisiveness and it removed one of the major focal points of Jewish sectarianism.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Jodi |last=Magness |title=Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History?: On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-04-21744-7 |editor-first=Daniel R. |editor-last=Schwartz |chapter=Sectarianism before and after 70 CE |editor-first2=Zeev |editor-last2=Weiss |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VecxAQAAQBAJ&amp;q=diaspora+70+ce&amp;pg=PA189}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Sadducees]] and [[Essenes]], two prominent sects in the late Second Temple period, faded into obscurity,&lt;ref name=&quot;Karesh-2006&quot; /&gt; while the traditions of the [[Pharisees]], including their halakhic interpretations, the centrality of the [[Oral Torah]], and [[Jewish eschatology|belief in resurrection]] became the foundation of [[Rabbinic Judaism]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Stemberger-2003&quot; /&gt;[[File:Arch of Titus Menorah.png|upright=1.15|thumb|The sack of Jerusalem depicted on the inside wall of the [[Arch of Titus]] in [[Rome]]]]

=== Diaspora during the Second Temple period ===
{{Main|Jewish diaspora}}
The [[Jewish diaspora]] existed well before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and had been ongoing for centuries, with the dispersal driven by both forced expulsions and voluntary migrations.&lt;ref&gt;[[Erich S. Gruen]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=t1IR4WtFjGUC&amp;pg=PA3 Diaspora: Jews Amidst Greeks and Romans] [[Harvard University Press]], 2009 pp. 3–4, 233–234: 'Compulsory dislocation, .…cannot have accounted for more than a fraction of the diaspora. … The vast bulk of Jews who dwelled abroad in the Second Temple Period did so voluntarily.' (2)' .Diaspora did not await the fall of Jerusalem to Roman power and destructiveness. The scattering of Jews had begun long before-occasionally through forced expulsion, much more frequently through voluntary migration.'&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Martin |title=A History of Judaism |date=2018 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-18127-1 |location=Princeton Oxford |pages=21, 232}}&lt;/ref&gt; In Mesopotamia, a testimony to the beginnings of the Jewish community can be found in [[Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets|Joachin's ration tablets]], listing provisions allotted to the exiled Judean king and his family by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], and further evidence are the [[Al-Yahudu Tablets|Al-Yahudu tablets]], dated to the 6th-5th centuries BCE and related to the exiles from Judea arriving after the destruction of the [[First Temple]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Luke |date=February 3, 2017 |title=Ancient tablets reveal life of Jews in Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203 |newspaper=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt; though there is ample evidence for the presence of Jews in Babylonia even from 626 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;Zadok R. Judeans in Babylonia–Updating the Dossier. in U. Gabbay and Sh. Secunda. (eds.). ''Encounters by the Rivers of Babylon: Scholarly Conversations between Jews, Iranians and Babylonians in Antiquity'', Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 160. Tübingen: MohrSiebeck. pp. 109–110.&lt;/ref&gt; In Egypt, the [[Elephantine papyri and ostraca|documents from Elephantine]] reveal the trials of a community founded by a Persian Jewish garrison at two fortresses on the frontier during the 5th-4th centuries BCE, and according to [[Josephus]] the Jewish community in Alexandria existed since the founding of the city in the 4th century BCE by [[Alexander the Great]].&lt;ref&gt;Josephus Flavius, ''Against Appion''. 4.II&lt;/ref&gt; By 200 BCE, there were well established Jewish communities both in Egypt and Mesopotamia (&quot;[[History of the Jews in Iraq|Babylonia]]&quot; in Jewish sources) and in the two centuries that followed, Jewish populations were also present in [[Asia Minor]], [[Greece]], [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]], [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]], and, beginning in the middle of the 1st century BCE, in the city of [[Rome]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=E. Mary |last=Smallwood |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period, Volume 3 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-521-24377-3 |editor1=William David Davies |chapter=The Diaspora in the Roman period before AD 70 |editor2=Louis Finkelstein |editor3=William Horbury |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AW2BuWcalXIC&amp;q=Diaspora+before+70&amp;pg=PA168}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot; /&gt;

In the first centuries CE, as a result of the [[Jewish–Roman wars]],&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot;&gt;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת &quot;עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום&quot;, ע&quot;מ 95. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth – &quot;The People of Israel – the history of 4000 years – from the days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty&quot;, 1981, p. 95)&lt;/ref&gt; a large number of Jews were taken as captives, sold into slavery, or compelled to flee from the regions affected by the wars, contributing to the formation and expansion of Jewish communities across the [[Roman Empire]] as well as in Arabia and Mesopotamia. Jewish communities across Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Egypt were almost entirely obliterated due to the harsh Roman response to the Diaspora Revolt.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006b&quot; /&gt;

The [[New Testament]] Book of [[Acts]], as well as other [[Pauline epistles|Pauline]] texts, make frequent reference to the large populations of [[Hellenized Jews]] in the cities of the Roman world. These Hellenized Jews were affected by the diaspora only in its spiritual sense, absorbing the feeling of loss and homelessness that became a cornerstone of the Jewish creed, much supported by persecutions in various parts of the world. Of critical importance to the reshaping of Jewish tradition from the Temple-based religion to the rabbinic traditions of the Diaspora, was the development of the interpretations of the Torah found in the [[Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]].

==تالمود وارو دور==
===پھرين يهودي بغاوت (115 کان 117ع)===
During the [[Diaspora Revolt]] (115–117 CE), [[Jewish diaspora]] communities across several eastern provinces of the [[Roman Empire]] engaged in widespread rebellion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006a&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=June 22, 2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |pages=93–106 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=September 8, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Driven by messianic fervor and hopes for the [[Gathering of Israel|ingathering of exiles]] and the [[Third Temple|reconstruction of the Temple]], these communities may have sought to spark a broader movement possibly aimed at returning to [[Judea]] and rebuilding Jerusalem.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Smallwood |first=E. Mary |title=The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian |publisher=SBL Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-90-04-50204-8 |pages=394–397}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Horbury |first=William |title=Jewish War under Trajan and Hadrian |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-139-04905-4 |pages=276}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Barclay |first=John M. G. |title=Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: from Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE) |date=1998 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-08651-8 |edition= |location=Edinburgh |pages=241}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient sources describe the revolt as extremely brutal, with cases of cannibalism and mutilation, though modern scholars often consider these accounts to be exaggerated.&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006a&quot; /&gt; The Roman suppression of the revolt was marked by severe measures, including [[ethnic cleansing]], leading to the near-total destruction of Jewish diaspora communities in [[Roman Libya|Libya]], [[Roman Cyprus|Cyprus]] and [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last1=Kerkeslager |first1=Allen |title=The Diaspora from 66 to c. 235 ce |date=2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |volume=4 |pages=62–63 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/diaspora-from-66-to-c-235-ce/5AECAD54BE6CA31C7968EED92D6CA36A |access-date=September 10, 2024 |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.004 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |last2=Setzer |first2=Claudia |last3=Trebilco |first3=Paul |last4=Goodblatt |first4=David}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Zeev-2006b&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=June 22, 2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |page=98 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=September 8, 2024 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; including the significant and influential community in [[Alexandria]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Goodman-2018&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerkeslager-2006&quot; /&gt;

===بار ڪوخبا بغاوت (132 کان 136ع===
{{Main|بار ڪوخبا بغاوت}}
[[File:Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg|thumb|A tetradrachm minted during the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], featuring the former Second Temple, a ''lulav'', and the slogan 'to the freedom of Jerusalem']]
From 132 to 136 CE, Judaea was the center of the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]], triggered by Hadrian's decision to establish the pagan colony of [[Aelia Capitolina]] on the ruins of Jerusalem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last=Eck |first=Werner |editor-first1=Werner |editor-last1=Eck |title=Bar Kokhba |date=July 30, 2015 |work=Oxford Classical Dictionary |url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-1056 |access-date=July 2, 2024 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1056 |isbn=978-0-19-938113-5 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Early successes led to the establishment of a short-lived Jewish state in Judea under the leadership of [[Simon Bar Kokhba]], styled as ''[[Nasi (Hebrew title)|nasi]]'' or prince of Israel.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt; The [[Bar Kokhba revolt coinage|rebel state's coinage]] proclaimed &quot;Freedom of Israel&quot; and &quot;For the Freedom of Jerusalem&quot;, using [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|ancient Hebrew script]] for nationalistic symbolism.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-1999&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Eck |first=Werner |date=1999 |title=The Bar Kokhba Revolt: The Roman Point of View |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-studies/article/abs/bar-kokhba-revolt-the-roman-point-of-view/27E95F52A627562F93178F17A51D5FD4 |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |volume=89 |pages=76, 80 |doi=10.2307/300735 |jstor=300735 |issn=1753-528X |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt; However, the Romans soon amassed six legions and additional auxiliaries under [[Julius Severus]], who then brutally crushed the uprising. Historical accounts report the destruction of fifty major strongholds and 985 villages, resulting in 580,000 Jewish deaths and widespread famine and disease.&lt;ref name=&quot;Raviv-2021&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Raviv |first1=Dvir |last2=David |first2=Chaim Ben |date=2021 |title=Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account? |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=585–607 |doi=10.1017/S1047759421000271 |issn=1047-7594 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Archaeological research confirms the widespread destruction and depopulation of the Jewish heartland in [[Judea]] proper, where most of the Jewish population was either killed, sold into slavery, expelled, or forced to flee.&lt;ref name=&quot;Raviv-2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=A. H. M. |title=The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces |publisher=Oxford |year=1971 |edition=2nd |pages=277 |quote=This provoked the last Jewish war, which seems from our meager accounts [...] to have resulted in the desolation of Judaea and the practical extermination of its Jewish population.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Mor|2016|pp=483–484}}: &quot;Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the [[Sicaricon|sikarikon laws]] were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The Romans also suffered heavy losses.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-1999&quot; /&gt; Post-revolt, Jews were prohibited from entering Jerusalem, and Hadrian issued religious edicts,&lt;ref&gt;Hanan Eshel,[[iarchive:cambridgehis xxxx 1984 004 8494287/page/n1082|&lt;!-- pg=105 --&gt; 'The Bar Kochba revolt, 132-135,']] in William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, Steven T. Katz (eds.) ''The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period,'' pp. 105-127, p. 105.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Eshel |first=Hanan |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=T. Katz |editor-first=Steven |volume=4. The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period  |pages=105–127 |chapter=4: The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132 – 135 |oclc=7672733}}&lt;/ref&gt; including a ban on circumcision, later repealed by [[Antoninus Pius]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} The province of Judaea was renamed [[Syria Palaestina]] as a punitive act against the Jews, aimed at placating non-Jewish residents and erasing Jewish historical ties to the land.&lt;ref name=&quot;Eck-2015&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, {{ISBN|0-674-39731-2}}, page 334: &quot;In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ariel Lewin. ''The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine''. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. &quot;It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land.&quot; {{ISBN|0-89236-800-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; Christians refused to participate in the revolt and from this point the Jews regarded Christianity as a separate religion.&lt;ref&gt;M. Avi-Yonah, ''The Jews under Roman and Byzantine Rule'', Jerusalem 1984 p. 143&lt;/ref&gt; The Jewish defeat marked the termination of efforts to reestablish a Jewish state until the modern era.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |title=An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History And Religion Of The Jews In The Time Of Nehemiah, The Maccabees, Hillel, And Jesus |date=2010 |publisher=T&amp;T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-55248-8 |location=Edinburgh |page=78 |quote=It was the total defeat and the massive destruction of the 132–35 war which put paid to any hopes of a revived Jewish state for another 1800 years.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A rabbi of this period, [[Simeon bar Yochai]], is regarded as the author of the [[Zohar]], the foundational text for Kabbalistic thought. However, modern scholars believe it was written in Medieval Spain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |title=Zohar |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&amp;letter=Z#406 |access-date=May 19, 2014 |last=Jacobs |first=Joseph |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007024121/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&amp;letter=Z#406 |archive-date=October 7, 2011 |author2=Broydé, Isaac |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Late Roman period in the Land of Israel ===
{{further|Byzantine Palestine|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}}
The relations of the Jews with the Roman Empire in the region continued to be complicated. [[Constantine the Great and Judaism|Constantine I]] allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once a year on [[Tisha B'Av]] at the [[Western Wall]]. In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched [[Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus|yet another revolt]], provoking heavy retribution.&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lazare and Robert Wistrich, Antisemitism: Its History and Causes, University of Nebraska Press, 1995, I, pp. 46–47.&lt;/ref&gt; The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the [[Constantinian dynasty]]. In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]], the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who unlike his predecessors defied Christianity. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sasanian Persia, in keeping with his effort to foster religions other than Christianity, he ordered the Jewish Temple rebuilt.&lt;ref&gt;Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'', 23.1.2–3.&lt;/ref&gt; The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic [[Galilee earthquake of 363]] and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire. Divine intervention was the common view among Christian historians of the time.&lt;ref&gt;See [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html &quot;Julian and the Jews 361–363 CE&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520080932/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html |date=May 20, 2012 }} (Fordham University, The Jesuit University of New York) and [https://web.archive.org/web/20051020130904/http://www.gibsoncondo.com/~david/convert/history.html &quot;Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple&quot;].&lt;/ref&gt; Julian's support of Jews caused Jews to call him &quot;Julian the [[Hellenes (religion)|Hellene]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Falk |first1=Avner |title=A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews |year=1996 |pages=343 |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press |isbn=978-0-8386-3660-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z10-Xz9Kno4C&amp;q=julian&amp;pg=PA343 |access-date=August 3, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Julian's fatal wound in the Persian campaign and his consequent death had put an end to Jewish aspirations, and Julian's successors embraced Christianity through the entire timeline of Byzantine rule of Jerusalem, preventing any Jewish claims.

In 438 CE, when the Empress [[Licinia Eudoxia|Eudocia]] removed the ban on Jews' praying at the [[Temple Mount|Temple site]], the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call &quot;to the great and mighty people of the Jews&quot; which began: &quot;Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!&quot; However, the Christian population of the city, who saw this as a threat to their primacy, did not allow it and a riot erupted after which they chased away the Jews from the city.&lt;ref&gt;Avraham Yaari, ''Igrot Eretz Yisrael'' (Tel Aviv, 1943), p. 46.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Andrew S. Jacobs |title=Remains of the Jews: The Holy Land and Christian Empire in Late Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8O95ErDSZQgC&amp;pg=PA157 |year=2004 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-4705-9 |page=157 |access-date=April 19, 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of [[Samaritan Revolts|Samaritan insurrections]] broke out across the [[Palaestina Prima]] province. Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in almost the entire annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the Samaritan [[Samaritan Revolts|Revolt of 556]] was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered a brutal suppression of Israelite religion.

In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an [[Jewish revolt against Heraclius|alliance]] with the [[Sassanid Empire|Persians]], who invaded Palaestina Prima in 614, fought at their side, overwhelmed the [[Byzantine]] garrison in Jerusalem, and were given Jerusalem to be governed as an autonomy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Itineraria Phoenicia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&amp;q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&amp;pg=PA542 |author=Edward Lipiński |publisher=Peeters |pages=542–543 |year=2004 |isbn=978-90-429-1344-8 |access-date=March 11, 2014 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409161013/https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&amp;q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&amp;pg=PA542 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, their autonomy was brief: the [[Nehemiah ben Hushiel|Jewish leader]] in Jerusalem was shortly assassinated during a Christian revolt and though Jerusalem was reconquered by Persians and Jews within 3 weeks, it fell into anarchy. With the consequent withdrawal of Persian forces, Jews surrendered to Byzantines in 625 or 628 CE, but were massacred by Christian radicals in 629 CE, with the survivors fleeing to Egypt. The Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) control of the region was finally lost to the Muslim Arab armies in 637 CE, when [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] completed the conquest of Akko.

=== Jews of pre-Muslim Babylonia (219–638 CE) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in Iraq}}

After the fall of Jerusalem, Babylonia would become the focus of Judaism for more than a thousand years. The first Jewish communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by [[Jehoiachin]] in 597 BCE as well as after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; Many more Jews migrated to Babylon in 135 CE after the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] and in the centuries after.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; Babylonia, where some of the largest and most prominent Jewish cities and communities were established, became the centre of Jewish life up to the 13th century. By the 1st century, Babylonia already held a speedily growing&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; population of an estimated 1,000,000 Jews, which increased to an estimated 2 million&lt;ref name=&quot;Solomon Gryazel&quot;&gt;Solomon Gryazel, ''History of the Jews: From the destruction of Judah in 586 BCE to the present Arab Israeli conflict'', p. 137.&lt;/ref&gt; between the years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from Judea, making up about 1/6 of the world Jewish population at that era.&lt;ref name=&quot;Solomon Gryazel&quot; /&gt; It was there that they would write the Babylonian Talmud in the languages used by the Jews of ancient Babylonia: [[Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]]. The Jews established [[Talmudic Academies in Babylonia]], also known as the Geonic Academies (from &quot;Geonim&quot;, meaning &quot;splendour&quot; in Biblical Hebrew or &quot;geniuses&quot;), which became the centre for Jewish scholarship and the development of Jewish law in Babylonia from roughly 500 CE to 1038 CE. The two most famous academies were the [[Pumbedita Academy]] and the [[Sura Academy]]. Major yeshivot were also located at [[Nehardea]] and Mahuza.&lt;ref&gt;''Codex Judaica'', pp. 161–174, Kantor, Zichron Press, NY 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; The Talmudic [[Yeshiva]] Academies became a main part of Jewish culture and education, and Jews continued establishing Yeshiva Academies in Western and Eastern Europe, North Africa, and in later centuries, in America and other countries around the world where Jews lived in the Diaspora. Talmudic study in Yeshiva academies, most of them located in The United States and Israel, continues today.

These Talmudic [[Yeshiva]] academies of Babylonia followed the era of the [[Amoraim]] (expounders)—the sages of the Talmud who were active (both in Judah and in Babylon) during the end of the era of the sealing of the [[Mishnah]] and until the times of the sealing of the Talmud (220–500 CE), and following the [[Savoraim]] (reasoners)—the sages of beth midrash (Torah study places) in Babylon from the end of the era of the Amoraim (5th century) and until the beginning of the era of the [[Geonim]]. The Geonim were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura and Pumbedita, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of the worldwide Jewish community in the early medieval era, in contrast to the [[Resh Galuta]] (Exilarch) who wielded secular authority over the Jews in Islamic lands. According to traditions, the [[Resh Galuta]] were descendants of Judean kings, which is why the kings of [[Parthia]] would treat them with much honour.&lt;ref&gt;[מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס. רותת &quot;עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום&quot;, ע&quot;מ 97. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth ''The People of Israel: The History of 4,000 Years, from the Days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty'', 1981, p. 97)&lt;/ref&gt;

For the Jews of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the yeshivot of Babylonia served much the same function as the ancient [[Sanhedrin]]—that is, as a council of Jewish religious authorities. The academies were founded in pre-Islamic Babylonia under the Zoroastrian Sassanid dynasty and were located not far from the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, which at that time was the largest city in the world. After the conquest of Persia in the 7th century, the academies subsequently operated for four hundred years under the Islamic caliphate. The first gaon of Sura, according to [[Sherira Gaon]], was Mar bar Rab Chanan, who assumed office in 609. The last gaon of [[Sura]] was [[Samuel ben Hofni]], who died in 1034; the last gaon of Pumbedita was [[Hezekiah Gaon]], who was tortured to death in 1040; hence the activity of the Geonim covers a period of nearly 450 years.

One of principal seats of Babylonian Judaism was [[Nehardea]], which was then a very large city made up mostly of Jews.&lt;ref name=&quot;מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת&quot; /&gt; A very ancient synagogue, built, it was believed, by King Jehoiachin, existed in Nehardea. At Huzal, near Nehardea, there was another synagogue, not far from which could be seen the ruins of Ezra's academy. In the period before Hadrian, Akiba, on his arrival at Nehardea on a mission from the Sanhedrin, entered into a discussion with a resident scholar on a point of matrimonial law (Mishnah Yeb., end). At the same time there was at Nisibis (northern [[Mesopotamia]]), an excellent Jewish college, at the head of which stood [[Judah ben Bathyra]], and in which many Judean scholars found refuge at the time of the persecutions. A certain temporary importance was also attained by a school at [[Nehar Pekod|Nehar-Pekod]], founded by the Judean immigrant Hananiah, nephew of [[Joshua ben Hananiah]], which school might have been the cause of a schism between the Jews of Babylonia and those of Judea-Israel, had not the Judean authorities promptly checked Hananiah's ambition.

=== Byzantine period (324–638 CE) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}}

Jews were also widespread throughout the Roman Empire, and this carried on to a lesser extent in the period of Byzantine rule in the central and eastern Mediterranean. The militant and exclusive Christianity and [[caesaropapism]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] did not treat Jews well, and the condition and influence of diaspora Jews in the Empire declined dramatically.

It was official Christian policy to convert Jews to Christianity, and the Christian leadership used the official power of Rome in their attempts. In 351 CE the Jews revolted against the added pressures of their governor, [[Constantius Gallus]]. Gallus put down the revolt and destroyed the major cities in the Galilee area where the revolt had started. Tzippori and Lydda (site of two of the major legal academies) never recovered.

In this period, the Nasi in Tiberias, [[Hillel II]], created an official calendar, which needed no monthly sightings of the moon. The months were set, and the calendar needed no further authority from Judea. At about the same time, the Jewish academy at Tiberius began to collate the combined Mishnah, [[braitot]], explanations, and interpretations developed by generations of scholars who studied after the death of [[Judah HaNasi]]. The text was organized according to the order of the Mishna: each paragraph of Mishnah was followed by a compilation of all of the interpretations, stories, and responses associated with that Mishnah. This text is called the ''[[Jerusalem Talmud]].''

The Jews of Judea received a brief respite from official persecution during the rule of the Emperor [[Julian the Apostate]]. Julian's policy was to return the Roman Empire to Hellenism, and he encouraged the Jews to rebuild Jerusalem. As Julian's rule lasted only from 361 to 363, the Jews could not rebuild sufficiently before Roman Christian rule was restored over the Empire. Beginning in 398 with the consecration of [[St. John Chrysostom]] as [[Patriarch]], Christian rhetoric against Jews grew sharper; he preached sermons with titles such as &quot;Against the Jews&quot; and &quot;On the Statues, Homily 17&quot;, in which John preaches against &quot;the Jewish sickness&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Wendy Mayer and [[Pauline Allen]], ''John Chrysostom: The Early Church Fathers'' (London, 2000), pp. 113, 146.&lt;/ref&gt; Such heated language contributed to a climate of Christian distrust and hate toward the large Jewish settlements, such as those in [[Antioch]] and [[Constantinople]].

In the beginning of the 5th century, the [[Emperor Theodosius]] issued a set of decrees establishing official persecution of Jews. Jews were not allowed to own slaves, build new synagogues, hold public office or try cases between a Jew and a non-Jew. Intermarriage between Jew and non-Jew was made a capital offence, as was the conversion of Christians to Judaism. Theodosius did away with the [[Sanhedrin]] and abolished the post of [[Nasi (Hebrew title)|Nasi]]. Under the [[Emperor Justinian]], the authorities further restricted the civil rights of Jews,&lt;ref&gt;Cod., I., v. 12&lt;/ref&gt; and threatened their religious privileges.&lt;ref&gt;Procopius, ''Historia Arcana'', 28&lt;/ref&gt; The emperor interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue,&lt;ref&gt;Nov., cxlvi., February 8, 553&lt;/ref&gt; and forbade, for instance, the use of the Hebrew language in divine worship. Those who disobeyed the restrictions were threatened with corporal penalties, exile, and loss of property. The Jews at Borium, not far from Syrtis Major, who resisted the Byzantine general [[Belisarius]] in his campaign against the [[Vandals]], were forced to embrace Christianity, and their synagogue was converted to a church.&lt;ref&gt;Procopius, ''De Aedificiis'', vi. 2&lt;/ref&gt;

Justinian and his successors had concerns outside the province of Judea, and he had insufficient troops to enforce these regulations. As a result, the 5th century was a period when a wave of new synagogues were built, many with beautiful mosaic floors. Jews adopted the rich art forms of the Byzantine culture. Jewish mosaics of the period portray people, animals, menorahs, zodiacs, and Biblical characters. Excellent examples of these synagogue floors have been found at Beit Alpha (which includes the scene of Abraham sacrificing a ram instead of his son Isaac along with a zodiac), Tiberius, Beit Shean, and Tzippori.

The precarious existence of Jews under Byzantine rule did not long endure, largely due to the explosion of the Muslim religion out of the remote Arabian peninsula (where large populations of Jews resided, see [[History of the Jews under Muslim Rule]] for more). The [[Muslim]] [[Caliphate]] ejected the Byzantines from the Holy Land (or the Levant, defined as modern Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria) within a few years of their victory at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] in 636. Numerous Jews fled the remaining Byzantine territories in favour of residence in the Caliphate over the subsequent centuries.

The size of the Jewish community in the Byzantine Empire was not affected by attempts by some emperors to forcibly convert the Jews of Anatolia to Christianity, as these attempts met with very little success.&lt;ref&gt;[[G. Ostrogorsky]], ''History of the Byzantine State''&lt;/ref&gt; Historians continue to research the status of the Jews in Asia Minor under Byzantine rule. (for a sample of views, see, for instance, J. Starr ''The Jews in the Byzantine Empire, 641–1204''; S. Bowman, ''The Jews of Byzantium''; R. Jenkins ''Byzantium''; Averil Cameron, &quot;Byzantines and Jews: Recent Work on Early Byzantium&quot;, ''Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies'' 20 (1996)). No systematic persecution of the type endemic at that time in Western Europe (pogroms, the stake, mass [[Expulsions and exoduses of Jews|expulsions]], etc.) has been recorded in Byzantium.&lt;ref&gt;''The Oxford History of Byzantium'', C. Mango (Ed) (2002)&lt;/ref&gt; Much of the Jewish population of Constantinople remained in place after the conquest of the city by [[Mehmet II]].{{citation needed|date=November 2013}}

&lt;gallery widths=&quot;180&quot;&gt;
File:Roman. Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog, 6th century C.E.jpg|''Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog'', 6th century [[Brooklyn Museum]]
File:Beit alfa01.jpg|Mosaic pavement of a synagogue at [[Beit Alpha]] (5th century)
File:ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg|Mosaic in the [[Tzippori Synagogue]] (5th century)
File:Hammat Gader.JPG|Mosaic pavement recovered from the [[Hamat Gader]] synagogue (5th or 6th century)
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Diaspora communities ===
[[File:Arrival of the Jewish pilgrims at Coachin, A.D. 68.jpg|thumb|Arrival of the Jewish pilgrims at Cochin, 68 CE]]
Cochin Jewish tradition holds that the roots of their community go back to the arrival of Jews at [[Kodungallur|Shingly]] in 72 CE, after the [[Destruction of the Second Temple]]. It also states that a Jewish kingdom, understood to mean the granting of autonomy by a local [[Tamils|Tamil]] king, [[Cheraman Perumal Nayanar]], to the community, under their leader Joseph Rabban, in 379 CE. The first synagogue there was built in 1568. The legend of the founding of Indian [[Christianity in Kerala]] by [[Thomas the Apostle]] relates that on his arrival there, he encountered a local girl who understood Hebrew.&lt;ref&gt;Nathan Katz, [https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA22 ''Who Are the Jews of India?,''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160937/https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA22|date=April 9, 2023}} [[University of California Press]], 2000 {{isbn|978-0-520-92072-9}} pp. 13–14, 17–18&lt;/ref&gt;

Perhaps in the 4th century, the [[Kingdom of Semien]], a Jewish nation in modern [[Beta Israel|Ethiopia]] was established, lasting until the 17th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Exploring a Forgotten Jewish Land – Archaeology Magazine |url=https://www.archaeology.org/issues/498-2301/letter-from/11057-ethiopia-beta-israel |access-date=November 9, 2023 |website=www.archaeology.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==وچين دور==
===اسلامي دور===
[[File:Education (T-S K5.13) (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|قاهره جينيزا جو ٽڪرو، ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي لائبريري&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Cairo Genizah : Education|url=https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-TS-K-00005-00013|access-date=2025-10-18|website=Cambridge Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
سال 638 عيسوي ۾ [[بازنطيني سلطنت]] [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سر زمين شام]] جو ڪنٽرول وڃائي ڇڏيو. خليفي [[عمر بن خطاب|عمر]] [[عمر بن خطاب|رضي الله تعالى عنه]] جي اڳواڻي ۾ [[پهرين اسلامي رياست|عرب اسلامي سلطنت]] [[يروشلم]]، [[ميسوپوٽيميا]]، [[سر زمين شام (ليوانت)|سر زمين شام]] ([[شام]]، [[اردن]] ۽ [[فلسطين]]) ۽ [[مصر]] جي زمينن کي فتح ڪيو. هڪ سياسي نظام جي طور تي، [[اسلام]] يهودين جي معاشي، سماجي ۽ ذهني ترقي لاءِ بنيادي طور تي نوان حالات پيدا ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;Ehrlich, Mark. ''Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1''. ABC-CLIO, 2009, p. 152.({{ISBN|978-1-85109-873-6}})&lt;/ref&gt;عمر رضي الله تعالى عنه يهودين کي، 500 سالن جي وقفي کان پوءِ، [[يروشلم]] ۾ پنهنجي موجودگي کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني (ڏسو:عمر جي يقين دهاني).&lt;ref name=&quot;Bashan-20072&quot;&gt;{{cite EJ|last=Bashan|first=Eliezer|volume=15|page=419|title=Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي روايتون عمر کي هڪ مهربان حڪمران جي طور تي ڏسي ٿي ۽ مدراش (&lt;small&gt;نست&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;اروت دي-راو شمعون بار يوحائي&lt;/small&gt;) کيس &quot;بني اسرائيل جي دوست&quot; طور حوالو ڏئي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bashan-20073&quot;&gt;{{cite EJ|last=Bashan|first=Eliezer|volume=15|page=419|title=Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

عرب جاگرافيدان المقدسي جي مطابق، &lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-20012&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land|author=Joseph E. Katz|year=2001|publisher=EretzYisroel.Org|access-date=August 12, 2012|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; يهودي &quot;سڪن جي چڪاس ڪندڙ، رنگ ڪندڙ، چمڙي جا ماهر ۽ مهاجن&quot; طور ڪم ڪندا هئا. [[فاطمي خلافت|فاطمي دور]] ۾، ڪيترن ئي يهودي عملدارن حڪومت ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏنيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-20013&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land|author=Joseph E. Katz|year=2001|publisher=EretzYisroel.Org|access-date=August 12, 2012|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; پروفيسر موشئ گل جو خيال آهي، ته 7هين صدي ۾ عرب فتح جي وقت، يروشلم جي آبادي جي اڪثريت عيسائي ۽ يهودي هئي.&lt;ref&gt;Moshe Gil, ''A History of Palestine: 634–1099'' pp. 170, 220–221.&lt;/ref&gt;

هن وقت دوران يهودي سڄي قديم بابل ۾ خوشحال برادرين ۾ رهندا هئا. جيونڪ دور (650-1250 عيسوي) ۾، بابلي يشيوا اڪيڊميون يهودي سکيا جا مکيه مرڪز هئا. جيونم (جن جو معنيٰ آهي &quot;شان&quot; يا &quot;جينيئس&quot;) انهن اسڪولن جا سربراهه هئا. انهن کي يهودي قانون ۾ اعليٰ اختيارين طور تسليم ڪيو ويو. 7هين صدي ۾، غير مسلمن جي زمينن تي حڪمران جزيو (&lt;small&gt;Poll&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;Tax&lt;/small&gt;) عائد ڪيو، جن جي ڪري بابلي يهودين جي ڳوٺاڻن علائقن مان [[بغداد]] جهڙن شهرن ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. ان جي نتيجي ۾ يهودي برادري ۾ وڌيڪ دولت ۽ بين الاقوامي اثر ۽ انهي سان گڏ يهودي مفڪرن جو هڪ وڌيڪ عالمگير نقطه نظر،جهڙوڪ سعديه گاون، جيڪو هاڻي پهريون ڀيرو مغربي فلسفي سان تمام گهڻي دلچسپي رکن ٿا، پيدا ٿيو.  جڏهن 10هين صدي ۾ [[عباسي خلافت]] ۽ بغداد شهر جو زوال ٿيو، ڪيترائي بابلي يهودي [[رومي (ڀونوچ) سمنڊ|رومي ڀونوچ سمنڊ]] جي علائقن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪيا. سڄي يهودي دنيا ۾ بابلي يهودي رسمن جي پکيڙ ۾ حصو ورتو.&lt;ref&gt;[[Marina Rustow]], [http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/ Baghdad in the West: Migration and the Making of Medieval Jewish Traditions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711065105/http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/|date=July 11, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور (711-1031) ===
&lt;nowiki&gt;{{اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[[اندلس]] ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور [[يُورَپ|يورپ]] ۾ [[وچون دور|وچين دور]] سان گڏ هو، جيڪو سڃي [[جزیرو نما آئیبیریا|جزيري نما آئبيريا]] تي مسلمانن جي حڪمراني جو دور هو.

=== Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain (711–1031) ===
{{Main|Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain}}
The golden age of Jewish culture in Spain coincided with the [[Middle Ages]] in Europe, a period of [[Al-Andalus|Muslim rule]] throughout much of the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. During that time, Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed.

A period of tolerance thus dawned for the Jews of the [[Iberian Peninsula]], whose number was considerably augmented by immigration from Africa in the wake of the Muslim conquest. Especially after 912, during the reign of [[Abd-ar-Rahman III]] and his son, [[al-Hakam II]], the Jews prospered, devoting themselves to the service of the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]], to the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially to trading in silk and slaves, in this way promoting the prosperity of the country. Jewish economic expansion was unparalleled. In [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], Jews were involved in translating Arabic texts to the [[Romance languages]], as well as translating Greek and Hebrew texts into Arabic. Jews also contributed to botany, geography, medicine, mathematics, poetry and philosophy.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sephardim Archived September 7&quot;&gt;[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html Sephardim] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |date=September 7, 2012 }} by Rebecca Weiner.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ahmed, M.I. Muslim-Jewish Harmony: A Politically-Contingent Reality. Religions 2022, 13, 535. {{doi|10.3390/rel13060535|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to [[Bernard Lewis]]:

{{Blockquote|Generally, the Jewish people were allowed to practice their religion and live according to the laws and scriptures of their community. Furthermore, the restrictions to which they were subject were social and symbolic rather than tangible and practical in character. That is to say, these regulations served to define the relationship between the two communities, and not to oppress the Jewish population.&lt;ref&gt;Lewis, Bernard W (1984). ''The Jews of Islam''&lt;/ref&gt;|}}

'Abd al-Rahman's court physician and minister was Hasdai ben Isaac ibn Shaprut, the patron of Menahem ben Saruq, Dunash ben Labrat, and other Jewish scholars and poets. Jewish thought during this period flourished under famous figures such as Samuel Ha-Nagid, Moses ibn Ezra, Solomon ibn Gabirol [[Judah Halevi]] and [[Moses Maimonides]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Sephardim Archived September 7&quot; /&gt; During 'Abd al-Rahman's term of power, the scholar [[Moses ben Enoch]] was appointed [[rabbi]] of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], and as a consequence [[al-Andalus]] became the centre of Talmudic study, and [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] the meeting-place of Jewish savants.

The Golden Age ended with the invasion of al-Andalus by the [[Almohads]], a conservative dynasty originating in North Africa, who were highly intolerant of religious minorities.

=== Jews and the Crusades (1099–1260) ===
{{Main|History of the Jews and the Crusades}}
{{See also|Siege of Jerusalem (1099)}}
[[File:1099jerusalem.jpg|thumb|left|[[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|Capture of Jerusalem]], 1099]]
Sermonical messages to avenge the death of Jesus encouraged Christians to participate in the Crusades. The 12th-century Jewish narration from R. Solomon ben Samson records that crusaders en route to the Holy Land decided that before combating the Ishmaelites they would massacre the Jews residing in their midst to avenge the [[crucifixion of Christ]]. The massacres began at [[Rouen]] and Jewish communities in [[Rhine Valley]] were seriously affected.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/413 413]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Crusading attacks were made upon Jews in the territory around Heidelberg. A huge loss of Jewish life took place. Many were forcibly converted to Christianity and many committed suicide to avoid baptism. A major driving factor behind the choice to commit suicide was the Jewish realisation that upon being slain their children could be taken to be raised as Christians. The Jews were living in the middle of Christian lands and felt this danger acutely.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/416 416]}}&lt;/ref&gt; This massacre is seen as the first in a sequence of antisemitic events which culminated in the Holocaust.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=David Nirenberg |editor=Gerd Althoff |others=Johannes Fried |title=Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual, Memory, Historiography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MxS6-pQZzGsC&amp;pg=PA279 |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-78066-7 |pages=279–}}&lt;/ref&gt; Jewish populations felt that they had been abandoned by their Christian neighbours and rulers during the massacres and lost faith in all promises and charters.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/419 419]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Many Jews chose self-defence. But their means of self-defence were limited and their casualties only increased. Most of the forced conversions proved ineffective. Many Jews reverted to their original faith later. The pope protested this but Emperor Henry IV agreed to permitting these reversions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot; /&gt; The massacres began a new epoch for Jewry in Christendom. The Jews had preserved their faith from social pressure, now they had to preserve it at sword point. The massacres during the crusades strengthened Jewry from within spiritually. The Jewish perspective was that their struggle was Israel's struggle to hallow the name of God.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/414 414]–}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1099, Jews helped the Arabs to defend Jerusalem against the [[Crusaders]]. When the city fell, the Crusaders gathered many Jews in a synagogue and set it on fire.&lt;ref name=&quot;Malamat-1976&quot; /&gt; In Haifa, the Jews almost single-handedly defended the town against the Crusaders, holding out for a month, (June–July 1099).&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html |title=Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land |author=Joseph E. Katz |year=2001 |publisher=EretzYisroel.Org |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=January 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; At this time there were Jewish communities scattered all over the country, including Jerusalem, Tiberias, Ramleh, Ashkelon, Caesarea, and [[Gaza City|Gaza]]. As Jews were not allowed to hold land during the Crusader period, they worked at trades and commerce in the coastal towns during times of quiescence. Most were artisans: glassblowers in [[Sidon]], furriers and dyers in Jerusalem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot; /&gt;

During this period, the [[Masoretes]] of Tiberias established the ''[[niqqud]]'', a system of [[diacritic]]s used to represent vowels or distinguish between alternative pronunciations of letters of the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. Numerous [[piyutim]] and [[midrash]]im were recorded in Palestine at this time.&lt;ref name=&quot;Joseph E. Katz-2001&quot; /&gt;

[[Maimonides]] wrote that in 1165 he visited Jerusalem and went to the Temple Mount, where he prayed in the &quot;great, holy house&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Sefer HaCharedim Mitzvat Tshuva Chapter 3&lt;/ref&gt; Maimonides established a yearly holiday for himself and his sons, the 6th of [[Cheshvan]], commemorating the day he went up to pray on the Temple Mount, and another, the 9th of Cheshvan, commemorating the day he merited to pray at the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]] in [[Hebron]].

In 1141 [[Yehuda Halevi]] issued a call to Jews to emigrate to Palestine and took on the long journey himself. After a stormy passage from [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]], he arrived in Egyptian [[Alexandria]], where he was enthusiastically greeted by friends and admirers. At [[Damietta]], he had to struggle against his heart, and the pleadings of his friend Ḥalfon ha-Levi, that he remain in Egypt, where he would be free from intolerant oppression. He started on the rough route overland. He was met along the way by Jews in [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] and [[Damascus]]. Jewish legend relates that as he came near Jerusalem, overpowered by the sight of the Holy City, he sang his most beautiful elegy, the celebrated &quot;Zionide&quot; (''Zion ha-lo Tish'ali''). At that instant, an Arab had galloped out of a gate and rode him down; he was killed in the accident.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}}

=== Mamluk period (1260–1517) ===
[[Nahmanides]] is recorded as settling in the Old City of Jerusalem in 1267. He moved to [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], where he was active in spreading Jewish learning, which was at that time neglected in the Holy Land. He gathered a circle of pupils around him, and people came in crowds, even from the district of the Euphrates, to hear him. [[Karaite Judaism|Karaites]] were said to have attended his lectures, among them Aaron ben Joseph the Elder. He later became one of the greatest [[Karaite (Jewish sect)|Karaite]] authorities. Shortly after Nahmanides' arrival in Jerusalem, he addressed a letter to his son Nahman, in which he described the desolation of the Holy City. At the time, it had only two Jewish inhabitants—two brothers, dyers by trade. In a later letter from Acre, Nahmanides counsels his son to cultivate humility, which he considers to be the first of virtues. In another, addressed to his second son, who occupied an official position at the [[Crown of Castile|Castilian]] court, Nahmanides recommends the recitation of the daily prayers and warns above all against immorality. Nahmanides died after reaching seventy-six, and his remains were interred at [[Haifa]], by the grave of [[Yechiel of Paris]].

Yechiel had [[aliyah|emigrated]] to Acre in 1260, along with his son and a large group of followers.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html |title=Jewish Zionist Education |publisher=Jafi.org.il |date=May 15, 2005 |access-date=August 13, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013142810/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html |archive-date=October 13, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf |title=Hadrat Melech |access-date=April 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502035808/http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf |archive-date=May 2, 2014 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; There he established the Talmudic academy ''Midrash haGadol d'Paris''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&amp;content=content/segal_ch17 |title=Section III: The Biblical Age: Chapter Seventeen: Awaiting the Messiah |author=Benjamin J. Segal |work=Returning, the Land of Israel as a Focus in Jewish History |publisher=JewishHistory.com |access-date=August 12, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227184802/http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&amp;content=content%2Fsegal_ch17 |archive-date=February 27, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; He is believed to have died there between 1265 and 1268. In 1488 [[Obadiah ben Abraham]], commentator on the [[Mishnah]], arrived in Jerusalem; this marked a new period of return for the Jewish community in the land.

==== Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East ====
{{Main|History of the Jews in Spain}}
{{See also|Islam and Judaism|Mizrahi Jew|History of the Jews under Muslim rule}}
[[File:Hebrew Bible Spain.jpg|right|thumb|Sephardic Hebrew Bible from Spain, 1300&lt;ref&gt;[https://lccn.loc.gov/2021667534]&lt;/ref&gt;]]
During the Middle Ages, Jews were generally better treated by Islamic rulers than Christian ones. Despite second-class citizenship, Jews played prominent roles in Muslim courts, and experienced a Golden Age in [[Moorish Spain]] about 900–1100, though the situation deteriorated after that time. Riots resulting in the deaths of Jews did however occur in North Africa through the centuries and especially in [[Morocco]], [[Libya]] and [[Algeria]], where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos.&lt;ref&gt;Maurice Roumani, ''The Case of the Jews from Arab Countries: A Neglected Issue'', 1977, pp. 26–27.&lt;/ref&gt;

During the 11th century, Muslims in Spain conducted pogroms against the Jews; those occurred in Cordoba in 1011 and in [[1066 Granada massacre|Granada in 1066]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |title=Granada |url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |access-date=August 12, 2012 |year=1906 |archive-date=April 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412000424/https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the Middle Ages, the governments of Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen enacted decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues. At certain times, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and [[Baghdad]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_%28gen%29.html |title=The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries |author=Mitchell Bard |year=2012 |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=October 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007003054/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_(gen).html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} The [[Almohad]]s, who had taken control of much of Islamic Iberia by 1172, surpassed the [[Almoravides]] in fundamentalist outlook. They treated the ''[[dhimmi]]s'' harshly. They expelled both Jews and Christians from Morocco and Islamic Spain. Faced with the choice of death or conversion, many Jews emigrated.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=66&amp;Itemid=39 The Forgotten Refugees] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928051923/http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=66&amp;Itemid=39 |date=September 28, 2007 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Some, such as the family of [[Maimonides]], fled south and east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |title=Sephardim |author=Rebecca Weiner |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=September 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Kraemer, Joel L., &quot;Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait,&quot; ''The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides'', pp. 16–17 (2005)&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}}

=== Europe ===
{{Main|History of European Jews in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:Mishnah (Ms. 3173; De Rossi 138), Palatina.jpg|right|thumb|11th century ''[[mishnah]]'' codex from Italy, [[Biblioteca Palatina, Parma]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=adkim |date=2014-02-28 |title=The Biblioteca Palatina and the National Library of Israel |url=https://primolevicenter.org/printed-matter/the-biblioteca-palatina-and-the-national-library-of-israel/ |access-date=2025-10-15 |website=Printed_Matter |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
According to [[James P. Carrol]], &quot;Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Carroll, James. ''[[Constantine's Sword]]'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) {{ISBN|978-0-395-77927-9}} p. 26&lt;/ref&gt;

Jewish populations have existed in Europe, especially in the area of the former Roman Empire, from very early times. As Jewish males had emigrated, some sometimes took wives from local populations, as is shown by the various [[MtDNA]], compared to [[Y-DNA#Genetic genealogy|Y-DNA]] among Jewish populations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html |title=In DNA, New Clues to Jewish Roots |first=Nicholas |last=Wade |date=May 14, 2002 |work=The New York Times |access-date=June 16, 2013 |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126180104/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; These groups were joined by traders and later on by members of the diaspora.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}} Records of Jewish communities in France (see [[History of the Jews in France]]) and Germany (see [[History of the Jews in Germany]]) date from the 4th century, and substantial Jewish communities in Spain were noted even earlier.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}}

The historian [[Norman Cantor]] and other 20th-century scholars dispute the tradition that the Middle Ages was a uniformly difficult time for Jews. Before the Church became fully organized as an institution with an increasing array of rules, early medieval society was tolerant. Between 800 and 1100, an estimated 1.5 million Jews lived in Christian Europe. As they were not Christians, they were not included as a [[Estates of the realm|division]] of the feudal system of clergy, knights and serfs. This means that they did not have to satisfy the oppressive demands for labour and military conscription that Christian commoners suffered. In relations with the Christian society, the Jews were protected by kings, princes and bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: finance, administration and medicine.&lt;ref name=&quot;Norman F&quot; /&gt; The lack of political strengths did leave Jews vulnerable to exploitation through extreme taxation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Ebenhard |last=Isenmann |editor-first=Richard |editor-last=Bonney |title=The Rise of the Fiscal State in Europe c. 1200–1815 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U24lRLy_qT8C&amp;pg=PA259 |date=1999 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-154220-6 |page=259}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Christian scholars interested in the Bible consulted with Talmudic rabbis. As the Roman Catholic Church strengthened as an institution, the Franciscan and Dominican preaching orders were founded, and there was a rise of competitive middle-class, town-dwelling Christians. By 1300, the friars and local priests staged the Passion Plays during Holy Week, which depicted Jews (in contemporary dress) killing Christ, according to Gospel accounts. From this period, persecution of Jews and deportations became endemic. Around 1500, Jews found relative security and a renewal of prosperity in present-day [[Poland]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Norman F&quot;&gt;Norman F. Cantor, ''The Last Knight: The Twilight of the Middle Ages and the Birth of the Modern Era'', Free Press, 2004. {{ISBN|978-0-7432-2688-2}}, pp. 28–29&lt;/ref&gt;

After 1300, Jews suffered more discrimination and persecution in Christian Europe. Europe's Jewry was mainly urban and literate. The Christians were inclined to regard Jews as obstinate deniers of the truth because in their view the Jews were expected to know of the truth of the Christian doctrines from their knowledge of the Jewish scriptures. Jews were aware of the pressure to accept Christianity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |title=A History of the Jewish People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/412 412]}}&lt;/ref&gt; As Catholics were forbidden by the church to loan money for interest, some Jews became prominent moneylenders. Christian rulers gradually saw the advantage of having such a class of people who could supply capital for their use without being liable to excommunication. As a result, the money trade of western Europe became a speciality of the Jews. But, in almost every instance when Jews acquired large amounts through banking transactions, during their lives or upon their deaths, the king would take it over.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england &quot;England&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730231726/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england |date=July 30, 2020 }}, [[Jewish Encyclopedia]] (1906)&lt;/ref&gt; Jews became imperial{{-&quot;}}[[Servi camerae regis|''servi cameræ'']]{{-&quot;}}, the property of the King, who might present them and their possessions to princes or cities.

Jews were frequently massacred and exiled from various European countries. The persecution hit its first peak during the [[Crusades]]. In the [[People's Crusade]] (1096) flourishing Jewish communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed. In the [[Second Crusade]] (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. They were also subjected to attacks by the [[Shepherds' Crusade (1251)|Shepherds' Crusades of 1251]] and [[Shepherds' Crusade (1320)|1320]]. The Crusades were followed by massive expulsions, including the [[Edict of Expulsion|expulsion of the Jews from England in 1290]];&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Robin R. |last=Mundill |title=England's Jewish Solution: Experiment and Expulsion, 1262–1290 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CSKLfi_j110C |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52026-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; in 1396 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and in 1421, thousands were expelled from Austria. Over this time many Jews in Europe, either fleeing or being expelled, migrated to Poland, where they prospered into another [[History of the Jews in Poland#Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572|Golden Age]].

In Italy, Jews were allowed to live in Venice but were required to live in a [[ghetto]], and the practice spread across Italy (see [[Cum nimis absurdum]]) and was adopted in many places in Catholic Europe. Jews outside the Ghetto often had to wear a yellow star.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121 |title=Print of Jews forced to listen to a Christian sermon – Collections Search – United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |website=collections.ushmm.org |access-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-date=November 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129142432/https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;The Jewish-Christian Encounter in Medieval Preaching, Routledge 2015, edited by Jonathan Adams and Jussi Hanska chapter 13, see page 297&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Expulsions of the Jews of Spain and Portugal ===
{{further|Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal}}
[[File:Vicente Cutanda - A los pies del Salvador.jpg|thumb|250px|''At the Feet of the Saviour'', massacre of Jews in [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], oil on canvas by [[Vicente Cutanda]] (1887)]]
[[File:Matanza de judíos en Barcelona - año 1391.jpg|thumb|250px|''Slaughter of Jews in Barcelona in 1391'' by [[Josep Segrelles]], {{circa|1910}}]]
[[File:A Expulsão dos Judeus (Roque Gameiro, Quadros da História de Portugal, 1917).png|250px|thumb|Expulsion of the Jews in 1497, in a 1917 watercolour by [[Alfredo Roque Gameiro]] ]]
[[File:Inquis1.jpg|thumb|250px|Burning of Crypto-Jews in Lisbon, Portugal]]
Significant repression of Spain's numerous community occurred during the 14th century, notably a [[History of the Jews in Spain#Massacres and mass conversions of 1391|major pogrom in 1391]] which resulted in the majority of Spain's 300,000 Jews converting to Catholicism. With the [[Granada War|conquest of the Muslim Kingdom of Granada]] in 1492, the Catholic monarchs issued the [[Alhambra Decree]], and Spain's remaining 100,000 Jews were forced to choose between conversion and exile. The expulsion of the Jews of Spain, is regarded by Jews as the worst catastrophe between the destruction of Jerusalem in 73 CE and the [[Holocaust]] of the 1940s.&lt;ref&gt;European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 1550–1750 by Jonathan Israel, chapter 1 Exodus from the West (page 25)&lt;/ref&gt;

As a result, an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 Jews left Spain, the remainder joining Spain's already numerous [[Converso]] community. Perhaps a quarter of a million Conversos thus were gradually absorbed by the dominant Catholic culture, although those among them who secretly practised Judaism were subject to 40 years of intense repression by the [[Spanish Inquisition]]. This was particularly the case up until 1530, after which the trials of Conversos by the Inquisition dropped to 3% of the total. Similar expulsions of Sephardic Jews occurred 1493 in [[Sicily]] (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Spanish Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire and North Africa and Portugal. A small number also settled in Holland and England.

The expulsion followed a long process of expulsions and bans from what are now England, France, Germany, Austria, and Holland. In January 1492, the [[Emirate of Granada|last Muslim state]] was defeated in Spain and six months later the Jews of Spain (the largest community in the world) were required to [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|convert or leave without their property]]. 100,000 converted with many continuing to [[Marrano|secretly practice Judaism]], for which the Catholic church's inquisition (led by [[Tomás de Torquemada]]) now mandated a sentence of death by public burning. 175,000 left Spain.&lt;ref&gt;The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 138 – 144 / Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-Jews by David Martin Gitlitz, University of New Mexico 2002, pp 75 – 81&lt;/ref&gt;

Many [[Sephardi Jews|Spanish Jews]] moved to North Africa, [[History of the Jews in Poland|Poland]] and the Ottoman Empire, especially [[History of the Jews in Thessaloniki|Thessaloniki]] (now in Greece) which became the world's largest Jewish city. Some groups headed to the Middle East and Palestine, within the domains of the Ottoman Empire. About 100,000 Spanish Jews were allowed into Portugal, however five years later, their children were seized and they were given the choice of conversion or departing without them.&lt;ref&gt;The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 142 – 144&lt;/ref&gt;

==ابتدائي جديد دور==
Historians who study modern Jewry have identified four different paths by which European Jews were &quot;modernized&quot; and thus integrated into the mainstream of European society. A common approach has been to view the process through the lens of the European [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] as Jews faced the promise and the challenges posed by political emancipation. Scholars that use this approach have focused on two social types as paradigms for the decline of Jewish tradition and as agents of the sea changes in Jewish culture that led to the collapse of the [[ghetto]]. The first of these two social types is the [[Court Jew]] who is portrayed as a forerunner of the modern Jew, having achieved integration with and participation in the proto-capitalist economy and court society of central European states such as the [[Habsburg Empire]]. In contrast to the cosmopolitan Court Jew, the second social type presented by historians of modern Jewry is the ''maskil'', (learned person), a proponent of the [[Haskalah]] (Enlightenment). This narrative sees the maskil's pursuit of secular scholarship and his rationalistic critiques of rabbinic tradition as laying a durable intellectual foundation for the secularization of Jewish society and culture. The established paradigm has been one in which Ashkenazic Jews entered modernity through a self-conscious process of westernization led by &quot;highly atypical, Germanized Jewish intellectuals&quot;. Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative movements and planted the seeds of [[Zionism]] while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Reframing Jewish History |date=May 2005 |url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513 |access-date=May 24, 2011 |archive-date=September 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930222143/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
At around the same time that Haskalah was developing, [[Hasidic Judaism]] was spreading as a movement that preached a world view nearly opposed to the Haskalah.

In the 1990s, the concept of the &quot;[[Port Jew]]&quot; has been suggested as an &quot;alternate path to modernity&quot; that was distinct from the European [[Haskalah]]. In contrast to the focus on Ashkenazic Germanized Jews, the concept of the [[Port Jew]] focused on the Sephardi conversos who fled the Inquisition and resettled in European port towns on the coast of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Eastern seaboard of the United States.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fry-2002&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Port Jews: Jewish Communities in Cosmopolitan Maritime Trading Centres, 1550–1950 |first=Helen P. |last=Fry |journal=European Judaism |volume=36 |publisher=Frank Cass Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7146-8286-0 |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002650793 |quote=Port Jews were a social type, usually those who were involved in seafaring and maritime trade, who (like Court Jews) could be seen as the earliest modern Jews. Often arriving as refugees from the Inquisition, they were permitted to settle as merchants and allowed to trade openly in places such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. 'Their Diaspora connections and accumulated expertise lay in exactly the areas of overseas expansion that were then of interest to mercantilist governments.' |access-date=September 1, 2017 |archive-date=April 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160935/https://www.gale.com/databases/questia?docId=5002650793 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Court Jews ===
[[Court Jew]]s were Jewish bankers or businessmen who lent money and handled the finances of some of the Christian European noble houses. Corresponding historical terms are ''Jewish bailiff'' and ''[[shtadlan]]''.

Examples of what would be later called court Jews emerged when local rulers used services of Jewish bankers for short-term loans. They lent money to nobles and in the process gained social influence. Noble patrons of court Jews employed them as financiers, suppliers, diplomats and [[trade delegate]]s. Court Jews could use their family connections, and connections between each other, to provision their sponsors with, among other things, food, arms, ammunition and precious metals. In return for their services, court Jews gained social privileges, including up to noble status for themselves, and could live outside the Jewish ghettos. Some nobles wanted to keep their bankers in their own courts. And because they were under noble protection, they were exempted from rabbinical jurisdiction.

From medieval times, court Jews could amass personal fortunes and gained political and social influence. Sometimes they were also prominent people in the local Jewish community and could use their influence to protect and influence their brethren. Sometimes they were the only Jews who could interact with the local high society and present petitions of the Jews to the ruler. However, the court Jew had social connections and influence in the Christian world mainly through his Christian patrons. Due to the precarious position of Jews, some nobles could just ignore their debts. If the sponsoring noble died, his Jewish financier could face exile or execution.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

=== Port Jews ===

The [[Port Jew]] is a descriptive term for Jews who were involved in the seafaring and maritime economy of Europe, especially during the 17th and 18th centuries. Helen Fry suggests that they can be considered &quot;the earliest modern Jews&quot;. According to Fry, Port Jews frequently arrived as &quot;refugees from the Inquisition&quot; and the expulsion of Jews from Iberia. They were allowed to settle in port cities because merchants granted them permission to trade in ports such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. Fry notes that their connections to the [[Jewish Diaspora]] and their expertise in maritime trade made them particularly valuable to the mercantilist governments of Europe.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fry-2002&quot; /&gt; Lois Dubin describes Port Jews as Jewish merchants who were &quot;valued for their engagement in the international maritime trade upon which such cities thrived&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Dubin, ''The port Jews of Habsburg Trieste: absolutist politics and enlightenment culture'', Stanford University Press, 1999, p. 47&lt;/ref&gt; Sorkin and others have characterized the socio-cultural profile of these men as marked by a flexibility towards religion and a &quot;reluctant cosmopolitanism that was alien to both traditional and 'enlightened' Jewish identities&quot;.

From the 16th to the 18th century, Jewish merchants dominated the chocolate and vanilla trade, exporting to Jewish centres across Europe, mainly Amsterdam, Bayonne, Bordeaux, Hamburg and Livorno.&lt;ref&gt;Encyclopedia of Jewish Food, Gil Marks, HMH, November 17, 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ottoman Empire ===
{{Main|History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire}}

During the Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600), the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well in diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews were the most prominent under the ''[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millets']]'', the apogee of Jewish influence could arguably be the appointment of [[Joseph Nasi]] to [[Sanjak-bey]] (governor, a rank usually only held by Muslims) of the island of [[Naxos]].&lt;ref&gt;Charles Issawi &amp; Dmitri Gondicas; ''Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism'', Princeton, (1999)&lt;/ref&gt;

At the time of the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] when the Levant passed under Muslim Rule, thirty Jewish communities existed in Haifa, Sh'chem, Hebron, Ramleh, Gaza, Jerusalem, and many in the north. Safed became a spiritual centre for the Jews and the [[Shulchan Aruch]] was compiled there as well as many Kabbalistic texts. The first Hebrew printing press, and the first printing in Western Asia began in 1577.

Jews lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey, but more geographically either Anatolia or Asia Minor) for more than 2,400 years. Initial prosperity in Hellenistic times had faded under Christian Byzantine rule, but recovered somewhat under the rule of the various Muslim governments that displaced and succeeded rule from Constantinople. For much of the Ottoman period, Turkey was a safe haven for Jews fleeing persecution, and it continues to have a small Jewish population today. The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economical prosperity at times but were widely persecuted at other times was summarised by G. E. Von Grunebaum:

&lt;blockquote&gt;It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizeable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms.&lt;ref&gt;G. E. Von Grunebaum, ''Eastern Jewry Under Islam'', 1971, p. 369.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Russia, Poland, and Eastern Europe ===
{{Further|History of the Jews in Poland|History of the Jews in Russia|History of the Jews in Ukraine|History of the Jews in Lithuania|History of the Jews in Romania}}
{{expand section|date=October 2025}}

In the 17th century, there were many significant Jewish populations in Western and Central Europe. The relatively tolerant Poland had the largest Jewish population in Europe that dated back to the 13th century, and enjoyed relative prosperity and freedom for nearly four hundred years. However, the calm situation ended when Polish and Lithuanian Jews of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] were slaughtered in the hundreds of thousands by Ukrainian Cossacks during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] (1648) and by the [[Swedish wars]] (1655). Driven by these and other persecutions, some Jews moved back to Western Europe in the 17th century, notably to [[Amsterdam]]. The last ban on Jewish residency in a European nation was revoked in 1654, but periodic expulsions from individual cities still occurred, and Jews were often restricted from land ownership, or forced to live in [[ghetto]]s.

With the [[Partitions of Poland]] in the late 18th century, the Polish-Jewish population was split between the [[Russian Empire]], [[Austria-Hungary]], and German [[Prussia]], which divided Poland among themselves.

=== European Enlightenment and Haskalah (18th century) ===
[[File:Moritz Daniel Oppenheim--Lavater and Lessing Visit Moses Mendelssohn--1856--Magnes Collection.jpg|thumb|right|[[Moses Mendelssohn]] (in red coat), Lavater (at right) and Lessing (standing), in an imaginary portrait by the Jewish artist [[Moritz Daniel Oppenheim]] (1856), [[Magnes Collection of Jewish Art and Life]]]]
During the period of the [[European Renaissance]] and Enlightenment, significant changes occurred within the Jewish community. The [[Haskalah]] movement paralleled the wider Enlightenment, as Jews in the 18th century began to campaign for emancipation from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society. Secular and scientific education was added to the traditional religious instruction received by students, and interest in a national Jewish identity, including a revival in the study of Jewish history and Hebrew, started to grow. Among the prominient Haskalah intellectuals were [[Moses Mendelssohn]], [[Naphtali Hirz Wessely]], [[Isaac Satanow]] and [[Isaac Euchel]].

Haskalah gave birth to the [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] movements in Judaism and planted the seeds of [[Zionism]] while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.

At around the same time another movement was born, one preaching almost the opposite of Haskalah, [[Hasidic Judaism]]. Hasidic Judaism began in the 18th century by [[Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov]], and quickly gained a following with its more exuberant, mystical approach to religion. These two movements, and the traditional orthodox approach to Judaism from which they spring, formed the basis for the modern divisions within Jewish observance.

At the same time, the outside world was changing, and debates began over the potential emancipation of the Jews (granting them equal rights). The first country to do so was France, during the [[French Revolution]] in 1789. Even so, Jews were expected to assimilate, not continue their traditions. This ambivalence is demonstrated in the famous speech of [[Clermont-Tonnerre]] before the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]] in 1789:

&lt;blockquote&gt;We must refuse everything to the Jews as a nation and accord everything to Jews as individuals. We must withdraw recognition from their judges; they should only have our judges. We must refuse legal protection to the maintenance of the so-called laws of their Judaic organization; they should not be allowed to form in the state either a political body or an order. They must be citizens individually. But, some will say to me, they do not want to be citizens. Well then! If they do not want to be citizens, they should say so, and then, we should banish them. It is repugnant to have in the state an association of non-citizens, and a nation within the nation...&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Hasidic Judaism ===
{{See also|Mitnagdim}}
[[File:Maurycy Gottlieb - Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur.jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|Hasidic Jews praying in the synagogue on [[Yom Kippur]], by [[Maurycy Gottlieb]]]]

[[Hasidic Judaism]] is a branch of [[Orthodox Judaism]] that promotes spirituality and joy through the popularisation and internalization of [[Jewish mysticism]] as the fundamental aspects of the [[Jewish faith]]. Hasidism comprises part of contemporary [[Ultra-Orthodox]] Judaism, alongside the previous Talmudic [[Lithuanian Jews|Lithuanian-Yeshiva]] approach and the Oriental [[Sephardi Judaism|Sephardi]] tradition. It was founded in 18th-century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel [[Baal Shem Tov]] as a reaction against overly [[Talmud|legalistic]] Judaism. Opposite to this, Hasidic teachings cherished the sincerity and concealed holiness of the unlettered common folk, and their equality with the scholarly elite. The emphasis on the [[Immanent]] Divine presence in everything gave new value to prayer and deeds of kindness, alongside Rabbinic supremacy of [[Torah study|study]], and replaced historical [[Kabbalah|mystical (kabbalistic)]] and [[Musar literature|ethical (musar)]] [[Asceticism in Judaism|asceticism]] and [[Maggid|admonishment]] with optimism, encouragement, and daily [[Deveikut|fervour]]. This populist emotional revival accompanied the elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine [[Panentheism]], through intellectual articulation of inner dimensions of mystical thought. The adjustment of Jewish values sought to add to required standards of ritual [[Halacha|observance]], while relaxing others where inspiration predominated. Its communal gatherings celebrate soulful [[Nigun|song]] and [[Yiddish literature#Hasidic and Haskalah literature|storytelling]] as forms of mystical devotion.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

==اڻويهين صدي==
[[File:Napoleon stellt den israelitischen Kult wieder her, 30. Mai 1806.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|An 1806 French print depicts [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] emancipating the Jews.]]
Though persecution still existed, [[Jewish emancipation]] spread throughout Europe in the 19th century. [[Napoleon]] invited Jews to leave the [[Jewish ghettos in Europe]] and seek refuge in the newly created tolerant political regimes that offered equality under Napoleonic Law (see [[Napoleon and the Jews]]). Gradually all European nations established in constitutions the principle of equality under the law and abolished all restrictions for Jews.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;&gt;[https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-in-history-the-era-of-nationalism-1800-1918 Antisemitism in History: The Era of Nationalism, 1800–1918]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/emancipation Emancipation]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-emancipation-in-western-europe/ Jewish Emancipation in Western Europe]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://d-nb.info/1175689041/34 Jewish Emancipation in the 18th and 19th Centuries]&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Antisemiticroths.jpg|thumb|A caricature by [[Charles Lucien Léandre]] (France, 1898) showing [[Rothschild family|Rothschild]] with the world in his hands]]
Jews now could own land and enter the civil service. The abolition of restraints on political activism and the broadening of the electoral franchise on the basis of citizenship, not religion, made Jews most visible among [[liberalism|liberal]], [[Radical politics|radical]], and [[Marxism|Marxist]] ([[Social Democracy|Social Democratic]]) political parties.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;/&gt;

For centuries, so-called [[court Jew]]s acted as the principal financiers for the European aristocracys. In the 1760s, one of them, [[Mayer Amschel Rothschild]], established a banking business in Germany that eventually became a vast international conglomerate and yield one of the largest family fortunes in world history. Thus the name of the [[Rothschilds]] became synonymous with Jewish financial power. Across Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, other Jews also created a number of influential banks.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/usury-and-moneylending-in-judaism/ Jews and Finance]&lt;/ref&gt;

The most important branch of Jewish economic life in Eastern Europe was trade. While most remained small shopkeepers, stallholders, and peddlers, others became owners of department stores and shopping arcades. During the 19th century Jews began to move from rural regions to cities, this contributed to the decline of traditional Jewish tavernkeeping. Jews made up a considerable proportion of all craftsmen in the [[Russian Empire]] and [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] during the 19th century, but with the spread of industrialization large factories tended to squeeze out small Jewish-run workshops, and only limited numbers of Jews became employees in these modern factories. Jews were considered less desirable employees since they did not want to work on Saturdays and tended to organize into unions to demand improved working conditions, the foundation of the [[General Jewish Labour Bund|Bund]] in the Russian Empire in 1897 strengthened this process.&lt;ref name=&quot;Economic Life&quot;&gt;[https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/7 Economic Life]&lt;/ref&gt;

The economic achivements of Jews in the 19th century created the impression for some that Jews were being overrepresented in such lucrative occupations as finance, banking, trade, industry, medicine, law, journalism, art, music, literature, and theater. Despite increasing integration of the Jews with secular society, a new form of [[antisemitism]] emerged, [[Racial antisemitism|based on the ideas of race and nationhood]] rather than the religious hatred of the Middle Ages. This form of antisemitism held that Jews were a separate and inferior race from the [[Aryan]] people of Western Europe, and led to the emergence of political parties in France, Germany, and [[Austria-Hungary]] that campaigned on a platform of rolling back emancipation. This form of antisemitism emerged frequently in European culture, most famously in the [[Dreyfus Trial]] in France.&lt;ref name=&quot;encyclopedia.ushmm.org&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://evolve.reconstructingjudaism.org/anti-semitism-europe-history/ Antisemitism in Europe and America in the Modern Period: Historical Perspectives]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.quest-cdecjournal.it/anti-jewish-prejudices-antisemitic-ideologies-open-violence-antisemitism-in-european-comparison-from-the-1870s-to-the-first-world-war-a-commentary/ Anti-Jewish Prejudices, Antisemitic Ideologies, Open Violence: Antisemitism in European Comparison from the 1870s to the First World War. A Commentary]&lt;/ref&gt;

During this period, Jewish migration to the United States (see [[American Jews]]) created a large new community mostly freed of the restrictions of Europe. Over 2 million Jews arrived in the United States between 1890 and 1924, most from the Russian Empire and Galicia. A similar case occurred in the southern tip of the continent, specifically in the countries of [[Argentina]] and [[Uruguay]].

==ويهين صدي==
===جديد صيهونيت===
[[File:Herzl on a balcony full.jpg|thumb|Theodor Herzl, visionary of the Jewish State, in Basel, photographed during [[World Zionist Congress|Fifth Zionist Congress]] in December 1901, by [[Ephraim Moses Lilien]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Theodor Herzl Signed Photograph, Basel, Switzerland {{!}} Shapell Manuscript Foundation |url=https://www.shapell.org/manuscript/theodor-herzl-signed-photograph-basel-switzerland/ |website=Shapell |access-date=May 10, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to [[Ottoman Syria]] with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and fulfilling the biblical prophecies related to [[Shivat Tzion]]. In 1882 the first Zionist settlement—[[Rishon LeZion]]—was founded by immigrants who belonged to the &quot;[[Hovevei Zion]]&quot; movement. Later on, the &quot;[[Bilu (movement)|Bilu]]&quot; movement established many other settlements in Palestine.

The Zionist movement was officially founded after the [[Kattowitz convention]] (1884) and the [[World Zionist Congress]] (1897), and it was [[Theodor Herzl]] who initiated the struggle to establish a state for the Jews.

After the [[First World War]], it seemed that the conditions that made it possible for the Jews to establish such a state had arrived: The United Kingdom captured [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] from the Ottoman Empire, and the Jews received the promise of a &quot;National Home&quot; from the British in the form of the [[Balfour Declaration]] of 1917, given to [[Chaim Weizmann]].

In 1920, the British Mandate of Palestine was established and the pro-Jewish [[Herbert Samuel]] was appointed High Commissioner of Palestine, the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] was established and several large Jewish immigration waves to Palestine occurred. The Arab inhabitants of Palestine grew hostile to increasing Jewish immigration, and as a result, they began to express their opposition to the establishment of Jewish settlements and the pro-Jewish policy of the British government.

New Jewish immigrants began to create militias and paramilitary groups such as the [[Bar-Giora]] and [[Hashomer]].

Clashes between Jews and Arabs became more frequent. After the [[1920 Nebi Musa riots]], the Jewish leadership in Palestine believed that the British had little desire to involve themselves in these clashes and maintain order. Believing that they could not rely on the British administration for protection, the Jewish leadership created the [[Haganah]] and [[Irgun]] paramilitary organizations in order to protect its community's farms and [[Kibbutz]]im.

These paramilitary organization were involved in major riots, such as the [[Jaffa riots (May 1921)|Jaffa riots]], [[1929 Palestine riots]] and the [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine]]. Arabs, Jews and Britons suffered in this violence.

Due to the increasing violence, the United Kingdom gradually started to backtrack from its original idea of supporting the establishment of a Jewish homeland and it also started to speculate on a [[binational solution]] to the crisis or the establishment of an Arab state that would have a Jewish minority.

===Jews in Europe and the United States after World War I ===
[[File:Yung-teater poster 15.jpg|thumb|Bilingual [[Polish language|Polish]]-[[Yiddish]] poster for the [[Warsaw]] [[Young Theater]]'s production of ''Mississippi'' in 1935, written by [[Leib Malach]]]]
The World War I and subsequent political changes, such as the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917 and the establishment of new nation-states after 1918, led to far-reaching consequenсes for the Jews of Eastern Europe. The authorities of the [[Soviet Union]] viewed private commerce as negative and sought to bring all trade under the aegis of state enterprises. Therefore, many Jews, who had previously made their living from trade, were forced to find other occupations. In Poland, Hungary, and Romania, the authorities adopted policies aimed at ethnicizing their national economies, aiming to exclude Jews as far as possible from the marketplace.&lt;ref name=&quot;Economic Life&quot;/&gt;

Nevertheless, the Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. In Austria in the years between the two World Wars Jews were approximately 3.5% of the population but were 27.3% of university professors. In Germany between 1918 and 1933 Jews were 0.78% of the population but were 16% of the doctors, 15% of the dentists, 25% of the lawyers, 50% of the theatre directors and occupied 80% of the leading positions in the [[Berlin stock exchange]]. In Poland in 1931 Jews were 10.2% of the population but were 56% of the doctors in private practice, 33% of the lawyers, and 24% of the pharmacists. In Russia during the period 1917–1939 Jews were approximately 1.8% of the population, while Jews were 9% of the officers in military academies, 15% of the university graduates, 11% of the doctors and 14% of the university professors.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Lynn | first1=Richard | last2=Kanazawa | first2=Satoshi | title=How to explain high Jewish achievement: The role of intelligence and values | journal=Personality and Individual Differences | date=2008 | volume=44 | issue=4 | pages=801–808 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2007.10.019 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886907003674 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Among those Jews who were generally considered the most famous were the scientist [[Albert Einstein]] and the philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. At that time, a disproportionate number of [[Nobel Prize]] winners were Jewish, as is still the case.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |publisher=jinfo.org |access-date=October 7, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== The Holocaust ===
{{Main|History of the Jews during World War II|The Holocaust}}
[[File:Rows of bodies of dead inmates fill the yard of Lager Nordhausen, a Gestapo concentration camp.jpg|thumb|Bodies of inmates of the [[Mittelbau-Dora]] Nazi concentration camp who died during [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] [[Bombing of Nordhausen in World War II|bombing raids]] on April 3 and 4, 1945]]

In 1933, with [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]]'s rise to power in Germany, the Jewish situation became more severe. [[Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic|Economic crises]], [[Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany|racial Anti-Jewish laws]], and fear of an upcoming war led many Jews to flee from Europe and settle in [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]], the United States and the Soviet Union.

In 1939, [[World War II]] began and until 1945, [[German-occupied Europe|Germany occupied almost all of Europe]], including [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|Poland]]—[[History of the Jews in Poland|where millions of Jews were living at that time]]—and [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|France]]. In 1941, following the [[invasion of the Soviet Union]], the [[Final Solution]] began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe, as well as Jews in European North Africa (pro-Nazi [[Vichy France|Vichy]]-[[French North Africa|North Africa]] and [[Italian Libya]]). This [[genocide]], in which approximately six million Jews were methodically murdered with horrifying cruelty, is known as [[The Holocaust]] or the ''Shoah'' (Hebrew term). In Poland, as many as one million Jews were murdered in [[gas chambers]] at the [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz camp complex]].

The massive scale of the Holocaust, and the horrors that happened during it, were only understood after the war, and they heavily affected the Jewish nation and world public opinion. Efforts were then increased to establish a Jewish state in Palestine.

=== The establishment of the State of Israel ===
{{Main|History of Israel (1948–present)}}
{{Further|Israel|Israeli Declaration of Independence}}
{{History of Israel}}
In 1945 the Jewish resistance organizations in Palestine unified and established the Jewish Resistance Movement. The movement began guerrilla attacks against Arab paramilitaries and the British authorities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html |title=The Jewish Resistance Movement |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=August 12, 2012 |archive-date=September 7, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160907162736/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} Following the [[King David Hotel bombing]], [[Chaim Weizmann]], president of the [[WZO]] appealed to the movement to cease all further military activity until a decision would be reached by the [[Jewish Agency]]. The Jewish Agency backed Weizmann's recommendation to cease activities, a decision reluctantly accepted by the Haganah, but not by the [[Irgun]] and [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]]. The JRM was dismantled and each of the founding groups continued operating according to their own policy.&lt;ref&gt;Horne, Edward (1982). ''A Job Well Done (Being a History of The Palestine Police Force 1920–1948)''. Anchor. {{ISBN|978-0-9508367-0-6}}. pp. 272, 299. States that Haganah withdrew on July 1, 1946. But remained permanently uncooperative.&lt;/ref&gt;

The Jewish leadership decided to centre the struggle in the illegal immigration to Palestine and began organizing a massive number of Jewish war refugees from Europe, without the approval of the British authorities. This immigration contributed a great deal to the Jewish settlements in Israel in the world public opinion and the British authorities decided to let the United Nations decide upon the fate of Palestine.{{Citation needed| date=February 2012}}

On November 29, 1947, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopted [[Resolution 181]](II) recommending partitioning Palestine into an Arab state, a Jewish state and the City of Jerusalem. The Jewish leadership accepted the decision but the Arab League and the leadership of Palestinian Arabs opposed it. Following a period of [[1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]] the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]] started.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}}

In the middle of the war, after the last British soldiers of the Palestine Mandate left, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed on May 14, 1948, the establishment of a [[Jewish state]] in [[Eretz Israel]] to be known as the [[State of Israel]]. The war ended in 1949 and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of hundreds of thousands of Jews from all over the world, notably [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Arab countries]].

Since 1948, Israel has been involved in a series of major military conflicts, including the 1956 [[Suez Crisis]], 1967 [[Six-Day War]], 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], [[1982 Lebanon War]], and [[2006 Lebanon War]], as well as a nearly constant series of [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict|ongoing minor conflicts]].

Since 1977, an ongoing and largely unsuccessful series of diplomatic efforts have been initiated by Israel, Palestinian organizations, their neighbours, and other parties, including the United States and the European Union, to bring about a [[Israeli–Palestinian peace process|peace process]] to resolve conflicts between Israel and its neighbours, mostly over the fate of the Palestinian people.

==ايڪويهين صدي==
Israel is a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a population of over 8 million people, of whom about 6 million are [[Israeli Jews|Jewish]]. The largest Jewish communities are in Israel and the [[American Jews|United States]], with major communities in France, Argentina, Russia, England, and Canada.

The [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]], created during the [[Soviet]] period, continues to be an [[autonomous oblast]] of the Russian state.&lt;ref&gt;Fishkoff, Sue (October 8, 2008). [http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml &quot;A Jewish revival in Birobidzhan?&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510142551/http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml |date=May 10, 2011 }} ''Jewish News of Greater Phoenix''. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Chief Rabbi]] of [[Birobidzhan]], [[Mordechai Scheiner]], says there are 4,000 Jews in the capital city.&lt;ref&gt;Paxton, Robin (June 1, 2007). [http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&amp;cid=84435&amp;NewsType=80052 &quot;From Tractors to Torah in Russia's Jewish Land&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411050518/http://fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&amp;cid=84435&amp;NewsType=80052 |date=April 11, 2013 }}. Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Governor]] [[Nikolay Mikhaylovich Volkov]] has stated that he intends to, &quot;support every valuable initiative maintained by our local Jewish organizations&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939 &quot;Governor Voices Support for Growing Far East Jewish Community&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518042318/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939 |date=May 18, 2011 }} (November 15, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Birobidzhan Synagogue]] opened in 2004 on the 70th anniversary of the region's founding in 1934.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969 &quot;Far East Community Prepares for 70th Anniversary of Jewish Autonomous Republic&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518041740/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969 |date=May 18, 2011 }} (August 30, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;

The number of people who identified as Jews in [[England and Wales]] rose slightly between 2001 and 2011, with the growth being attributed to the higher birth rate of the [[Haredi]] community.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7411877.stm |title=Jewish population on the increase |date=May 21, 2008 |access-date=March 18, 2020 |archive-date=May 27, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527215725/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7411877.stm |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The estimated [[British Jew]]ish population in [[England]] as of 2011 was 263,346.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2011 Census: KS209EW Religion, local authorities in England and Wales |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262 |publisher=ons.gov.uk |access-date=December 15, 2012 |archive-date=January 5, 2016 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of 2021, per the [[British Census]], the Jewish population of England and Wales was 271,327.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Graham |first1=David |last2=Boyd |first2=Jonathan |title=Jews in Britain in 2021: First results from the Census of England and Wales |url=https://www.jpr.org.uk/reports/jews-britain-2021-first-results-census-england-and-wales |website=Institute for Jewish Policy Research |date=November 29, 2022 |access-date=December 13, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On October 7, 2023, [[Hamas]], along with other [[Palestinian Joint Operations Room|Palestinian militant groups]], [[October 7 attacks|attacked Israel]] from the [[Gaza Strip]], killing 1,139 people. The day is considered the deadliest day in Israel's history, and the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=October 11, 2023 |title=Biden calls Hamas attacks the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust as US death toll ticks up |url=https://apnews.com/article/israel-hamas-us-biden-blinken-99eb4063edabc80fa1fa198fb0bb020e |access-date=November 9, 2023 |work=AP News |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The attack escalated into a [[Gaza war|major war between Israel and Hamas]]. Hundreds of thousands of civilians were displaced, and more than 250 hostages, including Israelis and foreign nationals, were taken by Hamas, [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]], and other Gaza-based militant groups.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last1=Al-Mughrabi |first1=Nidal |last2=Angel |first2=Maytaal |last3=Al-Mughrabi |first3=Nidal |last4=Angel |first4=Maytaal |date=November 8, 2023 |title=Israeli, Hamas fighters in close combat in Gaza City as civilians flee |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/thousands-civilians-flee-north-gaza-israeli-troops-hamas-fighters-clash-2023-11-08/ |access-date=November 9, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==پڻ ڏسو==
* [[يهوديت]] 
* [[اسلام ۾ ابراهيم]] 
* [[يعقوب عليہ السلام]] 
* [[عيسيٰ عليه السلام]] 
* [[توريت]] 
* [[فلسطين]] 
* [[يروشلم]] 
* [[اسرائيل]] 
* [[فلسطين جي رياست]] 
* [[غزه نسل ڪشي]]
* [[يهوديت جي تاريخ]] 
* [[فلسطين جي تاريخ]] 
* [[يهودي تاريخ جو خاڪو]] 
* [[يهودي تاريخ جو وقت]] 
* [[يهودين جو جينياتي مطالعو]] 
* [[اسرائيل جي سرزمين ۾ يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ]]

==نوٽ==
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* Scheindlin, Raymond P. ''A short history of the Jewish people from legendary times to modern statehood'' (1998) [https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofje00sche online free to borrow]
* {{cite book |surname=Sweeney |given=Marvin A. |author-link=Marvin A. Sweeney |chapter=The Religious World of Ancient Israel to 586&amp;nbsp;BCE |editor-surname=Neusner |editor-given=Jacob |editor-link=Jacob Neusner |editor2-surname=Avery-Peck |editor2-given=Alan J. |title=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism |year=2003 |orig-year=2000 |edition=Reprint |pages=20–36 |publisher=Blackwell Publ. |place=Malden, Mass |chapter-url= |url={{Google books |id=bEyD_MaeqP4C |plainurl=y |page= |keywords= |text=}} |isbn=1-57718-058-5}}
* {{cite book |year=2018 |orig-year=1999 |editor-surname=Visotzky |editor-given=Burton L. |editor-link=Burton Visotzky |editor-surname2=Fishman |editor-given2=David E. |editor-link2=David Fishman |title=From Mesopotamia to Modernity: Ten Introductions to Jewish History and Literature |place=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |edition=Reprint |url={{Google books |id=x1JPDwAAQBAJ |plainurl=y |page= |keywords= |text=}} |isbn=978-0-8133-6717-0}}

=== France ===
* Benbassa, Esther. ''The Jews of France: A History from Antiquity to the Present'' (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/Jews-France-History-Antiquity-Present/dp/0691090149/  excerpt and text search]; [https://www.questia.com/library/99832821/the-jews-of-france-a-history-from-antiquity-to-the online]
* Birnbaum, Pierre, and Jane Todd. ''The Jews of the Republic: A Political History of State Jews in France from Gambetta to Vichy'' (1996).
* Birnbaum, Pierre; Kochan, Miriam. ''Anti-Semitism in France: A Political History from Léon Blum to the Present'' (1992) 317p.
* Cahm, Eric. ''The Dreyfus affair in French society and politics'' (Routledge, 2014).
* Debré, Simon. &quot;The Jews of France.&quot; ''Jewish Quarterly Review'' 3.3 (1891): 367–435. long scholarly description. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1450008.pdf online free]
* Graetz, Michael, and Jane Todd. ''The Jews in Nineteenth-Century France: From the French Revolution to the Alliance Israelite Universelle'' (1996)
* Hyman, Paula E. ''The Jews of Modern France'' (1998) [https://www.amazon.com/Modern-France-Jewish-Communities-World/dp/0520209257/  excerpt and text search]
* Hyman, Paula. ''From Dreyfus to Vichy: The Remaking of French Jewry, 1906–1939'' (Columbia UP, 1979). [https://archive.org/details/fromdreyfustovic0000hyma online free to borrow]
* Schechter, Ronald. ''Obstinate Hebrews: Representations of Jews in France, 1715–1815'' (Univ of California Press, 2003)
* Taitz, Emily. ''The Jews of Medieval France: The Community of Champagne'' (1994) [https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130202034/https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne |date=November 30, 2018 }}

=== Russia and Eastern Europe ===
* Brinkmann, Tobias.  (2024). ''Between Borders: The Great Jewish Migration from Eastern Europe''. New York: Oxford University Press.

* Darieva, Tsypylma, Darja Klingenberg, and Chen Bram. (2025) &quot;Jews of the Caucasus: multiple entanglements and migration routes.&quot; ''Journal of Modern Jewish Studies'' 24.2 (2025): 557-569.  [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14725886.2025.2518673  online]

* [[David Fishman|Fishman, David]] (1996). ''Russia's First Modern Jews''. New York University Press.
* [[Zvi Gitelman|Gitelman, Zvi]] (2001). ''A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present''.

* Kushkova, Anna. (2025) &quot;From a Shtetl House to an Urban Apartment: The Soviet Jewish Home Negotiated, Transformed, and Reimagined.&quot; ''Jewish Folklore and Ethnology'' 4.1 (2025): 70-125. [https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1028&amp;context=jewishfolklore  online]

* Polonsky, Antony. ''The Jews in Poland and Russia: A Short History'' (2013)

* Sapritsky-Nahum, Marina. (2025) &quot;Identity transformations of Ukrainian Jewry during the Russian–Ukrainian war: Odesa’s communities and religious leaders at home and in exile.&quot; ''Canadian Slavonic Papers'' 67.1-2 (2025): 214-235. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00085006.2025.2500199  online]

* Schapiro, Leonard. &quot;The role of the Jews in the Russian revolutionary movement.&quot; ''Slavonic and East European Review'' (1961): 148-167. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4205328  online]

* Shumsky, Dmitry. (2025) &quot;Beyond Antisemitism: Rethinking Stalin’s Anti-Jewish Campaign, 1948–1953.&quot; ''Journal of Modern History'' 97.2 (2025): 348-386. 
* {{cite book |last1=Weiner |first1=Miriam |last2=Polish State Archives (in cooperation with) |title=Jewish Roots in Poland: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories |date=1997 |publisher=Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation |location=Secaucus, NJ |isbn=978-0-9656508-0-9 |oclc=38756480}}
* {{cite book |last1=Weiner |first1=Miriam |last2=Ukrainian State Archives (in cooperation with) |last3=Moldovan National Archives (in cooperation with) |title=Jewish Roots in Ukraine and Moldova: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories |date=1999 |publisher=Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation |location=Secaucus, NJ |isbn=978-0-9656508-1-6 |oclc=607423469}}
* Yivo Institute for Jewish Research. ''A Century of Ambivalence, Second Expanded Edition: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present'' (Indiana University Press, 2001).

=== United States ===

{{Main|American Jews#Bibliography|History of the{{short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt;
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2025}}
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 063.jpg|thumb|According to Jewish tradition, Jacob, shown [[Jacob wrestling with the angel|wrestling with the angel]] in this painting by [[Rembrandt]], was the father of the [[tribes of Israel]].]]
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|history}}
{{history of religion|religions}}

[[Jews]] originated from the [[Israelites]] and [[Hebrews]] of historical [[Israel and Judah]], two related kingdoms that emerged in the [[Levant]] during the [[Iron Age]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Finkelstein-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pitcher Is Broken&quot;&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&amp;pg=PA229 |date=April 9, 2023 }} Quote: &quot;For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The earliest mention of [[Israelites]] is inscribed on the [[Merneptah Stele]] {{circa|1213–1203 BCE}}; later religious literature tells the story of Israelites going back at least as far as {{cx|1500 BCE}}. Traditionally, the name ''Israel'' is said to originate with the Hebrew patriarch [[Jacob]], who provides a narrative [[etiology]] for the name{{snd}}after wrestling with an angel, Jacob is renamed Israel, meaning &quot;he who struggles with God&quot;. The [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] based in [[Samaria]] fell to the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] {{cx|720 BCE}},&lt;ref name=&quot;Broshi-2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&amp;pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Kingdom of Judah]] to the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] in 586 BCE.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Faust |first=Avraham |title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period |date=August 29, 2012 |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |isbn=978-1-58983-641-9 |pages=1 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28}}&lt;/ref&gt; Part of the Judean population was exiled to [[Babylonia|Babylon]]. The [[Assyrian captivity|Assyrian]] and [[Babylonian captivity|Babylonian captivities]] are regarded as representing the start of the [[Jewish diaspora]].

After the [[Achaemenid Empire]] conquered the region, the exiled Jews were [[Return to Zion|allowed to return]] and [[Second Temple|rebuild the temple]]; these events mark the beginning of the [[Second Temple period]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Jonathan |last1=Stökl |first2=Caroline |last2=Waerzegger |title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context |date=2015 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=7–11, 30, 226}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia Judaica |edition=2nd |volume=3 |page=27}}&lt;/ref&gt; After several centuries of foreign rule, the [[Maccabean Revolt]] against the [[Seleucid Empire]] led to an [[Hasmonean dynasty|independent Hasmonean kingdom]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Peter Fibiger |last1=Bang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&amp;pg=PAPA184 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean |first2=Walter |last2=Scheidel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-518831-8 |pages=184–187}}&lt;/ref&gt; but it was gradually incorporated into the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] imperial system.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Abraham |last=Malamat |url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=223–239}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Jewish–Roman wars]], a series of unsuccessful revolts against the Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, resulted in the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Zissu |first=Boaz |title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE |date=2018 |isbn=978-90-04-34986-5 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill  |page=19 |chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective |oclc=988856967}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the expulsion of many Jews.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first1=Erwin |last1=Fahlbusch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&amp;pg=PAPA15 |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |first2=Geoffrey William |last2=Bromiley |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5 |page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Jewish population in [[Syria Palaestina]] gradually decreased during the following centuries, enhancing the role of the Jewish diaspora and shifting the spiritual and demographic centre from the depopulated [[Judea]] to [[Galilee]] and then to [[Asoristan|Babylon]], with smaller communities spread out across the [[Roman Empire]]. During the same period, the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]], central Jewish texts, were composed. In the following millennia, the diaspora communities [[Coalescent theory|coalesced]] into three major [[Jewish ethnic divisions|ethnic subdivisions]] according to where their ancestors settled: the [[Ashkenazim]] in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern European Jewry|Eastern Europe]], the [[Sephardim]] initially in [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Iberia]], and the [[Mizrahim]] in the [[History of the Jews under Muslim rule|Middle East]] and [[North Africa]].&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&amp;pg=PA87 &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity.&quot; p. 87.] Eban, Abba Solomon. &quot;Heritage: Civilization and the Jews.&quot; Summit Books Syracuse, New York: 1984. p. 87.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Dosick (2007), pp. 59–60.&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[early Muslim conquests]] ended [[Byzantine]] control over the [[Eastern Mediterranean]], with the newly established [[Rashidun Caliphate]] taking over the [[Levant]], [[Mesopotamia]], and North Africa during the 7th century, and the [[Iberian Peninsula]] during the 8th century. [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain|Jewish culture enjoyed a golden age in Spain]], with Jews becoming widely accepted in society and their religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed before the arrival of the intolerant [[Almohades]]. In 1492 [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|the Jews were forced to leave Spain]] by the Catholic Monarchs [[Catholic Monarchs of Spain|Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand II]], whereafter they migrated in great numbers to the [[History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]] and [[Italian Peninsula|Italy]]. Between the 12th and 15th centuries, Ashkenazi Jews experienced extreme persecution in Central Europe, which prompted their mass migration to [[History of Jews in Poland|Poland]].&lt;ref&gt;Mosk (2013), p. 143. &quot;Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Harshav, Benjamin (1999). ''The Meaning of Yiddish''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. &quot;From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the centre of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; The 18th century saw the rise of the [[Haskalah]] intellectual movement. Also starting in the 18th century, Jews began to campaign for [[Jewish emancipation]] from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society.

In the 19th century, when Jews in [[Western Europe]] were increasingly granted equality before the law, Jews in the [[Pale of Settlement]] faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread [[pogrom]]s. During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to [[Ottoman Syria]] with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. The [[Zionist movement]] was officially founded in 1897. The pogroms also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the United States between 1881 and 1924.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lewin |first=Rhoda G. |date=1979 |title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis |url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |journal=Minnesota History |volume=46 |issue=7 |page=259 |access-date=August 10, 2020 |archive-date=July 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. Many [[Nobel Prize]] winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case.&lt;ref name=&quot;jinfo.org&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |publisher=jinfo.org |access-date=October 7, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1933, with the rise to power of [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]] in [[Nazi Germany|Germany]], the situation for Jews became severe. Economic crises, racial [[Antisemitism in Europe#The Holocaust|antisemitic laws]], and a fear of an upcoming war led many to flee from Europe to [[Mandatory Palestine]], to the United States and to the [[Soviet Union]]. In 1939, [[World War II]] began and until 1941 Germany [[German-occupied Europe|occupied almost all of Europe]]. In 1941, following the [[Operation Barbarossa|invasion]] of the Soviet Union, the [[Final Solution]] began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe and North Africa. In Poland, three million were murdered in [[gas chambers]] in all concentration camps combined, with one million at the [[Auschwitz]] camp complex alone. This [[genocide]], in which approximately six million Jews were methodically exterminated, is known as [[the Holocaust]].

Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On May 14, 1948, upon the termination of the British Mandate, [[David Ben-Gurion]] declared the creation of the [[State of Israel]], a [[Jewish and democratic state]] in ''[[Eretz Israel]]'' (Land of Israel). Immediately afterwards, all neighbouring Arab states invaded, yet the newly formed [[IDF]] resisted. In 1949, the war ended and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of [[Aliyah]] from all over Europe and [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Middle Eastern countries]]. {{As of|2022|post=,}} Israel is a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a population of 9.6 million people, of whom 7 million are [[Israeli Jews|Jewish]].

The largest Jewish community outside Israel is the [[American Jews|United States]], while large communities also exist in France, Canada, Argentina, Russia, United Kingdom, Australia, and [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]]. Currently, the Jewish ethnicity have two autonomous states under their power to act as sanctuaries, [[Israel]] and the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]].

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
{{Commons category|Jewish history}}
* [http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/ The Jewish History Resource Center]. Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
* [http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/Internetresources/modern/israelindex.htm The State of Israel] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
* [http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/ Jewish History and Culture Encyclopaedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224094628/http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/ |date=December 24, 2008 }} Official Site of the 22-volume Encyclopaedia Judaica
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/jewishsbook.html Internet Jewish History Sourcebook] offering homework help and online texts
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050528023003/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/israelite_religion.htm Israelite Religion to Judaism: the Evolution of the Religion of Israel].
* [https://thinktorah.org/jewish-history/ 2000 Years of Jewish History]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050629084248/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/greek_influence.htm Greek Influence on Judaism from the Hellenistic Period Through the Middle Ages c. 300 BCE–1200 CE].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050604085120/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/jewish_sects.htm Jewish Sects of the Second Temple Period].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101119075635/http://adath-shalom.ca/samaritan_origin.htm The Origin and Nature of the Samaritans and their Relationship to Second Temple Jewish Sects].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051118233741/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/eb2bk.htm Jewish History Tables].
* [http://www.oztorah.com/category/australian-jewry/ Articles on Australian Jewish history].
* [http://www.oztorah.com/category/british-jewry/ Articles on British Jewish history].
* Barnavi, Eli (Ed.). ''A Historical Atlas of the Jewish People''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1992. {{ISBN|978-0-679-40332-6}}
* [http://www.simpletoremember.com/vitals/Jewish_History.htm Crash Course in Jewish History]
* [http://csicso-nagy.uw.hu/fo-o-Csicso-NAGY-A/jewish-families.htm Jewish families in Csicsó – Cicov (Slovakia) until the Holocaust]
* [http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&amp;Volume=36&amp;Issue=1&amp;ArticleID=29 &quot;Under the Influence: Hellenism in Ancient Jewish Life&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229232302/http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&amp;Volume=36&amp;Issue=1&amp;ArticleID=29 |date=February 29, 2012 }} Biblical Archaeology Society
* [http://www.jewishhistory.org/crash-course/ Summary of Jewish History] by Berel Wein
* [http://histclo.com/chron/ancient/heb/heb-hist.html Ancient Hebrew history]
* [http://jewishhistorylectures.org/ Videos of Jewish History Lectures by Henry Abramson of Touro College South]
{{Authority control}}
[[زمرو:يهودين جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:يهوديت جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:يهودي نسلي گروهه]]
[[زمرو:تاريخ بلحاظ مذهب]]
[[زمرو:نسلن جي تاريخون]] 
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'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;USGS1997&quot;&gt;{{حوالو ويب|date=1997|quote=2006-01-10|archivedate=23 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite magazine|archive-url=2016-04-12}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFMezgerSchönbächlerBouvier2020&quot;&gt;Mezger, K.; Schönbächler, M.; Bouvier, A. (2020-03-04). &quot;Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?&quot;. ''Space Science Reviews''. '''216''' (2): 27. [[ڊجيٽل آبجيڪٽ آئڊنٽيفائر|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y|10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y]]. [[Hdl (identifier)|hdl]]:&lt;span class=&quot;id-lock-free&quot; title=&quot;Freely accessible&quot;&gt;[[hdl:20.500.11850/405628|20.500.11850/405628]]&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارو ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، يورينيم سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ ليڊ جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا معدنيات - اولهائين[[اولهائون آسٽريليا|مغربي آسٽريليا]] جي جڪ هيلز مان زرڪون جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wilde, S. A.|author2=Valley, J. W.|author3=Peck, W. H.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو ويب|date=1999|quote=2008-12-22|archivedate=2009-02-26}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال شامل ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Mezger|author2=Schönbächler|author3=Bouvier|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتيءَ جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. زمين تي موجود قديم ترين پٿرن جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن.</text>
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        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
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      <comment>added [[Category:ارضيات]] [[وڪيپيڊيا:ھاٽ ڪيٽ|ھاٽ ڪيت]] جي مدد سان</comment>
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      <text bytes="7116" sha1="as04wh1cxjgp9kgux083ld4ivrkj1ke" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The_Blue_Marble_(remastered).jpg|thumb|''نيرو سنگ مرمر'' (Blue Marble)، [[ڌرتي|زدرت]]  جيئن 1972ع ۾ اپولو 17 مان ڏٺو ويو آهي.]]
'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;USGS1997&quot;&gt;{{حوالو ويب|date=1997|quote=2006-01-10|archivedate=23 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite magazine|archive-url=2016-04-12}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFMezgerSchönbächlerBouvier2020&quot;&gt;Mezger, K.; Schönbächler, M.; Bouvier, A. (2020-03-04). &quot;Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?&quot;. ''Space Science Reviews''. '''216''' (2): 27. [[ڊجيٽل آبجيڪٽ آئڊنٽيفائر|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y|10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y]]. [[Hdl (identifier)|hdl]]:&lt;span class=&quot;id-lock-free&quot; title=&quot;Freely accessible&quot;&gt;[[hdl:20.500.11850/405628|20.500.11850/405628]]&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارو ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، يورينيم سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ ليڊ جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا معدنيات - اولهائين[[اولهائون آسٽريليا|مغربي آسٽريليا]] جي جڪ هيلز مان زرڪون جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wilde, S. A.|author2=Valley, J. W.|author3=Peck, W. H.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو ويب|date=1999|quote=2008-12-22|archivedate=2009-02-26}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال شامل ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Mezger|author2=Schönbächler|author3=Bouvier|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتيءَ جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. زمين تي موجود قديم ترين پٿرن جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن.

[[زمرو:ارضيات]]</text>
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      <comment>added [[Category:ڌرتي جي ارضياتي تاريخ]] [[وڪيپيڊيا:ھاٽ ڪيٽ|ھاٽ ڪيت]] جي مدد سان</comment>
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      <text bytes="7169" sha1="etacauu17lpb2df2spx0aboxhbwds66" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The_Blue_Marble_(remastered).jpg|thumb|''نيرو سنگ مرمر'' (Blue Marble)، [[ڌرتي|زدرت]]  جيئن 1972ع ۾ اپولو 17 مان ڏٺو ويو آهي.]]
'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;USGS1997&quot;&gt;{{حوالو ويب|date=1997|quote=2006-01-10|archivedate=23 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite magazine|archive-url=2016-04-12}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFMezgerSchönbächlerBouvier2020&quot;&gt;Mezger, K.; Schönbächler, M.; Bouvier, A. (2020-03-04). &quot;Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?&quot;. ''Space Science Reviews''. '''216''' (2): 27. [[ڊجيٽل آبجيڪٽ آئڊنٽيفائر|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y|10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y]]. [[Hdl (identifier)|hdl]]:&lt;span class=&quot;id-lock-free&quot; title=&quot;Freely accessible&quot;&gt;[[hdl:20.500.11850/405628|20.500.11850/405628]]&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارو ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، يورينيم سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ ليڊ جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا معدنيات - اولهائين[[اولهائون آسٽريليا|مغربي آسٽريليا]] جي جڪ هيلز مان زرڪون جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wilde, S. A.|author2=Valley, J. W.|author3=Peck, W. H.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو ويب|date=1999|quote=2008-12-22|archivedate=2009-02-26}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال شامل ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Mezger|author2=Schönbächler|author3=Bouvier|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتيءَ جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. زمين تي موجود قديم ترين پٿرن جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن.

[[زمرو:ارضيات]]
[[زمرو:ڌرتي جي ارضياتي تاريخ]]</text>
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      <text bytes="7875" sha1="fjz8zukivrtpe6t7fdrl15qziecwp0w" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The_Blue_Marble_(remastered).jpg|thumb|''نيرو سنگ مرمر'' (Blue Marble)، [[ڌرتي|زدرت]]  جيئن 1972ع ۾ اپولو 17 مان ڏٺو ويو آهي.]]
'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;USGS1997&quot;&gt;{{حوالو ويب|date=1997|quote=2006-01-10|archivedate=23 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite magazine|archive-url=2016-04-12}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFMezgerSchönbächlerBouvier2020&quot;&gt;Mezger, K.; Schönbächler, M.; Bouvier, A. (2020-03-04). &quot;Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?&quot;. ''Space Science Reviews''. '''216''' (2): 27. [[ڊجيٽل آبجيڪٽ آئڊنٽيفائر|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y|10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y]]. [[Hdl (identifier)|hdl]]:&lt;span class=&quot;id-lock-free&quot; title=&quot;Freely accessible&quot;&gt;[[hdl:20.500.11850/405628|20.500.11850/405628]]&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارو ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، يورينيم سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ ليڊ جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا معدنيات - اولهائين[[اولهائون آسٽريليا|مغربي آسٽريليا]] جي جڪ هيلز مان زرڪون جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wilde, S. A.|author2=Valley, J. W.|author3=Peck, W. H.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو ويب|date=1999|quote=2008-12-22|archivedate=2009-02-26}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال شامل ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Mezger|author2=Schönbächler|author3=Bouvier|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتيءَ جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. زمين تي موجود قديم ترين پٿرن جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [https://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html The Age of the Earth] by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org)
* [https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS preface on the Age of the Earth]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites]
* {{In Our Time|Ageing the Earth|p005493g|Ageing_the_Earth}}
* [https://www.fleming-group.com/Misc/Pre-1900%20Non-Religious%20Estimates%20of%20the%20Age%20of%20the%20Earth.pdf Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth]
{{Earth}}
{{Portal|Geography|Astronomy|Stars|Outer space|Science}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Age Of Earth}}

[[زمرو:ارضيات]]
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'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;USGS1997&quot;&gt;{{حوالو ويب|date=1997|quote=2006-01-10|archivedate=23 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite magazine|archive-url=2016-04-12}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFMezgerSchönbächlerBouvier2020&quot;&gt;Mezger, K.; Schönbächler, M.; Bouvier, A. (2020-03-04). &quot;Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?&quot;. ''Space Science Reviews''. '''216''' (2): 27. [[ڊجيٽل آبجيڪٽ آئڊنٽيفائر|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y|10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y]]. [[Hdl (identifier)|hdl]]:&lt;span class=&quot;id-lock-free&quot; title=&quot;Freely accessible&quot;&gt;[[hdl:20.500.11850/405628|20.500.11850/405628]]&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارو ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، يورينيم سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ ليڊ جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا معدنيات - اولهائين[[اولهائون آسٽريليا|مغربي آسٽريليا]] جي جڪ هيلز مان زرڪون جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wilde, S. A.|author2=Valley, J. W.|author3=Peck, W. H.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو ويب|date=1999|quote=2008-12-22|archivedate=2009-02-26}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال شامل ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Mezger|author2=Schönbächler|author3=Bouvier|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتيءَ جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. زمين تي موجود قديم ترين پٿرن جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [https://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html The Age of the Earth] by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org)
* [https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS preface on the Age of the Earth]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites]
* {{In Our Time|Ageing the Earth|p005493g|Ageing_the_Earth}}
* [https://www.fleming-group.com/Misc/Pre-1900%20Non-Religious%20Estimates%20of%20the%20Age%20of%20the%20Earth.pdf Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth]
{{Earth}}
{{Portal|Geography|Astronomy|Stars|Outer space|Science}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Age Of Earth}}
[[زمرو:ڌرتي جي عمر]]
[[زمرو:ڌرتي]]
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      <text bytes="7456" sha1="7juunu1gcxq4lk63btnkfjmhsupfd6x" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The_Blue_Marble_(remastered).jpg|thumb|''نيرو سنگ مرمر'' (Blue Marble)، [[ڌرتي|زدرت]]  جيئن 1972ع ۾ اپولو 17 مان ڏٺو ويو آهي.]]
'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;USGS1997&quot;&gt;{{حوالو ويب|date=1997|quote=2006-01-10|archivedate=23 December 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite magazine|archive-url=2016-04-12}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;/ref&gt; عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارو ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، يورينيم سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ ليڊ جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا معدنيات - اولهائين[[اولهائون آسٽريليا|مغربي آسٽريليا]] جي جڪ هيلز مان زرڪون جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wilde, S. A.|author2=Valley, J. W.|author3=Peck, W. H.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{حوالو ويب|date=1999|quote=2008-12-22|archivedate=2009-02-26}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال شامل ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Mezger|author2=Schönbächler|author3=Bouvier|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتيءَ جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. زمين تي موجود قديم ترين پٿرن جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [https://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html The Age of the Earth] by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org)
* [https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS preface on the Age of the Earth]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites]
* [https://www.fleming-group.com/Misc/Pre-1900%20Non-Religious%20Estimates%20of%20the%20Age%20of%20the%20Earth.pdf Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth]
{{Portal|Geography|Astronomy|Stars|Outer space|Science}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Age Of Earth}}
[[زمرو:ڌرتي جي عمر]]
[[زمرو:ڌرتي]]
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[[زمرو:ارضياتي نظريا]]
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'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite magazine|archive-url=2016-04-12}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;/ref&gt; عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارو ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، يورينيم سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ ليڊ جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا معدنيات - اولهائين[[اولهائون آسٽريليا|مغربي آسٽريليا]] جي جڪ هيلز مان زرڪون جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wilde, S. A.|author2=Valley, J. W.|author3=Peck, W. H.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال شامل ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Mezger|author2=Schönbächler|author3=Bouvier|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتيءَ جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. زمين تي موجود قديم ترين پٿرن جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [https://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html The Age of the Earth] by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org)
* [https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS preface on the Age of the Earth]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites]
* [https://www.fleming-group.com/Misc/Pre-1900%20Non-Religious%20Estimates%20of%20the%20Age%20of%20the%20Earth.pdf Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth]
{{Portal|Geography|Astronomy|Stars|Outer space|Science}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Age Of Earth}}
[[زمرو:ڌرتي جي عمر]]
[[زمرو:ڌرتي]]
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[[زمرو:ڌرتي جي ارضياتي تاريخ]]</text>
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      <text bytes="7206" sha1="qff20hcfexvv2os5qjn04o64610kne2" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The_Blue_Marble_(remastered).jpg|thumb|''نيرو سنگ مرمر'' (Blue Marble)، [[ڌرتي]] جيئن 1972ع ۾ اپولو 17 مان ڏٺو ويو آهي.]]
'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;/ref&gt; عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارو ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، يورينيم سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ ليڊ جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا معدنيات - اولهائين[[اولهائون آسٽريليا|مغربي آسٽريليا]] جي جڪ هيلز مان زرڪون جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wilde, S. A.|author2=Valley, J. W.|author3=Peck, W. H.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال شامل ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Mezger|author2=Schönbächler|author3=Bouvier|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتيءَ جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. زمين تي موجود قديم ترين پٿرن جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو، جيڪي مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [https://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html The Age of the Earth] by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org)
* [https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS preface on the Age of the Earth]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites]
* [https://www.fleming-group.com/Misc/Pre-1900%20Non-Religious%20Estimates%20of%20the%20Age%20of%20the%20Earth.pdf Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth]
{{Portal|Geography|Astronomy|Stars|Outer space|Science}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Age Of Earth}}
[[زمرو:ڌرتي جي عمر]]
[[زمرو:ڌرتي]]
[[زمرو:ارضياتي تاريخ]]
[[زمرو:ارضياتي نظريا]]
[[زمرو:ڌرتي سائنس جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:ڌرتي جي ارضياتي تاريخ]]</text>
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      <text bytes="6890" sha1="5ctf3wov323f0cao66sdqd3mmf139ye" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The_Blue_Marble_(remastered).jpg|thumb|''نيرو سنگ مرمر'' (Blue Marble)، [[ڌرتي]] جيئن 1972ع ۾ اپولو 17 مان ڏٺو ويو آهي.]]
'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ  &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينئٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارا ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ]] جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا [[معدنيات]] - [[اولهائون آسٽريليا|اولهائين آسٽريليا]] جي جيڪ هلز مان [[زرڪونيئم|زرڪون]] جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيلشيئم|ڪيلشيم]]-[[ايليومينيم|ايلومينيم]] سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ، ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتي جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. ڌرتيء تي موجود قديم ترين پٿر، جيڪا مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، جئين  ته اها ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن، جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [https://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html The Age of the Earth] by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org)
* [https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS preface on the Age of the Earth]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites]
* [https://www.fleming-group.com/Misc/Pre-1900%20Non-Religious%20Estimates%20of%20the%20Age%20of%20the%20Earth.pdf Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth]
{{Portal|Geography|Astronomy|Stars|Outer space|Science}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Age Of Earth}}
[[زمرو:ڌرتي جي عمر]]
[[زمرو:ڌرتي]]
[[زمرو:ارضياتي تاريخ]]
[[زمرو:ارضياتي نظريا]]
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      <text bytes="10279" sha1="d3zmo9fujlo68ai3ggb6f6kzo0c9bbl" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The_Blue_Marble_(remastered).jpg|thumb|''نيرو سنگ مرمر'' (Blue Marble)، [[ڌرتي]] جيئن 1972ع ۾ اپولو 17 مان ڏٺو ويو آهي.]]
'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ  &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينئٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارا ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ]] جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا [[معدنيات]] - [[اولهائون آسٽريليا|اولهائين آسٽريليا]] جي جيڪ هلز مان [[زرڪونيئم|زرڪون]] جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيلشيئم|ڪيلشيم]]-[[ايليومينيم|ايلومينيم]] سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ، ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتي جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. ڌرتيء تي موجود قديم ترين پٿر، جيڪا مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، جئين  ته اها ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن، جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو.

==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}
==ڪتابيات==
==وڌيڪ مطالعو==
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=Wijbrans |first3=J. R. |last4=Swisher III |first4=C. C. |last5=Fanning |first5=M. |title=Multimethod radiometric age for a bentonite near the top of the Baculites reesidei Zone of southwestern Saskatchewan (Campanian–Maastrichtian stage boundary?) |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=April 1993 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=769–775 |doi=10.1139/e93-063 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=McDougall |first3=I. |title=A radiometric age for the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary based upon K–Ar, Rb–Sr, and U–Pb ages of bentonites from Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1988 |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=1088–1097 |doi=10.1139/e88-106 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Eberth |first1=David A. |last2=Braman |first2=Dennis R. |last3=Tokaryk |first3=Tim T. |title=Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and Vertebrate Paleontology of the Judith River Formation (Campanian) Near Muddy Lake, West-Central Saskatchewan |journal=Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology |date=1990 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=387–406 |url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/cspg/data/038/038004/0387.htm }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goodwin |first1=Mark B. |last2=Deino |first2=Alan L. |title=The first radiometric ages from the Judith River Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Hill County, Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1989 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=1384–1391 |doi=10.1139/e89-118 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gradstein |first1=Felix M. |last2=Agterberg |first2=Frits P. |last3=Ogg |first3=James G. |last4=Hardenbol |first4=Jan |last5=Veen |first5=Paul Van |last6=Thierry |first6=Jacques |last7=Huang |first7=Zehui |title=Geochronology, Time Scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation |chapter=A Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Time Scale |date=1995 |doi=10.2110/pec.95.04.0095 |isbn=978-1-56576-091-2 }}
* Harland, W.B., Cox, A.V.; Llewellyn, P.G.; Pickton, C.A.G.; Smith, A.G.; and Walters, R., 1982. ''A Geologic Time Scale'': 1982 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 131p.{{isbn?}}
* Harland, W.B.; [[Richard Lee Armstrong|Armstrong, R.L.]]; Cox, A.V.; Craig, L.E.; Smith, A.G.; Smith, D.G., 1990. ''A Geologic Time Scale'', 1989 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, p.&amp;nbsp;1–263. {{ISBN|0-521-38765-5}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Harper | first1 = C.W. Jr | year = 1980 | title = Relative age inference in paleontology | journal = Lethaia | volume = 13 | issue = 3| pages = 239–248 | doi = 10.1111/j.1502-3931.1980.tb00638.x | bibcode = 1980Letha..13..239H }}
* Obradovich, J.D., 1993. A Cretaceous time scale. IN: Caldwell, W.G.E. and Kauffman, E.G. (eds.). ''Evolution of the Western Interior Basin''. Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 39, p.&amp;nbsp;379–396.{{isbn?}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Palmer | first1 = Allison R | year = 1983 | title = The Decade of North American Geology 1983 Geologic Time Scale | journal = Geology | volume = 11 | issue = 9| pages = 503–504 | doi = 10.1130/0091-7613(1983)11&lt;503:tdonag&gt;2.0.co;2 | bibcode = 1983Geo....11..503P }}
* Powell, James Lawrence, 2001, ''Mysteries of Terra Firma: the Age and Evolution of the Earth'', Simon &amp; Schuster, {{ISBN|0-684-87282-X}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [https://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html The Age of the Earth] by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org)
* [https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS preface on the Age of the Earth]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites]
* [https://www.fleming-group.com/Misc/Pre-1900%20Non-Religious%20Estimates%20of%20the%20Age%20of%20the%20Earth.pdf Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth]
{{Portal|Geography|Astronomy|Stars|Outer space|Science}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Age Of Earth}}
[[زمرو:ڌرتي جي عمر]]
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[[زمرو:ارضياتي نظريا]]
[[زمرو:ڌرتي سائنس جي تاريخ]] 
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      <text bytes="12719" sha1="40dai0ecu0uxmxnlm5auzp6qwe2b6t8" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The_Blue_Marble_(remastered).jpg|thumb|''نيرو سنگ مرمر'' (Blue Marble)، [[ڌرتي]] جيئن 1972ع ۾ اپولو 17 مان ڏٺو ويو آهي.]]
'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ  &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينئٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارا ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ]] جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا [[معدنيات]] - [[اولهائون آسٽريليا|اولهائين آسٽريليا]] جي جيڪ هلز مان [[زرڪونيئم|زرڪون]] جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيلشيئم|ڪيلشيم]]-[[ايليومينيم|ايلومينيم]] سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ، ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتي جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. ڌرتيء تي موجود قديم ترين پٿر، جيڪا مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، جئين  ته اها ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن، جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو.

==ريڊيو ميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ==
&quot;ڊيابلو ڪينيئن&quot; کان مليل لوھ جي شھاب جو ٽڪرو

&quot;ڪينيئن ڊيابلو&quot; جي شھاب مان طئي ٿيل عمر جي تصديق سوين ٻين عمر جي تعين ڪرڻ واري ذريعن سان، ڌرتيء کان مليل نمونن ۽ ٻين شھاب ٻنهي مان   ڪئي وئي آھي. شھاب جا نمونا، بهرحال، 4.53 کان 4.58 ارب سال اڳ تائين پکڙيل ڏيکارين ٿا. ان کي شمسي نيبولا جي ٺھڻ ۽ سج ۽ سيارن کي ٺاھڻ لاءِ شمسي ڊسڪ ۾ ان جو ٽٽڻ، جي مدت جي طور تي تعبير ڪيو ويو آھي. ھي 50 ملين سالن جو عرصو اصل شمسي مٽي جي ڪڪرن ۽ شھاب مان سيارن جي واڌ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿو.

چنڊ، ھڪ ٻئي خارجي جسم جي طور تي جيڪو پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس مان نه گذريو آھي ۽ جنھن جو ڪو به ماحول نه آھي، اپولو مشن مان واپس آيل نمونن مان بلڪل صحيح عمر جون تاريخون مهيا ڪري ٿو. چنڊ تان واپس آيل پٿر وڌ ۾ وڌ 4.51 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. مريخ جا شھاب جيڪي ڌرتيءَ تي لٿا آهن انهن جي تاريخ پڻ، ليڊ-ليڊ ڊيٽنگ ذريعي تقريباً 4.5 ارب سال پراڻي آهي. چنڊ جا نمونا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي موسمي تبديلين، پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس يا جاندارن پاران منتقل ڪيل مواد کان متاثر نه ٿيا آهن، پڻ ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ٽريڪ جي سڌي اليڪٽران خوردبيني امتحان ذريعي ڊيٽنگ فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.  اعلي توانائي ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ذرڙن جي اثرن مان پيدا ٿيندڙ، خلل جو مجموعو آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي هڪ ٻي تصديق فراهم ڪري ٿو. ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ڊيٽنگ صرف ان مواد تي مفيد آهي جيڪا پگهرڻ نٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته پگھلڻ مواد جي ڪرسٽل ڍانچي کي ختم ڪري ٿو ۽ ذرڙن پاران ڇڏيل ٽريڪ کي ختم ڪري ٿو. 
==پڻ ڏسو==
* {{Portal|ڌرتي}} 
* ڪائنات جي عمر 
* جيوڪرونولوجي 
* ڌرتيء جي تاريخ 
* [[فطري تاريخ]]
* فطري تاريخ جي ٽائم لائن
==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}

==ڪتابيات==
==وڌيڪ مطالعو==
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=Wijbrans |first3=J. R. |last4=Swisher III |first4=C. C. |last5=Fanning |first5=M. |title=Multimethod radiometric age for a bentonite near the top of the Baculites reesidei Zone of southwestern Saskatchewan (Campanian–Maastrichtian stage boundary?) |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=April 1993 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=769–775 |doi=10.1139/e93-063 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=McDougall |first3=I. |title=A radiometric age for the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary based upon K–Ar, Rb–Sr, and U–Pb ages of bentonites from Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1988 |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=1088–1097 |doi=10.1139/e88-106 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Eberth |first1=David A. |last2=Braman |first2=Dennis R. |last3=Tokaryk |first3=Tim T. |title=Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and Vertebrate Paleontology of the Judith River Formation (Campanian) Near Muddy Lake, West-Central Saskatchewan |journal=Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology |date=1990 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=387–406 |url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/cspg/data/038/038004/0387.htm }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goodwin |first1=Mark B. |last2=Deino |first2=Alan L. |title=The first radiometric ages from the Judith River Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Hill County, Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1989 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=1384–1391 |doi=10.1139/e89-118 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gradstein |first1=Felix M. |last2=Agterberg |first2=Frits P. |last3=Ogg |first3=James G. |last4=Hardenbol |first4=Jan |last5=Veen |first5=Paul Van |last6=Thierry |first6=Jacques |last7=Huang |first7=Zehui |title=Geochronology, Time Scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation |chapter=A Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Time Scale |date=1995 |doi=10.2110/pec.95.04.0095 |isbn=978-1-56576-091-2 }}
* Harland, W.B., Cox, A.V.; Llewellyn, P.G.; Pickton, C.A.G.; Smith, A.G.; and Walters, R., 1982. ''A Geologic Time Scale'': 1982 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 131p.{{isbn?}}
* Harland, W.B.; [[Richard Lee Armstrong|Armstrong, R.L.]]; Cox, A.V.; Craig, L.E.; Smith, A.G.; Smith, D.G., 1990. ''A Geologic Time Scale'', 1989 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, p.&amp;nbsp;1–263. {{ISBN|0-521-38765-5}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Harper | first1 = C.W. Jr | year = 1980 | title = Relative age inference in paleontology | journal = Lethaia | volume = 13 | issue = 3| pages = 239–248 | doi = 10.1111/j.1502-3931.1980.tb00638.x | bibcode = 1980Letha..13..239H }}
* Obradovich, J.D., 1993. A Cretaceous time scale. IN: Caldwell, W.G.E. and Kauffman, E.G. (eds.). ''Evolution of the Western Interior Basin''. Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 39, p.&amp;nbsp;379–396.{{isbn?}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Palmer | first1 = Allison R | year = 1983 | title = The Decade of North American Geology 1983 Geologic Time Scale | journal = Geology | volume = 11 | issue = 9| pages = 503–504 | doi = 10.1130/0091-7613(1983)11&lt;503:tdonag&gt;2.0.co;2 | bibcode = 1983Geo....11..503P }}
* Powell, James Lawrence, 2001, ''Mysteries of Terra Firma: the Age and Evolution of the Earth'', Simon &amp; Schuster, {{ISBN|0-684-87282-X}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [https://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html The Age of the Earth] by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org)
* [https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS preface on the Age of the Earth]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites]
* [https://www.fleming-group.com/Misc/Pre-1900%20Non-Religious%20Estimates%20of%20the%20Age%20of%20the%20Earth.pdf Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth]
{{Portal|Geography|Astronomy|Stars|Outer space|Science}}
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[[زمرو:ڌرتي جي عمر]]
[[زمرو:ڌرتي]]
[[زمرو:ارضياتي تاريخ]]
[[زمرو:ارضياتي نظريا]]
[[زمرو:ڌرتي سائنس جي تاريخ]] 
[[زمرو:ڌرتي جي ارضياتي تاريخ]]</text>
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      <text bytes="36310" sha1="8f197lacm49sdr6si5nlajpw2t1ynnk" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The_Blue_Marble_(remastered).jpg|thumb|''نيرو سنگ مرمر'' (Blue Marble)، [[ڌرتي]] جيئن 1972ع ۾ اپولو 17 مان ڏٺو ويو آهي.]]
'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ  &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينئٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارا ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ]] جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا [[معدنيات]] - [[اولهائون آسٽريليا|اولهائين آسٽريليا]] جي جيڪ هلز مان [[زرڪونيئم|زرڪون]] جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيلشيئم|ڪيلشيم]]-[[ايليومينيم|ايلومينيم]] سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ، ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتي جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. ڌرتيء تي موجود قديم ترين پٿر، جيڪا مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، جئين  ته اها ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن، جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو.

==ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ==
{{Main|ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ}}
===جائزو===
By their chemical nature, [[Rock (geology)|rock]] [[mineral]]s contain certain [[Chemical element|elements]] and not others; but in rocks containing radioactive isotopes, the process of [[radioactive decay]] generates exotic elements over time. By measuring the [[concentration]] of the stable end product of the decay, coupled with knowledge of the [[half life]] and initial concentration of the decaying element, the age of the rock can be calculated.&lt;ref name=nichols&gt;{{cite book | author=Nichols, Gary | title=Sedimentology and Stratigraphy | chapter=21.2 Radiometric Dating | pages=325–327 | publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons | date=2009 | isbn=978-1-4051-9379-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; Typical radioactive end products are [[argon]] from decay of [[potassium]]-40, and [[lead]] from decay of [[uranium]] and [[thorium]].&lt;ref name=nichols/&gt; If the rock becomes molten, as happens in Earth's [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]], such nonradioactive end products typically escape or are redistributed.&lt;ref name=nichols/&gt; Thus the age of the oldest terrestrial rock gives a minimum for the age of Earth, assuming that no rock has been intact for longer than Earth itself.

===Convective mantle and radioactivity===
The discovery of radioactivity introduced another factor in the calculation. After [[Henri Becquerel]]'s initial discovery in 1896,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=420–421|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f422.chemindefer}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 420 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=501–503|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f503.item}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 501–503 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Marie Curie|Marie]] and [[Pierre Curie]] discovered the radioactive elements [[polonium]] and [[radium]] in 1898;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |year=1898 |title=Sur une nouvelle substance fortement radio-active, contenue dans la pechblende (On a new, strongly radioactive substance contained in pitchblende) |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=127 |pages=1215–1217 |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |access-date=12 April 2021 |author=Curie, Pierre |author2=Curie, Marie |author3=Bémont, Gustave |name-list-style=amp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806083923/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |archive-date=6 August 2009 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; and in 1903, Pierre Curie and [[Albert Laborde]] announced that radium produces enough heat to melt its own weight in ice in less than an hour.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Curie, Pierre |author2=Laborde, Albert |title=Sur la chaleur dégagée spontanément par les sels de radium |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=136 |pages=673–675 |year=1903 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3091c/f673.item}}&lt;/ref&gt; Geologists quickly realized that this upset the assumptions underlying most calculations of the age of Earth. These had assumed that the original heat of Earth and the Sun had dissipated steadily into space, but radioactive decay meant that this heat had been continually replenished. George Darwin and John Joly were the first to point this out, in 1903.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=John | last=Joly | date=1909
 | title=Radioactivity and Geology: An Account of the Influence of Radioactive Energy on Terrestrial History | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich | edition=1st | page=[https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich/page/36 36]
 | publisher=Archibald Constable &amp; Co., ltd
 | location=London, UK }} Reprinted by BookSurge Publishing (2004) {{ISBN|1-4021-3577-7}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

===Invention of radiometric dating===
Radioactivity, which had overthrown the old calculations, yielded a bonus by providing a basis for new calculations, in the form of [[radiometric dating]].
[[File:Ernest Rutherford 1908.jpg|thumb|[[Ernest Rutherford]] in 1908]]
[[Ernest Rutherford]] and [[Frederick Soddy]] jointly had continued their work on radioactive materials and concluded that radioactivity was caused by a spontaneous transmutation of atomic elements. In radioactive decay, an element breaks down into another, lighter element, releasing alpha, beta, or [[Gamma ray|gamma]] radiation in the process. They also determined that a particular isotope of a radioactive element decays into another element at a distinctive rate. This rate is given in terms of a &quot;half-life&quot;, or the amount of time it takes half of a mass of that radioactive material to break down into its &quot;decay product&quot;.

Some radioactive materials have short half-lives; some have long half-lives. Uranium and thorium have long half-lives and so persist in Earth's crust, but radioactive elements with short half-lives have generally disappeared. This suggested that it might be possible to measure the age of Earth by determining the relative proportions of radioactive materials in geological samples. In reality, radioactive elements do not always decay into nonradioactive (&quot;stable&quot;) elements directly, instead, decaying into other radioactive elements that have their own half-lives and so on, until they reach a [[stable element]]. These &quot;[[decay chain]]s&quot;, such as the uranium-radium and thorium series, were known within a few years of the discovery of radioactivity and provided a basis for constructing techniques of radiometric dating.

The pioneers of radioactivity were chemist [[Bertram B. Boltwood]] and physicist Rutherford. Boltwood had conducted studies of radioactive materials as a consultant, and when Rutherford lectured at Yale in 1904,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=E. | last=Rutherford | date=1906
 | title=Radioactive Transformations
 | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivetran01ruthgoog | publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons
 | location=London }} Reprinted by Juniper Grove (2007) {{ISBN|978-1-60355-054-3}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood was inspired to describe the relationships between elements in various decay series. Late in 1904, Rutherford took the first step toward radiometric dating by suggesting that the [[alpha particle]]s released by radioactive decay could be trapped in a rocky material as [[helium]] atoms. At the time, Rutherford was only guessing at the relationship between alpha particles and helium atoms, but he would prove the connection four years later.

Soddy and Sir [[William Ramsay]] had just determined the rate at which radium produces alpha particles, and Rutherford proposed that he could determine the age of a rock sample by measuring its concentration of helium. He dated a rock in his possession to an age of 40 million years by this technique. Rutherford wrote of addressing a meeting of the [[Royal Institution]] in 1904:

{{blockquote|I came into the room, which was half dark, and presently spotted Lord Kelvin in the audience and realized that I was in trouble at the last part of my speech dealing with the age of the Earth, where my views conflicted with his. To my relief, Kelvin fell fast asleep, but as I came to the important point, I saw the old bird sit up, open an eye, and cock a baleful glance at me! Then a sudden inspiration came, and I said, &quot;Lord Kelvin had limited the age of the Earth, provided no new source was discovered. That prophetic utterance refers to what we are now considering tonight, radium!&quot; Behold! the old boy beamed upon me.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=Arthur Stewart | last=Eve | date=1939
 | title=Rutherford: Being the life and letters of the Rt. Hon. Lord Rutherford, O. M.
 | url=https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbeingl0000evea | url-access=registration | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
 | location=Cambridge }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Rutherford assumed that the rate of decay of radium as determined by Ramsay and Soddy was accurate and that helium did not escape from the sample over time. Rutherford's scheme was inaccurate, but it was a useful first step. Boltwood focused on the end products of decay series. In 1905, he suggested that lead was the final stable product of the decay of radium. It was already known that radium was an intermediate product of the decay of uranium. Rutherford joined in, outlining a decay process in which radium emitted five alpha particles through various intermediate products to end up with lead, and speculated that the radium–lead decay chain could be used to date rock samples. Boltwood did the legwork and by the end of 1905 had provided dates for 26 separate rock samples, ranging from 92 to 570 million years. He did not publish these results, which was fortunate because they were flawed by measurement errors and poor estimates of the half-life of radium. Boltwood refined his work and finally published the results in 1907.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

Boltwood's paper pointed out that samples taken from comparable layers of strata had similar lead-to-uranium ratios, and that samples from older layers had a higher proportion of lead, except where there was evidence that lead had [[Leaching (chemistry)|leached]] out of the sample. His studies were flawed by the fact that the decay series of thorium was not understood, which led to incorrect results for samples that contained both uranium and thorium. However, his calculations were far more accurate than any that had been performed to that time. Refinements in the technique would later give ages for Boltwood's 26 samples of 410 million to 2.2 billion years.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

===Arthur Holmes establishes radiometric dating===
Although Boltwood published his paper in a prominent geological journal, the geological community had little interest in radioactivity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Joosse |first=Tess |date=2024-01-11 |title=February 1907: Bertram Boltwood Estimates Earth is at Least 2.2 Billion Years Old |url=https://www.aps.org/apsnews/2024/01/boltwood-earth-age |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=www.aps.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood gave up work on radiometric dating and went on to investigate other decay series. Rutherford remained mildly curious about the issue of the age of Earth but did little work on it.

[[Robert Strutt, 4th Baron Rayleigh|Robert Strutt]] tinkered with Rutherford's helium method until 1910 and then ceased. However, Strutt's student [[Arthur Holmes]] became interested in radiometric dating and continued to work on it after everyone else had given up. Holmes focused on lead dating because he regarded the helium method as unpromising. He performed measurements on rock samples and concluded in 1911 that the oldest (a sample from [[Ceylon]]) was about 1.6 billion years old.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) p. 74&lt;/ref&gt; These calculations were not particularly trustworthy. For example, he assumed that the samples had contained only uranium and no lead when they were formed.

More important research was published in 1913. It showed that elements generally exist in multiple variants with different masses, or &quot;[[isotope]]s&quot;. In the 1930s, isotopes would be shown to have nuclei with differing numbers of the neutral particles known as &quot;[[neutrons]]&quot;. In that same year, other research was published establishing the rules for radioactive decay, allowing more precise identification of decay series.

Many geologists felt these new discoveries made radiometric dating so complicated as to be worthless.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Holmes felt that they gave him tools to improve his techniques, and he plodded ahead with his research, publishing before and after the First World War. His work was generally ignored until the 1920s, though in 1917 [[Joseph Barrell]], a professor of geology at Yale, redrew geological history as it was understood at the time to conform to Holmes's findings in radiometric dating. Barrell's research determined that the layers of strata had not all been laid down at the same rate, and so current rates of geological change could not be used to provide accurate timelines of the history of Earth.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

Holmes' persistence finally began to pay off in 1921, when the speakers at the yearly meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] came to a rough consensus that Earth was a few billion years old and that radiometric dating was credible. Holmes published ''The Age of the Earth, an Introduction to Geological Ideas'' in 1927 in which he presented a range of 1.6 to 3.0 billion years. No great push to embrace radiometric dating followed, however, and the die-hards in the geological community stubbornly resisted. They had never cared for attempts by physicists to intrude in their domain, and had successfully ignored them so far.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf The Age of the Earth Debate Badash, L ''Scientific American'' 1989 esp p95] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105173355/http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf |date=2016-11-05 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The growing weight of evidence finally tilted the balance in 1931, when the [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]] of the US [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] decided to resolve the question of the age of Earth by appointing a committee to investigate.

Holmes, being one of the few people who was trained in radiometric dating techniques, was a committee member and in fact wrote most of the final report.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dal7778&quot;&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 77–78&lt;/ref&gt; Thus, Holmes' report concluded that radioactive dating was the only reliable means of pinning down a [[geologic time scale]]. Questions of bias were deflected by the great and exacting detail of the report. It described the methods used, the care with which measurements were made, and their error bars and limitations.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

===Modern radiometric dating===
Radiometric dating continues to be the predominant way scientists date geologic time scales. Techniques for radioactive dating have been tested and fine-tuned on an ongoing basis since the 1960s. Forty or so different dating techniques have been utilized to date, working on a wide variety of materials. Dates for the same sample using these different techniques are in very close agreement on the age of the material.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Possible [[radioactive contamination|contamination]] problems do exist, but they have been studied and dealt with by careful investigation, leading to sample preparation procedures being minimized to limit the chance of contamination.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

====Use of meteorites====
An age of 4.55 ± 0.07 billion years, very close to today's accepted age, was determined by [[Clair Patterson|Clair Cameron Patterson]] using uranium–lead isotope dating (specifically [[lead–lead dating]]) on several meteorites including the [[Canyon Diablo (meteorite)|Canyon Diablo meteorite]] and published in 1956.&lt;ref name=&quot;Patterson&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Patterson | first=Claire | title=Age of meteorites and the earth | journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta | url=http://es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | date=1956 | volume=10 | issue=4 | pages=230–237 | access-date=2009-07-07 | doi=10.1016/0016-7037(56)90036-9 | bibcode=1956GeCoA..10..230P | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621045217/http://es.ucsc.edu/%7Ercoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | archive-date=2010-06-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The quoted age of Earth is derived, in part, from the Canyon Diablo meteorite for several important reasons and is built upon a modern understanding of cosmochemistry built up over decades of research.
[[File:Paterson isochron animation.gif|thumb|left|upright=1.6|Lead isotope isochron diagram showing data used by Patterson to determine the age of Earth in 1956.]]Most geological samples from Earth are unable to give a direct date of the formation of Earth from the solar nebula because Earth has undergone differentiation into the core, mantle, and crust, and this has then undergone a long history of mixing and unmixing of these sample reservoirs by [[plate tectonics]], [[weathering]] and [[hydrothermal circulation]].

All of these processes may adversely affect isotopic dating mechanisms because the sample cannot always be assumed to have remained as a closed system, by which it is meant that either the parent or daughter [[nuclide]] (a species of atom characterised by the number of neutrons and protons an atom contains) or an intermediate daughter nuclide may have been partially removed from the sample, which will skew the resulting isotopic date. To mitigate this effect it is usual to date several minerals in the same sample, to provide an [[isochron]]. Alternatively, more than one dating system may be used on a sample to check the date.

Some meteorites are furthermore considered to represent the primitive material from which the accreting solar disk was formed.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference | author=Carlson, R. W.| author2=Tera, F.
 | title=Lead–Lead Constraints on the Timescale of Early Planetary Differentiation
 | book-title=Conference Proceedings, Origin of the Earth and Moon | page=6
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=December 1–3, 1998
 | location=Houston, Texas | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf |access-date=2008-12-22 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214311/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some have behaved as closed systems (for some isotopic systems) soon after the solar disk and the planets formed.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} To date, these assumptions are supported by much scientific observation and repeated isotopic dates, and it is certainly a more robust hypothesis than that which assumes a terrestrial rock has retained its original composition.

Nevertheless, ancient [[Archean|Archaean]] lead [[ores]] of [[galena]] have been used to date the formation of Earth as these represent the earliest formed lead-only minerals on the planet and record the earliest homogeneous lead–lead isotope systems on the planet. These have returned age dates of 4.54 billion years with a precision of as little as 1% margin for error.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 310–341&lt;/ref&gt;

Statistics for several meteorites that have undergone isochron dating are as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;BGDarymple&quot;&gt;{{cite book
 | author=Dalrymple, Brent G.
 | title=Ancient Earth, Ancient Skies: The Age of the Earth and Its Cosmic Surroundings
 | url=https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr
 | url-access=registration
 | date=2004
 | publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]
 | isbn = 978-0-8047-4933-6
 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr/page/147 147], 169
}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

{| &lt;!-- is [[Figure space]], the width of one digit. --&gt;
!colspan=4 align=left| 1. St. Severin (ordinary chondrite)
|-
|width=1em| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.543 ± 0.019 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.55  ± 0.33 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.51  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
| || 4. ||| Re-Os isochron || 4.68  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 2. Juvinas (basaltic achondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.556 ± 0.012 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.540 ± 0.001 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.56  ± 0.08 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.50  ± 0.07 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 3. Allende (carbonaceous chondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.553 ± 0.004 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.52  ± 0.02 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.55  ± 0.03 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Ar-Ar age spectrum&amp;nbsp; || 4.56  ± 0.05 billion years
|}

====Canyon Diablo meteorite====
{{Further|Age of the Solar System|Canyon Diablo (meteorite)}}[[File:Barringer Crater aerial photo by USGS.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Meteor Crater|Barringer Crater]], Arizona, where the Canyon Diablo meteorite was found.]]

The [[Canyon Diablo (canyon)|Canyon Diablo]] meteorite was used because it is both large and representative of a particularly rare type of meteorite that contains [[sulfide]] minerals (particularly [[troilite]], FeS), metallic [[nickel]]-[[iron]] alloys, plus silicate minerals. This is important because the presence of the three mineral phases allows investigation of isotopic dates using samples that provide a great separation in concentrations between parent and daughter nuclides. This is particularly true of uranium and lead. Lead is strongly [[chalcophile|chalcophilic]] and is found in the sulfide at a much greater concentration than in the silicate, versus uranium. Because of this segregation in the parent and daughter nuclides during the formation of the meteorite, this allowed a much more precise date of the formation of the solar disk and hence the planets than ever before.

[[File:Canyon-diablo-meteorite.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Fragment of the Canyon Diablo iron meteorite.]]

The age determined from the Canyon Diablo meteorite has been confirmed by hundreds of other age determinations, from both terrestrial samples and other meteorites.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference
 | author=Terada, K.| author2=Sano, Y.
 | title=In-situ ion microprobe U-Pb dating of phosphates in H-chondrites | book-title=Proceedings, Eleventh Annual V. M. Goldschmidt Conference
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=May 20–24, 2001
 | location=Hot Springs, Virginia | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf | access-date=2008-12-22
 | bibcode=2001eag..conf.3306T | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214310/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The meteorite samples, however, show a spread from 4.53 to 4.58 billion years ago. This is interpreted as the duration of formation of the solar nebula and its collapse into the solar disk to form the Sun and the planets. This 50 million year time span allows for accretion of the planets from the original solar dust and meteorites.

The Moon, as another extraterrestrial body that has not undergone plate tectonics and that has no atmosphere, provides quite precise age dates from the samples returned from the Apollo missions. Rocks returned from the Moon have been dated at a maximum of 4.51 billion years old. [[Martian meteorites]] that have landed upon Earth have also been dated to around 4.5 billion years old by [[lead–lead dating]]. Lunar samples, since they have not been disturbed by weathering, plate tectonics or material moved by organisms, can also provide dating by direct [[electron microscope]] examination of [[cosmic ray]] tracks. The accumulation of dislocations generated by high energy cosmic ray particle impacts provides another confirmation of the isotopic dates. [[Environmental radioactivity#Activation products from cosmic rays|Cosmic ray dating]] is only useful on material that has not been melted, since melting erases the crystalline structure of the material, and wipes away the tracks left by the particles.


&quot;ڊيابلو ڪينيئن&quot; کان مليل لوھ جي شھاب جو ٽڪرو

&quot;ڪينيئن ڊيابلو&quot; جي شھاب مان طئي ٿيل عمر جي تصديق سوين ٻين عمر جي تعين ڪرڻ واري ذريعن سان، ڌرتيء کان مليل نمونن ۽ ٻين شھاب ٻنهي مان   ڪئي وئي آھي. شھاب جا نمونا، بهرحال، 4.53 کان 4.58 ارب سال اڳ تائين پکڙيل ڏيکارين ٿا. ان کي شمسي نيبولا جي ٺھڻ ۽ سج ۽ سيارن کي ٺاھڻ لاءِ شمسي ڊسڪ ۾ ان جو ٽٽڻ، جي مدت جي طور تي تعبير ڪيو ويو آھي. ھي 50 ملين سالن جو عرصو اصل شمسي مٽي جي ڪڪرن ۽ شھاب مان سيارن جي واڌ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿو.

چنڊ، ھڪ ٻئي خارجي جسم جي طور تي جيڪو پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس مان نه گذريو آھي ۽ جنھن جو ڪو به ماحول نه آھي، اپولو مشن مان واپس آيل نمونن مان بلڪل صحيح عمر جون تاريخون مهيا ڪري ٿو. چنڊ تان واپس آيل پٿر وڌ ۾ وڌ 4.51 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. مريخ جا شھاب جيڪي ڌرتيءَ تي لٿا آهن انهن جي تاريخ پڻ، ليڊ-ليڊ ڊيٽنگ ذريعي تقريباً 4.5 ارب سال پراڻي آهي. چنڊ جا نمونا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي موسمي تبديلين، پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس يا جاندارن پاران منتقل ڪيل مواد کان متاثر نه ٿيا آهن، پڻ ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ٽريڪ جي سڌي اليڪٽران خوردبيني امتحان ذريعي ڊيٽنگ فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.  اعلي توانائي ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ذرڙن جي اثرن مان پيدا ٿيندڙ، خلل جو مجموعو آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي هڪ ٻي تصديق فراهم ڪري ٿو. ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ڊيٽنگ صرف ان مواد تي مفيد آهي جيڪا پگهرڻ نٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته پگھلڻ مواد جي ڪرسٽل ڍانچي کي ختم ڪري ٿو ۽ ذرڙن پاران ڇڏيل ٽريڪ کي ختم ڪري ٿو.

==پڻ ڏسو==
* {{Portal|ڌرتي}} 
* ڪائنات جي عمر 
* جيوڪرونولوجي 
* ڌرتيء جي تاريخ 
* [[فطري تاريخ]]
* فطري تاريخ جي ٽائم لائن
==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}

==ڪتابيات==
==وڌيڪ مطالعو==
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=Wijbrans |first3=J. R. |last4=Swisher III |first4=C. C. |last5=Fanning |first5=M. |title=Multimethod radiometric age for a bentonite near the top of the Baculites reesidei Zone of southwestern Saskatchewan (Campanian–Maastrichtian stage boundary?) |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=April 1993 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=769–775 |doi=10.1139/e93-063 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=McDougall |first3=I. |title=A radiometric age for the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary based upon K–Ar, Rb–Sr, and U–Pb ages of bentonites from Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1988 |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=1088–1097 |doi=10.1139/e88-106 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Eberth |first1=David A. |last2=Braman |first2=Dennis R. |last3=Tokaryk |first3=Tim T. |title=Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and Vertebrate Paleontology of the Judith River Formation (Campanian) Near Muddy Lake, West-Central Saskatchewan |journal=Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology |date=1990 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=387–406 |url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/cspg/data/038/038004/0387.htm }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goodwin |first1=Mark B. |last2=Deino |first2=Alan L. |title=The first radiometric ages from the Judith River Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Hill County, Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1989 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=1384–1391 |doi=10.1139/e89-118 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gradstein |first1=Felix M. |last2=Agterberg |first2=Frits P. |last3=Ogg |first3=James G. |last4=Hardenbol |first4=Jan |last5=Veen |first5=Paul Van |last6=Thierry |first6=Jacques |last7=Huang |first7=Zehui |title=Geochronology, Time Scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation |chapter=A Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Time Scale |date=1995 |doi=10.2110/pec.95.04.0095 |isbn=978-1-56576-091-2 }}
* Harland, W.B., Cox, A.V.; Llewellyn, P.G.; Pickton, C.A.G.; Smith, A.G.; and Walters, R., 1982. ''A Geologic Time Scale'': 1982 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 131p.{{isbn?}}
* Harland, W.B.; [[Richard Lee Armstrong|Armstrong, R.L.]]; Cox, A.V.; Craig, L.E.; Smith, A.G.; Smith, D.G., 1990. ''A Geologic Time Scale'', 1989 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, p.&amp;nbsp;1–263. {{ISBN|0-521-38765-5}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Harper | first1 = C.W. Jr | year = 1980 | title = Relative age inference in paleontology | journal = Lethaia | volume = 13 | issue = 3| pages = 239–248 | doi = 10.1111/j.1502-3931.1980.tb00638.x | bibcode = 1980Letha..13..239H }}
* Obradovich, J.D., 1993. A Cretaceous time scale. IN: Caldwell, W.G.E. and Kauffman, E.G. (eds.). ''Evolution of the Western Interior Basin''. Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 39, p.&amp;nbsp;379–396.{{isbn?}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Palmer | first1 = Allison R | year = 1983 | title = The Decade of North American Geology 1983 Geologic Time Scale | journal = Geology | volume = 11 | issue = 9| pages = 503–504 | doi = 10.1130/0091-7613(1983)11&lt;503:tdonag&gt;2.0.co;2 | bibcode = 1983Geo....11..503P }}
* Powell, James Lawrence, 2001, ''Mysteries of Terra Firma: the Age and Evolution of the Earth'', Simon &amp; Schuster, {{ISBN|0-684-87282-X}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [https://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html The Age of the Earth] by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org)
* [https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS preface on the Age of the Earth]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites]
* [https://www.fleming-group.com/Misc/Pre-1900%20Non-Religious%20Estimates%20of%20the%20Age%20of%20the%20Earth.pdf Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth]
{{Portal|Geography|Astronomy|Stars|Outer space|Science}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Age Of Earth}}
[[زمرو:ڌرتي جي عمر]]
[[زمرو:ڌرتي]]
[[زمرو:ارضياتي تاريخ]]
[[زمرو:ارضياتي نظريا]]
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      <text bytes="35150" sha1="t6dmqdk5q1x2mbc1hptnuiq2ov0u89v" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The_Blue_Marble_(remastered).jpg|thumb|''نيرو سنگ مرمر'' (Blue Marble)، [[ڌرتي]] جيئن 1972ع ۾ اپولو 17 مان ڏٺو ويو آهي.]]
'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ  &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينئٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارا ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ]] جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا [[معدنيات]] - [[اولهائون آسٽريليا|اولهائين آسٽريليا]] جي جيڪ هلز مان [[زرڪونيئم|زرڪون]] جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيلشيئم|ڪيلشيم]]-[[ايليومينيم|ايلومينيم]] سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ، ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتي جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. ڌرتيء تي موجود قديم ترين پٿر، جيڪا مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، جئين  ته اها ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن، جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو.

==ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ==
{{Main|ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ}}
===جائزو===
By their chemical nature, [[Rock (geology)|rock]] [[mineral]]s contain certain [[Chemical element|elements]] and not others; but in rocks containing radioactive isotopes, the process of [[radioactive decay]] generates exotic elements over time. By measuring the [[concentration]] of the stable end product of the decay, coupled with knowledge of the [[half life]] and initial concentration of the decaying element, the age of the rock can be calculated.&lt;ref name=nichols&gt;{{cite book | author=Nichols, Gary | title=Sedimentology and Stratigraphy | chapter=21.2 Radiometric Dating | pages=325–327 | publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons | date=2009 | isbn=978-1-4051-9379-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; Typical radioactive end products are [[argon]] from decay of [[potassium]]-40, and [[lead]] from decay of [[uranium]] and [[thorium]].&lt;ref name=nichols/&gt; If the rock becomes molten, as happens in Earth's [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]], such nonradioactive end products typically escape or are redistributed.&lt;ref name=nichols/&gt; Thus the age of the oldest terrestrial rock gives a minimum for the age of Earth, assuming that no rock has been intact for longer than Earth itself.

===Convective mantle and radioactivity===
The discovery of radioactivity introduced another factor in the calculation. After [[Henri Becquerel]]'s initial discovery in 1896,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=420–421|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f422.chemindefer}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 420 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=501–503|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f503.item}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 501–503 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Marie Curie|Marie]] and [[Pierre Curie]] discovered the radioactive elements [[polonium]] and [[radium]] in 1898;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |year=1898 |title=Sur une nouvelle substance fortement radio-active, contenue dans la pechblende (On a new, strongly radioactive substance contained in pitchblende) |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=127 |pages=1215–1217 |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |access-date=12 April 2021 |author=Curie, Pierre |author2=Curie, Marie |author3=Bémont, Gustave |name-list-style=amp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806083923/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |archive-date=6 August 2009 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; and in 1903, Pierre Curie and [[Albert Laborde]] announced that radium produces enough heat to melt its own weight in ice in less than an hour.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Curie, Pierre |author2=Laborde, Albert |title=Sur la chaleur dégagée spontanément par les sels de radium |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=136 |pages=673–675 |year=1903 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3091c/f673.item}}&lt;/ref&gt; Geologists quickly realized that this upset the assumptions underlying most calculations of the age of Earth. These had assumed that the original heat of Earth and the Sun had dissipated steadily into space, but radioactive decay meant that this heat had been continually replenished. George Darwin and John Joly were the first to point this out, in 1903.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=John | last=Joly | date=1909
 | title=Radioactivity and Geology: An Account of the Influence of Radioactive Energy on Terrestrial History | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich | edition=1st | page=[https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich/page/36 36]
 | publisher=Archibald Constable &amp; Co., ltd
 | location=London, UK }} Reprinted by BookSurge Publishing (2004) {{ISBN|1-4021-3577-7}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

===Invention of radiometric dating===
Radioactivity, which had overthrown the old calculations, yielded a bonus by providing a basis for new calculations, in the form of [[radiometric dating]].
[[File:Ernest Rutherford 1908.jpg|thumb|[[Ernest Rutherford]] in 1908]]
[[Ernest Rutherford]] and [[Frederick Soddy]] jointly had continued their work on radioactive materials and concluded that radioactivity was caused by a spontaneous transmutation of atomic elements. In radioactive decay, an element breaks down into another, lighter element, releasing alpha, beta, or [[Gamma ray|gamma]] radiation in the process. They also determined that a particular isotope of a radioactive element decays into another element at a distinctive rate. This rate is given in terms of a &quot;half-life&quot;, or the amount of time it takes half of a mass of that radioactive material to break down into its &quot;decay product&quot;.

Some radioactive materials have short half-lives; some have long half-lives. Uranium and thorium have long half-lives and so persist in Earth's crust, but radioactive elements with short half-lives have generally disappeared. This suggested that it might be possible to measure the age of Earth by determining the relative proportions of radioactive materials in geological samples. In reality, radioactive elements do not always decay into nonradioactive (&quot;stable&quot;) elements directly, instead, decaying into other radioactive elements that have their own half-lives and so on, until they reach a [[stable element]]. These &quot;[[decay chain]]s&quot;, such as the uranium-radium and thorium series, were known within a few years of the discovery of radioactivity and provided a basis for constructing techniques of radiometric dating.

The pioneers of radioactivity were chemist [[Bertram B. Boltwood]] and physicist Rutherford. Boltwood had conducted studies of radioactive materials as a consultant, and when Rutherford lectured at Yale in 1904,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=E. | last=Rutherford | date=1906
 | title=Radioactive Transformations
 | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivetran01ruthgoog | publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons
 | location=London }} Reprinted by Juniper Grove (2007) {{ISBN|978-1-60355-054-3}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood was inspired to describe the relationships between elements in various decay series. Late in 1904, Rutherford took the first step toward radiometric dating by suggesting that the [[alpha particle]]s released by radioactive decay could be trapped in a rocky material as [[helium]] atoms. At the time, Rutherford was only guessing at the relationship between alpha particles and helium atoms, but he would prove the connection four years later.

Soddy and Sir [[William Ramsay]] had just determined the rate at which radium produces alpha particles, and Rutherford proposed that he could determine the age of a rock sample by measuring its concentration of helium. He dated a rock in his possession to an age of 40 million years by this technique. Rutherford wrote of addressing a meeting of the [[Royal Institution]] in 1904:

{{blockquote|I came into the room, which was half dark, and presently spotted Lord Kelvin in the audience and realized that I was in trouble at the last part of my speech dealing with the age of the Earth, where my views conflicted with his. To my relief, Kelvin fell fast asleep, but as I came to the important point, I saw the old bird sit up, open an eye, and cock a baleful glance at me! Then a sudden inspiration came, and I said, &quot;Lord Kelvin had limited the age of the Earth, provided no new source was discovered. That prophetic utterance refers to what we are now considering tonight, radium!&quot; Behold! the old boy beamed upon me.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=Arthur Stewart | last=Eve | date=1939
 | title=Rutherford: Being the life and letters of the Rt. Hon. Lord Rutherford, O. M.
 | url=https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbeingl0000evea | url-access=registration | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
 | location=Cambridge }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Rutherford assumed that the rate of decay of radium as determined by Ramsay and Soddy was accurate and that helium did not escape from the sample over time. Rutherford's scheme was inaccurate, but it was a useful first step. Boltwood focused on the end products of decay series. In 1905, he suggested that lead was the final stable product of the decay of radium. It was already known that radium was an intermediate product of the decay of uranium. Rutherford joined in, outlining a decay process in which radium emitted five alpha particles through various intermediate products to end up with lead, and speculated that the radium–lead decay chain could be used to date rock samples. Boltwood did the legwork and by the end of 1905 had provided dates for 26 separate rock samples, ranging from 92 to 570 million years. He did not publish these results, which was fortunate because they were flawed by measurement errors and poor estimates of the half-life of radium. Boltwood refined his work and finally published the results in 1907.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

Boltwood's paper pointed out that samples taken from comparable layers of strata had similar lead-to-uranium ratios, and that samples from older layers had a higher proportion of lead, except where there was evidence that lead had [[Leaching (chemistry)|leached]] out of the sample. His studies were flawed by the fact that the decay series of thorium was not understood, which led to incorrect results for samples that contained both uranium and thorium. However, his calculations were far more accurate than any that had been performed to that time. Refinements in the technique would later give ages for Boltwood's 26 samples of 410 million to 2.2 billion years.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

===Arthur Holmes establishes radiometric dating===
Although Boltwood published his paper in a prominent geological journal, the geological community had little interest in radioactivity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Joosse |first=Tess |date=2024-01-11 |title=February 1907: Bertram Boltwood Estimates Earth is at Least 2.2 Billion Years Old |url=https://www.aps.org/apsnews/2024/01/boltwood-earth-age |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=www.aps.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood gave up work on radiometric dating and went on to investigate other decay series. Rutherford remained mildly curious about the issue of the age of Earth but did little work on it.

[[Robert Strutt, 4th Baron Rayleigh|Robert Strutt]] tinkered with Rutherford's helium method until 1910 and then ceased. However, Strutt's student [[Arthur Holmes]] became interested in radiometric dating and continued to work on it after everyone else had given up. Holmes focused on lead dating because he regarded the helium method as unpromising. He performed measurements on rock samples and concluded in 1911 that the oldest (a sample from [[Ceylon]]) was about 1.6 billion years old.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) p. 74&lt;/ref&gt; These calculations were not particularly trustworthy. For example, he assumed that the samples had contained only uranium and no lead when they were formed.

More important research was published in 1913. It showed that elements generally exist in multiple variants with different masses, or &quot;[[isotope]]s&quot;. In the 1930s, isotopes would be shown to have nuclei with differing numbers of the neutral particles known as &quot;[[neutrons]]&quot;. In that same year, other research was published establishing the rules for radioactive decay, allowing more precise identification of decay series.

Many geologists felt these new discoveries made radiometric dating so complicated as to be worthless.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Holmes felt that they gave him tools to improve his techniques, and he plodded ahead with his research, publishing before and after the First World War. His work was generally ignored until the 1920s, though in 1917 [[Joseph Barrell]], a professor of geology at Yale, redrew geological history as it was understood at the time to conform to Holmes's findings in radiometric dating. Barrell's research determined that the layers of strata had not all been laid down at the same rate, and so current rates of geological change could not be used to provide accurate timelines of the history of Earth.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

Holmes' persistence finally began to pay off in 1921, when the speakers at the yearly meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] came to a rough consensus that Earth was a few billion years old and that radiometric dating was credible. Holmes published ''The Age of the Earth, an Introduction to Geological Ideas'' in 1927 in which he presented a range of 1.6 to 3.0 billion years. No great push to embrace radiometric dating followed, however, and the die-hards in the geological community stubbornly resisted. They had never cared for attempts by physicists to intrude in their domain, and had successfully ignored them so far.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf The Age of the Earth Debate Badash, L ''Scientific American'' 1989 esp p95] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105173355/http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf |date=2016-11-05 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The growing weight of evidence finally tilted the balance in 1931, when the [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]] of the US [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] decided to resolve the question of the age of Earth by appointing a committee to investigate.

Holmes, being one of the few people who was trained in radiometric dating techniques, was a committee member and in fact wrote most of the final report.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dal7778&quot;&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 77–78&lt;/ref&gt; Thus, Holmes' report concluded that radioactive dating was the only reliable means of pinning down a [[geologic time scale]]. Questions of bias were deflected by the great and exacting detail of the report. It described the methods used, the care with which measurements were made, and their error bars and limitations.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

===Modern radiometric dating===
Radiometric dating continues to be the predominant way scientists date geologic time scales. Techniques for radioactive dating have been tested and fine-tuned on an ongoing basis since the 1960s. Forty or so different dating techniques have been utilized to date, working on a wide variety of materials. Dates for the same sample using these different techniques are in very close agreement on the age of the material.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Possible [[radioactive contamination|contamination]] problems do exist, but they have been studied and dealt with by careful investigation, leading to sample preparation procedures being minimized to limit the chance of contamination.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

====Use of meteorites====
An age of 4.55 ± 0.07 billion years, very close to today's accepted age, was determined by [[Clair Patterson|Clair Cameron Patterson]] using uranium–lead isotope dating (specifically [[lead–lead dating]]) on several meteorites including the [[Canyon Diablo (meteorite)|Canyon Diablo meteorite]] and published in 1956.&lt;ref name=&quot;Patterson&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Patterson | first=Claire | title=Age of meteorites and the earth | journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta | url=http://es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | date=1956 | volume=10 | issue=4 | pages=230–237 | access-date=2009-07-07 | doi=10.1016/0016-7037(56)90036-9 | bibcode=1956GeCoA..10..230P | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621045217/http://es.ucsc.edu/%7Ercoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | archive-date=2010-06-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The quoted age of Earth is derived, in part, from the Canyon Diablo meteorite for several important reasons and is built upon a modern understanding of cosmochemistry built up over decades of research.
[[File:Paterson isochron animation.gif|thumb|left|upright=1.6|Lead isotope isochron diagram showing data used by Patterson to determine the age of Earth in 1956.]]Most geological samples from Earth are unable to give a direct date of the formation of Earth from the solar nebula because Earth has undergone differentiation into the core, mantle, and crust, and this has then undergone a long history of mixing and unmixing of these sample reservoirs by [[plate tectonics]], [[weathering]] and [[hydrothermal circulation]].

All of these processes may adversely affect isotopic dating mechanisms because the sample cannot always be assumed to have remained as a closed system, by which it is meant that either the parent or daughter [[nuclide]] (a species of atom characterised by the number of neutrons and protons an atom contains) or an intermediate daughter nuclide may have been partially removed from the sample, which will skew the resulting isotopic date. To mitigate this effect it is usual to date several minerals in the same sample, to provide an [[isochron]]. Alternatively, more than one dating system may be used on a sample to check the date.

Some meteorites are furthermore considered to represent the primitive material from which the accreting solar disk was formed.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference | author=Carlson, R. W.| author2=Tera, F.
 | title=Lead–Lead Constraints on the Timescale of Early Planetary Differentiation
 | book-title=Conference Proceedings, Origin of the Earth and Moon | page=6
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=December 1–3, 1998
 | location=Houston, Texas | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf |access-date=2008-12-22 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214311/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some have behaved as closed systems (for some isotopic systems) soon after the solar disk and the planets formed.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} To date, these assumptions are supported by much scientific observation and repeated isotopic dates, and it is certainly a more robust hypothesis than that which assumes a terrestrial rock has retained its original composition.

Nevertheless, ancient [[Archean|Archaean]] lead [[ores]] of [[galena]] have been used to date the formation of Earth as these represent the earliest formed lead-only minerals on the planet and record the earliest homogeneous lead–lead isotope systems on the planet. These have returned age dates of 4.54 billion years with a precision of as little as 1% margin for error.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 310–341&lt;/ref&gt;

Statistics for several meteorites that have undergone isochron dating are as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;BGDarymple&quot;&gt;{{cite book
 | author=Dalrymple, Brent G.
 | title=Ancient Earth, Ancient Skies: The Age of the Earth and Its Cosmic Surroundings
 | url=https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr
 | url-access=registration
 | date=2004
 | publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]
 | isbn = 978-0-8047-4933-6
 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr/page/147 147], 169
}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

{| &lt;!-- is [[Figure space]], the width of one digit. --&gt;
!colspan=4 align=left| 1. St. Severin (ordinary chondrite)
|-
|width=1em| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.543 ± 0.019 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.55  ± 0.33 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.51  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
| || 4. ||| Re-Os isochron || 4.68  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 2. Juvinas (basaltic achondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.556 ± 0.012 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.540 ± 0.001 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.56  ± 0.08 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.50  ± 0.07 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 3. Allende (carbonaceous chondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.553 ± 0.004 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.52  ± 0.02 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.55  ± 0.03 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Ar-Ar age spectrum&amp;nbsp; || 4.56  ± 0.05 billion years
|}

==== ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ ====
[[File:Barringer Crater aerial photo by USGS.jpg|thumb|upright|بيرنگر ڪريٽر، ايريزونا، جتي ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ مليو هو.]]

ڌرتيء جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ لاء ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ استعمال ڪيو ويو ڇاڪاڻ ته اهو وڏو آهي ۽ خاص طور تي ناياب قسم جي ميٽيورائيٽ جو نمائندو آهي جنهن ۾ سلفائيڊ معدنيات (خاص طور تي ٽرائلائيٽ، FeS)، ڌاتو نڪل-لوهه جا مرڪب ۽ سليڪٽ معدنيات شامل آهن. اهو اهم آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته ٽن معدني شڪلن جي موجودگي نموني کي استعمال ڪندي آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي جاچ جي کي اها اجازت ڏئي ٿي جيڪي اصل ۽ ٽٽل نيوڪلائيڊس جي وچ ۾ ڪنسنٽريشن ۾ هڪ وڏو علحدگي فراهم ڪن ٿا. اهو خاص طور تي يورينيم ۽ ليڊ لاءِ سچ آهي. ليڊ مضبوط طور تي چالڪوفيلڪ آهي ۽ سلفيٽ ۾ يورينيم جي مقابلي ۾ سلفيٽ جي ڀيٽ ۾ تمام گهڻي ڪنسنٽريشن تي ملي ٿو. ميٽيورائيٽ جي ٺهڻ دوران اصل ۽ ٽٽل نيوڪلائيڊس ۾ هن الڳ ٿيڻ جي ڪري، هن شمسي ڊسڪ جي ٺهڻ ۽ ان ڪري اپگرهن جي هڪ تمام گهڻي اڳي کان وڌيڪ صحيح تاريخ جي اجازت ڏني.

[[File:Canyon-diablo-meteorite.jpg|thumb|upright|left|&quot;ڊيابلو ڪينيئن&quot; کان مليل لوھه جي شھاب جو ٽڪرو]]

&quot;ڪينيئن ڊيابلو&quot; جي شھاب مان طئي ٿيل عمر جي تصديق سوين ٻين عمر جي تعين ڪرڻ واري ذريعن سان، ڌرتيء کان مليل نمونن ۽ ٻين شھاب ٻنهي مان ڪئي وئي آھي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference
 | author=Terada, K.| author2=Sano, Y.
 | title=In-situ ion microprobe U-Pb dating of phosphates in H-chondrites | book-title=Proceedings, Eleventh Annual V. M. Goldschmidt Conference
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=May 20–24, 2001
 | location=Hot Springs, Virginia | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf | access-date=2008-12-22
 | bibcode=2001eag..conf.3306T | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214310/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; شھاب جا نمونا، بهرحال، 4.53 کان 4.58 ارب سال اڳ تائين پکڙيل ڏيکارين ٿا. ان کي شمسي نيبولا جي ٺھڻ ۽ سج ۽ سيارن کي ٺاھڻ لاءِ شمسي ڊسڪ ۾ ان جو ٽٽڻ، جي مدت جي طور تي تعبير ڪيو ويو آھي. ھي 50 ملين سالن جو عرصو اصل شمسي مٽي جي ڪڪرن ۽ شھاب مان سيارن جي واڌ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿو.

چنڊ، ھڪ ٻئي خارجي جسم جي طور تي جيڪو پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس مان نه گذريو آھي ۽ جنھن جو ڪو به ماحول نه آھي، اپولو مشن مان واپس آيل نمونن مان بلڪل صحيح عمر جون تاريخون مهيا ڪري ٿو. چنڊ تان واپس آيل پٿر وڌ ۾ وڌ 4.51 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. مريخ جا شھاب جيڪي ڌرتيءَ تي لٿا آهن انهن جي تاريخ پڻ، ليڊ-ليڊ ڊيٽنگ ذريعي تقريباً 4.5 ارب سال پراڻي آهي. چنڊ جا نمونا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي موسمي تبديلين، پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس يا جاندارن پاران منتقل ڪيل مواد کان متاثر نه ٿيا آهن، پڻ ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ٽريڪ جي سڌي اليڪٽران خوردبيني امتحان ذريعي ڊيٽنگ فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.  اعلي توانائي ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ذرڙن جي اثرن مان پيدا ٿيندڙ، خلل جو مجموعو آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي هڪ ٻي تصديق فراهم ڪري ٿو. ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ڊيٽنگ صرف ان مواد تي مفيد آهي جيڪا پگهرڻ نٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته پگھلڻ مواد جي ڪرسٽل ڍانچي کي ختم ڪري ٿو ۽ ذرڙن پاران ڇڏيل ٽريڪ کي ختم ڪري ٿو.

==پڻ ڏسو==
* {{Portal|ڌرتي}} 
* ڪائنات جي عمر 
* جيوڪرونولوجي 
* ڌرتيء جي تاريخ 
* [[فطري تاريخ]]
* فطري تاريخ جي ٽائم لائن
==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}

==ڪتابيات==
==وڌيڪ مطالعو==
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=Wijbrans |first3=J. R. |last4=Swisher III |first4=C. C. |last5=Fanning |first5=M. |title=Multimethod radiometric age for a bentonite near the top of the Baculites reesidei Zone of southwestern Saskatchewan (Campanian–Maastrichtian stage boundary?) |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=April 1993 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=769–775 |doi=10.1139/e93-063 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=McDougall |first3=I. |title=A radiometric age for the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary based upon K–Ar, Rb–Sr, and U–Pb ages of bentonites from Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1988 |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=1088–1097 |doi=10.1139/e88-106 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Eberth |first1=David A. |last2=Braman |first2=Dennis R. |last3=Tokaryk |first3=Tim T. |title=Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and Vertebrate Paleontology of the Judith River Formation (Campanian) Near Muddy Lake, West-Central Saskatchewan |journal=Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology |date=1990 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=387–406 |url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/cspg/data/038/038004/0387.htm }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goodwin |first1=Mark B. |last2=Deino |first2=Alan L. |title=The first radiometric ages from the Judith River Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Hill County, Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1989 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=1384–1391 |doi=10.1139/e89-118 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gradstein |first1=Felix M. |last2=Agterberg |first2=Frits P. |last3=Ogg |first3=James G. |last4=Hardenbol |first4=Jan |last5=Veen |first5=Paul Van |last6=Thierry |first6=Jacques |last7=Huang |first7=Zehui |title=Geochronology, Time Scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation |chapter=A Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Time Scale |date=1995 |doi=10.2110/pec.95.04.0095 |isbn=978-1-56576-091-2 }}
* Harland, W.B., Cox, A.V.; Llewellyn, P.G.; Pickton, C.A.G.; Smith, A.G.; and Walters, R., 1982. ''A Geologic Time Scale'': 1982 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 131p.{{isbn?}}
* Harland, W.B.; [[Richard Lee Armstrong|Armstrong, R.L.]]; Cox, A.V.; Craig, L.E.; Smith, A.G.; Smith, D.G., 1990. ''A Geologic Time Scale'', 1989 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, p.&amp;nbsp;1–263. {{ISBN|0-521-38765-5}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Harper | first1 = C.W. Jr | year = 1980 | title = Relative age inference in paleontology | journal = Lethaia | volume = 13 | issue = 3| pages = 239–248 | doi = 10.1111/j.1502-3931.1980.tb00638.x | bibcode = 1980Letha..13..239H }}
* Obradovich, J.D., 1993. A Cretaceous time scale. IN: Caldwell, W.G.E. and Kauffman, E.G. (eds.). ''Evolution of the Western Interior Basin''. Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 39, p.&amp;nbsp;379–396.{{isbn?}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Palmer | first1 = Allison R | year = 1983 | title = The Decade of North American Geology 1983 Geologic Time Scale | journal = Geology | volume = 11 | issue = 9| pages = 503–504 | doi = 10.1130/0091-7613(1983)11&lt;503:tdonag&gt;2.0.co;2 | bibcode = 1983Geo....11..503P }}
* Powell, James Lawrence, 2001, ''Mysteries of Terra Firma: the Age and Evolution of the Earth'', Simon &amp; Schuster, {{ISBN|0-684-87282-X}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [https://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html The Age of the Earth] by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org)
* [https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS preface on the Age of the Earth]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites]
* [https://www.fleming-group.com/Misc/Pre-1900%20Non-Religious%20Estimates%20of%20the%20Age%20of%20the%20Earth.pdf Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth]
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      <text bytes="37563" sha1="ot9c7dwjio78i6l1h5o4yqq9vjli945" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The_Blue_Marble_(remastered).jpg|thumb|''نيرو سنگ مرمر'' (Blue Marble)، [[ڌرتي]] جيئن 1972ع ۾ اپولو 17 مان ڏٺو ويو آهي.]]
'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ  &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينئٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارا ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ]] جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا [[معدنيات]] - [[اولهائون آسٽريليا|اولهائين آسٽريليا]] جي جيڪ هلز مان [[زرڪونيئم|زرڪون]] جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيلشيئم|ڪيلشيم]]-[[ايليومينيم|ايلومينيم]] سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ، ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتي جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. ڌرتيء تي موجود قديم ترين پٿر، جيڪا مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، جئين  ته اها ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن، جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو.

==ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ==
{{Main|ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ}}
===جائزو===
پنهنجي ڪيميائي نوعيت جي ڪري. پٿر جي معدنيات ۾ ڪجهه عنصر هوندا آهن. پر پٿرن ۾ (ريڊيويڪٽو آئسوٽوپس تي مشتمل) ريڊيو ايڪٽو ڪٽڻ جو عمل. اهو وقت سان گڏ غير ملڪي عنصر پيدا ڪري ٿو. ڪٽڻ جي مستحڪم آخري پيداوار جي ڪنسنٽريشن کي ماپڻ سان (اڌ زندگي جي ڄاڻ ۽ خراب ٿيندڙ عنصر جي شروعاتي ڪنسنٽريشن سان گڏ) پٿر جي عمر جو حساب لڳائي سگهجي ٿو. عام ريڊيو ايڪٽو آخري شيون پوٽاشيم-40 جي ڪٽڻ مان آرگن آهن. ۽ يورينيم ۽ ٿوريم جي ڪٽڻ مان ليڊ. جيڪڏهن پٿر پگھلي وڃي ٿو (جيئن ڌرتيءَ جي پردي ۾ ٿئي ٿو) ته اهڙيون غير ريڊيو ايڪٽو آخري شيون عام طور تي فرار ٿي وڃن ٿيون يا ٻيهر ورهائجي وڃن ٿيون. اهڙيءَ طرح سڀ کان پراڻي زميني پٿر جي عمر ڌرتيءَ جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ ڏئي ٿي. فرض ڪيو ته ڪو به پٿر پاڻ ڌرتيءَ کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين برقرار نه رهيو آهي.

their chemical nature, [[Rock (geology)|rock]] [[mineral]]s contain certain [[Chemical element|elements]] and not others; but in rocks containing radioactive isotopes, the process of [[radioactive decay]] generates exotic elements over time. By measuring the [[concentration]] of the stable end product of the decay, coupled with knowledge of the [[half life]] and initial concentration of the decaying element, the age of the rock can be calculated.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot;&gt;{{cite book | author=Nichols, Gary | title=Sedimentology and Stratigraphy | chapter=21.2 Radiometric Dating | pages=325–327 | publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons | date=2009 | isbn=978-1-4051-9379-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; Typical radioactive end products are [[argon]] from decay of [[potassium]]-40, and [[lead]] from decay of [[uranium]] and [[thorium]].&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot; /&gt; If the rock becomes molten, as happens in Earth's [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]], such nonradioactive end products typically escape or are redistributed.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot; /&gt; Thus the age of the oldest terrestrial rock gives a minimum for the age of Earth, assuming that no rock has been intact for longer than Earth itself.

=== ڪنويڪٽو مينٽل ۽ تابڪاري ===
تابڪاري (Radioactivity) جي دريافت حساب ۾ هڪ ٻيو عنصر متعارف ڪرايو. 1896 ۾ هينري بيڪريل جي شروعاتي دريافت کان پوءِ. ميري ۽ پيئر ڪيوري 1898 ۾ تابڪاري عنصرن پولونيم ۽ ريڊيم کي دريافت ڪيو. ۽ 1903 ۾، پيئر ڪيوري ۽ البرٽ ليبورڊ اعلان ڪيو ته. ريڊيم ايتري گرمي پيدا ڪري ٿو جو برف ۾ پنهنجو وزن هڪ ڪلاڪ کان به گهٽ وقت ۾ ڳاري سگهي. ارضيات جي ماهرن جلدي محسوس ڪيو ته هن ڌرتيءَ جي عمر جي اڪثر حسابن کي خراب ڪري ڇڏيو. انهن فرض ڪيو هو ته ڌرتيءَ ۽ سج جي اصل گرمي مسلسل خلا ۾ ختم ٿي وئي هئي. پر تابڪاري زوال جو مطلب اهو هو ته هي گرمي مسلسل ڀرجي وئي هئي. جارج ڊارون ۽ جان جولي پهريون شخص هئا جن 1903 ۾ هن ڳالهه جي نشاندهي ڪئي.


discovery of radioactivity introduced another factor in the calculation. After [[Henri Becquerel]]'s initial discovery in 1896,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=420–421|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f422.chemindefer}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 420 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=501–503|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f503.item}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 501–503 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Marie Curie|Marie]] and [[Pierre Curie]] discovered the radioactive elements [[polonium]] and [[radium]] in 1898;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |year=1898 |title=Sur une nouvelle substance fortement radio-active, contenue dans la pechblende (On a new, strongly radioactive substance contained in pitchblende) |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=127 |pages=1215–1217 |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |access-date=12 April 2021 |author=Curie, Pierre |author2=Curie, Marie |author3=Bémont, Gustave |name-list-style=amp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806083923/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |archive-date=6 August 2009 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; and in 1903, Pierre Curie and [[Albert Laborde]] announced that radium produces enough heat to melt its own weight in ice in less than an hour.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Curie, Pierre |author2=Laborde, Albert |title=Sur la chaleur dégagée spontanément par les sels de radium |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=136 |pages=673–675 |year=1903 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3091c/f673.item}}&lt;/ref&gt; Geologists quickly realized that this upset the assumptions underlying most calculations of the age of Earth. These had assumed that the original heat of Earth and the Sun had dissipated steadily into space, but radioactive decay meant that this heat had been continually replenished. George Darwin and John Joly were the first to point this out, in 1903.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=John | last=Joly | date=1909
 | title=Radioactivity and Geology: An Account of the Influence of Radioactive Energy on Terrestrial History | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich | edition=1st | page=[https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich/page/36 36]
 | publisher=Archibald Constable &amp; Co., ltd
 | location=London, UK }} Reprinted by BookSurge Publishing (2004) {{ISBN|1-4021-3577-7}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== ريڊيو ميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ايجاد ===
تابڪاري (Radioactivity)، جنهن پراڻي طريقن کي ختم ڪري ڇڏيو هو، ريڊيو ميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي صورت ۾، نئين حسابن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪندي بونس حاصل ڪيو. 
[[File:Ernest Rutherford 1908.jpg|thumb|[[Ernest Rutherford]] in 1908]]
[[Ernest Rutherford]] and [[Frederick Soddy]] jointly had continued their work on radioactive materials and concluded that radioactivity was caused by a spontaneous transmutation of atomic elements. In radioactive decay, an element breaks down into another, lighter element, releasing alpha, beta, or [[Gamma ray|gamma]] radiation in the process. They also determined that a particular isotope of a radioactive element decays into another element at a distinctive rate. This rate is given in terms of a &quot;half-life&quot;, or the amount of time it takes half of a mass of that radioactive material to break down into its &quot;decay product&quot;.

Some radioactive materials have short half-lives; some have long half-lives. Uranium and thorium have long half-lives and so persist in Earth's crust, but radioactive elements with short half-lives have generally disappeared. This suggested that it might be possible to measure the age of Earth by determining the relative proportions of radioactive materials in geological samples. In reality, radioactive elements do not always decay into nonradioactive (&quot;stable&quot;) elements directly, instead, decaying into other radioactive elements that have their own half-lives and so on, until they reach a [[stable element]]. These &quot;[[decay chain]]s&quot;, such as the uranium-radium and thorium series, were known within a few years of the discovery of radioactivity and provided a basis for constructing techniques of radiometric dating.

The pioneers of radioactivity were chemist [[Bertram B. Boltwood]] and physicist Rutherford. Boltwood had conducted studies of radioactive materials as a consultant, and when Rutherford lectured at Yale in 1904,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=E. | last=Rutherford | date=1906
 | title=Radioactive Transformations
 | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivetran01ruthgoog | publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons
 | location=London }} Reprinted by Juniper Grove (2007) {{ISBN|978-1-60355-054-3}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood was inspired to describe the relationships between elements in various decay series. Late in 1904, Rutherford took the first step toward radiometric dating by suggesting that the [[alpha particle]]s released by radioactive decay could be trapped in a rocky material as [[helium]] atoms. At the time, Rutherford was only guessing at the relationship between alpha particles and helium atoms, but he would prove the connection four years later.

Soddy and Sir [[William Ramsay]] had just determined the rate at which radium produces alpha particles, and Rutherford proposed that he could determine the age of a rock sample by measuring its concentration of helium. He dated a rock in his possession to an age of 40 million years by this technique. Rutherford wrote of addressing a meeting of the [[Royal Institution]] in 1904:

{{blockquote|I came into the room, which was half dark, and presently spotted Lord Kelvin in the audience and realized that I was in trouble at the last part of my speech dealing with the age of the Earth, where my views conflicted with his. To my relief, Kelvin fell fast asleep, but as I came to the important point, I saw the old bird sit up, open an eye, and cock a baleful glance at me! Then a sudden inspiration came, and I said, &quot;Lord Kelvin had limited the age of the Earth, provided no new source was discovered. That prophetic utterance refers to what we are now considering tonight, radium!&quot; Behold! the old boy beamed upon me.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=Arthur Stewart | last=Eve | date=1939
 | title=Rutherford: Being the life and letters of the Rt. Hon. Lord Rutherford, O. M.
 | url=https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbeingl0000evea | url-access=registration | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
 | location=Cambridge }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Rutherford assumed that the rate of decay of radium as determined by Ramsay and Soddy was accurate and that helium did not escape from the sample over time. Rutherford's scheme was inaccurate, but it was a useful first step. Boltwood focused on the end products of decay series. In 1905, he suggested that lead was the final stable product of the decay of radium. It was already known that radium was an intermediate product of the decay of uranium. Rutherford joined in, outlining a decay process in which radium emitted five alpha particles through various intermediate products to end up with lead, and speculated that the radium–lead decay chain could be used to date rock samples. Boltwood did the legwork and by the end of 1905 had provided dates for 26 separate rock samples, ranging from 92 to 570 million years. He did not publish these results, which was fortunate because they were flawed by measurement errors and poor estimates of the half-life of radium. Boltwood refined his work and finally published the results in 1907.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

Boltwood's paper pointed out that samples taken from comparable layers of strata had similar lead-to-uranium ratios, and that samples from older layers had a higher proportion of lead, except where there was evidence that lead had [[Leaching (chemistry)|leached]] out of the sample. His studies were flawed by the fact that the decay series of thorium was not understood, which led to incorrect results for samples that contained both uranium and thorium. However, his calculations were far more accurate than any that had been performed to that time. Refinements in the technique would later give ages for Boltwood's 26 samples of 410 million to 2.2 billion years.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

===Arthur Holmes establishes radiometric dating===
Although Boltwood published his paper in a prominent geological journal, the geological community had little interest in radioactivity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Joosse |first=Tess |date=2024-01-11 |title=February 1907: Bertram Boltwood Estimates Earth is at Least 2.2 Billion Years Old |url=https://www.aps.org/apsnews/2024/01/boltwood-earth-age |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=www.aps.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood gave up work on radiometric dating and went on to investigate other decay series. Rutherford remained mildly curious about the issue of the age of Earth but did little work on it.

[[Robert Strutt, 4th Baron Rayleigh|Robert Strutt]] tinkered with Rutherford's helium method until 1910 and then ceased. However, Strutt's student [[Arthur Holmes]] became interested in radiometric dating and continued to work on it after everyone else had given up. Holmes focused on lead dating because he regarded the helium method as unpromising. He performed measurements on rock samples and concluded in 1911 that the oldest (a sample from [[Ceylon]]) was about 1.6 billion years old.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) p. 74&lt;/ref&gt; These calculations were not particularly trustworthy. For example, he assumed that the samples had contained only uranium and no lead when they were formed.

More important research was published in 1913. It showed that elements generally exist in multiple variants with different masses, or &quot;[[isotope]]s&quot;. In the 1930s, isotopes would be shown to have nuclei with differing numbers of the neutral particles known as &quot;[[neutrons]]&quot;. In that same year, other research was published establishing the rules for radioactive decay, allowing more precise identification of decay series.

Many geologists felt these new discoveries made radiometric dating so complicated as to be worthless.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Holmes felt that they gave him tools to improve his techniques, and he plodded ahead with his research, publishing before and after the First World War. His work was generally ignored until the 1920s, though in 1917 [[Joseph Barrell]], a professor of geology at Yale, redrew geological history as it was understood at the time to conform to Holmes's findings in radiometric dating. Barrell's research determined that the layers of strata had not all been laid down at the same rate, and so current rates of geological change could not be used to provide accurate timelines of the history of Earth.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

Holmes' persistence finally began to pay off in 1921, when the speakers at the yearly meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] came to a rough consensus that Earth was a few billion years old and that radiometric dating was credible. Holmes published ''The Age of the Earth, an Introduction to Geological Ideas'' in 1927 in which he presented a range of 1.6 to 3.0 billion years. No great push to embrace radiometric dating followed, however, and the die-hards in the geological community stubbornly resisted. They had never cared for attempts by physicists to intrude in their domain, and had successfully ignored them so far.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf The Age of the Earth Debate Badash, L ''Scientific American'' 1989 esp p95] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105173355/http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf |date=2016-11-05 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The growing weight of evidence finally tilted the balance in 1931, when the [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]] of the US [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] decided to resolve the question of the age of Earth by appointing a committee to investigate.

Holmes, being one of the few people who was trained in radiometric dating techniques, was a committee member and in fact wrote most of the final report.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dal7778&quot;&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 77–78&lt;/ref&gt; Thus, Holmes' report concluded that radioactive dating was the only reliable means of pinning down a [[geologic time scale]]. Questions of bias were deflected by the great and exacting detail of the report. It described the methods used, the care with which measurements were made, and their error bars and limitations.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

===Modern radiometric dating===
Radiometric dating continues to be the predominant way scientists date geologic time scales. Techniques for radioactive dating have been tested and fine-tuned on an ongoing basis since the 1960s. Forty or so different dating techniques have been utilized to date, working on a wide variety of materials. Dates for the same sample using these different techniques are in very close agreement on the age of the material.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Possible [[radioactive contamination|contamination]] problems do exist, but they have been studied and dealt with by careful investigation, leading to sample preparation procedures being minimized to limit the chance of contamination.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

====Use of meteorites====
An age of 4.55 ± 0.07 billion years, very close to today's accepted age, was determined by [[Clair Patterson|Clair Cameron Patterson]] using uranium–lead isotope dating (specifically [[lead–lead dating]]) on several meteorites including the [[Canyon Diablo (meteorite)|Canyon Diablo meteorite]] and published in 1956.&lt;ref name=&quot;Patterson&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Patterson | first=Claire | title=Age of meteorites and the earth | journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta | url=http://es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | date=1956 | volume=10 | issue=4 | pages=230–237 | access-date=2009-07-07 | doi=10.1016/0016-7037(56)90036-9 | bibcode=1956GeCoA..10..230P | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621045217/http://es.ucsc.edu/%7Ercoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | archive-date=2010-06-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The quoted age of Earth is derived, in part, from the Canyon Diablo meteorite for several important reasons and is built upon a modern understanding of cosmochemistry built up over decades of research.
[[File:Paterson isochron animation.gif|thumb|left|upright=1.6|Lead isotope isochron diagram showing data used by Patterson to determine the age of Earth in 1956.]]Most geological samples from Earth are unable to give a direct date of the formation of Earth from the solar nebula because Earth has undergone differentiation into the core, mantle, and crust, and this has then undergone a long history of mixing and unmixing of these sample reservoirs by [[plate tectonics]], [[weathering]] and [[hydrothermal circulation]].

All of these processes may adversely affect isotopic dating mechanisms because the sample cannot always be assumed to have remained as a closed system, by which it is meant that either the parent or daughter [[nuclide]] (a species of atom characterised by the number of neutrons and protons an atom contains) or an intermediate daughter nuclide may have been partially removed from the sample, which will skew the resulting isotopic date. To mitigate this effect it is usual to date several minerals in the same sample, to provide an [[isochron]]. Alternatively, more than one dating system may be used on a sample to check the date.

Some meteorites are furthermore considered to represent the primitive material from which the accreting solar disk was formed.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference | author=Carlson, R. W.| author2=Tera, F.
 | title=Lead–Lead Constraints on the Timescale of Early Planetary Differentiation
 | book-title=Conference Proceedings, Origin of the Earth and Moon | page=6
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=December 1–3, 1998
 | location=Houston, Texas | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf |access-date=2008-12-22 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214311/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some have behaved as closed systems (for some isotopic systems) soon after the solar disk and the planets formed.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} To date, these assumptions are supported by much scientific observation and repeated isotopic dates, and it is certainly a more robust hypothesis than that which assumes a terrestrial rock has retained its original composition.

Nevertheless, ancient [[Archean|Archaean]] lead [[ores]] of [[galena]] have been used to date the formation of Earth as these represent the earliest formed lead-only minerals on the planet and record the earliest homogeneous lead–lead isotope systems on the planet. These have returned age dates of 4.54 billion years with a precision of as little as 1% margin for error.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 310–341&lt;/ref&gt;

Statistics for several meteorites that have undergone isochron dating are as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;BGDarymple&quot;&gt;{{cite book
 | author=Dalrymple, Brent G.
 | title=Ancient Earth, Ancient Skies: The Age of the Earth and Its Cosmic Surroundings
 | url=https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr
 | url-access=registration
 | date=2004
 | publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]
 | isbn = 978-0-8047-4933-6
 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr/page/147 147], 169
}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

{| &lt;!-- is [[Figure space]], the width of one digit. --&gt;
!colspan=4 align=left| 1. St. Severin (ordinary chondrite)
|-
|width=1em| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.543 ± 0.019 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.55  ± 0.33 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.51  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
| || 4. ||| Re-Os isochron || 4.68  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 2. Juvinas (basaltic achondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.556 ± 0.012 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.540 ± 0.001 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.56  ± 0.08 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.50  ± 0.07 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 3. Allende (carbonaceous chondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.553 ± 0.004 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.52  ± 0.02 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.55  ± 0.03 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Ar-Ar age spectrum&amp;nbsp; || 4.56  ± 0.05 billion years
|}

==== ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ ====
[[File:Barringer Crater aerial photo by USGS.jpg|thumb|upright|بيرنگر ڪريٽر، ايريزونا، جتي ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ مليو هو.]]

ڌرتيء جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ لاء ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ استعمال ڪيو ويو ڇاڪاڻ ته اهو وڏو آهي ۽ خاص طور تي ناياب قسم جي ميٽيورائيٽ جو نمائندو آهي جنهن ۾ سلفائيڊ معدنيات (خاص طور تي ٽرائلائيٽ، FeS)، ڌاتو نڪل-لوهه جا مرڪب ۽ سليڪٽ معدنيات شامل آهن. اهو اهم آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته ٽن معدني شڪلن جي موجودگي نموني کي استعمال ڪندي آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي جاچ جي کي اها اجازت ڏئي ٿي جيڪي اصل ۽ ٽٽل نيوڪلائيڊس جي وچ ۾ ڪنسنٽريشن ۾ هڪ وڏو علحدگي فراهم ڪن ٿا. اهو خاص طور تي يورينيم ۽ ليڊ لاءِ سچ آهي. ليڊ مضبوط طور تي چالڪوفيلڪ آهي ۽ سلفيٽ ۾ يورينيم جي مقابلي ۾ سلفيٽ جي ڀيٽ ۾ تمام گهڻي ڪنسنٽريشن تي ملي ٿو. ميٽيورائيٽ جي ٺهڻ دوران اصل ۽ ٽٽل نيوڪلائيڊس ۾ هن الڳ ٿيڻ جي ڪري، هن شمسي ڊسڪ جي ٺهڻ ۽ ان ڪري اپگرهن جي هڪ تمام گهڻي اڳي کان وڌيڪ صحيح تاريخ جي اجازت ڏني.

[[File:Canyon-diablo-meteorite.jpg|thumb|upright|left|&quot;ڊيابلو ڪينيئن&quot; کان مليل لوھه جي شھاب جو ٽڪرو]]

&quot;ڪينيئن ڊيابلو&quot; جي شھاب مان طئي ٿيل عمر جي تصديق سوين ٻين عمر جي تعين ڪرڻ واري ذريعن سان، ڌرتيء کان مليل نمونن ۽ ٻين شھاب ٻنهي مان ڪئي وئي آھي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference
 | author=Terada, K.| author2=Sano, Y.
 | title=In-situ ion microprobe U-Pb dating of phosphates in H-chondrites | book-title=Proceedings, Eleventh Annual V. M. Goldschmidt Conference
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=May 20–24, 2001
 | location=Hot Springs, Virginia | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf | access-date=2008-12-22
 | bibcode=2001eag..conf.3306T | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214310/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; شھاب جا نمونا، بهرحال، 4.53 کان 4.58 ارب سال اڳ تائين پکڙيل ڏيکارين ٿا. ان کي شمسي نيبولا جي ٺھڻ ۽ سج ۽ سيارن کي ٺاھڻ لاءِ شمسي ڊسڪ ۾ ان جو ٽٽڻ، جي مدت جي طور تي تعبير ڪيو ويو آھي. ھي 50 ملين سالن جو عرصو اصل شمسي مٽي جي ڪڪرن ۽ شھاب مان سيارن جي واڌ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿو.

چنڊ، ھڪ ٻئي خارجي جسم جي طور تي جيڪو پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس مان نه گذريو آھي ۽ جنھن جو ڪو به ماحول نه آھي، اپولو مشن مان واپس آيل نمونن مان بلڪل صحيح عمر جون تاريخون مهيا ڪري ٿو. چنڊ تان واپس آيل پٿر وڌ ۾ وڌ 4.51 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. مريخ جا شھاب جيڪي ڌرتيءَ تي لٿا آهن انهن جي تاريخ پڻ، ليڊ-ليڊ ڊيٽنگ ذريعي تقريباً 4.5 ارب سال پراڻي آهي. چنڊ جا نمونا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي موسمي تبديلين، پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس يا جاندارن پاران منتقل ڪيل مواد کان متاثر نه ٿيا آهن، پڻ ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ٽريڪ جي سڌي اليڪٽران خوردبيني امتحان ذريعي ڊيٽنگ فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.  اعلي توانائي ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ذرڙن جي اثرن مان پيدا ٿيندڙ، خلل جو مجموعو آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي هڪ ٻي تصديق فراهم ڪري ٿو. ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ڊيٽنگ صرف ان مواد تي مفيد آهي جيڪا پگهرڻ نٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته پگھلڻ مواد جي ڪرسٽل ڍانچي کي ختم ڪري ٿو ۽ ذرڙن پاران ڇڏيل ٽريڪ کي ختم ڪري ٿو.

==پڻ ڏسو==
* {{Portal|ڌرتي}} 
* ڪائنات جي عمر 
* جيوڪرونولوجي 
* ڌرتيء جي تاريخ 
* [[فطري تاريخ]]
* فطري تاريخ جي ٽائم لائن
==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}

==ڪتابيات==
==وڌيڪ مطالعو==
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=Wijbrans |first3=J. R. |last4=Swisher III |first4=C. C. |last5=Fanning |first5=M. |title=Multimethod radiometric age for a bentonite near the top of the Baculites reesidei Zone of southwestern Saskatchewan (Campanian–Maastrichtian stage boundary?) |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=April 1993 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=769–775 |doi=10.1139/e93-063 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=McDougall |first3=I. |title=A radiometric age for the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary based upon K–Ar, Rb–Sr, and U–Pb ages of bentonites from Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1988 |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=1088–1097 |doi=10.1139/e88-106 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Eberth |first1=David A. |last2=Braman |first2=Dennis R. |last3=Tokaryk |first3=Tim T. |title=Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and Vertebrate Paleontology of the Judith River Formation (Campanian) Near Muddy Lake, West-Central Saskatchewan |journal=Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology |date=1990 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=387–406 |url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/cspg/data/038/038004/0387.htm }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goodwin |first1=Mark B. |last2=Deino |first2=Alan L. |title=The first radiometric ages from the Judith River Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Hill County, Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1989 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=1384–1391 |doi=10.1139/e89-118 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gradstein |first1=Felix M. |last2=Agterberg |first2=Frits P. |last3=Ogg |first3=James G. |last4=Hardenbol |first4=Jan |last5=Veen |first5=Paul Van |last6=Thierry |first6=Jacques |last7=Huang |first7=Zehui |title=Geochronology, Time Scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation |chapter=A Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Time Scale |date=1995 |doi=10.2110/pec.95.04.0095 |isbn=978-1-56576-091-2 }}
* Harland, W.B., Cox, A.V.; Llewellyn, P.G.; Pickton, C.A.G.; Smith, A.G.; and Walters, R., 1982. ''A Geologic Time Scale'': 1982 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 131p.{{isbn?}}
* Harland, W.B.; [[Richard Lee Armstrong|Armstrong, R.L.]]; Cox, A.V.; Craig, L.E.; Smith, A.G.; Smith, D.G., 1990. ''A Geologic Time Scale'', 1989 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, p.&amp;nbsp;1–263. {{ISBN|0-521-38765-5}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Harper | first1 = C.W. Jr | year = 1980 | title = Relative age inference in paleontology | journal = Lethaia | volume = 13 | issue = 3| pages = 239–248 | doi = 10.1111/j.1502-3931.1980.tb00638.x | bibcode = 1980Letha..13..239H }}
* Obradovich, J.D., 1993. A Cretaceous time scale. IN: Caldwell, W.G.E. and Kauffman, E.G. (eds.). ''Evolution of the Western Interior Basin''. Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 39, p.&amp;nbsp;379–396.{{isbn?}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Palmer | first1 = Allison R | year = 1983 | title = The Decade of North American Geology 1983 Geologic Time Scale | journal = Geology | volume = 11 | issue = 9| pages = 503–504 | doi = 10.1130/0091-7613(1983)11&lt;503:tdonag&gt;2.0.co;2 | bibcode = 1983Geo....11..503P }}
* Powell, James Lawrence, 2001, ''Mysteries of Terra Firma: the Age and Evolution of the Earth'', Simon &amp; Schuster, {{ISBN|0-684-87282-X}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [https://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html The Age of the Earth] by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org)
* [https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS preface on the Age of the Earth]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites]
* [https://www.fleming-group.com/Misc/Pre-1900%20Non-Religious%20Estimates%20of%20the%20Age%20of%20the%20Earth.pdf Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth]
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      <text bytes="36935" sha1="lfo2j5o5xor1srt2qjqkbgzchrt5m5i" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The_Blue_Marble_(remastered).jpg|thumb|''نيرو سنگ مرمر'' (Blue Marble)، [[ڌرتي]] جيئن 1972ع ۾ اپولو 17 مان ڏٺو ويو آهي.]]
'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ  &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينئٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارا ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ]] جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا [[معدنيات]] - [[اولهائون آسٽريليا|اولهائين آسٽريليا]] جي جيڪ هلز مان [[زرڪونيئم|زرڪون]] جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيلشيئم|ڪيلشيم]]-[[ايليومينيم|ايلومينيم]] سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ، ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتي جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. ڌرتيء تي موجود قديم ترين پٿر، جيڪا مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، جئين  ته اها ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن، جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو.

==ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ==
{{Main|ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ}}
===جائزو===
پٿر جي معدنيات ۾ ڪجهه [[ڪيميائي عنصر|'''ڪيميائي تت''']] پهرين کان موجود هوندا آهن ۽ پٿرن ۾ موجود تابڪار [[آئسوٽوپ|آئسوٽوپس]] تي، [[تابڪاريت|تابڪاري]] زوال (ڪٽڻ) جو عمل، وقت سان گڏ نوان ننڍا ڪيميائي تت پيدا ڪري ٿو. زوال جي مستحڪم آخري پيداوار جي ارتڪاز کي ماپڻ، اڌ زندگي جي ڄاڻ ۽ زوال جي پيداوار عنصرن جي شروعاتي ارتڪاز معلوم ڪرڻ سان پٿر جي عمر جو حساب لڳائي سگهجي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot;&gt;{{cite book | author=Nichols, Gary | title=Sedimentology and Stratigraphy | chapter=21.2 Radiometric Dating | pages=325–327 | publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons | date=2009 | isbn=978-1-4051-9379-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;  عام طور تي تابڪاري زوال جي آخري شيون [[پوٽاشيئم|پوٽاشيم]]-40 جي زوال مان پيدا ٿيل [[آرگون]] ۽ [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] ۽ [[ٿوريئم|ٿوريم]] جي ڪٽڻ مان [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ (شيهي)]] جا ايٽم آهن. جيڪڏهن پٿر پگھري وڃي ٿو (جيئن ڌرتيءَ جي اندرون پرت ۾ ٿئي ٿو) ته اهڙيون غير تابڪار آخري شيون عام طور تي نڪرجي وڃن ٿيون يا ٻيهر ورهائجي وڃن ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot; /&gt; اهڙيءَ طرح سڀ کان پراڻي زميني پٿر جي عمر ڌرتيءَ جي عمر لاءِ اندازو ڏئي ٿي، جئين ته فرض ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪو به پٿر پاڻ ڌرتيءَ جي عمر کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين برقرار نه رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot; /&gt;

=== ڪنويڪٽو مينٽل ۽ تابڪاري ===
تابڪاري (Radioactivity) جي دريافت حساب ۾ هڪ ٻيو عنصر متعارف ڪرايو. 1896 ۾ هينري بيڪريل جي شروعاتي دريافت کان پوءِ. ميري ۽ پيئر ڪيوري 1898 ۾ تابڪاري عنصرن پولونيم ۽ ريڊيم کي دريافت ڪيو. ۽ 1903 ۾، پيئر ڪيوري ۽ البرٽ ليبورڊ اعلان ڪيو ته. ريڊيم ايتري گرمي پيدا ڪري ٿو جو برف ۾ پنهنجو وزن هڪ ڪلاڪ کان به گهٽ وقت ۾ ڳاري سگهي. ارضيات جي ماهرن جلدي محسوس ڪيو ته هن ڌرتيءَ جي عمر جي اڪثر حسابن کي خراب ڪري ڇڏيو. انهن فرض ڪيو هو ته ڌرتيءَ ۽ سج جي اصل گرمي مسلسل خلا ۾ ختم ٿي وئي هئي. پر تابڪاري زوال جو مطلب اهو هو ته هي گرمي مسلسل ڀرجي وئي هئي. جارج ڊارون ۽ جان جولي پهريون شخص هئا جن 1903 ۾ هن ڳالهه جي نشاندهي ڪئي.


discovery of radioactivity introduced another factor in the calculation. After [[Henri Becquerel]]'s initial discovery in 1896,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=420–421|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f422.chemindefer}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 420 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=501–503|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f503.item}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 501–503 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Marie Curie|Marie]] and [[Pierre Curie]] discovered the radioactive elements [[polonium]] and [[radium]] in 1898;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |year=1898 |title=Sur une nouvelle substance fortement radio-active, contenue dans la pechblende (On a new, strongly radioactive substance contained in pitchblende) |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=127 |pages=1215–1217 |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |access-date=12 April 2021 |author=Curie, Pierre |author2=Curie, Marie |author3=Bémont, Gustave |name-list-style=amp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806083923/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |archive-date=6 August 2009 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; and in 1903, Pierre Curie and [[Albert Laborde]] announced that radium produces enough heat to melt its own weight in ice in less than an hour.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Curie, Pierre |author2=Laborde, Albert |title=Sur la chaleur dégagée spontanément par les sels de radium |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=136 |pages=673–675 |year=1903 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3091c/f673.item}}&lt;/ref&gt; Geologists quickly realized that this upset the assumptions underlying most calculations of the age of Earth. These had assumed that the original heat of Earth and the Sun had dissipated steadily into space, but radioactive decay meant that this heat had been continually replenished. George Darwin and John Joly were the first to point this out, in 1903.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=John | last=Joly | date=1909
 | title=Radioactivity and Geology: An Account of the Influence of Radioactive Energy on Terrestrial History | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich | edition=1st | page=[https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich/page/36 36]
 | publisher=Archibald Constable &amp; Co., ltd
 | location=London, UK }} Reprinted by BookSurge Publishing (2004) {{ISBN|1-4021-3577-7}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== ريڊيو ميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ايجاد ===
تابڪاري (Radioactivity)، جنهن پراڻي طريقن کي ختم ڪري ڇڏيو هو، ريڊيو ميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي صورت ۾، نئين حسابن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪندي بونس حاصل ڪيو. 
[[File:Ernest Rutherford 1908.jpg|thumb|[[Ernest Rutherford]] in 1908]]
[[Ernest Rutherford]] and [[Frederick Soddy]] jointly had continued their work on radioactive materials and concluded that radioactivity was caused by a spontaneous transmutation of atomic elements. In radioactive decay, an element breaks down into another, lighter element, releasing alpha, beta, or [[Gamma ray|gamma]] radiation in the process. They also determined that a particular isotope of a radioactive element decays into another element at a distinctive rate. This rate is given in terms of a &quot;half-life&quot;, or the amount of time it takes half of a mass of that radioactive material to break down into its &quot;decay product&quot;.

Some radioactive materials have short half-lives; some have long half-lives. Uranium and thorium have long half-lives and so persist in Earth's crust, but radioactive elements with short half-lives have generally disappeared. This suggested that it might be possible to measure the age of Earth by determining the relative proportions of radioactive materials in geological samples. In reality, radioactive elements do not always decay into nonradioactive (&quot;stable&quot;) elements directly, instead, decaying into other radioactive elements that have their own half-lives and so on, until they reach a [[stable element]]. These &quot;[[decay chain]]s&quot;, such as the uranium-radium and thorium series, were known within a few years of the discovery of radioactivity and provided a basis for constructing techniques of radiometric dating.

The pioneers of radioactivity were chemist [[Bertram B. Boltwood]] and physicist Rutherford. Boltwood had conducted studies of radioactive materials as a consultant, and when Rutherford lectured at Yale in 1904,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=E. | last=Rutherford | date=1906
 | title=Radioactive Transformations
 | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivetran01ruthgoog | publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons
 | location=London }} Reprinted by Juniper Grove (2007) {{ISBN|978-1-60355-054-3}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood was inspired to describe the relationships between elements in various decay series. Late in 1904, Rutherford took the first step toward radiometric dating by suggesting that the [[alpha particle]]s released by radioactive decay could be trapped in a rocky material as [[helium]] atoms. At the time, Rutherford was only guessing at the relationship between alpha particles and helium atoms, but he would prove the connection four years later.

Soddy and Sir [[William Ramsay]] had just determined the rate at which radium produces alpha particles, and Rutherford proposed that he could determine the age of a rock sample by measuring its concentration of helium. He dated a rock in his possession to an age of 40 million years by this technique. Rutherford wrote of addressing a meeting of the [[Royal Institution]] in 1904:

{{blockquote|I came into the room, which was half dark, and presently spotted Lord Kelvin in the audience and realized that I was in trouble at the last part of my speech dealing with the age of the Earth, where my views conflicted with his. To my relief, Kelvin fell fast asleep, but as I came to the important point, I saw the old bird sit up, open an eye, and cock a baleful glance at me! Then a sudden inspiration came, and I said, &quot;Lord Kelvin had limited the age of the Earth, provided no new source was discovered. That prophetic utterance refers to what we are now considering tonight, radium!&quot; Behold! the old boy beamed upon me.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=Arthur Stewart | last=Eve | date=1939
 | title=Rutherford: Being the life and letters of the Rt. Hon. Lord Rutherford, O. M.
 | url=https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbeingl0000evea | url-access=registration | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
 | location=Cambridge }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Rutherford assumed that the rate of decay of radium as determined by Ramsay and Soddy was accurate and that helium did not escape from the sample over time. Rutherford's scheme was inaccurate, but it was a useful first step. Boltwood focused on the end products of decay series. In 1905, he suggested that lead was the final stable product of the decay of radium. It was already known that radium was an intermediate product of the decay of uranium. Rutherford joined in, outlining a decay process in which radium emitted five alpha particles through various intermediate products to end up with lead, and speculated that the radium–lead decay chain could be used to date rock samples. Boltwood did the legwork and by the end of 1905 had provided dates for 26 separate rock samples, ranging from 92 to 570 million years. He did not publish these results, which was fortunate because they were flawed by measurement errors and poor estimates of the half-life of radium. Boltwood refined his work and finally published the results in 1907.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

Boltwood's paper pointed out that samples taken from comparable layers of strata had similar lead-to-uranium ratios, and that samples from older layers had a higher proportion of lead, except where there was evidence that lead had [[Leaching (chemistry)|leached]] out of the sample. His studies were flawed by the fact that the decay series of thorium was not understood, which led to incorrect results for samples that contained both uranium and thorium. However, his calculations were far more accurate than any that had been performed to that time. Refinements in the technique would later give ages for Boltwood's 26 samples of 410 million to 2.2 billion years.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

===Arthur Holmes establishes radiometric dating===
Although Boltwood published his paper in a prominent geological journal, the geological community had little interest in radioactivity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Joosse |first=Tess |date=2024-01-11 |title=February 1907: Bertram Boltwood Estimates Earth is at Least 2.2 Billion Years Old |url=https://www.aps.org/apsnews/2024/01/boltwood-earth-age |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=www.aps.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood gave up work on radiometric dating and went on to investigate other decay series. Rutherford remained mildly curious about the issue of the age of Earth but did little work on it.

[[Robert Strutt, 4th Baron Rayleigh|Robert Strutt]] tinkered with Rutherford's helium method until 1910 and then ceased. However, Strutt's student [[Arthur Holmes]] became interested in radiometric dating and continued to work on it after everyone else had given up. Holmes focused on lead dating because he regarded the helium method as unpromising. He performed measurements on rock samples and concluded in 1911 that the oldest (a sample from [[Ceylon]]) was about 1.6 billion years old.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) p. 74&lt;/ref&gt; These calculations were not particularly trustworthy. For example, he assumed that the samples had contained only uranium and no lead when they were formed.

More important research was published in 1913. It showed that elements generally exist in multiple variants with different masses, or &quot;[[isotope]]s&quot;. In the 1930s, isotopes would be shown to have nuclei with differing numbers of the neutral particles known as &quot;[[neutrons]]&quot;. In that same year, other research was published establishing the rules for radioactive decay, allowing more precise identification of decay series.

Many geologists felt these new discoveries made radiometric dating so complicated as to be worthless.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Holmes felt that they gave him tools to improve his techniques, and he plodded ahead with his research, publishing before and after the First World War. His work was generally ignored until the 1920s, though in 1917 [[Joseph Barrell]], a professor of geology at Yale, redrew geological history as it was understood at the time to conform to Holmes's findings in radiometric dating. Barrell's research determined that the layers of strata had not all been laid down at the same rate, and so current rates of geological change could not be used to provide accurate timelines of the history of Earth.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

Holmes' persistence finally began to pay off in 1921, when the speakers at the yearly meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] came to a rough consensus that Earth was a few billion years old and that radiometric dating was credible. Holmes published ''The Age of the Earth, an Introduction to Geological Ideas'' in 1927 in which he presented a range of 1.6 to 3.0 billion years. No great push to embrace radiometric dating followed, however, and the die-hards in the geological community stubbornly resisted. They had never cared for attempts by physicists to intrude in their domain, and had successfully ignored them so far.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf The Age of the Earth Debate Badash, L ''Scientific American'' 1989 esp p95] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105173355/http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf |date=2016-11-05 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The growing weight of evidence finally tilted the balance in 1931, when the [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]] of the US [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] decided to resolve the question of the age of Earth by appointing a committee to investigate.

Holmes, being one of the few people who was trained in radiometric dating techniques, was a committee member and in fact wrote most of the final report.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dal7778&quot;&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 77–78&lt;/ref&gt; Thus, Holmes' report concluded that radioactive dating was the only reliable means of pinning down a [[geologic time scale]]. Questions of bias were deflected by the great and exacting detail of the report. It described the methods used, the care with which measurements were made, and their error bars and limitations.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

===Modern radiometric dating===
Radiometric dating continues to be the predominant way scientists date geologic time scales. Techniques for radioactive dating have been tested and fine-tuned on an ongoing basis since the 1960s. Forty or so different dating techniques have been utilized to date, working on a wide variety of materials. Dates for the same sample using these different techniques are in very close agreement on the age of the material.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Possible [[radioactive contamination|contamination]] problems do exist, but they have been studied and dealt with by careful investigation, leading to sample preparation procedures being minimized to limit the chance of contamination.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

====Use of meteorites====
An age of 4.55 ± 0.07 billion years, very close to today's accepted age, was determined by [[Clair Patterson|Clair Cameron Patterson]] using uranium–lead isotope dating (specifically [[lead–lead dating]]) on several meteorites including the [[Canyon Diablo (meteorite)|Canyon Diablo meteorite]] and published in 1956.&lt;ref name=&quot;Patterson&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Patterson | first=Claire | title=Age of meteorites and the earth | journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta | url=http://es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | date=1956 | volume=10 | issue=4 | pages=230–237 | access-date=2009-07-07 | doi=10.1016/0016-7037(56)90036-9 | bibcode=1956GeCoA..10..230P | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621045217/http://es.ucsc.edu/%7Ercoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | archive-date=2010-06-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The quoted age of Earth is derived, in part, from the Canyon Diablo meteorite for several important reasons and is built upon a modern understanding of cosmochemistry built up over decades of research.
[[File:Paterson isochron animation.gif|thumb|left|upright=1.6|Lead isotope isochron diagram showing data used by Patterson to determine the age of Earth in 1956.]]Most geological samples from Earth are unable to give a direct date of the formation of Earth from the solar nebula because Earth has undergone differentiation into the core, mantle, and crust, and this has then undergone a long history of mixing and unmixing of these sample reservoirs by [[plate tectonics]], [[weathering]] and [[hydrothermal circulation]].

All of these processes may adversely affect isotopic dating mechanisms because the sample cannot always be assumed to have remained as a closed system, by which it is meant that either the parent or daughter [[nuclide]] (a species of atom characterised by the number of neutrons and protons an atom contains) or an intermediate daughter nuclide may have been partially removed from the sample, which will skew the resulting isotopic date. To mitigate this effect it is usual to date several minerals in the same sample, to provide an [[isochron]]. Alternatively, more than one dating system may be used on a sample to check the date.

Some meteorites are furthermore considered to represent the primitive material from which the accreting solar disk was formed.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference | author=Carlson, R. W.| author2=Tera, F.
 | title=Lead–Lead Constraints on the Timescale of Early Planetary Differentiation
 | book-title=Conference Proceedings, Origin of the Earth and Moon | page=6
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=December 1–3, 1998
 | location=Houston, Texas | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf |access-date=2008-12-22 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214311/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some have behaved as closed systems (for some isotopic systems) soon after the solar disk and the planets formed.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} To date, these assumptions are supported by much scientific observation and repeated isotopic dates, and it is certainly a more robust hypothesis than that which assumes a terrestrial rock has retained its original composition.

Nevertheless, ancient [[Archean|Archaean]] lead [[ores]] of [[galena]] have been used to date the formation of Earth as these represent the earliest formed lead-only minerals on the planet and record the earliest homogeneous lead–lead isotope systems on the planet. These have returned age dates of 4.54 billion years with a precision of as little as 1% margin for error.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 310–341&lt;/ref&gt;

Statistics for several meteorites that have undergone isochron dating are as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;BGDarymple&quot;&gt;{{cite book
 | author=Dalrymple, Brent G.
 | title=Ancient Earth, Ancient Skies: The Age of the Earth and Its Cosmic Surroundings
 | url=https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr
 | url-access=registration
 | date=2004
 | publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]
 | isbn = 978-0-8047-4933-6
 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr/page/147 147], 169
}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

{| &lt;!-- is [[Figure space]], the width of one digit. --&gt;
!colspan=4 align=left| 1. St. Severin (ordinary chondrite)
|-
|width=1em| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.543 ± 0.019 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.55  ± 0.33 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.51  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
| || 4. ||| Re-Os isochron || 4.68  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 2. Juvinas (basaltic achondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.556 ± 0.012 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.540 ± 0.001 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.56  ± 0.08 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.50  ± 0.07 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 3. Allende (carbonaceous chondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.553 ± 0.004 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.52  ± 0.02 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.55  ± 0.03 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Ar-Ar age spectrum&amp;nbsp; || 4.56  ± 0.05 billion years
|}

==== ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ ====
[[File:Barringer Crater aerial photo by USGS.jpg|thumb|upright|بيرنگر ڪريٽر، ايريزونا، جتي ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ مليو هو.]]

ڌرتيء جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ لاء ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ استعمال ڪيو ويو ڇاڪاڻ ته اهو وڏو آهي ۽ خاص طور تي ناياب قسم جي ميٽيورائيٽ جو نمائندو آهي جنهن ۾ سلفائيڊ معدنيات (خاص طور تي ٽرائلائيٽ، FeS)، ڌاتو نڪل-لوهه جا مرڪب ۽ سليڪٽ معدنيات شامل آهن. اهو اهم آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته ٽن معدني شڪلن جي موجودگي نموني کي استعمال ڪندي آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي جاچ جي کي اها اجازت ڏئي ٿي جيڪي اصل ۽ ٽٽل نيوڪلائيڊس جي وچ ۾ ڪنسنٽريشن ۾ هڪ وڏو علحدگي فراهم ڪن ٿا. اهو خاص طور تي يورينيم ۽ ليڊ لاءِ سچ آهي. ليڊ مضبوط طور تي چالڪوفيلڪ آهي ۽ سلفيٽ ۾ يورينيم جي مقابلي ۾ سلفيٽ جي ڀيٽ ۾ تمام گهڻي ڪنسنٽريشن تي ملي ٿو. ميٽيورائيٽ جي ٺهڻ دوران اصل ۽ ٽٽل نيوڪلائيڊس ۾ هن الڳ ٿيڻ جي ڪري، هن شمسي ڊسڪ جي ٺهڻ ۽ ان ڪري اپگرهن جي هڪ تمام گهڻي اڳي کان وڌيڪ صحيح تاريخ جي اجازت ڏني.

[[File:Canyon-diablo-meteorite.jpg|thumb|upright|left|&quot;ڊيابلو ڪينيئن&quot; کان مليل لوھه جي شھاب جو ٽڪرو]]

&quot;ڪينيئن ڊيابلو&quot; جي شھاب مان طئي ٿيل عمر جي تصديق سوين ٻين عمر جي تعين ڪرڻ واري ذريعن سان، ڌرتيء کان مليل نمونن ۽ ٻين شھاب ٻنهي مان ڪئي وئي آھي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference
 | author=Terada, K.| author2=Sano, Y.
 | title=In-situ ion microprobe U-Pb dating of phosphates in H-chondrites | book-title=Proceedings, Eleventh Annual V. M. Goldschmidt Conference
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=May 20–24, 2001
 | location=Hot Springs, Virginia | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf | access-date=2008-12-22
 | bibcode=2001eag..conf.3306T | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214310/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; شھاب جا نمونا، بهرحال، 4.53 کان 4.58 ارب سال اڳ تائين پکڙيل ڏيکارين ٿا. ان کي شمسي نيبولا جي ٺھڻ ۽ سج ۽ سيارن کي ٺاھڻ لاءِ شمسي ڊسڪ ۾ ان جو ٽٽڻ، جي مدت جي طور تي تعبير ڪيو ويو آھي. ھي 50 ملين سالن جو عرصو اصل شمسي مٽي جي ڪڪرن ۽ شھاب مان سيارن جي واڌ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿو.

چنڊ، ھڪ ٻئي خارجي جسم جي طور تي جيڪو پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس مان نه گذريو آھي ۽ جنھن جو ڪو به ماحول نه آھي، اپولو مشن مان واپس آيل نمونن مان بلڪل صحيح عمر جون تاريخون مهيا ڪري ٿو. چنڊ تان واپس آيل پٿر وڌ ۾ وڌ 4.51 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. مريخ جا شھاب جيڪي ڌرتيءَ تي لٿا آهن انهن جي تاريخ پڻ، ليڊ-ليڊ ڊيٽنگ ذريعي تقريباً 4.5 ارب سال پراڻي آهي. چنڊ جا نمونا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي موسمي تبديلين، پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس يا جاندارن پاران منتقل ڪيل مواد کان متاثر نه ٿيا آهن، پڻ ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ٽريڪ جي سڌي اليڪٽران خوردبيني امتحان ذريعي ڊيٽنگ فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.  اعلي توانائي ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ذرڙن جي اثرن مان پيدا ٿيندڙ، خلل جو مجموعو آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي هڪ ٻي تصديق فراهم ڪري ٿو. ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ڊيٽنگ صرف ان مواد تي مفيد آهي جيڪا پگهرڻ نٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته پگھلڻ مواد جي ڪرسٽل ڍانچي کي ختم ڪري ٿو ۽ ذرڙن پاران ڇڏيل ٽريڪ کي ختم ڪري ٿو.

==پڻ ڏسو==
* {{Portal|ڌرتي}} 
* ڪائنات جي عمر 
* جيوڪرونولوجي 
* ڌرتيء جي تاريخ 
* [[فطري تاريخ]]
* فطري تاريخ جي ٽائم لائن
==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}

==ڪتابيات==
==وڌيڪ مطالعو==
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=Wijbrans |first3=J. R. |last4=Swisher III |first4=C. C. |last5=Fanning |first5=M. |title=Multimethod radiometric age for a bentonite near the top of the Baculites reesidei Zone of southwestern Saskatchewan (Campanian–Maastrichtian stage boundary?) |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=April 1993 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=769–775 |doi=10.1139/e93-063 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=McDougall |first3=I. |title=A radiometric age for the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary based upon K–Ar, Rb–Sr, and U–Pb ages of bentonites from Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1988 |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=1088–1097 |doi=10.1139/e88-106 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Eberth |first1=David A. |last2=Braman |first2=Dennis R. |last3=Tokaryk |first3=Tim T. |title=Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and Vertebrate Paleontology of the Judith River Formation (Campanian) Near Muddy Lake, West-Central Saskatchewan |journal=Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology |date=1990 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=387–406 |url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/cspg/data/038/038004/0387.htm }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goodwin |first1=Mark B. |last2=Deino |first2=Alan L. |title=The first radiometric ages from the Judith River Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Hill County, Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1989 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=1384–1391 |doi=10.1139/e89-118 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gradstein |first1=Felix M. |last2=Agterberg |first2=Frits P. |last3=Ogg |first3=James G. |last4=Hardenbol |first4=Jan |last5=Veen |first5=Paul Van |last6=Thierry |first6=Jacques |last7=Huang |first7=Zehui |title=Geochronology, Time Scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation |chapter=A Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Time Scale |date=1995 |doi=10.2110/pec.95.04.0095 |isbn=978-1-56576-091-2 }}
* Harland, W.B., Cox, A.V.; Llewellyn, P.G.; Pickton, C.A.G.; Smith, A.G.; and Walters, R., 1982. ''A Geologic Time Scale'': 1982 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 131p.{{isbn?}}
* Harland, W.B.; [[Richard Lee Armstrong|Armstrong, R.L.]]; Cox, A.V.; Craig, L.E.; Smith, A.G.; Smith, D.G., 1990. ''A Geologic Time Scale'', 1989 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, p.&amp;nbsp;1–263. {{ISBN|0-521-38765-5}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Harper | first1 = C.W. Jr | year = 1980 | title = Relative age inference in paleontology | journal = Lethaia | volume = 13 | issue = 3| pages = 239–248 | doi = 10.1111/j.1502-3931.1980.tb00638.x | bibcode = 1980Letha..13..239H }}
* Obradovich, J.D., 1993. A Cretaceous time scale. IN: Caldwell, W.G.E. and Kauffman, E.G. (eds.). ''Evolution of the Western Interior Basin''. Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 39, p.&amp;nbsp;379–396.{{isbn?}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Palmer | first1 = Allison R | year = 1983 | title = The Decade of North American Geology 1983 Geologic Time Scale | journal = Geology | volume = 11 | issue = 9| pages = 503–504 | doi = 10.1130/0091-7613(1983)11&lt;503:tdonag&gt;2.0.co;2 | bibcode = 1983Geo....11..503P }}
* Powell, James Lawrence, 2001, ''Mysteries of Terra Firma: the Age and Evolution of the Earth'', Simon &amp; Schuster, {{ISBN|0-684-87282-X}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [https://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html The Age of the Earth] by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org)
* [https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS preface on the Age of the Earth]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites]
* [https://www.fleming-group.com/Misc/Pre-1900%20Non-Religious%20Estimates%20of%20the%20Age%20of%20the%20Earth.pdf Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth]
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[[زمرو:ڌرتي جي عمر]]
[[زمرو:ڌرتي]]
[[زمرو:ارضياتي تاريخ]]
[[زمرو:ارضياتي نظريا]]
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      <text bytes="36474" sha1="dzrg1rnq6eazlmo5w162k9s3kxtu45o" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The_Blue_Marble_(remastered).jpg|thumb|''نيرو سنگ مرمر'' (Blue Marble)، [[ڌرتي]] جيئن 1972ع ۾ اپولو 17 مان ڏٺو ويو آهي.]]
'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ  &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينئٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارا ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ]] جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا [[معدنيات]] - [[اولهائون آسٽريليا|اولهائين آسٽريليا]] جي جيڪ هلز مان [[زرڪونيئم|زرڪون]] جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيلشيئم|ڪيلشيم]]-[[ايليومينيم|ايلومينيم]] سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ، ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتي جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. ڌرتيء تي موجود قديم ترين پٿر، جيڪا مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، جئين  ته اها ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن، جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو.

==ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ==
{{Main|ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ}}
===جائزو===
پٿر جي معدنيات ۾ ڪجهه [[ڪيميائي عنصر|'''ڪيميائي تت''']] پهرين کان موجود هوندا آهن ۽ پٿرن ۾ موجود تابڪار [[آئسوٽوپ|آئسوٽوپس]] تي، [[تابڪاريت|تابڪاري]] زوال (ڪٽڻ) جو عمل، وقت سان گڏ نوان ننڍا ڪيميائي تت پيدا ڪري ٿو. زوال جي مستحڪم آخري پيداوار جي ارتڪاز کي ماپڻ، اڌ زندگي جي ڄاڻ ۽ زوال جي پيداوار عنصرن جي شروعاتي ارتڪاز معلوم ڪرڻ سان پٿر جي عمر جو حساب لڳائي سگهجي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot;&gt;{{cite book | author=Nichols, Gary | title=Sedimentology and Stratigraphy | chapter=21.2 Radiometric Dating | pages=325–327 | publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons | date=2009 | isbn=978-1-4051-9379-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;  عام طور تي تابڪاري زوال جي آخري شيون [[پوٽاشيئم|پوٽاشيم]]-40 جي زوال مان پيدا ٿيل [[آرگون]] ۽ [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] ۽ [[ٿوريئم|ٿوريم]] جي ڪٽڻ مان [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ (شيهي)]] جا ايٽم آهن. جيڪڏهن پٿر پگھري وڃي ٿو (جيئن ڌرتيءَ جي اندرون پرت ۾ ٿئي ٿو) ته اهڙيون غير تابڪار آخري شيون عام طور تي نڪرجي وڃن ٿيون يا ٻيهر ورهائجي وڃن ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot; /&gt; اهڙيءَ طرح سڀ کان پراڻي زميني پٿر جي عمر ڌرتيءَ جي عمر لاءِ اندازو ڏئي ٿي، جئين ته فرض ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪو به پٿر پاڻ ڌرتيءَ جي عمر کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين برقرار نه رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot; /&gt;

=== ڪنويڪٽو مينٽل ۽ تابڪاري ===
[[تابڪاريت|تابڪاري]] (Radioactivity) جي دريافت حساب ۾ هڪ ٻيو عنصر متعارف ڪرايو. سال 1896ع ۾ [[هينري بيڪيوريل|هينري بيڪريل]] جي شروعاتي دريافت کان پوءِ،,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=420–421|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f422.chemindefer}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 420 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=501–503|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f503.item}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 501–503 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; [[ميري ڪيوري]] ۽ پيئر ڪيوري سال &lt;small&gt;1898ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾ تابڪار [[تت]] [[پولونيئم|پولونيم]] ۽ [[ريڊيئم|ريڊيم]] کي دريافت ڪيو&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |year=1898 |title=Sur une nouvelle substance fortement radio-active, contenue dans la pechblende (On a new, strongly radioactive substance contained in pitchblende) |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=127 |pages=1215–1217 |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |access-date=12 April 2021 |author=Curie, Pierre |author2=Curie, Marie |author3=Bémont, Gustave |name-list-style=amp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806083923/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |archive-date=6 August 2009 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ سال &lt;small&gt;1903ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾، پيئر ڪيوري ۽ البرٽ ليبورڊ اعلان ڪيو ته ريڊيم پنهنجي تابڪاري جي ڪارڻ ايتري گرمي پيدا ڪري ٿو جو پنهنجي وزن جي برابر برف کي هڪ ڪلاڪ کان به گهٽ وقت ۾ ڳاري سگهي ٿو،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Curie, Pierre |author2=Laborde, Albert |title=Sur la chaleur dégagée spontanément par les sels de radium |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=136 |pages=673–675 |year=1903 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3091c/f673.item}}&lt;/ref&gt; ارضيات جا ماهر جلدي محسوس ڪيو ته اها ڌرتيءَ جي عمر جي اڪثر حسابن کي خراب ڪري ڇڏيو آهي. جئين ته انهن فرض ڪيو هو ته ڌرتيءَ ۽ سج جي اصل گرمي مسلسل خلا ۾ ختم ٿي وئي هئي، پر تابڪاري زوال جو مطلب اهو هو ته خلا ۾ گم ٿيل هي گرمي مسلسل ڀرجي وئي هئي. جارج ڊارون ۽ جان جولي پهريان شخص هئا، جنهن سال  1903ع ۾ هن ڳالهه جي نشاندهي ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=John | last=Joly | date=1909
 | title=Radioactivity and Geology: An Account of the Influence of Radioactive Energy on Terrestrial History | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich | edition=1st | page=[https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich/page/36 36]
 | publisher=Archibald Constable &amp; Co., ltd
 | location=London, UK }} Reprinted by BookSurge Publishing (2004) {{ISBN|1-4021-3577-7}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== ريڊيو ميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ايجاد ===
تابڪاري (Radioactivity)، جنهن پراڻي طريقن کي ختم ڪري ڇڏيو هو، ريڊيو ميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي صورت ۾، نئين حسابن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪندي بونس حاصل ڪيو. 
[[File:Ernest Rutherford 1908.jpg|thumb|[[Ernest Rutherford]] in 1908]]
[[Ernest Rutherford]] and [[Frederick Soddy]] jointly had continued their work on radioactive materials and concluded that radioactivity was caused by a spontaneous transmutation of atomic elements. In radioactive decay, an element breaks down into another, lighter element, releasing alpha, beta, or [[Gamma ray|gamma]] radiation in the process. They also determined that a particular isotope of a radioactive element decays into another element at a distinctive rate. This rate is given in terms of a &quot;half-life&quot;, or the amount of time it takes half of a mass of that radioactive material to break down into its &quot;decay product&quot;.

Some radioactive materials have short half-lives; some have long half-lives. Uranium and thorium have long half-lives and so persist in Earth's crust, but radioactive elements with short half-lives have generally disappeared. This suggested that it might be possible to measure the age of Earth by determining the relative proportions of radioactive materials in geological samples. In reality, radioactive elements do not always decay into nonradioactive (&quot;stable&quot;) elements directly, instead, decaying into other radioactive elements that have their own half-lives and so on, until they reach a [[stable element]]. These &quot;[[decay chain]]s&quot;, such as the uranium-radium and thorium series, were known within a few years of the discovery of radioactivity and provided a basis for constructing techniques of radiometric dating.

The pioneers of radioactivity were chemist [[Bertram B. Boltwood]] and physicist Rutherford. Boltwood had conducted studies of radioactive materials as a consultant, and when Rutherford lectured at Yale in 1904,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=E. | last=Rutherford | date=1906
 | title=Radioactive Transformations
 | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivetran01ruthgoog | publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons
 | location=London }} Reprinted by Juniper Grove (2007) {{ISBN|978-1-60355-054-3}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood was inspired to describe the relationships between elements in various decay series. Late in 1904, Rutherford took the first step toward radiometric dating by suggesting that the [[alpha particle]]s released by radioactive decay could be trapped in a rocky material as [[helium]] atoms. At the time, Rutherford was only guessing at the relationship between alpha particles and helium atoms, but he would prove the connection four years later.

Soddy and Sir [[William Ramsay]] had just determined the rate at which radium produces alpha particles, and Rutherford proposed that he could determine the age of a rock sample by measuring its concentration of helium. He dated a rock in his possession to an age of 40 million years by this technique. Rutherford wrote of addressing a meeting of the [[Royal Institution]] in 1904:

{{blockquote|I came into the room, which was half dark, and presently spotted Lord Kelvin in the audience and realized that I was in trouble at the last part of my speech dealing with the age of the Earth, where my views conflicted with his. To my relief, Kelvin fell fast asleep, but as I came to the important point, I saw the old bird sit up, open an eye, and cock a baleful glance at me! Then a sudden inspiration came, and I said, &quot;Lord Kelvin had limited the age of the Earth, provided no new source was discovered. That prophetic utterance refers to what we are now considering tonight, radium!&quot; Behold! the old boy beamed upon me.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=Arthur Stewart | last=Eve | date=1939
 | title=Rutherford: Being the life and letters of the Rt. Hon. Lord Rutherford, O. M.
 | url=https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbeingl0000evea | url-access=registration | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
 | location=Cambridge }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Rutherford assumed that the rate of decay of radium as determined by Ramsay and Soddy was accurate and that helium did not escape from the sample over time. Rutherford's scheme was inaccurate, but it was a useful first step. Boltwood focused on the end products of decay series. In 1905, he suggested that lead was the final stable product of the decay of radium. It was already known that radium was an intermediate product of the decay of uranium. Rutherford joined in, outlining a decay process in which radium emitted five alpha particles through various intermediate products to end up with lead, and speculated that the radium–lead decay chain could be used to date rock samples. Boltwood did the legwork and by the end of 1905 had provided dates for 26 separate rock samples, ranging from 92 to 570 million years. He did not publish these results, which was fortunate because they were flawed by measurement errors and poor estimates of the half-life of radium. Boltwood refined his work and finally published the results in 1907.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

Boltwood's paper pointed out that samples taken from comparable layers of strata had similar lead-to-uranium ratios, and that samples from older layers had a higher proportion of lead, except where there was evidence that lead had [[Leaching (chemistry)|leached]] out of the sample. His studies were flawed by the fact that the decay series of thorium was not understood, which led to incorrect results for samples that contained both uranium and thorium. However, his calculations were far more accurate than any that had been performed to that time. Refinements in the technique would later give ages for Boltwood's 26 samples of 410 million to 2.2 billion years.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

===Arthur Holmes establishes radiometric dating===
Although Boltwood published his paper in a prominent geological journal, the geological community had little interest in radioactivity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Joosse |first=Tess |date=2024-01-11 |title=February 1907: Bertram Boltwood Estimates Earth is at Least 2.2 Billion Years Old |url=https://www.aps.org/apsnews/2024/01/boltwood-earth-age |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=www.aps.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood gave up work on radiometric dating and went on to investigate other decay series. Rutherford remained mildly curious about the issue of the age of Earth but did little work on it.

[[Robert Strutt, 4th Baron Rayleigh|Robert Strutt]] tinkered with Rutherford's helium method until 1910 and then ceased. However, Strutt's student [[Arthur Holmes]] became interested in radiometric dating and continued to work on it after everyone else had given up. Holmes focused on lead dating because he regarded the helium method as unpromising. He performed measurements on rock samples and concluded in 1911 that the oldest (a sample from [[Ceylon]]) was about 1.6 billion years old.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) p. 74&lt;/ref&gt; These calculations were not particularly trustworthy. For example, he assumed that the samples had contained only uranium and no lead when they were formed.

More important research was published in 1913. It showed that elements generally exist in multiple variants with different masses, or &quot;[[isotope]]s&quot;. In the 1930s, isotopes would be shown to have nuclei with differing numbers of the neutral particles known as &quot;[[neutrons]]&quot;. In that same year, other research was published establishing the rules for radioactive decay, allowing more precise identification of decay series.

Many geologists felt these new discoveries made radiometric dating so complicated as to be worthless.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Holmes felt that they gave him tools to improve his techniques, and he plodded ahead with his research, publishing before and after the First World War. His work was generally ignored until the 1920s, though in 1917 [[Joseph Barrell]], a professor of geology at Yale, redrew geological history as it was understood at the time to conform to Holmes's findings in radiometric dating. Barrell's research determined that the layers of strata had not all been laid down at the same rate, and so current rates of geological change could not be used to provide accurate timelines of the history of Earth.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

Holmes' persistence finally began to pay off in 1921, when the speakers at the yearly meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] came to a rough consensus that Earth was a few billion years old and that radiometric dating was credible. Holmes published ''The Age of the Earth, an Introduction to Geological Ideas'' in 1927 in which he presented a range of 1.6 to 3.0 billion years. No great push to embrace radiometric dating followed, however, and the die-hards in the geological community stubbornly resisted. They had never cared for attempts by physicists to intrude in their domain, and had successfully ignored them so far.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf The Age of the Earth Debate Badash, L ''Scientific American'' 1989 esp p95] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105173355/http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf |date=2016-11-05 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The growing weight of evidence finally tilted the balance in 1931, when the [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]] of the US [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] decided to resolve the question of the age of Earth by appointing a committee to investigate.

Holmes, being one of the few people who was trained in radiometric dating techniques, was a committee member and in fact wrote most of the final report.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dal7778&quot;&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 77–78&lt;/ref&gt; Thus, Holmes' report concluded that radioactive dating was the only reliable means of pinning down a [[geologic time scale]]. Questions of bias were deflected by the great and exacting detail of the report. It described the methods used, the care with which measurements were made, and their error bars and limitations.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

===Modern radiometric dating===
Radiometric dating continues to be the predominant way scientists date geologic time scales. Techniques for radioactive dating have been tested and fine-tuned on an ongoing basis since the 1960s. Forty or so different dating techniques have been utilized to date, working on a wide variety of materials. Dates for the same sample using these different techniques are in very close agreement on the age of the material.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Possible [[radioactive contamination|contamination]] problems do exist, but they have been studied and dealt with by careful investigation, leading to sample preparation procedures being minimized to limit the chance of contamination.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

====Use of meteorites====
An age of 4.55 ± 0.07 billion years, very close to today's accepted age, was determined by [[Clair Patterson|Clair Cameron Patterson]] using uranium–lead isotope dating (specifically [[lead–lead dating]]) on several meteorites including the [[Canyon Diablo (meteorite)|Canyon Diablo meteorite]] and published in 1956.&lt;ref name=&quot;Patterson&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Patterson | first=Claire | title=Age of meteorites and the earth | journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta | url=http://es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | date=1956 | volume=10 | issue=4 | pages=230–237 | access-date=2009-07-07 | doi=10.1016/0016-7037(56)90036-9 | bibcode=1956GeCoA..10..230P | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621045217/http://es.ucsc.edu/%7Ercoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | archive-date=2010-06-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The quoted age of Earth is derived, in part, from the Canyon Diablo meteorite for several important reasons and is built upon a modern understanding of cosmochemistry built up over decades of research.
[[File:Paterson isochron animation.gif|thumb|left|upright=1.6|Lead isotope isochron diagram showing data used by Patterson to determine the age of Earth in 1956.]]Most geological samples from Earth are unable to give a direct date of the formation of Earth from the solar nebula because Earth has undergone differentiation into the core, mantle, and crust, and this has then undergone a long history of mixing and unmixing of these sample reservoirs by [[plate tectonics]], [[weathering]] and [[hydrothermal circulation]].

All of these processes may adversely affect isotopic dating mechanisms because the sample cannot always be assumed to have remained as a closed system, by which it is meant that either the parent or daughter [[nuclide]] (a species of atom characterised by the number of neutrons and protons an atom contains) or an intermediate daughter nuclide may have been partially removed from the sample, which will skew the resulting isotopic date. To mitigate this effect it is usual to date several minerals in the same sample, to provide an [[isochron]]. Alternatively, more than one dating system may be used on a sample to check the date.

Some meteorites are furthermore considered to represent the primitive material from which the accreting solar disk was formed.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference | author=Carlson, R. W.| author2=Tera, F.
 | title=Lead–Lead Constraints on the Timescale of Early Planetary Differentiation
 | book-title=Conference Proceedings, Origin of the Earth and Moon | page=6
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=December 1–3, 1998
 | location=Houston, Texas | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf |access-date=2008-12-22 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214311/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some have behaved as closed systems (for some isotopic systems) soon after the solar disk and the planets formed.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} To date, these assumptions are supported by much scientific observation and repeated isotopic dates, and it is certainly a more robust hypothesis than that which assumes a terrestrial rock has retained its original composition.

Nevertheless, ancient [[Archean|Archaean]] lead [[ores]] of [[galena]] have been used to date the formation of Earth as these represent the earliest formed lead-only minerals on the planet and record the earliest homogeneous lead–lead isotope systems on the planet. These have returned age dates of 4.54 billion years with a precision of as little as 1% margin for error.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 310–341&lt;/ref&gt;

Statistics for several meteorites that have undergone isochron dating are as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;BGDarymple&quot;&gt;{{cite book
 | author=Dalrymple, Brent G.
 | title=Ancient Earth, Ancient Skies: The Age of the Earth and Its Cosmic Surroundings
 | url=https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr
 | url-access=registration
 | date=2004
 | publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]
 | isbn = 978-0-8047-4933-6
 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr/page/147 147], 169
}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

{| &lt;!-- is [[Figure space]], the width of one digit. --&gt;
!colspan=4 align=left| 1. St. Severin (ordinary chondrite)
|-
|width=1em| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.543 ± 0.019 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.55  ± 0.33 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.51  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
| || 4. ||| Re-Os isochron || 4.68  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 2. Juvinas (basaltic achondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.556 ± 0.012 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.540 ± 0.001 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.56  ± 0.08 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.50  ± 0.07 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 3. Allende (carbonaceous chondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.553 ± 0.004 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.52  ± 0.02 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.55  ± 0.03 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Ar-Ar age spectrum&amp;nbsp; || 4.56  ± 0.05 billion years
|}

==== ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ ====
[[File:Barringer Crater aerial photo by USGS.jpg|thumb|upright|بيرنگر ڪريٽر، ايريزونا، جتي ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ مليو هو.]]

ڌرتيء جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ لاء ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ استعمال ڪيو ويو ڇاڪاڻ ته اهو وڏو آهي ۽ خاص طور تي ناياب قسم جي ميٽيورائيٽ جو نمائندو آهي جنهن ۾ سلفائيڊ معدنيات (خاص طور تي ٽرائلائيٽ، FeS)، ڌاتو نڪل-لوهه جا مرڪب ۽ سليڪٽ معدنيات شامل آهن. اهو اهم آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته ٽن معدني شڪلن جي موجودگي نموني کي استعمال ڪندي آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي جاچ جي کي اها اجازت ڏئي ٿي جيڪي اصل ۽ ٽٽل نيوڪلائيڊس جي وچ ۾ ڪنسنٽريشن ۾ هڪ وڏو علحدگي فراهم ڪن ٿا. اهو خاص طور تي يورينيم ۽ ليڊ لاءِ سچ آهي. ليڊ مضبوط طور تي چالڪوفيلڪ آهي ۽ سلفيٽ ۾ يورينيم جي مقابلي ۾ سلفيٽ جي ڀيٽ ۾ تمام گهڻي ڪنسنٽريشن تي ملي ٿو. ميٽيورائيٽ جي ٺهڻ دوران اصل ۽ ٽٽل نيوڪلائيڊس ۾ هن الڳ ٿيڻ جي ڪري، هن شمسي ڊسڪ جي ٺهڻ ۽ ان ڪري اپگرهن جي هڪ تمام گهڻي اڳي کان وڌيڪ صحيح تاريخ جي اجازت ڏني.

[[File:Canyon-diablo-meteorite.jpg|thumb|upright|left|&quot;ڊيابلو ڪينيئن&quot; کان مليل لوھه جي شھاب جو ٽڪرو]]

&quot;ڪينيئن ڊيابلو&quot; جي شھاب مان طئي ٿيل عمر جي تصديق سوين ٻين عمر جي تعين ڪرڻ واري ذريعن سان، ڌرتيء کان مليل نمونن ۽ ٻين شھاب ٻنهي مان ڪئي وئي آھي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference
 | author=Terada, K.| author2=Sano, Y.
 | title=In-situ ion microprobe U-Pb dating of phosphates in H-chondrites | book-title=Proceedings, Eleventh Annual V. M. Goldschmidt Conference
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=May 20–24, 2001
 | location=Hot Springs, Virginia | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf | access-date=2008-12-22
 | bibcode=2001eag..conf.3306T | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214310/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; شھاب جا نمونا، بهرحال، 4.53 کان 4.58 ارب سال اڳ تائين پکڙيل ڏيکارين ٿا. ان کي شمسي نيبولا جي ٺھڻ ۽ سج ۽ سيارن کي ٺاھڻ لاءِ شمسي ڊسڪ ۾ ان جو ٽٽڻ، جي مدت جي طور تي تعبير ڪيو ويو آھي. ھي 50 ملين سالن جو عرصو اصل شمسي مٽي جي ڪڪرن ۽ شھاب مان سيارن جي واڌ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿو.

چنڊ، ھڪ ٻئي خارجي جسم جي طور تي جيڪو پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس مان نه گذريو آھي ۽ جنھن جو ڪو به ماحول نه آھي، اپولو مشن مان واپس آيل نمونن مان بلڪل صحيح عمر جون تاريخون مهيا ڪري ٿو. چنڊ تان واپس آيل پٿر وڌ ۾ وڌ 4.51 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. مريخ جا شھاب جيڪي ڌرتيءَ تي لٿا آهن انهن جي تاريخ پڻ، ليڊ-ليڊ ڊيٽنگ ذريعي تقريباً 4.5 ارب سال پراڻي آهي. چنڊ جا نمونا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي موسمي تبديلين، پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس يا جاندارن پاران منتقل ڪيل مواد کان متاثر نه ٿيا آهن، پڻ ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ٽريڪ جي سڌي اليڪٽران خوردبيني امتحان ذريعي ڊيٽنگ فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.  اعلي توانائي ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ذرڙن جي اثرن مان پيدا ٿيندڙ، خلل جو مجموعو آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي هڪ ٻي تصديق فراهم ڪري ٿو. ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ڊيٽنگ صرف ان مواد تي مفيد آهي جيڪا پگهرڻ نٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته پگھلڻ مواد جي ڪرسٽل ڍانچي کي ختم ڪري ٿو ۽ ذرڙن پاران ڇڏيل ٽريڪ کي ختم ڪري ٿو.

==پڻ ڏسو==
* {{Portal|ڌرتي}} 
* ڪائنات جي عمر 
* جيوڪرونولوجي 
* ڌرتيء جي تاريخ 
* [[فطري تاريخ]]
* فطري تاريخ جي ٽائم لائن
==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}

==ڪتابيات==
==وڌيڪ مطالعو==
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=Wijbrans |first3=J. R. |last4=Swisher III |first4=C. C. |last5=Fanning |first5=M. |title=Multimethod radiometric age for a bentonite near the top of the Baculites reesidei Zone of southwestern Saskatchewan (Campanian–Maastrichtian stage boundary?) |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=April 1993 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=769–775 |doi=10.1139/e93-063 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=McDougall |first3=I. |title=A radiometric age for the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary based upon K–Ar, Rb–Sr, and U–Pb ages of bentonites from Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1988 |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=1088–1097 |doi=10.1139/e88-106 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Eberth |first1=David A. |last2=Braman |first2=Dennis R. |last3=Tokaryk |first3=Tim T. |title=Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and Vertebrate Paleontology of the Judith River Formation (Campanian) Near Muddy Lake, West-Central Saskatchewan |journal=Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology |date=1990 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=387–406 |url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/cspg/data/038/038004/0387.htm }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goodwin |first1=Mark B. |last2=Deino |first2=Alan L. |title=The first radiometric ages from the Judith River Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Hill County, Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1989 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=1384–1391 |doi=10.1139/e89-118 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gradstein |first1=Felix M. |last2=Agterberg |first2=Frits P. |last3=Ogg |first3=James G. |last4=Hardenbol |first4=Jan |last5=Veen |first5=Paul Van |last6=Thierry |first6=Jacques |last7=Huang |first7=Zehui |title=Geochronology, Time Scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation |chapter=A Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Time Scale |date=1995 |doi=10.2110/pec.95.04.0095 |isbn=978-1-56576-091-2 }}
* Harland, W.B., Cox, A.V.; Llewellyn, P.G.; Pickton, C.A.G.; Smith, A.G.; and Walters, R., 1982. ''A Geologic Time Scale'': 1982 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 131p.{{isbn?}}
* Harland, W.B.; [[Richard Lee Armstrong|Armstrong, R.L.]]; Cox, A.V.; Craig, L.E.; Smith, A.G.; Smith, D.G., 1990. ''A Geologic Time Scale'', 1989 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, p.&amp;nbsp;1–263. {{ISBN|0-521-38765-5}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Harper | first1 = C.W. Jr | year = 1980 | title = Relative age inference in paleontology | journal = Lethaia | volume = 13 | issue = 3| pages = 239–248 | doi = 10.1111/j.1502-3931.1980.tb00638.x | bibcode = 1980Letha..13..239H }}
* Obradovich, J.D., 1993. A Cretaceous time scale. IN: Caldwell, W.G.E. and Kauffman, E.G. (eds.). ''Evolution of the Western Interior Basin''. Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 39, p.&amp;nbsp;379–396.{{isbn?}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Palmer | first1 = Allison R | year = 1983 | title = The Decade of North American Geology 1983 Geologic Time Scale | journal = Geology | volume = 11 | issue = 9| pages = 503–504 | doi = 10.1130/0091-7613(1983)11&lt;503:tdonag&gt;2.0.co;2 | bibcode = 1983Geo....11..503P }}
* Powell, James Lawrence, 2001, ''Mysteries of Terra Firma: the Age and Evolution of the Earth'', Simon &amp; Schuster, {{ISBN|0-684-87282-X}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [https://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html The Age of the Earth] by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org)
* [https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS preface on the Age of the Earth]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites]
* [https://www.fleming-group.com/Misc/Pre-1900%20Non-Religious%20Estimates%20of%20the%20Age%20of%20the%20Earth.pdf Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth]
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[[زمرو:ڌرتي جي عمر]]
[[زمرو:ڌرتي]]
[[زمرو:ارضياتي تاريخ]]
[[زمرو:ارضياتي نظريا]]
[[زمرو:ڌرتي سائنس جي تاريخ]] 
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      <text bytes="36492" sha1="q8d8n5tv27bt4xyyzqfnskx8e8lga7e" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The_Blue_Marble_(remastered).jpg|thumb|''نيرو سنگ مرمر'' (Blue Marble)، [[ڌرتي]] جيئن 1972ع ۾ اپولو 17 مان ڏٺو ويو آهي.]]
'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ  &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينئٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارا ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ]] جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا [[معدنيات]] - [[اولهائون آسٽريليا|اولهائين آسٽريليا]] جي جيڪ هلز مان [[زرڪونيئم|زرڪون]] جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيلشيئم|ڪيلشيم]]-[[ايليومينيم|ايلومينيم]] سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ، ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتي جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. ڌرتيء تي موجود قديم ترين پٿر، جيڪا مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، جئين  ته اها ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن، جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو.

==ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ==
{{Main|ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ}}
===جائزو===
پٿر جي معدنيات ۾ ڪجهه [[ڪيميائي عنصر|'''ڪيميائي تت''']] پهرين کان موجود هوندا آهن ۽ پٿرن ۾ موجود تابڪار [[آئسوٽوپ|آئسوٽوپس]] تي، [[تابڪاريت|تابڪاري]] زوال (ڪٽڻ) جو عمل، وقت سان گڏ نوان ننڍا ڪيميائي تت پيدا ڪري ٿو. زوال جي مستحڪم آخري پيداوار جي ارتڪاز کي ماپڻ، اڌ زندگي جي ڄاڻ ۽ زوال جي پيداوار عنصرن جي شروعاتي ارتڪاز معلوم ڪرڻ سان پٿر جي عمر جو حساب لڳائي سگهجي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot;&gt;{{cite book | author=Nichols, Gary | title=Sedimentology and Stratigraphy | chapter=21.2 Radiometric Dating | pages=325–327 | publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons | date=2009 | isbn=978-1-4051-9379-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;  عام طور تي تابڪاري زوال جي آخري شيون [[پوٽاشيئم|پوٽاشيم]]-40 جي زوال مان پيدا ٿيل [[آرگون]] ۽ [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] ۽ [[ٿوريئم|ٿوريم]] جي ڪٽڻ مان [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ (شيهي)]] جا ايٽم آهن. جيڪڏهن پٿر پگھري وڃي ٿو (جيئن ڌرتيءَ جي اندرون پرت ۾ ٿئي ٿو) ته اهڙيون غير تابڪار آخري شيون عام طور تي نڪرجي وڃن ٿيون يا ٻيهر ورهائجي وڃن ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot; /&gt; اهڙيءَ طرح سڀ کان پراڻي زميني پٿر جي عمر ڌرتيءَ جي عمر لاءِ اندازو ڏئي ٿي، جئين ته فرض ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪو به پٿر پاڻ ڌرتيءَ جي عمر کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين برقرار نه رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot; /&gt;

=== ڪنويڪٽو مينٽل ۽ تابڪاري ===
[[تابڪاريت|تابڪاري]] (Radioactivity) جي دريافت حساب ۾ هڪ ٻيو عنصر متعارف ڪرايو. سال 1896ع ۾ [[هينري بيڪيوريل|هينري بيڪريل]] جي شروعاتي دريافت کان پوءِ،,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=420–421|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f422.chemindefer}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 420 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=501–503|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f503.item}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 501–503 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; [[ميري ڪيوري]] ۽ پيئر ڪيوري سال &lt;small&gt;1898ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾ تابڪار [[تت]] [[پولونيئم|پولونيم]] ۽ [[ريڊيئم|ريڊيم]] کي دريافت ڪيو&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |year=1898 |title=Sur une nouvelle substance fortement radio-active, contenue dans la pechblende (On a new, strongly radioactive substance contained in pitchblende) |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=127 |pages=1215–1217 |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |access-date=12 April 2021 |author=Curie, Pierre |author2=Curie, Marie |author3=Bémont, Gustave |name-list-style=amp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806083923/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |archive-date=6 August 2009 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ سال &lt;small&gt;1903ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾، پيئر ڪيوري ۽ البرٽ ليبورڊ اعلان ڪيو ته ريڊيم پنهنجي تابڪاري جي ڪارڻ ايتري گرمي پيدا ڪري ٿو جو پنهنجي وزن جي برابر برف کي هڪ ڪلاڪ کان به گهٽ وقت ۾ ڳاري سگهي ٿو،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Curie, Pierre |author2=Laborde, Albert |title=Sur la chaleur dégagée spontanément par les sels de radium |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=136 |pages=673–675 |year=1903 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3091c/f673.item}}&lt;/ref&gt; ارضيات جا ماهر جلدي محسوس ڪيو ته اها ڌرتيءَ جي عمر جي اڪثر حسابن کي خراب ڪري ڇڏيو آهي. جئين ته انهن فرض ڪيو هو ته ڌرتيءَ ۽ سج جي اصل گرمي مسلسل خلا ۾ ختم ٿي وئي هئي، پر تابڪاري زوال جو مطلب اهو هو ته خلا ۾ گم ٿيل هي گرمي مسلسل ڀرجي وئي هئي. جارج ڊارون ۽ جان جولي پهريان شخص هئا، جنهن سال  1903ع ۾ هن ڳالهه جي نشاندهي ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=John | last=Joly | date=1909
 | title=Radioactivity and Geology: An Account of the Influence of Radioactive Energy on Terrestrial History | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich | edition=1st | page=[https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich/page/36 36]
 | publisher=Archibald Constable &amp; Co., ltd
 | location=London, UK }} Reprinted by BookSurge Publishing (2004) {{ISBN|1-4021-3577-7}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== ريڊيو ميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ايجاد ===
تابڪاري (Radioactivity) جي دريافت، جنهن پراڻي طريقن کي ختم ڪري ڇڏيو هو، ريڊيو ميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي صورت ۾، نئين حسابن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪندي بونس حاصل ڪيو. 
[[File:Ernest Rutherford 1908.jpg|thumb|[[Ernest Rutherford]] in 1908]]
[[Ernest Rutherford]] and [[Frederick Soddy]] jointly had continued their work on radioactive materials and concluded that radioactivity was caused by a spontaneous transmutation of atomic elements. In radioactive decay, an element breaks down into another, lighter element, releasing alpha, beta, or [[Gamma ray|gamma]] radiation in the process. They also determined that a particular isotope of a radioactive element decays into another element at a distinctive rate. This rate is given in terms of a &quot;half-life&quot;, or the amount of time it takes half of a mass of that radioactive material to break down into its &quot;decay product&quot;.

Some radioactive materials have short half-lives; some have long half-lives. Uranium and thorium have long half-lives and so persist in Earth's crust, but radioactive elements with short half-lives have generally disappeared. This suggested that it might be possible to measure the age of Earth by determining the relative proportions of radioactive materials in geological samples. In reality, radioactive elements do not always decay into nonradioactive (&quot;stable&quot;) elements directly, instead, decaying into other radioactive elements that have their own half-lives and so on, until they reach a [[stable element]]. These &quot;[[decay chain]]s&quot;, such as the uranium-radium and thorium series, were known within a few years of the discovery of radioactivity and provided a basis for constructing techniques of radiometric dating.

The pioneers of radioactivity were chemist [[Bertram B. Boltwood]] and physicist Rutherford. Boltwood had conducted studies of radioactive materials as a consultant, and when Rutherford lectured at Yale in 1904,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=E. | last=Rutherford | date=1906
 | title=Radioactive Transformations
 | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivetran01ruthgoog | publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons
 | location=London }} Reprinted by Juniper Grove (2007) {{ISBN|978-1-60355-054-3}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood was inspired to describe the relationships between elements in various decay series. Late in 1904, Rutherford took the first step toward radiometric dating by suggesting that the [[alpha particle]]s released by radioactive decay could be trapped in a rocky material as [[helium]] atoms. At the time, Rutherford was only guessing at the relationship between alpha particles and helium atoms, but he would prove the connection four years later.

Soddy and Sir [[William Ramsay]] had just determined the rate at which radium produces alpha particles, and Rutherford proposed that he could determine the age of a rock sample by measuring its concentration of helium. He dated a rock in his possession to an age of 40 million years by this technique. Rutherford wrote of addressing a meeting of the [[Royal Institution]] in 1904:

{{blockquote|I came into the room, which was half dark, and presently spotted Lord Kelvin in the audience and realized that I was in trouble at the last part of my speech dealing with the age of the Earth, where my views conflicted with his. To my relief, Kelvin fell fast asleep, but as I came to the important point, I saw the old bird sit up, open an eye, and cock a baleful glance at me! Then a sudden inspiration came, and I said, &quot;Lord Kelvin had limited the age of the Earth, provided no new source was discovered. That prophetic utterance refers to what we are now considering tonight, radium!&quot; Behold! the old boy beamed upon me.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=Arthur Stewart | last=Eve | date=1939
 | title=Rutherford: Being the life and letters of the Rt. Hon. Lord Rutherford, O. M.
 | url=https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbeingl0000evea | url-access=registration | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
 | location=Cambridge }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Rutherford assumed that the rate of decay of radium as determined by Ramsay and Soddy was accurate and that helium did not escape from the sample over time. Rutherford's scheme was inaccurate, but it was a useful first step. Boltwood focused on the end products of decay series. In 1905, he suggested that lead was the final stable product of the decay of radium. It was already known that radium was an intermediate product of the decay of uranium. Rutherford joined in, outlining a decay process in which radium emitted five alpha particles through various intermediate products to end up with lead, and speculated that the radium–lead decay chain could be used to date rock samples. Boltwood did the legwork and by the end of 1905 had provided dates for 26 separate rock samples, ranging from 92 to 570 million years. He did not publish these results, which was fortunate because they were flawed by measurement errors and poor estimates of the half-life of radium. Boltwood refined his work and finally published the results in 1907.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

Boltwood's paper pointed out that samples taken from comparable layers of strata had similar lead-to-uranium ratios, and that samples from older layers had a higher proportion of lead, except where there was evidence that lead had [[Leaching (chemistry)|leached]] out of the sample. His studies were flawed by the fact that the decay series of thorium was not understood, which led to incorrect results for samples that contained both uranium and thorium. However, his calculations were far more accurate than any that had been performed to that time. Refinements in the technique would later give ages for Boltwood's 26 samples of 410 million to 2.2 billion years.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

===Arthur Holmes establishes radiometric dating===
Although Boltwood published his paper in a prominent geological journal, the geological community had little interest in radioactivity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Joosse |first=Tess |date=2024-01-11 |title=February 1907: Bertram Boltwood Estimates Earth is at Least 2.2 Billion Years Old |url=https://www.aps.org/apsnews/2024/01/boltwood-earth-age |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=www.aps.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood gave up work on radiometric dating and went on to investigate other decay series. Rutherford remained mildly curious about the issue of the age of Earth but did little work on it.

[[Robert Strutt, 4th Baron Rayleigh|Robert Strutt]] tinkered with Rutherford's helium method until 1910 and then ceased. However, Strutt's student [[Arthur Holmes]] became interested in radiometric dating and continued to work on it after everyone else had given up. Holmes focused on lead dating because he regarded the helium method as unpromising. He performed measurements on rock samples and concluded in 1911 that the oldest (a sample from [[Ceylon]]) was about 1.6 billion years old.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) p. 74&lt;/ref&gt; These calculations were not particularly trustworthy. For example, he assumed that the samples had contained only uranium and no lead when they were formed.

More important research was published in 1913. It showed that elements generally exist in multiple variants with different masses, or &quot;[[isotope]]s&quot;. In the 1930s, isotopes would be shown to have nuclei with differing numbers of the neutral particles known as &quot;[[neutrons]]&quot;. In that same year, other research was published establishing the rules for radioactive decay, allowing more precise identification of decay series.

Many geologists felt these new discoveries made radiometric dating so complicated as to be worthless.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Holmes felt that they gave him tools to improve his techniques, and he plodded ahead with his research, publishing before and after the First World War. His work was generally ignored until the 1920s, though in 1917 [[Joseph Barrell]], a professor of geology at Yale, redrew geological history as it was understood at the time to conform to Holmes's findings in radiometric dating. Barrell's research determined that the layers of strata had not all been laid down at the same rate, and so current rates of geological change could not be used to provide accurate timelines of the history of Earth.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

Holmes' persistence finally began to pay off in 1921, when the speakers at the yearly meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] came to a rough consensus that Earth was a few billion years old and that radiometric dating was credible. Holmes published ''The Age of the Earth, an Introduction to Geological Ideas'' in 1927 in which he presented a range of 1.6 to 3.0 billion years. No great push to embrace radiometric dating followed, however, and the die-hards in the geological community stubbornly resisted. They had never cared for attempts by physicists to intrude in their domain, and had successfully ignored them so far.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf The Age of the Earth Debate Badash, L ''Scientific American'' 1989 esp p95] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105173355/http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf |date=2016-11-05 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The growing weight of evidence finally tilted the balance in 1931, when the [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]] of the US [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] decided to resolve the question of the age of Earth by appointing a committee to investigate.

Holmes, being one of the few people who was trained in radiometric dating techniques, was a committee member and in fact wrote most of the final report.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dal7778&quot;&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 77–78&lt;/ref&gt; Thus, Holmes' report concluded that radioactive dating was the only reliable means of pinning down a [[geologic time scale]]. Questions of bias were deflected by the great and exacting detail of the report. It described the methods used, the care with which measurements were made, and their error bars and limitations.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

===Modern radiometric dating===
Radiometric dating continues to be the predominant way scientists date geologic time scales. Techniques for radioactive dating have been tested and fine-tuned on an ongoing basis since the 1960s. Forty or so different dating techniques have been utilized to date, working on a wide variety of materials. Dates for the same sample using these different techniques are in very close agreement on the age of the material.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Possible [[radioactive contamination|contamination]] problems do exist, but they have been studied and dealt with by careful investigation, leading to sample preparation procedures being minimized to limit the chance of contamination.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

====Use of meteorites====
An age of 4.55 ± 0.07 billion years, very close to today's accepted age, was determined by [[Clair Patterson|Clair Cameron Patterson]] using uranium–lead isotope dating (specifically [[lead–lead dating]]) on several meteorites including the [[Canyon Diablo (meteorite)|Canyon Diablo meteorite]] and published in 1956.&lt;ref name=&quot;Patterson&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Patterson | first=Claire | title=Age of meteorites and the earth | journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta | url=http://es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | date=1956 | volume=10 | issue=4 | pages=230–237 | access-date=2009-07-07 | doi=10.1016/0016-7037(56)90036-9 | bibcode=1956GeCoA..10..230P | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621045217/http://es.ucsc.edu/%7Ercoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | archive-date=2010-06-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The quoted age of Earth is derived, in part, from the Canyon Diablo meteorite for several important reasons and is built upon a modern understanding of cosmochemistry built up over decades of research.
[[File:Paterson isochron animation.gif|thumb|left|upright=1.6|Lead isotope isochron diagram showing data used by Patterson to determine the age of Earth in 1956.]]Most geological samples from Earth are unable to give a direct date of the formation of Earth from the solar nebula because Earth has undergone differentiation into the core, mantle, and crust, and this has then undergone a long history of mixing and unmixing of these sample reservoirs by [[plate tectonics]], [[weathering]] and [[hydrothermal circulation]].

All of these processes may adversely affect isotopic dating mechanisms because the sample cannot always be assumed to have remained as a closed system, by which it is meant that either the parent or daughter [[nuclide]] (a species of atom characterised by the number of neutrons and protons an atom contains) or an intermediate daughter nuclide may have been partially removed from the sample, which will skew the resulting isotopic date. To mitigate this effect it is usual to date several minerals in the same sample, to provide an [[isochron]]. Alternatively, more than one dating system may be used on a sample to check the date.

Some meteorites are furthermore considered to represent the primitive material from which the accreting solar disk was formed.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference | author=Carlson, R. W.| author2=Tera, F.
 | title=Lead–Lead Constraints on the Timescale of Early Planetary Differentiation
 | book-title=Conference Proceedings, Origin of the Earth and Moon | page=6
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=December 1–3, 1998
 | location=Houston, Texas | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf |access-date=2008-12-22 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214311/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some have behaved as closed systems (for some isotopic systems) soon after the solar disk and the planets formed.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} To date, these assumptions are supported by much scientific observation and repeated isotopic dates, and it is certainly a more robust hypothesis than that which assumes a terrestrial rock has retained its original composition.

Nevertheless, ancient [[Archean|Archaean]] lead [[ores]] of [[galena]] have been used to date the formation of Earth as these represent the earliest formed lead-only minerals on the planet and record the earliest homogeneous lead–lead isotope systems on the planet. These have returned age dates of 4.54 billion years with a precision of as little as 1% margin for error.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 310–341&lt;/ref&gt;

Statistics for several meteorites that have undergone isochron dating are as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;BGDarymple&quot;&gt;{{cite book
 | author=Dalrymple, Brent G.
 | title=Ancient Earth, Ancient Skies: The Age of the Earth and Its Cosmic Surroundings
 | url=https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr
 | url-access=registration
 | date=2004
 | publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]
 | isbn = 978-0-8047-4933-6
 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr/page/147 147], 169
}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

{| &lt;!-- is [[Figure space]], the width of one digit. --&gt;
!colspan=4 align=left| 1. St. Severin (ordinary chondrite)
|-
|width=1em| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.543 ± 0.019 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.55  ± 0.33 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.51  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
| || 4. ||| Re-Os isochron || 4.68  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 2. Juvinas (basaltic achondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.556 ± 0.012 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.540 ± 0.001 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.56  ± 0.08 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.50  ± 0.07 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 3. Allende (carbonaceous chondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.553 ± 0.004 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.52  ± 0.02 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.55  ± 0.03 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Ar-Ar age spectrum&amp;nbsp; || 4.56  ± 0.05 billion years
|}

==== ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ ====
[[File:Barringer Crater aerial photo by USGS.jpg|thumb|upright|بيرنگر ڪريٽر، ايريزونا، جتي ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ مليو هو.]]

ڌرتيء جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ لاء ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ استعمال ڪيو ويو ڇاڪاڻ ته اهو وڏو آهي ۽ خاص طور تي ناياب قسم جي ميٽيورائيٽ جو نمائندو آهي جنهن ۾ سلفائيڊ معدنيات (خاص طور تي ٽرائلائيٽ، FeS)، ڌاتو نڪل-لوهه جا مرڪب ۽ سليڪٽ معدنيات شامل آهن. اهو اهم آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته ٽن معدني شڪلن جي موجودگي نموني کي استعمال ڪندي آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي جاچ جي کي اها اجازت ڏئي ٿي جيڪي اصل ۽ ٽٽل نيوڪلائيڊس جي وچ ۾ ڪنسنٽريشن ۾ هڪ وڏو علحدگي فراهم ڪن ٿا. اهو خاص طور تي يورينيم ۽ ليڊ لاءِ سچ آهي. ليڊ مضبوط طور تي چالڪوفيلڪ آهي ۽ سلفيٽ ۾ يورينيم جي مقابلي ۾ سلفيٽ جي ڀيٽ ۾ تمام گهڻي ڪنسنٽريشن تي ملي ٿو. ميٽيورائيٽ جي ٺهڻ دوران اصل ۽ ٽٽل نيوڪلائيڊس ۾ هن الڳ ٿيڻ جي ڪري، هن شمسي ڊسڪ جي ٺهڻ ۽ ان ڪري اپگرهن جي هڪ تمام گهڻي اڳي کان وڌيڪ صحيح تاريخ جي اجازت ڏني.

[[File:Canyon-diablo-meteorite.jpg|thumb|upright|left|&quot;ڊيابلو ڪينيئن&quot; کان مليل لوھه جي شھاب جو ٽڪرو]]

&quot;ڪينيئن ڊيابلو&quot; جي شھاب مان طئي ٿيل عمر جي تصديق سوين ٻين عمر جي تعين ڪرڻ واري ذريعن سان، ڌرتيء کان مليل نمونن ۽ ٻين شھاب ٻنهي مان ڪئي وئي آھي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference
 | author=Terada, K.| author2=Sano, Y.
 | title=In-situ ion microprobe U-Pb dating of phosphates in H-chondrites | book-title=Proceedings, Eleventh Annual V. M. Goldschmidt Conference
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=May 20–24, 2001
 | location=Hot Springs, Virginia | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf | access-date=2008-12-22
 | bibcode=2001eag..conf.3306T | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214310/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; شھاب جا نمونا، بهرحال، 4.53 کان 4.58 ارب سال اڳ تائين پکڙيل ڏيکارين ٿا. ان کي شمسي نيبولا جي ٺھڻ ۽ سج ۽ سيارن کي ٺاھڻ لاءِ شمسي ڊسڪ ۾ ان جو ٽٽڻ، جي مدت جي طور تي تعبير ڪيو ويو آھي. ھي 50 ملين سالن جو عرصو اصل شمسي مٽي جي ڪڪرن ۽ شھاب مان سيارن جي واڌ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿو.

چنڊ، ھڪ ٻئي خارجي جسم جي طور تي جيڪو پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس مان نه گذريو آھي ۽ جنھن جو ڪو به ماحول نه آھي، اپولو مشن مان واپس آيل نمونن مان بلڪل صحيح عمر جون تاريخون مهيا ڪري ٿو. چنڊ تان واپس آيل پٿر وڌ ۾ وڌ 4.51 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. مريخ جا شھاب جيڪي ڌرتيءَ تي لٿا آهن انهن جي تاريخ پڻ، ليڊ-ليڊ ڊيٽنگ ذريعي تقريباً 4.5 ارب سال پراڻي آهي. چنڊ جا نمونا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي موسمي تبديلين، پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس يا جاندارن پاران منتقل ڪيل مواد کان متاثر نه ٿيا آهن، پڻ ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ٽريڪ جي سڌي اليڪٽران خوردبيني امتحان ذريعي ڊيٽنگ فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.  اعلي توانائي ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ذرڙن جي اثرن مان پيدا ٿيندڙ، خلل جو مجموعو آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي هڪ ٻي تصديق فراهم ڪري ٿو. ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ڊيٽنگ صرف ان مواد تي مفيد آهي جيڪا پگهرڻ نٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته پگھلڻ مواد جي ڪرسٽل ڍانچي کي ختم ڪري ٿو ۽ ذرڙن پاران ڇڏيل ٽريڪ کي ختم ڪري ٿو.

==پڻ ڏسو==
* {{Portal|ڌرتي}} 
* ڪائنات جي عمر 
* جيوڪرونولوجي 
* ڌرتيء جي تاريخ 
* [[فطري تاريخ]]
* فطري تاريخ جي ٽائم لائن
==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}

==ڪتابيات==
==وڌيڪ مطالعو==
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=Wijbrans |first3=J. R. |last4=Swisher III |first4=C. C. |last5=Fanning |first5=M. |title=Multimethod radiometric age for a bentonite near the top of the Baculites reesidei Zone of southwestern Saskatchewan (Campanian–Maastrichtian stage boundary?) |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=April 1993 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=769–775 |doi=10.1139/e93-063 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=McDougall |first3=I. |title=A radiometric age for the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary based upon K–Ar, Rb–Sr, and U–Pb ages of bentonites from Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1988 |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=1088–1097 |doi=10.1139/e88-106 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Eberth |first1=David A. |last2=Braman |first2=Dennis R. |last3=Tokaryk |first3=Tim T. |title=Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and Vertebrate Paleontology of the Judith River Formation (Campanian) Near Muddy Lake, West-Central Saskatchewan |journal=Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology |date=1990 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=387–406 |url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/cspg/data/038/038004/0387.htm }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goodwin |first1=Mark B. |last2=Deino |first2=Alan L. |title=The first radiometric ages from the Judith River Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Hill County, Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1989 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=1384–1391 |doi=10.1139/e89-118 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gradstein |first1=Felix M. |last2=Agterberg |first2=Frits P. |last3=Ogg |first3=James G. |last4=Hardenbol |first4=Jan |last5=Veen |first5=Paul Van |last6=Thierry |first6=Jacques |last7=Huang |first7=Zehui |title=Geochronology, Time Scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation |chapter=A Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Time Scale |date=1995 |doi=10.2110/pec.95.04.0095 |isbn=978-1-56576-091-2 }}
* Harland, W.B., Cox, A.V.; Llewellyn, P.G.; Pickton, C.A.G.; Smith, A.G.; and Walters, R., 1982. ''A Geologic Time Scale'': 1982 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 131p.{{isbn?}}
* Harland, W.B.; [[Richard Lee Armstrong|Armstrong, R.L.]]; Cox, A.V.; Craig, L.E.; Smith, A.G.; Smith, D.G., 1990. ''A Geologic Time Scale'', 1989 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, p.&amp;nbsp;1–263. {{ISBN|0-521-38765-5}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Harper | first1 = C.W. Jr | year = 1980 | title = Relative age inference in paleontology | journal = Lethaia | volume = 13 | issue = 3| pages = 239–248 | doi = 10.1111/j.1502-3931.1980.tb00638.x | bibcode = 1980Letha..13..239H }}
* Obradovich, J.D., 1993. A Cretaceous time scale. IN: Caldwell, W.G.E. and Kauffman, E.G. (eds.). ''Evolution of the Western Interior Basin''. Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 39, p.&amp;nbsp;379–396.{{isbn?}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Palmer | first1 = Allison R | year = 1983 | title = The Decade of North American Geology 1983 Geologic Time Scale | journal = Geology | volume = 11 | issue = 9| pages = 503–504 | doi = 10.1130/0091-7613(1983)11&lt;503:tdonag&gt;2.0.co;2 | bibcode = 1983Geo....11..503P }}
* Powell, James Lawrence, 2001, ''Mysteries of Terra Firma: the Age and Evolution of the Earth'', Simon &amp; Schuster, {{ISBN|0-684-87282-X}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [https://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html The Age of the Earth] by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org)
* [https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS preface on the Age of the Earth]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites]
* [https://www.fleming-group.com/Misc/Pre-1900%20Non-Religious%20Estimates%20of%20the%20Age%20of%20the%20Earth.pdf Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth]
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[[زمرو:ارضياتي تاريخ]]
[[زمرو:ارضياتي نظريا]]
[[زمرو:ڌرتي سائنس جي تاريخ]] 
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      <text bytes="37679" sha1="n562baqavhxs9q0v7z2ugz9wgx7eruf" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The_Blue_Marble_(remastered).jpg|thumb|''نيرو سنگ مرمر'' (Blue Marble)، [[ڌرتي]] جيئن 1972ع ۾ اپولو 17 مان ڏٺو ويو آهي.]]
'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ  &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينئٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارا ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ]] جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا [[معدنيات]] - [[اولهائون آسٽريليا|اولهائين آسٽريليا]] جي جيڪ هلز مان [[زرڪونيئم|زرڪون]] جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيلشيئم|ڪيلشيم]]-[[ايليومينيم|ايلومينيم]] سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ، ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتي جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. ڌرتيء تي موجود قديم ترين پٿر، جيڪا مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، جئين  ته اها ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن، جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو.

==ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ==
{{Main|ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ}}
===جائزو===
پٿر جي معدنيات ۾ ڪجهه [[ڪيميائي عنصر|'''ڪيميائي تت''']] پهرين کان موجود هوندا آهن ۽ پٿرن ۾ موجود تابڪار [[آئسوٽوپ|آئسوٽوپس]] تي، [[تابڪاريت|تابڪاري]] زوال (ڪٽڻ) جو عمل، وقت سان گڏ نوان ننڍا ڪيميائي تت پيدا ڪري ٿو. زوال جي مستحڪم آخري پيداوار جي ارتڪاز کي ماپڻ، اڌ زندگي جي ڄاڻ ۽ زوال جي پيداوار عنصرن جي شروعاتي ارتڪاز معلوم ڪرڻ سان پٿر جي عمر جو حساب لڳائي سگهجي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot;&gt;{{cite book | author=Nichols, Gary | title=Sedimentology and Stratigraphy | chapter=21.2 Radiometric Dating | pages=325–327 | publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons | date=2009 | isbn=978-1-4051-9379-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;  عام طور تي تابڪاري زوال جي آخري شيون [[پوٽاشيئم|پوٽاشيم]]-40 جي زوال مان پيدا ٿيل [[آرگون]] ۽ [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] ۽ [[ٿوريئم|ٿوريم]] جي ڪٽڻ مان [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ (شيهي)]] جا ايٽم آهن. جيڪڏهن پٿر پگھري وڃي ٿو (جيئن ڌرتيءَ جي اندرون پرت ۾ ٿئي ٿو) ته اهڙيون غير تابڪار آخري شيون عام طور تي نڪرجي وڃن ٿيون يا ٻيهر ورهائجي وڃن ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot; /&gt; اهڙيءَ طرح سڀ کان پراڻي زميني پٿر جي عمر ڌرتيءَ جي عمر لاءِ اندازو ڏئي ٿي، جئين ته فرض ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪو به پٿر پاڻ ڌرتيءَ جي عمر کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين برقرار نه رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot; /&gt;

=== ڪنويڪٽو مينٽل ۽ تابڪاري ===
[[تابڪاريت|تابڪاري]] (Radioactivity) جي دريافت حساب ۾ هڪ ٻيو عنصر متعارف ڪرايو. سال 1896ع ۾ [[هينري بيڪيوريل|هينري بيڪريل]] جي شروعاتي دريافت کان پوءِ،,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=420–421|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f422.chemindefer}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 420 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=501–503|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f503.item}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 501–503 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; [[ميري ڪيوري]] ۽ پيئر ڪيوري سال &lt;small&gt;1898ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾ تابڪار [[تت]] [[پولونيئم|پولونيم]] ۽ [[ريڊيئم|ريڊيم]] کي دريافت ڪيو&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |year=1898 |title=Sur une nouvelle substance fortement radio-active, contenue dans la pechblende (On a new, strongly radioactive substance contained in pitchblende) |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=127 |pages=1215–1217 |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |access-date=12 April 2021 |author=Curie, Pierre |author2=Curie, Marie |author3=Bémont, Gustave |name-list-style=amp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806083923/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |archive-date=6 August 2009 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ سال &lt;small&gt;1903ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾، پيئر ڪيوري ۽ البرٽ ليبورڊ اعلان ڪيو ته ريڊيم پنهنجي تابڪاري جي ڪارڻ ايتري گرمي پيدا ڪري ٿو جو پنهنجي وزن جي برابر برف کي هڪ ڪلاڪ کان به گهٽ وقت ۾ ڳاري سگهي ٿو،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Curie, Pierre |author2=Laborde, Albert |title=Sur la chaleur dégagée spontanément par les sels de radium |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=136 |pages=673–675 |year=1903 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3091c/f673.item}}&lt;/ref&gt; ارضيات جا ماهر جلدي محسوس ڪيو ته اها ڌرتيءَ جي عمر جي اڪثر حسابن کي خراب ڪري ڇڏيو آهي. جئين ته انهن فرض ڪيو هو ته ڌرتيءَ ۽ سج جي اصل گرمي مسلسل خلا ۾ ختم ٿي وئي هئي، پر تابڪاري زوال جو مطلب اهو هو ته خلا ۾ گم ٿيل هي گرمي مسلسل ڀرجي وئي هئي. جارج ڊارون ۽ جان جولي پهريان شخص هئا، جنهن سال  1903ع ۾ هن ڳالهه جي نشاندهي ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=John | last=Joly | date=1909
 | title=Radioactivity and Geology: An Account of the Influence of Radioactive Energy on Terrestrial History | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich | edition=1st | page=[https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich/page/36 36]
 | publisher=Archibald Constable &amp; Co., ltd
 | location=London, UK }} Reprinted by BookSurge Publishing (2004) {{ISBN|1-4021-3577-7}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== ريڊيو ميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ايجاد ===
تابڪاري (Radioactivity) جي دريافت، جنهن پراڻي طريقن کي ختم ڪري ڇڏيو هو، ريڊيو ميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي صورت ۾، نئين حسابن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪندي بونس حاصل ڪيو. 
[[File:Ernest Rutherford 1908.jpg|thumb|[[Ernest Rutherford]] in 1908]]
[[Ernest Rutherford]] and [[Frederick Soddy]] jointly had continued their work on radioactive materials and concluded that radioactivity was caused by a spontaneous transmutation of atomic elements. In radioactive decay, an element breaks down into another, lighter element, releasing alpha, beta, or [[Gamma ray|gamma]] radiation in the process. They also determined that a particular isotope of a radioactive element decays into another element at a distinctive rate. This rate is given in terms of a &quot;half-life&quot;, or the amount of time it takes half of a mass of that radioactive material to break down into its &quot;decay product&quot;.

Some radioactive materials have short half-lives; some have long half-lives. Uranium and thorium have long half-lives and so persist in Earth's crust, but radioactive elements with short half-lives have generally disappeared. This suggested that it might be possible to measure the age of Earth by determining the relative proportions of radioactive materials in geological samples. In reality, radioactive elements do not always decay into nonradioactive (&quot;stable&quot;) elements directly, instead, decaying into other radioactive elements that have their own half-lives and so on, until they reach a [[stable element]]. These &quot;[[decay chain]]s&quot;, such as the uranium-radium and thorium series, were known within a few years of the discovery of radioactivity and provided a basis for constructing techniques of radiometric dating.

The pioneers of radioactivity were chemist [[Bertram B. Boltwood]] and physicist Rutherford. Boltwood had conducted studies of radioactive materials as a consultant, and when Rutherford lectured at Yale in 1904,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=E. | last=Rutherford | date=1906
 | title=Radioactive Transformations
 | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivetran01ruthgoog | publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons
 | location=London }} Reprinted by Juniper Grove (2007) {{ISBN|978-1-60355-054-3}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood was inspired to describe the relationships between elements in various decay series. Late in 1904, Rutherford took the first step toward radiometric dating by suggesting that the [[alpha particle]]s released by radioactive decay could be trapped in a rocky material as [[helium]] atoms. At the time, Rutherford was only guessing at the relationship between alpha particles and helium atoms, but he would prove the connection four years later.

Soddy and Sir [[William Ramsay]] had just determined the rate at which radium produces alpha particles, and Rutherford proposed that he could determine the age of a rock sample by measuring its concentration of helium. He dated a rock in his possession to an age of 40 million years by this technique. Rutherford wrote of addressing a meeting of the [[Royal Institution]] in 1904:

{{blockquote|I came into the room, which was half dark, and presently spotted Lord Kelvin in the audience and realized that I was in trouble at the last part of my speech dealing with the age of the Earth, where my views conflicted with his. To my relief, Kelvin fell fast asleep, but as I came to the important point, I saw the old bird sit up, open an eye, and cock a baleful glance at me! Then a sudden inspiration came, and I said, &quot;Lord Kelvin had limited the age of the Earth, provided no new source was discovered. That prophetic utterance refers to what we are now considering tonight, radium!&quot; Behold! the old boy beamed upon me.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=Arthur Stewart | last=Eve | date=1939
 | title=Rutherford: Being the life and letters of the Rt. Hon. Lord Rutherford, O. M.
 | url=https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbeingl0000evea | url-access=registration | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
 | location=Cambridge }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Rutherford assumed that the rate of decay of radium as determined by Ramsay and Soddy was accurate and that helium did not escape from the sample over time. Rutherford's scheme was inaccurate, but it was a useful first step. Boltwood focused on the end products of decay series. In 1905, he suggested that lead was the final stable product of the decay of radium. It was already known that radium was an intermediate product of the decay of uranium. Rutherford joined in, outlining a decay process in which radium emitted five alpha particles through various intermediate products to end up with lead, and speculated that the radium–lead decay chain could be used to date rock samples. Boltwood did the legwork and by the end of 1905 had provided dates for 26 separate rock samples, ranging from 92 to 570 million years. He did not publish these results, which was fortunate because they were flawed by measurement errors and poor estimates of the half-life of radium. Boltwood refined his work and finally published the results in 1907.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

Boltwood's paper pointed out that samples taken from comparable layers of strata had similar lead-to-uranium ratios, and that samples from older layers had a higher proportion of lead, except where there was evidence that lead had [[Leaching (chemistry)|leached]] out of the sample. His studies were flawed by the fact that the decay series of thorium was not understood, which led to incorrect results for samples that contained both uranium and thorium. However, his calculations were far more accurate than any that had been performed to that time. Refinements in the technique would later give ages for Boltwood's 26 samples of 410 million to 2.2 billion years.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

===Arthur Holmes establishes radiometric dating===
Although Boltwood published his paper in a prominent geological journal, the geological community had little interest in radioactivity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Joosse |first=Tess |date=2024-01-11 |title=February 1907: Bertram Boltwood Estimates Earth is at Least 2.2 Billion Years Old |url=https://www.aps.org/apsnews/2024/01/boltwood-earth-age |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=www.aps.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood gave up work on radiometric dating and went on to investigate other decay series. Rutherford remained mildly curious about the issue of the age of Earth but did little work on it.

[[Robert Strutt, 4th Baron Rayleigh|Robert Strutt]] tinkered with Rutherford's helium method until 1910 and then ceased. However, Strutt's student [[Arthur Holmes]] became interested in radiometric dating and continued to work on it after everyone else had given up. Holmes focused on lead dating because he regarded the helium method as unpromising. He performed measurements on rock samples and concluded in 1911 that the oldest (a sample from [[Ceylon]]) was about 1.6 billion years old.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) p. 74&lt;/ref&gt; These calculations were not particularly trustworthy. For example, he assumed that the samples had contained only uranium and no lead when they were formed.

More important research was published in 1913. It showed that elements generally exist in multiple variants with different masses, or &quot;[[isotope]]s&quot;. In the 1930s, isotopes would be shown to have nuclei with differing numbers of the neutral particles known as &quot;[[neutrons]]&quot;. In that same year, other research was published establishing the rules for radioactive decay, allowing more precise identification of decay series.

Many geologists felt these new discoveries made radiometric dating so complicated as to be worthless.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Holmes felt that they gave him tools to improve his techniques, and he plodded ahead with his research, publishing before and after the First World War. His work was generally ignored until the 1920s, though in 1917 [[Joseph Barrell]], a professor of geology at Yale, redrew geological history as it was understood at the time to conform to Holmes's findings in radiometric dating. Barrell's research determined that the layers of strata had not all been laid down at the same rate, and so current rates of geological change could not be used to provide accurate timelines of the history of Earth.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

Holmes' persistence finally began to pay off in 1921, when the speakers at the yearly meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] came to a rough consensus that Earth was a few billion years old and that radiometric dating was credible. Holmes published ''The Age of the Earth, an Introduction to Geological Ideas'' in 1927 in which he presented a range of 1.6 to 3.0 billion years. No great push to embrace radiometric dating followed, however, and the die-hards in the geological community stubbornly resisted. They had never cared for attempts by physicists to intrude in their domain, and had successfully ignored them so far.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf The Age of the Earth Debate Badash, L ''Scientific American'' 1989 esp p95] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105173355/http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf |date=2016-11-05 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The growing weight of evidence finally tilted the balance in 1931, when the [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]] of the US [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] decided to resolve the question of the age of Earth by appointing a committee to investigate.

Holmes, being one of the few people who was trained in radiometric dating techniques, was a committee member and in fact wrote most of the final report.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dal7778&quot;&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 77–78&lt;/ref&gt; Thus, Holmes' report concluded that radioactive dating was the only reliable means of pinning down a [[geologic time scale]]. Questions of bias were deflected by the great and exacting detail of the report. It described the methods used, the care with which measurements were made, and their error bars and limitations.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

=== جديد ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ ===
ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ سائنسدانن جي ڊيٽنگ لاء ارضياتي وقت جي پيماني لاء غالب طريقو رهي ٿي. ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ لاءِ ٽيڪنڪس کي آزمايو ويو آهي ۽ انهن کي مسلسل بنيادن تي بهتر ڪيو ويو آهي. 1960ع جي ڏهاڪي کان وٺي اڄ تائين،  مختلف قسم جي مواد تي ڪم ڪندي، چاليهه يا ان کان وڌيڪ مختلف ڊيٽنگ ٽيڪنڪس استعمال ڪيون ويون آهن. ساڳئي نموني لاءِ تاريخون (انهن مختلف طريقن کي استعمال ڪندي) مواد جي عمر تي تمام ويجهي اتفاق ۾ آهن. ممڪن آلودگي جا مسئلا موجود آهن، پر انهن جو مطالعو ڪيو ويو آهي ۽ احتياط سان جاچ ذريعي حل ڪيو ويو آهي. آلودگي جي امڪان کي محدود ڪرڻ لاءِ، نمونا تيار ڪرڻ لاء اھڙا طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيا ويا آهن، جيڪا آلودگي کي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ ڪن ٿا.

==== شھابين (ميٽيورائٽ) جو استعمال ====
ڪلارئ ڪيمرون پيٽرسن پاران، ڪيترن ئي ميٽيوري تي يورينيم-ليڊ آئسوٽوپ ڊيٽنگ (خاص طور تي ليڊ-ليڊ ڊيٽنگ) استعمال ڪندي  چار ارب 55 ڪروڙ سال جي عمر (اڄ جي قبول ٿيل عمر جي تمام ويجهو) طئي ڪئي وئي هئي. . ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيوريٽ سميت. ۽ 1956 ۾ شايع ٿيو. ڌرتيءَ جي ڏنل عمر (جزوي طور تي) ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيوريٽ مان نڪتل آهي. اهو ڪيترن ئي اهم سببن جي ڪري هو. ۽ اهو ڪائنات جي ڪيمسٽري جي جديد سمجھ تي ٺهيل آهي. جيڪو ڏهاڪن جي تحقيق تي ٺهيل آهي.


age of 4.55 ± 0.07 billion years, very close to today's accepted age, was determined by [[Clair Patterson|Clair Cameron Patterson]] using uranium–lead isotope dating (specifically [[lead–lead dating]]) on several meteorites including the [[Canyon Diablo (meteorite)|Canyon Diablo meteorite]] and published in 1956.&lt;ref name=&quot;Patterson&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Patterson | first=Claire | title=Age of meteorites and the earth | journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta | url=http://es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | date=1956 | volume=10 | issue=4 | pages=230–237 | access-date=2009-07-07 | doi=10.1016/0016-7037(56)90036-9 | bibcode=1956GeCoA..10..230P | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621045217/http://es.ucsc.edu/%7Ercoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | archive-date=2010-06-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The quoted age of Earth is derived, in part, from the Canyon Diablo meteorite for several important reasons and is built upon a modern understanding of cosmochemistry built up over decades of research.
[[File:Paterson isochron animation.gif|thumb|left|upright=1.6|Lead isotope isochron diagram showing data used by Patterson to determine the age of Earth in 1956.]]Most geological samples from Earth are unable to give a direct date of the formation of Earth from the solar nebula because Earth has undergone differentiation into the core, mantle, and crust, and this has then undergone a long history of mixing and unmixing of these sample reservoirs by [[plate tectonics]], [[weathering]] and [[hydrothermal circulation]].

All of these processes may adversely affect isotopic dating mechanisms because the sample cannot always be assumed to have remained as a closed system, by which it is meant that either the parent or daughter [[nuclide]] (a species of atom characterised by the number of neutrons and protons an atom contains) or an intermediate daughter nuclide may have been partially removed from the sample, which will skew the resulting isotopic date. To mitigate this effect it is usual to date several minerals in the same sample, to provide an [[isochron]]. Alternatively, more than one dating system may be used on a sample to check the date.

Some meteorites are furthermore considered to represent the primitive material from which the accreting solar disk was formed.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference | author=Carlson, R. W.| author2=Tera, F.
 | title=Lead–Lead Constraints on the Timescale of Early Planetary Differentiation
 | book-title=Conference Proceedings, Origin of the Earth and Moon | page=6
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=December 1–3, 1998
 | location=Houston, Texas | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf |access-date=2008-12-22 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214311/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some have behaved as closed systems (for some isotopic systems) soon after the solar disk and the planets formed.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} To date, these assumptions are supported by much scientific observation and repeated isotopic dates, and it is certainly a more robust hypothesis than that which assumes a terrestrial rock has retained its original composition.

Nevertheless, ancient [[Archean|Archaean]] lead [[ores]] of [[galena]] have been used to date the formation of Earth as these represent the earliest formed lead-only minerals on the planet and record the earliest homogeneous lead–lead isotope systems on the planet. These have returned age dates of 4.54 billion years with a precision of as little as 1% margin for error.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 310–341&lt;/ref&gt;

Statistics for several meteorites that have undergone isochron dating are as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;BGDarymple&quot;&gt;{{cite book
 | author=Dalrymple, Brent G.
 | title=Ancient Earth, Ancient Skies: The Age of the Earth and Its Cosmic Surroundings
 | url=https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr
 | url-access=registration
 | date=2004
 | publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]
 | isbn = 978-0-8047-4933-6
 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr/page/147 147], 169
}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

{| &lt;!-- is [[Figure space]], the width of one digit. --&gt;
!colspan=4 align=left| 1. St. Severin (ordinary chondrite)
|-
|width=1em| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.543 ± 0.019 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.55  ± 0.33 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.51  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
| || 4. ||| Re-Os isochron || 4.68  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 2. Juvinas (basaltic achondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.556 ± 0.012 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.540 ± 0.001 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.56  ± 0.08 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.50  ± 0.07 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 3. Allende (carbonaceous chondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.553 ± 0.004 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.52  ± 0.02 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.55  ± 0.03 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Ar-Ar age spectrum&amp;nbsp; || 4.56  ± 0.05 billion years
|}

==== ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ ====
[[File:Barringer Crater aerial photo by USGS.jpg|thumb|upright|بيرنگر ڪريٽر، ايريزونا، جتي ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ مليو هو.]]

ڌرتيء جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ لاء ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ استعمال ڪيو ويو ڇاڪاڻ ته اهو وڏو آهي ۽ خاص طور تي ناياب قسم جي ميٽيورائيٽ جو نمائندو آهي جنهن ۾ سلفائيڊ معدنيات (خاص طور تي ٽرائلائيٽ، FeS)، ڌاتو نڪل-لوهه جا مرڪب ۽ سليڪٽ معدنيات شامل آهن. اهو اهم آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته ٽن معدني شڪلن جي موجودگي نموني کي استعمال ڪندي آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي جاچ جي کي اها اجازت ڏئي ٿي جيڪي اصل ۽ ٽٽل نيوڪلائيڊس جي وچ ۾ ڪنسنٽريشن ۾ هڪ وڏو علحدگي فراهم ڪن ٿا. اهو خاص طور تي يورينيم ۽ ليڊ لاءِ سچ آهي. ليڊ مضبوط طور تي چالڪوفيلڪ آهي ۽ سلفيٽ ۾ يورينيم جي مقابلي ۾ سلفيٽ جي ڀيٽ ۾ تمام گهڻي ڪنسنٽريشن تي ملي ٿو. ميٽيورائيٽ جي ٺهڻ دوران اصل ۽ ٽٽل نيوڪلائيڊس ۾ هن الڳ ٿيڻ جي ڪري، هن شمسي ڊسڪ جي ٺهڻ ۽ ان ڪري اپگرهن جي هڪ تمام گهڻي اڳي کان وڌيڪ صحيح تاريخ جي اجازت ڏني.

[[File:Canyon-diablo-meteorite.jpg|thumb|upright|left|&quot;ڊيابلو ڪينيئن&quot; کان مليل لوھه جي شھاب جو ٽڪرو]]

&quot;ڪينيئن ڊيابلو&quot; جي شھاب مان طئي ٿيل عمر جي تصديق سوين ٻين عمر جي تعين ڪرڻ واري ذريعن سان، ڌرتيء کان مليل نمونن ۽ ٻين شھاب ٻنهي مان ڪئي وئي آھي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference
 | author=Terada, K.| author2=Sano, Y.
 | title=In-situ ion microprobe U-Pb dating of phosphates in H-chondrites | book-title=Proceedings, Eleventh Annual V. M. Goldschmidt Conference
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=May 20–24, 2001
 | location=Hot Springs, Virginia | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf | access-date=2008-12-22
 | bibcode=2001eag..conf.3306T | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214310/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; شھاب جا نمونا، بهرحال، 4.53 کان 4.58 ارب سال اڳ تائين پکڙيل ڏيکارين ٿا. ان کي شمسي نيبولا جي ٺھڻ ۽ سج ۽ سيارن کي ٺاھڻ لاءِ شمسي ڊسڪ ۾ ان جو ٽٽڻ، جي مدت جي طور تي تعبير ڪيو ويو آھي. ھي 50 ملين سالن جو عرصو اصل شمسي مٽي جي ڪڪرن ۽ شھاب مان سيارن جي واڌ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿو.

چنڊ، ھڪ ٻئي خارجي جسم جي طور تي جيڪو پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس مان نه گذريو آھي ۽ جنھن جو ڪو به ماحول نه آھي، اپولو مشن مان واپس آيل نمونن مان بلڪل صحيح عمر جون تاريخون مهيا ڪري ٿو. چنڊ تان واپس آيل پٿر وڌ ۾ وڌ 4.51 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. مريخ جا شھاب جيڪي ڌرتيءَ تي لٿا آهن انهن جي تاريخ پڻ، ليڊ-ليڊ ڊيٽنگ ذريعي تقريباً 4.5 ارب سال پراڻي آهي. چنڊ جا نمونا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي موسمي تبديلين، پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس يا جاندارن پاران منتقل ڪيل مواد کان متاثر نه ٿيا آهن، پڻ ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ٽريڪ جي سڌي اليڪٽران خوردبيني امتحان ذريعي ڊيٽنگ فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.  اعلي توانائي ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ذرڙن جي اثرن مان پيدا ٿيندڙ، خلل جو مجموعو آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي هڪ ٻي تصديق فراهم ڪري ٿو. ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ڊيٽنگ صرف ان مواد تي مفيد آهي جيڪا پگهرڻ نٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته پگھلڻ مواد جي ڪرسٽل ڍانچي کي ختم ڪري ٿو ۽ ذرڙن پاران ڇڏيل ٽريڪ کي ختم ڪري ٿو.

==پڻ ڏسو==
* {{Portal|ڌرتي}} 
* ڪائنات جي عمر 
* جيوڪرونولوجي 
* ڌرتيء جي تاريخ 
* [[فطري تاريخ]]
* فطري تاريخ جي ٽائم لائن
==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}

==ڪتابيات==
==وڌيڪ مطالعو==
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=Wijbrans |first3=J. R. |last4=Swisher III |first4=C. C. |last5=Fanning |first5=M. |title=Multimethod radiometric age for a bentonite near the top of the Baculites reesidei Zone of southwestern Saskatchewan (Campanian–Maastrichtian stage boundary?) |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=April 1993 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=769–775 |doi=10.1139/e93-063 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=McDougall |first3=I. |title=A radiometric age for the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary based upon K–Ar, Rb–Sr, and U–Pb ages of bentonites from Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1988 |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=1088–1097 |doi=10.1139/e88-106 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Eberth |first1=David A. |last2=Braman |first2=Dennis R. |last3=Tokaryk |first3=Tim T. |title=Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and Vertebrate Paleontology of the Judith River Formation (Campanian) Near Muddy Lake, West-Central Saskatchewan |journal=Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology |date=1990 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=387–406 |url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/cspg/data/038/038004/0387.htm }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goodwin |first1=Mark B. |last2=Deino |first2=Alan L. |title=The first radiometric ages from the Judith River Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Hill County, Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1989 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=1384–1391 |doi=10.1139/e89-118 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gradstein |first1=Felix M. |last2=Agterberg |first2=Frits P. |last3=Ogg |first3=James G. |last4=Hardenbol |first4=Jan |last5=Veen |first5=Paul Van |last6=Thierry |first6=Jacques |last7=Huang |first7=Zehui |title=Geochronology, Time Scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation |chapter=A Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Time Scale |date=1995 |doi=10.2110/pec.95.04.0095 |isbn=978-1-56576-091-2 }}
* Harland, W.B., Cox, A.V.; Llewellyn, P.G.; Pickton, C.A.G.; Smith, A.G.; and Walters, R., 1982. ''A Geologic Time Scale'': 1982 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 131p.{{isbn?}}
* Harland, W.B.; [[Richard Lee Armstrong|Armstrong, R.L.]]; Cox, A.V.; Craig, L.E.; Smith, A.G.; Smith, D.G., 1990. ''A Geologic Time Scale'', 1989 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, p.&amp;nbsp;1–263. {{ISBN|0-521-38765-5}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Harper | first1 = C.W. Jr | year = 1980 | title = Relative age inference in paleontology | journal = Lethaia | volume = 13 | issue = 3| pages = 239–248 | doi = 10.1111/j.1502-3931.1980.tb00638.x | bibcode = 1980Letha..13..239H }}
* Obradovich, J.D., 1993. A Cretaceous time scale. IN: Caldwell, W.G.E. and Kauffman, E.G. (eds.). ''Evolution of the Western Interior Basin''. Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 39, p.&amp;nbsp;379–396.{{isbn?}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Palmer | first1 = Allison R | year = 1983 | title = The Decade of North American Geology 1983 Geologic Time Scale | journal = Geology | volume = 11 | issue = 9| pages = 503–504 | doi = 10.1130/0091-7613(1983)11&lt;503:tdonag&gt;2.0.co;2 | bibcode = 1983Geo....11..503P }}
* Powell, James Lawrence, 2001, ''Mysteries of Terra Firma: the Age and Evolution of the Earth'', Simon &amp; Schuster, {{ISBN|0-684-87282-X}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [https://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html The Age of the Earth] by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org)
* [https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS preface on the Age of the Earth]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites]
* [https://www.fleming-group.com/Misc/Pre-1900%20Non-Religious%20Estimates%20of%20the%20Age%20of%20the%20Earth.pdf Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth]
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[[زمرو:ارضياتي تاريخ]]
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      <text bytes="37205" sha1="4wql6jkc1z78e3cg4rc1t84j842flvg" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The_Blue_Marble_(remastered).jpg|thumb|''نيرو سنگ مرمر'' (Blue Marble)، [[ڌرتي]] جيئن 1972ع ۾ اپولو 17 مان ڏٺو ويو آهي.]]
'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ  &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينئٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارا ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ]] جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا [[معدنيات]] - [[اولهائون آسٽريليا|اولهائين آسٽريليا]] جي جيڪ هلز مان [[زرڪونيئم|زرڪون]] جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيلشيئم|ڪيلشيم]]-[[ايليومينيم|ايلومينيم]] سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ، ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتي جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. ڌرتيء تي موجود قديم ترين پٿر، جيڪا مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، جئين  ته اها ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن، جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو.

==ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ==
{{Main|ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ}}
===جائزو===
پٿر جي معدنيات ۾ ڪجهه [[ڪيميائي عنصر|'''ڪيميائي تت''']] پهرين کان موجود هوندا آهن ۽ پٿرن ۾ موجود تابڪار [[آئسوٽوپ|آئسوٽوپس]] تي، [[تابڪاريت|تابڪاري]] زوال (ڪٽڻ) جو عمل، وقت سان گڏ نوان ننڍا ڪيميائي تت پيدا ڪري ٿو. زوال جي مستحڪم آخري پيداوار جي ارتڪاز کي ماپڻ، اڌ زندگي جي ڄاڻ ۽ زوال جي پيداوار عنصرن جي شروعاتي ارتڪاز معلوم ڪرڻ سان پٿر جي عمر جو حساب لڳائي سگهجي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot;&gt;{{cite book | author=Nichols, Gary | title=Sedimentology and Stratigraphy | chapter=21.2 Radiometric Dating | pages=325–327 | publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons | date=2009 | isbn=978-1-4051-9379-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;  عام طور تي تابڪاري زوال جي آخري شيون [[پوٽاشيئم|پوٽاشيم]]-40 جي زوال مان پيدا ٿيل [[آرگون]] ۽ [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] ۽ [[ٿوريئم|ٿوريم]] جي ڪٽڻ مان [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ (شيهي)]] جا ايٽم آهن. جيڪڏهن پٿر پگھري وڃي ٿو (جيئن ڌرتيءَ جي اندرون پرت ۾ ٿئي ٿو) ته اهڙيون غير تابڪار آخري شيون عام طور تي نڪرجي وڃن ٿيون يا ٻيهر ورهائجي وڃن ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot; /&gt; اهڙيءَ طرح سڀ کان پراڻي زميني پٿر جي عمر ڌرتيءَ جي عمر لاءِ اندازو ڏئي ٿي، جئين ته فرض ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪو به پٿر پاڻ ڌرتيءَ جي عمر کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين برقرار نه رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot; /&gt;

=== ڪنويڪٽو مينٽل ۽ تابڪاري ===
[[تابڪاريت|تابڪاري]] (Radioactivity) جي دريافت حساب ۾ هڪ ٻيو عنصر متعارف ڪرايو. سال 1896ع ۾ [[هينري بيڪيوريل|هينري بيڪريل]] جي شروعاتي دريافت کان پوءِ،,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=420–421|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f422.chemindefer}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 420 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=501–503|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f503.item}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 501–503 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; [[ميري ڪيوري]] ۽ پيئر ڪيوري سال &lt;small&gt;1898ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾ تابڪار [[تت]] [[پولونيئم|پولونيم]] ۽ [[ريڊيئم|ريڊيم]] کي دريافت ڪيو&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |year=1898 |title=Sur une nouvelle substance fortement radio-active, contenue dans la pechblende (On a new, strongly radioactive substance contained in pitchblende) |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=127 |pages=1215–1217 |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |access-date=12 April 2021 |author=Curie, Pierre |author2=Curie, Marie |author3=Bémont, Gustave |name-list-style=amp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806083923/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |archive-date=6 August 2009 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ سال &lt;small&gt;1903ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾، پيئر ڪيوري ۽ البرٽ ليبورڊ اعلان ڪيو ته ريڊيم پنهنجي تابڪاري جي ڪارڻ ايتري گرمي پيدا ڪري ٿو جو پنهنجي وزن جي برابر برف کي هڪ ڪلاڪ کان به گهٽ وقت ۾ ڳاري سگهي ٿو،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Curie, Pierre |author2=Laborde, Albert |title=Sur la chaleur dégagée spontanément par les sels de radium |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=136 |pages=673–675 |year=1903 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3091c/f673.item}}&lt;/ref&gt; ارضيات جا ماهر جلدي محسوس ڪيو ته اها ڌرتيءَ جي عمر جي اڪثر حسابن کي خراب ڪري ڇڏيو آهي. جئين ته انهن فرض ڪيو هو ته ڌرتيءَ ۽ سج جي اصل گرمي مسلسل خلا ۾ ختم ٿي وئي هئي، پر تابڪاري زوال جو مطلب اهو هو ته خلا ۾ گم ٿيل هي گرمي مسلسل ڀرجي وئي هئي. جارج ڊارون ۽ جان جولي پهريان شخص هئا، جنهن سال  1903ع ۾ هن ڳالهه جي نشاندهي ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=John | last=Joly | date=1909
 | title=Radioactivity and Geology: An Account of the Influence of Radioactive Energy on Terrestrial History | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich | edition=1st | page=[https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich/page/36 36]
 | publisher=Archibald Constable &amp; Co., ltd
 | location=London, UK }} Reprinted by BookSurge Publishing (2004) {{ISBN|1-4021-3577-7}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== ريڊيو ميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ايجاد ===
تابڪاري (Radioactivity) جي دريافت، جنهن پراڻي طريقن کي ختم ڪري ڇڏيو هو، ريڊيو ميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي صورت ۾، نئين حسابن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪندي بونس حاصل ڪيو. 
[[File:Ernest Rutherford 1908.jpg|thumb|[[Ernest Rutherford]] in 1908]]
[[Ernest Rutherford]] and [[Frederick Soddy]] jointly had continued their work on radioactive materials and concluded that radioactivity was caused by a spontaneous transmutation of atomic elements. In radioactive decay, an element breaks down into another, lighter element, releasing alpha, beta, or [[Gamma ray|gamma]] radiation in the process. They also determined that a particular isotope of a radioactive element decays into another element at a distinctive rate. This rate is given in terms of a &quot;half-life&quot;, or the amount of time it takes half of a mass of that radioactive material to break down into its &quot;decay product&quot;.

Some radioactive materials have short half-lives; some have long half-lives. Uranium and thorium have long half-lives and so persist in Earth's crust, but radioactive elements with short half-lives have generally disappeared. This suggested that it might be possible to measure the age of Earth by determining the relative proportions of radioactive materials in geological samples. In reality, radioactive elements do not always decay into nonradioactive (&quot;stable&quot;) elements directly, instead, decaying into other radioactive elements that have their own half-lives and so on, until they reach a [[stable element]]. These &quot;[[decay chain]]s&quot;, such as the uranium-radium and thorium series, were known within a few years of the discovery of radioactivity and provided a basis for constructing techniques of radiometric dating.

The pioneers of radioactivity were chemist [[Bertram B. Boltwood]] and physicist Rutherford. Boltwood had conducted studies of radioactive materials as a consultant, and when Rutherford lectured at Yale in 1904,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=E. | last=Rutherford | date=1906
 | title=Radioactive Transformations
 | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivetran01ruthgoog | publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons
 | location=London }} Reprinted by Juniper Grove (2007) {{ISBN|978-1-60355-054-3}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood was inspired to describe the relationships between elements in various decay series. Late in 1904, Rutherford took the first step toward radiometric dating by suggesting that the [[alpha particle]]s released by radioactive decay could be trapped in a rocky material as [[helium]] atoms. At the time, Rutherford was only guessing at the relationship between alpha particles and helium atoms, but he would prove the connection four years later.

Soddy and Sir [[William Ramsay]] had just determined the rate at which radium produces alpha particles, and Rutherford proposed that he could determine the age of a rock sample by measuring its concentration of helium. He dated a rock in his possession to an age of 40 million years by this technique. Rutherford wrote of addressing a meeting of the [[Royal Institution]] in 1904:

{{blockquote|I came into the room, which was half dark, and presently spotted Lord Kelvin in the audience and realized that I was in trouble at the last part of my speech dealing with the age of the Earth, where my views conflicted with his. To my relief, Kelvin fell fast asleep, but as I came to the important point, I saw the old bird sit up, open an eye, and cock a baleful glance at me! Then a sudden inspiration came, and I said, &quot;Lord Kelvin had limited the age of the Earth, provided no new source was discovered. That prophetic utterance refers to what we are now considering tonight, radium!&quot; Behold! the old boy beamed upon me.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=Arthur Stewart | last=Eve | date=1939
 | title=Rutherford: Being the life and letters of the Rt. Hon. Lord Rutherford, O. M.
 | url=https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbeingl0000evea | url-access=registration | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
 | location=Cambridge }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Rutherford assumed that the rate of decay of radium as determined by Ramsay and Soddy was accurate and that helium did not escape from the sample over time. Rutherford's scheme was inaccurate, but it was a useful first step. Boltwood focused on the end products of decay series. In 1905, he suggested that lead was the final stable product of the decay of radium. It was already known that radium was an intermediate product of the decay of uranium. Rutherford joined in, outlining a decay process in which radium emitted five alpha particles through various intermediate products to end up with lead, and speculated that the radium–lead decay chain could be used to date rock samples. Boltwood did the legwork and by the end of 1905 had provided dates for 26 separate rock samples, ranging from 92 to 570 million years. He did not publish these results, which was fortunate because they were flawed by measurement errors and poor estimates of the half-life of radium. Boltwood refined his work and finally published the results in 1907.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

Boltwood's paper pointed out that samples taken from comparable layers of strata had similar lead-to-uranium ratios, and that samples from older layers had a higher proportion of lead, except where there was evidence that lead had [[Leaching (chemistry)|leached]] out of the sample. His studies were flawed by the fact that the decay series of thorium was not understood, which led to incorrect results for samples that contained both uranium and thorium. However, his calculations were far more accurate than any that had been performed to that time. Refinements in the technique would later give ages for Boltwood's 26 samples of 410 million to 2.2 billion years.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

===Arthur Holmes establishes radiometric dating===
Although Boltwood published his paper in a prominent geological journal, the geological community had little interest in radioactivity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Joosse |first=Tess |date=2024-01-11 |title=February 1907: Bertram Boltwood Estimates Earth is at Least 2.2 Billion Years Old |url=https://www.aps.org/apsnews/2024/01/boltwood-earth-age |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=www.aps.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood gave up work on radiometric dating and went on to investigate other decay series. Rutherford remained mildly curious about the issue of the age of Earth but did little work on it.

[[Robert Strutt, 4th Baron Rayleigh|Robert Strutt]] tinkered with Rutherford's helium method until 1910 and then ceased. However, Strutt's student [[Arthur Holmes]] became interested in radiometric dating and continued to work on it after everyone else had given up. Holmes focused on lead dating because he regarded the helium method as unpromising. He performed measurements on rock samples and concluded in 1911 that the oldest (a sample from [[Ceylon]]) was about 1.6 billion years old.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) p. 74&lt;/ref&gt; These calculations were not particularly trustworthy. For example, he assumed that the samples had contained only uranium and no lead when they were formed.

More important research was published in 1913. It showed that elements generally exist in multiple variants with different masses, or &quot;[[isotope]]s&quot;. In the 1930s, isotopes would be shown to have nuclei with differing numbers of the neutral particles known as &quot;[[neutrons]]&quot;. In that same year, other research was published establishing the rules for radioactive decay, allowing more precise identification of decay series.

Many geologists felt these new discoveries made radiometric dating so complicated as to be worthless.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Holmes felt that they gave him tools to improve his techniques, and he plodded ahead with his research, publishing before and after the First World War. His work was generally ignored until the 1920s, though in 1917 [[Joseph Barrell]], a professor of geology at Yale, redrew geological history as it was understood at the time to conform to Holmes's findings in radiometric dating. Barrell's research determined that the layers of strata had not all been laid down at the same rate, and so current rates of geological change could not be used to provide accurate timelines of the history of Earth.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

Holmes' persistence finally began to pay off in 1921, when the speakers at the yearly meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] came to a rough consensus that Earth was a few billion years old and that radiometric dating was credible. Holmes published ''The Age of the Earth, an Introduction to Geological Ideas'' in 1927 in which he presented a range of 1.6 to 3.0 billion years. No great push to embrace radiometric dating followed, however, and the die-hards in the geological community stubbornly resisted. They had never cared for attempts by physicists to intrude in their domain, and had successfully ignored them so far.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf The Age of the Earth Debate Badash, L ''Scientific American'' 1989 esp p95] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105173355/http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf |date=2016-11-05 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The growing weight of evidence finally tilted the balance in 1931, when the [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]] of the US [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] decided to resolve the question of the age of Earth by appointing a committee to investigate.

Holmes, being one of the few people who was trained in radiometric dating techniques, was a committee member and in fact wrote most of the final report.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dal7778&quot;&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 77–78&lt;/ref&gt; Thus, Holmes' report concluded that radioactive dating was the only reliable means of pinning down a [[geologic time scale]]. Questions of bias were deflected by the great and exacting detail of the report. It described the methods used, the care with which measurements were made, and their error bars and limitations.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

=== جديد ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ ===
ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ سائنسدانن جي ڊيٽنگ لاء ارضياتي وقت جي پيماني لاء غالب طريقو رهي ٿي. ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ لاءِ ٽيڪنڪس کي آزمايو ويو آهي ۽ انهن کي مسلسل بنيادن تي بهتر ڪيو ويو آهي. 1960ع جي ڏهاڪي کان وٺي اڄ تائين،  مختلف قسم جي مواد تي ڪم ڪندي، چاليهه يا ان کان وڌيڪ مختلف ڊيٽنگ ٽيڪنڪس استعمال ڪيون ويون آهن. ساڳئي نموني لاءِ تاريخون (انهن مختلف طريقن کي استعمال ڪندي) مواد جي عمر تي تمام ويجهي اتفاق ۾ آهن. ممڪن آلودگي جا مسئلا موجود آهن، پر انهن جو مطالعو ڪيو ويو آهي ۽ احتياط سان جاچ ذريعي حل ڪيو ويو آهي. آلودگي جي امڪان کي محدود ڪرڻ لاءِ، نمونا تيار ڪرڻ لاء اھڙا طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيا ويا آهن، جيڪا آلودگي کي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ ڪن ٿا.

==== شھابين (ميٽيورائٽ) جو استعمال ====
ڪيمرون پيٽرسن پاران، ڪينيئن ڊيابلو شھاب سميت، ڪيترن ئي شھابين (&lt;small&gt;Meteorites&lt;/small&gt;)، تي يورينيم-ليڊ آئسوٽوپ ڊيٽنگ (خاص طور تي ليڊ-ليڊ ڊيٽنگ) استعمال ڪندي، چار ارب 55 ڪروڙ سال جي عمر (&lt;small&gt;اڄ جي قبول ٿيل عمرن جي تمام ويجهي&lt;/small&gt;) طئي ڪئي وئي هئي ۽ سال &lt;small&gt;1956ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾ شائع ڪئي وئي. &lt;ref name=&quot;Patterson&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Patterson | first=Claire | title=Age of meteorites and the earth | journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta | url=http://es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | date=1956 | volume=10 | issue=4 | pages=230–237 | access-date=2009-07-07 | doi=10.1016/0016-7037(56)90036-9 | bibcode=1956GeCoA..10..230P | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621045217/http://es.ucsc.edu/%7Ercoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | archive-date=2010-06-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ڌرتيءَ جي ڏنل عمر (جزوي طور تي) ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيوريٽ مان نڪتل آهي ۽ اها ڪيترن ئي اهم سببن جي ڪري ۽ ڪائنات جي ڪيمسٽري جي جديد سمجھ، جيڪي ڏهاڪن جي تحقيق تي ٺهيل آهي، تي ٺهيل آهي. 
[[File:Paterson isochron animation.gif|thumb|left|upright=1.6|Lead isotope isochron diagram showing data used by Patterson to determine the age of Earth in 1956.]]Most geological samples from Earth are unable to give a direct date of the formation of Earth from the solar nebula because Earth has undergone differentiation into the core, mantle, and crust, and this has then undergone a long history of mixing and unmixing of these sample reservoirs by [[plate tectonics]], [[weathering]] and [[hydrothermal circulation]].

All of these processes may adversely affect isotopic dating mechanisms because the sample cannot always be assumed to have remained as a closed system, by which it is meant that either the parent or daughter [[nuclide]] (a species of atom characterised by the number of neutrons and protons an atom contains) or an intermediate daughter nuclide may have been partially removed from the sample, which will skew the resulting isotopic date. To mitigate this effect it is usual to date several minerals in the same sample, to provide an [[isochron]]. Alternatively, more than one dating system may be used on a sample to check the date.

Some meteorites are furthermore considered to represent the primitive material from which the accreting solar disk was formed.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference | author=Carlson, R. W.| author2=Tera, F.
 | title=Lead–Lead Constraints on the Timescale of Early Planetary Differentiation
 | book-title=Conference Proceedings, Origin of the Earth and Moon | page=6
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=December 1–3, 1998
 | location=Houston, Texas | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf |access-date=2008-12-22 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214311/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some have behaved as closed systems (for some isotopic systems) soon after the solar disk and the planets formed.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} To date, these assumptions are supported by much scientific observation and repeated isotopic dates, and it is certainly a more robust hypothesis than that which assumes a terrestrial rock has retained its original composition.

Nevertheless, ancient [[Archean|Archaean]] lead [[ores]] of [[galena]] have been used to date the formation of Earth as these represent the earliest formed lead-only minerals on the planet and record the earliest homogeneous lead–lead isotope systems on the planet. These have returned age dates of 4.54 billion years with a precision of as little as 1% margin for error.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 310–341&lt;/ref&gt;

Statistics for several meteorites that have undergone isochron dating are as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;BGDarymple&quot;&gt;{{cite book
 | author=Dalrymple, Brent G.
 | title=Ancient Earth, Ancient Skies: The Age of the Earth and Its Cosmic Surroundings
 | url=https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr
 | url-access=registration
 | date=2004
 | publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]
 | isbn = 978-0-8047-4933-6
 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr/page/147 147], 169
}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

{| &lt;!-- is [[Figure space]], the width of one digit. --&gt;
!colspan=4 align=left| 1. St. Severin (ordinary chondrite)
|-
|width=1em| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.543 ± 0.019 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.55  ± 0.33 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.51  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
| || 4. ||| Re-Os isochron || 4.68  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 2. Juvinas (basaltic achondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.556 ± 0.012 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.540 ± 0.001 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.56  ± 0.08 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.50  ± 0.07 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 3. Allende (carbonaceous chondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.553 ± 0.004 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.52  ± 0.02 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.55  ± 0.03 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Ar-Ar age spectrum&amp;nbsp; || 4.56  ± 0.05 billion years
|}

==== ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ ====
[[File:Barringer Crater aerial photo by USGS.jpg|thumb|upright|بيرنگر ڪريٽر، ايريزونا، جتي ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ مليو هو.]]

ڌرتيء جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ لاء ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ استعمال ڪيو ويو ڇاڪاڻ ته اهو وڏو آهي ۽ خاص طور تي ناياب قسم جي ميٽيورائيٽ جو نمائندو آهي جنهن ۾ سلفائيڊ معدنيات (خاص طور تي ٽرائلائيٽ، FeS)، ڌاتو نڪل-لوهه جا مرڪب ۽ سليڪٽ معدنيات شامل آهن. اهو اهم آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته ٽن معدني شڪلن جي موجودگي نموني کي استعمال ڪندي آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي جاچ جي کي اها اجازت ڏئي ٿي جيڪي اصل ۽ ٽٽل نيوڪلائيڊس جي وچ ۾ ڪنسنٽريشن ۾ هڪ وڏو علحدگي فراهم ڪن ٿا. اهو خاص طور تي يورينيم ۽ ليڊ لاءِ سچ آهي. ليڊ مضبوط طور تي چالڪوفيلڪ آهي ۽ سلفيٽ ۾ يورينيم جي مقابلي ۾ سلفيٽ جي ڀيٽ ۾ تمام گهڻي ڪنسنٽريشن تي ملي ٿو. ميٽيورائيٽ جي ٺهڻ دوران اصل ۽ ٽٽل نيوڪلائيڊس ۾ هن الڳ ٿيڻ جي ڪري، هن شمسي ڊسڪ جي ٺهڻ ۽ ان ڪري اپگرهن جي هڪ تمام گهڻي اڳي کان وڌيڪ صحيح تاريخ جي اجازت ڏني.

[[File:Canyon-diablo-meteorite.jpg|thumb|upright|left|&quot;ڊيابلو ڪينيئن&quot; کان مليل لوھه جي شھاب جو ٽڪرو]]

&quot;ڪينيئن ڊيابلو&quot; جي شھاب مان طئي ٿيل عمر جي تصديق سوين ٻين عمر جي تعين ڪرڻ واري ذريعن سان، ڌرتيء کان مليل نمونن ۽ ٻين شھاب ٻنهي مان ڪئي وئي آھي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference
 | author=Terada, K.| author2=Sano, Y.
 | title=In-situ ion microprobe U-Pb dating of phosphates in H-chondrites | book-title=Proceedings, Eleventh Annual V. M. Goldschmidt Conference
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=May 20–24, 2001
 | location=Hot Springs, Virginia | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf | access-date=2008-12-22
 | bibcode=2001eag..conf.3306T | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214310/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; شھاب جا نمونا، بهرحال، 4.53 کان 4.58 ارب سال اڳ تائين پکڙيل ڏيکارين ٿا. ان کي شمسي نيبولا جي ٺھڻ ۽ سج ۽ سيارن کي ٺاھڻ لاءِ شمسي ڊسڪ ۾ ان جو ٽٽڻ، جي مدت جي طور تي تعبير ڪيو ويو آھي. ھي 50 ملين سالن جو عرصو اصل شمسي مٽي جي ڪڪرن ۽ شھاب مان سيارن جي واڌ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿو.

چنڊ، ھڪ ٻئي خارجي جسم جي طور تي جيڪو پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس مان نه گذريو آھي ۽ جنھن جو ڪو به ماحول نه آھي، اپولو مشن مان واپس آيل نمونن مان بلڪل صحيح عمر جون تاريخون مهيا ڪري ٿو. چنڊ تان واپس آيل پٿر وڌ ۾ وڌ 4.51 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. مريخ جا شھاب جيڪي ڌرتيءَ تي لٿا آهن انهن جي تاريخ پڻ، ليڊ-ليڊ ڊيٽنگ ذريعي تقريباً 4.5 ارب سال پراڻي آهي. چنڊ جا نمونا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي موسمي تبديلين، پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس يا جاندارن پاران منتقل ڪيل مواد کان متاثر نه ٿيا آهن، پڻ ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ٽريڪ جي سڌي اليڪٽران خوردبيني امتحان ذريعي ڊيٽنگ فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.  اعلي توانائي ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ذرڙن جي اثرن مان پيدا ٿيندڙ، خلل جو مجموعو آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي هڪ ٻي تصديق فراهم ڪري ٿو. ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ڊيٽنگ صرف ان مواد تي مفيد آهي جيڪا پگهرڻ نٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته پگھلڻ مواد جي ڪرسٽل ڍانچي کي ختم ڪري ٿو ۽ ذرڙن پاران ڇڏيل ٽريڪ کي ختم ڪري ٿو.

==پڻ ڏسو==
* {{Portal|ڌرتي}} 
* ڪائنات جي عمر 
* جيوڪرونولوجي 
* ڌرتيء جي تاريخ 
* [[فطري تاريخ]]
* فطري تاريخ جي ٽائم لائن
==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}

==ڪتابيات==
==وڌيڪ مطالعو==
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=Wijbrans |first3=J. R. |last4=Swisher III |first4=C. C. |last5=Fanning |first5=M. |title=Multimethod radiometric age for a bentonite near the top of the Baculites reesidei Zone of southwestern Saskatchewan (Campanian–Maastrichtian stage boundary?) |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=April 1993 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=769–775 |doi=10.1139/e93-063 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=McDougall |first3=I. |title=A radiometric age for the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary based upon K–Ar, Rb–Sr, and U–Pb ages of bentonites from Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1988 |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=1088–1097 |doi=10.1139/e88-106 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Eberth |first1=David A. |last2=Braman |first2=Dennis R. |last3=Tokaryk |first3=Tim T. |title=Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and Vertebrate Paleontology of the Judith River Formation (Campanian) Near Muddy Lake, West-Central Saskatchewan |journal=Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology |date=1990 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=387–406 |url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/cspg/data/038/038004/0387.htm }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goodwin |first1=Mark B. |last2=Deino |first2=Alan L. |title=The first radiometric ages from the Judith River Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Hill County, Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1989 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=1384–1391 |doi=10.1139/e89-118 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gradstein |first1=Felix M. |last2=Agterberg |first2=Frits P. |last3=Ogg |first3=James G. |last4=Hardenbol |first4=Jan |last5=Veen |first5=Paul Van |last6=Thierry |first6=Jacques |last7=Huang |first7=Zehui |title=Geochronology, Time Scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation |chapter=A Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Time Scale |date=1995 |doi=10.2110/pec.95.04.0095 |isbn=978-1-56576-091-2 }}
* Harland, W.B., Cox, A.V.; Llewellyn, P.G.; Pickton, C.A.G.; Smith, A.G.; and Walters, R., 1982. ''A Geologic Time Scale'': 1982 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 131p.{{isbn?}}
* Harland, W.B.; [[Richard Lee Armstrong|Armstrong, R.L.]]; Cox, A.V.; Craig, L.E.; Smith, A.G.; Smith, D.G., 1990. ''A Geologic Time Scale'', 1989 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, p.&amp;nbsp;1–263. {{ISBN|0-521-38765-5}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Harper | first1 = C.W. Jr | year = 1980 | title = Relative age inference in paleontology | journal = Lethaia | volume = 13 | issue = 3| pages = 239–248 | doi = 10.1111/j.1502-3931.1980.tb00638.x | bibcode = 1980Letha..13..239H }}
* Obradovich, J.D., 1993. A Cretaceous time scale. IN: Caldwell, W.G.E. and Kauffman, E.G. (eds.). ''Evolution of the Western Interior Basin''. Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 39, p.&amp;nbsp;379–396.{{isbn?}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Palmer | first1 = Allison R | year = 1983 | title = The Decade of North American Geology 1983 Geologic Time Scale | journal = Geology | volume = 11 | issue = 9| pages = 503–504 | doi = 10.1130/0091-7613(1983)11&lt;503:tdonag&gt;2.0.co;2 | bibcode = 1983Geo....11..503P }}
* Powell, James Lawrence, 2001, ''Mysteries of Terra Firma: the Age and Evolution of the Earth'', Simon &amp; Schuster, {{ISBN|0-684-87282-X}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [https://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html The Age of the Earth] by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org)
* [https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS preface on the Age of the Earth]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites]
* [https://www.fleming-group.com/Misc/Pre-1900%20Non-Religious%20Estimates%20of%20the%20Age%20of%20the%20Earth.pdf Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth]
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[[زمرو:ڌرتي جي عمر]]
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[[زمرو:ارضياتي تاريخ]]
[[زمرو:ارضياتي نظريا]]
[[زمرو:ڌرتي سائنس جي تاريخ]] 
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      <text bytes="38479" sha1="b2l7jd2w9i9n9m16pwn4e9uf2mcv0yl" xml:space="preserve">[[File:The_Blue_Marble_(remastered).jpg|thumb|''نيرو سنگ مرمر'' (Blue Marble)، [[ڌرتي]] جيئن 1972ع ۾ اپولو 17 مان ڏٺو ويو آهي.]]
'''ڌرتيءَ جي عمر''' (Age of Earth) جو اندازو چار ارب 54 ڪروڙ سال جو آهي. &lt;ref name=&quot;Dalrymple 2001 205–221&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|archiveurl=Brent Dalrymple|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|date=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics|date=1980}}&lt;/ref&gt; هي دور [[ڌرتي|ڌرتيءَ]] جي واڌ ۽ گرهن جي فرق جي آخري مرحلن جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو. عمر جو اندازو موسمياتي مواد جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر جي تاريخن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Hedman|first=Matthew|title=The Age of Everything|chapter=9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System|pages=142–162|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-226-32294-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ciMyFqO--VMC&amp;q=The+age+of+everything}}&lt;/ref&gt; سڀ کان پراڻي ڄاتل سڃاتل زميني مواد ۽ قمري نمونن جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ عمر سان مطابقت رکندڙ  &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Barboni|first=Melanie|title=Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago|date=6 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ پروٽوپلينئٽري ڊسڪ ۾ سيارا ٺهڻ جي مشاهدن سان مطابقت رکندڙ ايسٽرو فزيڪل ايڪريشن ماڊل جي ثبوتن تي ٻڌل آهي. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Alex N.|title=The accretion of planet Earth|date=29 November 2022|pages=19–35|jstor=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pfalzner|first=S|title=The formation of the solar system|date=June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾ ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ترقي کان پوءِ، [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] سان مالا مال معدنيات ۾ [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ]] جي ماپ مان ظاهر ٿيو ته ڪجهه هڪ ارب سالن کان وڌيڪ پراڻا هئا. &lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author1=Boltwood|archiveurl=Bertram Boltwood|title=On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium|date=1907|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1450152}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For the abstract, see: {{Cite book|date=1907|title=Chemical Abstracts|page=817|publisher=American Chemical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1su2AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA817|access-date=2008-12-19|location=New York, London|author1=Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society}}&lt;/ref&gt; اڄ تائين تجزيو ڪيل سڀ کان پراڻا [[معدنيات]] - [[اولهائون آسٽريليا|اولهائين آسٽريليا]] جي جيڪ هلز مان [[زرڪونيئم|زرڪون]] جا ننڍا ڪرسٽل - گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 4.404 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. &lt;ref name=&quot;nature409&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wilde, S. A.|title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago|date=2001-01-11|pages=175–178}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Wyche, S.|author2=Nelson, D. R.|author3=Riganti, A.|title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton|date=2004|pages=31–45}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[ڪيلشيئم|ڪيلشيم]]-[[ايليومينيم|ايلومينيم]] سان مالا مال شامل - [[آڪاش منڊل|شمسي نظام]] اندر ٺهندڙ شعلي جي اندر سڀ کان پراڻا ڄاتل سڃاتل مضبوط جزا 4 ارب 57 ڪروڙ سال پراڻا آهن &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Amelin|first1=Yuri|last2=Kaltenbach|first2=Angela|last3=Iizuka|first3=Tsuyoshi|last4=Stirling|first4=Claudine H.|last5=Ireland|first5=Trevor R.|last6=Petaev|first6=Michail|last7=Jacobsen|first7=Stein B.|title=U–Pb chronology of the Solar System's oldest solids with variable 238U/235U|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=December 2010|volume=300|issue=3–4|pages=343–350|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Connelly|first1=James N.|last2=Bizzarro|first2=Martin|last3=Krot|first3=Alexander N.|last4=Nordlund|first4=Åke|last5=Wielandt|first5=Daniel|last6=Ivanova|first6=Marina A.|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|journal=Science|date=2 November 2012|volume=338|issue=6107|pages=651–655|doi=10.1126/science.1226919}}&lt;/ref&gt; جيڪا شمسي نظام جي عمر لاءِ گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حد ڏين ٿا.

اهو مفروضو آهي ته زمين جو جمع ٿيڻ، ڪيلشيم-ايلومينيم سان مالا مال ٿيڻ کان جلد ئي شروع ٿيو. ڇاڪاڻ ته هن واڌ جي عمل جو عرصو اڃا تائين مناسب طور تي محدود نه آهي، مختلف واڌ جي ماڊلز مان اڳڪٿيون لڳ ڀڳ ٽي ڪروڙ کان ڏهه ڪروڙ سالن تائين آهن.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Mezger|first1=K.|last2=Schönbächler|first2=M.|last3=Bouvier|first3=A.|date=2020-03-04|title=Accretion of the Earth—Missing Components?|journal=Space Science Reviews|volume=216|issue=2|page=27|doi=10.1007/s11214-020-00649-y}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Sossi|author2=Stotz|author3=Jacobson|title=Stochastic accretion of the Earth|date=7 July 2022|pages=951–960}}&lt;/ref&gt; هن ڪري ڌرتي جي عمر ۽ قديم ترين پٿرن جي وچ ۾ فرق جو تعين ڪرڻ ڏکيو آهي. ڌرتيء تي موجود قديم ترين پٿر، جيڪا مٿاڇري تي ظاهر ٿين ٿا، جئين  ته اها ممڪن طور تي مختلف عمرن جي معدنيات جا مجموعا آهن، جي صحيح عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ پڻ ڏکيو ٿي سگهي ٿو.

==ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ==
{{Main|ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ}}
===جائزو===
پٿر جي معدنيات ۾ ڪجهه [[ڪيميائي عنصر|'''ڪيميائي تت''']] پهرين کان موجود هوندا آهن ۽ پٿرن ۾ موجود تابڪار [[آئسوٽوپ|آئسوٽوپس]] تي، [[تابڪاريت|تابڪاري]] زوال (ڪٽڻ) جو عمل، وقت سان گڏ نوان ننڍا ڪيميائي تت پيدا ڪري ٿو. زوال جي مستحڪم آخري پيداوار جي ارتڪاز کي ماپڻ، اڌ زندگي جي ڄاڻ ۽ زوال جي پيداوار عنصرن جي شروعاتي ارتڪاز معلوم ڪرڻ سان پٿر جي عمر جو حساب لڳائي سگهجي ٿو.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot;&gt;{{cite book | author=Nichols, Gary | title=Sedimentology and Stratigraphy | chapter=21.2 Radiometric Dating | pages=325–327 | publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons | date=2009 | isbn=978-1-4051-9379-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;  عام طور تي تابڪاري زوال جي آخري شيون [[پوٽاشيئم|پوٽاشيم]]-40 جي زوال مان پيدا ٿيل [[آرگون]] ۽ [[يورينيئم|يورينيم]] ۽ [[ٿوريئم|ٿوريم]] جي ڪٽڻ مان [[ليڊ (شيھو)|ليڊ (شيهي)]] جا ايٽم آهن. جيڪڏهن پٿر پگھري وڃي ٿو (جيئن ڌرتيءَ جي اندرون پرت ۾ ٿئي ٿو) ته اهڙيون غير تابڪار آخري شيون عام طور تي نڪرجي وڃن ٿيون يا ٻيهر ورهائجي وڃن ٿيون.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot; /&gt; اهڙيءَ طرح سڀ کان پراڻي زميني پٿر جي عمر ڌرتيءَ جي عمر لاءِ اندازو ڏئي ٿي، جئين ته فرض ڪيو ويندو آهي ته ڪو به پٿر پاڻ ڌرتيءَ جي عمر کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين برقرار نه رهيو آهي.&lt;ref name=&quot;nichols&quot; /&gt;

=== ڪنويڪٽو مينٽل ۽ تابڪاري ===
[[تابڪاريت|تابڪاري]] (Radioactivity) جي دريافت حساب ۾ هڪ ٻيو عنصر متعارف ڪرايو. سال 1896ع ۾ [[هينري بيڪيوريل|هينري بيڪريل]] جي شروعاتي دريافت کان پوءِ،,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=420–421|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f422.chemindefer}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 420 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Henri Becquerel|title=Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents|journal=Comptes Rendus|volume=122|pages=501–503|year=1896|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f503.item}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''Comptes Rendus'' '''122''': 501–503 (1896), [https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/becquerel.html translated by Carmen Giunta]. Accessed 12 April 2021.&lt;/ref&gt; [[ميري ڪيوري]] ۽ پيئر ڪيوري سال &lt;small&gt;1898ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾ تابڪار [[تت]] [[پولونيئم|پولونيم]] ۽ [[ريڊيئم|ريڊيم]] کي دريافت ڪيو&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |year=1898 |title=Sur une nouvelle substance fortement radio-active, contenue dans la pechblende (On a new, strongly radioactive substance contained in pitchblende) |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=127 |pages=1215–1217 |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |access-date=12 April 2021 |author=Curie, Pierre |author2=Curie, Marie |author3=Bémont, Gustave |name-list-style=amp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806083923/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/discover.htm |archive-date=6 August 2009 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; ۽ سال &lt;small&gt;1903ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾، پيئر ڪيوري ۽ البرٽ ليبورڊ اعلان ڪيو ته ريڊيم پنهنجي تابڪاري جي ڪارڻ ايتري گرمي پيدا ڪري ٿو جو پنهنجي وزن جي برابر برف کي هڪ ڪلاڪ کان به گهٽ وقت ۾ ڳاري سگهي ٿو،&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Curie, Pierre |author2=Laborde, Albert |title=Sur la chaleur dégagée spontanément par les sels de radium |journal=Comptes Rendus |volume=136 |pages=673–675 |year=1903 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3091c/f673.item}}&lt;/ref&gt; ارضيات جا ماهر جلدي محسوس ڪيو ته اها ڌرتيءَ جي عمر جي اڪثر حسابن کي خراب ڪري ڇڏيو آهي. جئين ته انهن فرض ڪيو هو ته ڌرتيءَ ۽ سج جي اصل گرمي مسلسل خلا ۾ ختم ٿي وئي هئي، پر تابڪاري زوال جو مطلب اهو هو ته خلا ۾ گم ٿيل هي گرمي مسلسل ڀرجي وئي هئي. جارج ڊارون ۽ جان جولي پهريان شخص هئا، جنهن سال  1903ع ۾ هن ڳالهه جي نشاندهي ڪيا.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=John | last=Joly | date=1909
 | title=Radioactivity and Geology: An Account of the Influence of Radioactive Energy on Terrestrial History | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich | edition=1st | page=[https://archive.org/details/radioactivitygeo00jolyrich/page/36 36]
 | publisher=Archibald Constable &amp; Co., ltd
 | location=London, UK }} Reprinted by BookSurge Publishing (2004) {{ISBN|1-4021-3577-7}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== ريڊيو ميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي ايجاد ===
تابڪاري (Radioactivity) جي دريافت، جنهن پراڻي طريقن کي ختم ڪري ڇڏيو هو، ريڊيو ميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ جي صورت ۾، نئين حسابن لاءِ بنياد فراهم ڪندي بونس حاصل ڪيو. 
[[File:Ernest Rutherford 1908.jpg|thumb|[[Ernest Rutherford]] in 1908]]
[[Ernest Rutherford]] and [[Frederick Soddy]] jointly had continued their work on radioactive materials and concluded that radioactivity was caused by a spontaneous transmutation of atomic elements. In radioactive decay, an element breaks down into another, lighter element, releasing alpha, beta, or [[Gamma ray|gamma]] radiation in the process. They also determined that a particular isotope of a radioactive element decays into another element at a distinctive rate. This rate is given in terms of a &quot;half-life&quot;, or the amount of time it takes half of a mass of that radioactive material to break down into its &quot;decay product&quot;.

Some radioactive materials have short half-lives; some have long half-lives. Uranium and thorium have long half-lives and so persist in Earth's crust, but radioactive elements with short half-lives have generally disappeared. This suggested that it might be possible to measure the age of Earth by determining the relative proportions of radioactive materials in geological samples. In reality, radioactive elements do not always decay into nonradioactive (&quot;stable&quot;) elements directly, instead, decaying into other radioactive elements that have their own half-lives and so on, until they reach a [[stable element]]. These &quot;[[decay chain]]s&quot;, such as the uranium-radium and thorium series, were known within a few years of the discovery of radioactivity and provided a basis for constructing techniques of radiometric dating.

The pioneers of radioactivity were chemist [[Bertram B. Boltwood]] and physicist Rutherford. Boltwood had conducted studies of radioactive materials as a consultant, and when Rutherford lectured at Yale in 1904,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=E. | last=Rutherford | date=1906
 | title=Radioactive Transformations
 | url=https://archive.org/details/radioactivetran01ruthgoog | publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons
 | location=London }} Reprinted by Juniper Grove (2007) {{ISBN|978-1-60355-054-3}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood was inspired to describe the relationships between elements in various decay series. Late in 1904, Rutherford took the first step toward radiometric dating by suggesting that the [[alpha particle]]s released by radioactive decay could be trapped in a rocky material as [[helium]] atoms. At the time, Rutherford was only guessing at the relationship between alpha particles and helium atoms, but he would prove the connection four years later.

Soddy and Sir [[William Ramsay]] had just determined the rate at which radium produces alpha particles, and Rutherford proposed that he could determine the age of a rock sample by measuring its concentration of helium. He dated a rock in his possession to an age of 40 million years by this technique. Rutherford wrote of addressing a meeting of the [[Royal Institution]] in 1904:

{{blockquote|I came into the room, which was half dark, and presently spotted Lord Kelvin in the audience and realized that I was in trouble at the last part of my speech dealing with the age of the Earth, where my views conflicted with his. To my relief, Kelvin fell fast asleep, but as I came to the important point, I saw the old bird sit up, open an eye, and cock a baleful glance at me! Then a sudden inspiration came, and I said, &quot;Lord Kelvin had limited the age of the Earth, provided no new source was discovered. That prophetic utterance refers to what we are now considering tonight, radium!&quot; Behold! the old boy beamed upon me.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
 | first=Arthur Stewart | last=Eve | date=1939
 | title=Rutherford: Being the life and letters of the Rt. Hon. Lord Rutherford, O. M.
 | url=https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbeingl0000evea | url-access=registration | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
 | location=Cambridge }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Rutherford assumed that the rate of decay of radium as determined by Ramsay and Soddy was accurate and that helium did not escape from the sample over time. Rutherford's scheme was inaccurate, but it was a useful first step. Boltwood focused on the end products of decay series. In 1905, he suggested that lead was the final stable product of the decay of radium. It was already known that radium was an intermediate product of the decay of uranium. Rutherford joined in, outlining a decay process in which radium emitted five alpha particles through various intermediate products to end up with lead, and speculated that the radium–lead decay chain could be used to date rock samples. Boltwood did the legwork and by the end of 1905 had provided dates for 26 separate rock samples, ranging from 92 to 570 million years. He did not publish these results, which was fortunate because they were flawed by measurement errors and poor estimates of the half-life of radium. Boltwood refined his work and finally published the results in 1907.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

Boltwood's paper pointed out that samples taken from comparable layers of strata had similar lead-to-uranium ratios, and that samples from older layers had a higher proportion of lead, except where there was evidence that lead had [[Leaching (chemistry)|leached]] out of the sample. His studies were flawed by the fact that the decay series of thorium was not understood, which led to incorrect results for samples that contained both uranium and thorium. However, his calculations were far more accurate than any that had been performed to that time. Refinements in the technique would later give ages for Boltwood's 26 samples of 410 million to 2.2 billion years.&lt;ref name=&quot;Boltwood&quot; /&gt;

===Arthur Holmes establishes radiometric dating===
Although Boltwood published his paper in a prominent geological journal, the geological community had little interest in radioactivity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Joosse |first=Tess |date=2024-01-11 |title=February 1907: Bertram Boltwood Estimates Earth is at Least 2.2 Billion Years Old |url=https://www.aps.org/apsnews/2024/01/boltwood-earth-age |access-date=2025-08-31 |website=www.aps.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Boltwood gave up work on radiometric dating and went on to investigate other decay series. Rutherford remained mildly curious about the issue of the age of Earth but did little work on it.

[[Robert Strutt, 4th Baron Rayleigh|Robert Strutt]] tinkered with Rutherford's helium method until 1910 and then ceased. However, Strutt's student [[Arthur Holmes]] became interested in radiometric dating and continued to work on it after everyone else had given up. Holmes focused on lead dating because he regarded the helium method as unpromising. He performed measurements on rock samples and concluded in 1911 that the oldest (a sample from [[Ceylon]]) was about 1.6 billion years old.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) p. 74&lt;/ref&gt; These calculations were not particularly trustworthy. For example, he assumed that the samples had contained only uranium and no lead when they were formed.

More important research was published in 1913. It showed that elements generally exist in multiple variants with different masses, or &quot;[[isotope]]s&quot;. In the 1930s, isotopes would be shown to have nuclei with differing numbers of the neutral particles known as &quot;[[neutrons]]&quot;. In that same year, other research was published establishing the rules for radioactive decay, allowing more precise identification of decay series.

Many geologists felt these new discoveries made radiometric dating so complicated as to be worthless.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} Holmes felt that they gave him tools to improve his techniques, and he plodded ahead with his research, publishing before and after the First World War. His work was generally ignored until the 1920s, though in 1917 [[Joseph Barrell]], a professor of geology at Yale, redrew geological history as it was understood at the time to conform to Holmes's findings in radiometric dating. Barrell's research determined that the layers of strata had not all been laid down at the same rate, and so current rates of geological change could not be used to provide accurate timelines of the history of Earth.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

Holmes' persistence finally began to pay off in 1921, when the speakers at the yearly meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] came to a rough consensus that Earth was a few billion years old and that radiometric dating was credible. Holmes published ''The Age of the Earth, an Introduction to Geological Ideas'' in 1927 in which he presented a range of 1.6 to 3.0 billion years. No great push to embrace radiometric dating followed, however, and the die-hards in the geological community stubbornly resisted. They had never cared for attempts by physicists to intrude in their domain, and had successfully ignored them so far.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf The Age of the Earth Debate Badash, L ''Scientific American'' 1989 esp p95] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105173355/http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Badash_AgeEarthDebate_SciAmer89.pdf |date=2016-11-05 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The growing weight of evidence finally tilted the balance in 1931, when the [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]] of the US [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] decided to resolve the question of the age of Earth by appointing a committee to investigate.

Holmes, being one of the few people who was trained in radiometric dating techniques, was a committee member and in fact wrote most of the final report.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dal7778&quot;&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 77–78&lt;/ref&gt; Thus, Holmes' report concluded that radioactive dating was the only reliable means of pinning down a [[geologic time scale]]. Questions of bias were deflected by the great and exacting detail of the report. It described the methods used, the care with which measurements were made, and their error bars and limitations.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

=== جديد ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ ===
ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ سائنسدانن جي ڊيٽنگ لاء ارضياتي وقت جي پيماني لاء غالب طريقو رهي ٿي. ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ لاءِ ٽيڪنڪس کي آزمايو ويو آهي ۽ انهن کي مسلسل بنيادن تي بهتر ڪيو ويو آهي. 1960ع جي ڏهاڪي کان وٺي اڄ تائين،  مختلف قسم جي مواد تي ڪم ڪندي، چاليهه يا ان کان وڌيڪ مختلف ڊيٽنگ ٽيڪنڪس استعمال ڪيون ويون آهن. ساڳئي نموني لاءِ تاريخون (انهن مختلف طريقن کي استعمال ڪندي) مواد جي عمر تي تمام ويجهي اتفاق ۾ آهن. ممڪن آلودگي جا مسئلا موجود آهن، پر انهن جو مطالعو ڪيو ويو آهي ۽ احتياط سان جاچ ذريعي حل ڪيو ويو آهي. آلودگي جي امڪان کي محدود ڪرڻ لاءِ، نمونا تيار ڪرڻ لاء اھڙا طريقيڪار اختيار ڪيا ويا آهن، جيڪا آلودگي کي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ ڪن ٿا.

==== شھابين (ميٽيورائٽ) جو استعمال ====
ڪيمرون پيٽرسن پاران، ڪينيئن ڊيابلو شھاب سميت، ڪيترن ئي شھابين (&lt;small&gt;Meteorites&lt;/small&gt;)، تي يورينيم-ليڊ آئسوٽوپ ڊيٽنگ (خاص طور تي ليڊ-ليڊ ڊيٽنگ) استعمال ڪندي، چار ارب 55 ڪروڙ سال جي عمر (&lt;small&gt;اڄ جي قبول ٿيل عمرن جي تمام ويجهي&lt;/small&gt;) طئي ڪئي وئي هئي ۽ سال &lt;small&gt;1956ع&lt;/small&gt; ۾ شائع ڪئي وئي. &lt;ref name=&quot;Patterson&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Patterson | first=Claire | title=Age of meteorites and the earth | journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta | url=http://es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | date=1956 | volume=10 | issue=4 | pages=230–237 | access-date=2009-07-07 | doi=10.1016/0016-7037(56)90036-9 | bibcode=1956GeCoA..10..230P | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621045217/http://es.ucsc.edu/%7Ercoe/eart206/Patterson_AgeEarth_GeoCosmoActa56.pdf | archive-date=2010-06-21 }}&lt;/ref&gt; ڌرتيءَ جي ڏنل عمر (جزوي طور تي) ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيوريٽ مان نڪتل آهي ۽ اها ڪيترن ئي اهم سببن جي ڪري ۽ ڪائنات جي ڪيمسٽري جي جديد سمجھ، جيڪي ڏهاڪن جي تحقيق تي ٺهيل آهي، تي ٺهيل آهي. 
[[File:Paterson isochron animation.gif|thumb|left|upright=1.6|ليڊ آئسوٽوپ آئسوڪرون ڊاگرام (&lt;small&gt;Isochron&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;diagram&lt;/small&gt;) پيٽرسن پاران سال 1956ع ۾ ڌرتي جي عمر جو تعين ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيل ڊيٽا ڏيکاريندي.]]ڇاڪاڻ ته ڌرتي پنهنجي جي مرڪزي حصي (Core)، وچين پرت (mantle) ۽ مٿاڇري واري پرت (Crust) ۾ فرق ڪري چڪي آهي ۽ پوءِ پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس، موسم ۽ هائيڊروٿرمل گردش ذريعي ان نموني جي ذخيرن جي ملاوٽ ۽ ان کي ختم ڪرڻ جي هڪ ڊگهي تاريخ مان گذري چڪي آهي،  ڌرتيءَ مان حاصل ڪيل گھڻا ارضياتي نمونا شمسي نيبولا مان ڌرتي جي ٺهڻ جي سڌي تاريخ ڏيڻ کان قاصر آهن.

اها سڀئي عمل آئسوٽوپڪ ڊيٽنگ ميڪانيزم تي منفي اثر انداز ٿي سگهن ٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته نموني کي هميشه هڪ بند نظام جي طور تي نه ٿو سمجهي سگهجي ٿو جنهن جي ذريعي اصل يا پيدا ٿيل نيوڪلائيڊ، ايٽمن جي هڪ قسم جيڪا نيوٽران ۽ پروٽان جي تعداد سان منسوب آهي جيڪا هڪ ايٽم تي مشتمل آهي، يا هڪ وچولي پيدا ٿيل نيوڪلائيڊ جزوي طور تي نموني مان هٽايو ويو هجي، جيڪو نتيجي ۾ آئسوٽوپڪ ڊيٽنگ جي طريقي کي خراب ڪندو. هن اثر کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ، هڪ آئسوٽوپڪ ڊيٽنگ مهيا ڪرڻ لاءِ ساڳئي نموني ۾ ڪيترن ئي معدنيات کي تاريخ ڏيڻ معمول آهي. متبادل طور تي، تاريخ جي جانچ ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ نموني تي هڪ کان وڌيڪ ڊيٽنگ سسٽم استعمال ڪري سگهجن ٿا. 

ڪجهه شھابين (meteorites) کي ان کان سواء ابتدائي مواد، جنهن مان اڀرندڙ شمسي ڊسڪ ٺهي هئي، جي نمائندگي ڪرڻ لاءِ مناسب سمجهيو ويندو آهي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference | author=Carlson, R. W.| author2=Tera, F.
 | title=Lead–Lead Constraints on the Timescale of Early Planetary Differentiation
 | book-title=Conference Proceedings, Origin of the Earth and Moon | page=6
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=December 1–3, 1998
 | location=Houston, Texas | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf |access-date=2008-12-22 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214311/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/origin98/pdf/4066.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; ڪجهه شمسي ڊسڪ ۽ سيارن جي ٺهڻ کان پوءِ جلد ئي بند نظام (ڪجهه آئسوٽوپڪ سسٽم لاءِ) طور ڪم ڪيو آهي. اڄ تائين، انهن مفروضن ۽ بار بار آئسوٽوپ واري ڊيٽنگ کي تمام گهڻي سائنسي مشاهدي جي حمايت حاصل آهي ۽ اهو يقيني طور تي ان کان وڌيڪ مضبوط مفروضو آهي جيڪو فرض ڪري ٿو ته هڪ زميني پٿر پنهنجي اصل ساخت کي برقرار رکيو آهي.

بهرحال، گالينا جي قديم آرڪيائي ليڊ معدنيات کي زمين جي ٺهڻ جي تاريخ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته اها سيارن تي سڀ کان پهرين ٺهيل ليڊ-صرف معدنيات جي نمائندگي ڪن ٿيون ۽ سيارن تي ابتدائي هڪجهڙائي ليڊ-ليڊ آئسوٽوپ سسٽم کي رڪارڊ ڪن ٿيون. انهن 4.54 بلين سالن جي عمر جون تاريخون متعين ڪيون آهن جن ۾ غلطي لاءِ صرف هڪ سيڪڙي مارجن جي درستگي آهي.&lt;ref&gt;Dalrymple (1994) pp. 310–341&lt;/ref&gt;

Statistics for several meteorites that have undergone isochron dating are as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;BGDarymple&quot;&gt;{{cite book
 | author=Dalrymple, Brent G.
 | title=Ancient Earth, Ancient Skies: The Age of the Earth and Its Cosmic Surroundings
 | url=https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr
 | url-access=registration
 | date=2004
 | publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]
 | isbn = 978-0-8047-4933-6
 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr/page/147 147], 169
}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

{| &lt;!-- is [[Figure space]], the width of one digit. --&gt;
!colspan=4 align=left| 1. St. Severin (ordinary chondrite)
|-
|width=1em| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.543 ± 0.019 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.55  ± 0.33 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.51  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
| || 4. ||| Re-Os isochron || 4.68  ± 0.15 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 2. Juvinas (basaltic achondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.556 ± 0.012 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.540 ± 0.001 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Sm-Nd isochron || 4.56  ± 0.08 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Rb-Sr isochron || 4.50  ± 0.07 billion years
|-
!colspan=4 align=left| 3. Allende (carbonaceous chondrite)
|-
| || 1. || Pb-Pb isochron || 4.553 ± 0.004 billion years
|-
| || 2. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.52  ± 0.02 billion years
|-
| || 3. || Ar-Ar age spectrum || 4.55  ± 0.03 billion years
|-
| || 4. || Ar-Ar age spectrum&amp;nbsp; || 4.56  ± 0.05 billion years
|}

==== ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ ====
[[File:Barringer Crater aerial photo by USGS.jpg|thumb|upright|بيرنگر ڪريٽر، ايريزونا، جتي ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ مليو هو.]]

ڌرتيء جي ريڊيوميٽرڪ ڊيٽنگ لاء ڪينيئن ڊيابلو ميٽيورائيٽ استعمال ڪيو ويو ڇاڪاڻ ته اهو وڏو آهي ۽ خاص طور تي ناياب قسم جي ميٽيورائيٽ جو نمائندو آهي جنهن ۾ سلفائيڊ معدنيات (خاص طور تي ٽرائلائيٽ، FeS)، ڌاتو نڪل-لوهه جا مرڪب ۽ سليڪٽ معدنيات شامل آهن. اهو اهم آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته ٽن معدني شڪلن جي موجودگي نموني کي استعمال ڪندي آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي جاچ جي کي اها اجازت ڏئي ٿي جيڪي اصل ۽ ٽٽل نيوڪلائيڊس جي وچ ۾ ڪنسنٽريشن ۾ هڪ وڏو علحدگي فراهم ڪن ٿا. اهو خاص طور تي يورينيم ۽ ليڊ لاءِ سچ آهي. ليڊ مضبوط طور تي چالڪوفيلڪ آهي ۽ سلفيٽ ۾ يورينيم جي مقابلي ۾ سلفيٽ جي ڀيٽ ۾ تمام گهڻي ڪنسنٽريشن تي ملي ٿو. ميٽيورائيٽ جي ٺهڻ دوران اصل ۽ ٽٽل نيوڪلائيڊس ۾ هن الڳ ٿيڻ جي ڪري، هن شمسي ڊسڪ جي ٺهڻ ۽ ان ڪري اپگرهن جي هڪ تمام گهڻي اڳي کان وڌيڪ صحيح تاريخ جي اجازت ڏني.

[[File:Canyon-diablo-meteorite.jpg|thumb|upright|left|&quot;ڊيابلو ڪينيئن&quot; کان مليل لوھه جي شھاب جو ٽڪرو]]

&quot;ڪينيئن ڊيابلو&quot; جي شھاب مان طئي ٿيل عمر جي تصديق سوين ٻين عمر جي تعين ڪرڻ واري ذريعن سان، ڌرتيء کان مليل نمونن ۽ ٻين شھاب ٻنهي مان ڪئي وئي آھي.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference
 | author=Terada, K.| author2=Sano, Y.
 | title=In-situ ion microprobe U-Pb dating of phosphates in H-chondrites | book-title=Proceedings, Eleventh Annual V. M. Goldschmidt Conference
 | publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute
 | date=May 20–24, 2001
 | location=Hot Springs, Virginia | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf | access-date=2008-12-22
 | bibcode=2001eag..conf.3306T | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214310/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold2001/pdf/3306.pdf| archive-date= 16 December 2008 | url-status= live}}&lt;/ref&gt; شھاب جا نمونا، بهرحال، 4.53 کان 4.58 ارب سال اڳ تائين پکڙيل ڏيکارين ٿا. ان کي شمسي نيبولا جي ٺھڻ ۽ سج ۽ سيارن کي ٺاھڻ لاءِ شمسي ڊسڪ ۾ ان جو ٽٽڻ، جي مدت جي طور تي تعبير ڪيو ويو آھي. ھي 50 ملين سالن جو عرصو اصل شمسي مٽي جي ڪڪرن ۽ شھاب مان سيارن جي واڌ جي اجازت ڏئي ٿو.

چنڊ، ھڪ ٻئي خارجي جسم جي طور تي جيڪو پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس مان نه گذريو آھي ۽ جنھن جو ڪو به ماحول نه آھي، اپولو مشن مان واپس آيل نمونن مان بلڪل صحيح عمر جون تاريخون مهيا ڪري ٿو. چنڊ تان واپس آيل پٿر وڌ ۾ وڌ 4.51 ارب سال پراڻا آهن. مريخ جا شھاب جيڪي ڌرتيءَ تي لٿا آهن انهن جي تاريخ پڻ، ليڊ-ليڊ ڊيٽنگ ذريعي تقريباً 4.5 ارب سال پراڻي آهي. چنڊ جا نمونا، ڇاڪاڻ ته اهي موسمي تبديلين، پليٽ ٽيڪٽونڪس يا جاندارن پاران منتقل ڪيل مواد کان متاثر نه ٿيا آهن، پڻ ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ٽريڪ جي سڌي اليڪٽران خوردبيني امتحان ذريعي ڊيٽنگ فراهم ڪري سگهن ٿا.  اعلي توانائي ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ذرڙن جي اثرن مان پيدا ٿيندڙ، خلل جو مجموعو آئسوٽوپڪ تاريخن جي هڪ ٻي تصديق فراهم ڪري ٿو. ڪائناتي شعاعن جي ڊيٽنگ صرف ان مواد تي مفيد آهي جيڪا پگهرڻ نٿا، ڇاڪاڻ ته پگھلڻ مواد جي ڪرسٽل ڍانچي کي ختم ڪري ٿو ۽ ذرڙن پاران ڇڏيل ٽريڪ کي ختم ڪري ٿو.

==پڻ ڏسو==
* {{Portal|ڌرتي}} 
* ڪائنات جي عمر 
* جيوڪرونولوجي 
* ڌرتيء جي تاريخ 
* [[فطري تاريخ]]
* فطري تاريخ جي ٽائم لائن
==حوالا==
{{حوالا}}

==ڪتابيات==
==وڌيڪ مطالعو==
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=Wijbrans |first3=J. R. |last4=Swisher III |first4=C. C. |last5=Fanning |first5=M. |title=Multimethod radiometric age for a bentonite near the top of the Baculites reesidei Zone of southwestern Saskatchewan (Campanian–Maastrichtian stage boundary?) |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=April 1993 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=769–775 |doi=10.1139/e93-063 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baadsgaard |first1=H. |last2=Lerbekmo |first2=J. F. |last3=McDougall |first3=I. |title=A radiometric age for the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary based upon K–Ar, Rb–Sr, and U–Pb ages of bentonites from Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1988 |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=1088–1097 |doi=10.1139/e88-106 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Eberth |first1=David A. |last2=Braman |first2=Dennis R. |last3=Tokaryk |first3=Tim T. |title=Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and Vertebrate Paleontology of the Judith River Formation (Campanian) Near Muddy Lake, West-Central Saskatchewan |journal=Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology |date=1990 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=387–406 |url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/cspg/data/038/038004/0387.htm }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goodwin |first1=Mark B. |last2=Deino |first2=Alan L. |title=The first radiometric ages from the Judith River Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Hill County, Montana |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=July 1989 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=1384–1391 |doi=10.1139/e89-118 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gradstein |first1=Felix M. |last2=Agterberg |first2=Frits P. |last3=Ogg |first3=James G. |last4=Hardenbol |first4=Jan |last5=Veen |first5=Paul Van |last6=Thierry |first6=Jacques |last7=Huang |first7=Zehui |title=Geochronology, Time Scales and Global Stratigraphic Correlation |chapter=A Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Time Scale |date=1995 |doi=10.2110/pec.95.04.0095 |isbn=978-1-56576-091-2 }}
* Harland, W.B., Cox, A.V.; Llewellyn, P.G.; Pickton, C.A.G.; Smith, A.G.; and Walters, R., 1982. ''A Geologic Time Scale'': 1982 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 131p.{{isbn?}}
* Harland, W.B.; [[Richard Lee Armstrong|Armstrong, R.L.]]; Cox, A.V.; Craig, L.E.; Smith, A.G.; Smith, D.G., 1990. ''A Geologic Time Scale'', 1989 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, p.&amp;nbsp;1–263. {{ISBN|0-521-38765-5}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Harper | first1 = C.W. Jr | year = 1980 | title = Relative age inference in paleontology | journal = Lethaia | volume = 13 | issue = 3| pages = 239–248 | doi = 10.1111/j.1502-3931.1980.tb00638.x | bibcode = 1980Letha..13..239H }}
* Obradovich, J.D., 1993. A Cretaceous time scale. IN: Caldwell, W.G.E. and Kauffman, E.G. (eds.). ''Evolution of the Western Interior Basin''. Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 39, p.&amp;nbsp;379–396.{{isbn?}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Palmer | first1 = Allison R | year = 1983 | title = The Decade of North American Geology 1983 Geologic Time Scale | journal = Geology | volume = 11 | issue = 9| pages = 503–504 | doi = 10.1130/0091-7613(1983)11&lt;503:tdonag&gt;2.0.co;2 | bibcode = 1983Geo....11..503P }}
* Powell, James Lawrence, 2001, ''Mysteries of Terra Firma: the Age and Evolution of the Earth'', Simon &amp; Schuster, {{ISBN|0-684-87282-X}}
==ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا==
* [https://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html The Age of the Earth] by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org)
* [https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html USGS preface on the Age of the Earth]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/nasa1.html NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites]
* [https://www.fleming-group.com/Misc/Pre-1900%20Non-Religious%20Estimates%20of%20the%20Age%20of%20the%20Earth.pdf Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth]
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      <comment>نئون صفحو:  [[زمرو:ارضياتي تاريخ]] [[زمرو:ارضياتي نظريا]]  [[زمرو:ڌرتي جي ارضياتي تاريخ]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="132" sha1="f5kx4oz7bs1nkkmmt1hssvavbm0rkm1" xml:space="preserve">
[[زمرو:ارضياتي تاريخ]]
[[زمرو:ارضياتي نظريا]] 
[[زمرو:ڌرتي جي ارضياتي تاريخ]]</text>
      <sha1>f5kx4oz7bs1nkkmmt1hssvavbm0rkm1</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:ارضياتي نظريا</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>95001</id>
    <revision>
      <id>371733</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-15T13:06:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ibne maryam</username>
        <id>17680</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:ارضيات]]  [[زمرو:سائنسي نظريا]]</comment>
      <origin>371733</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="63" sha1="97kziq159ai9jsqmj98oqw7l54co4j5" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:ارضيات]] 
[[زمرو:سائنسي نظريا]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:عبدالماجد ڀرڳڙي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف لئنگئيج انجنيئرنگ</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>95002</id>
    <revision>
      <id>371767</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:18:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]] [[زمرو:ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر]]</comment>
      <origin>371767</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="98" sha1="2wwfhjb0pppsv4hvyylo73k63ipe66u" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽيشنل لسانيات]]
[[زمرو:ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر]]</text>
      <sha1>2wwfhjb0pppsv4hvyylo73k63ipe66u</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:ايپليڪيشن سافٽ ويئر</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>95003</id>
    <revision>
      <id>371768</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:19:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:سافٽ ويئر]]</comment>
      <origin>371768</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="30" sha1="8kixni1csetmw9rbbs0k9em185fo1fb" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:سافٽ ويئر]]</text>
      <sha1>8kixni1csetmw9rbbs0k9em185fo1fb</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:سنڌي ڪمپيوٽرائز ڪمپوزنگ</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>95004</id>
    <revision>
      <id>371771</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:24:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽرائز ڪمپوزنگ]]</comment>
      <origin>371771</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="48" sha1="cvefh7qh3f00674ul5g4kshekydii5d" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽرائز ڪمپوزنگ]]</text>
      <sha1>cvefh7qh3f00674ul5g4kshekydii5d</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:ڪمپيوٽرائز ڪمپوزنگ</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>95005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>371772</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:24:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]]</comment>
      <origin>371772</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="38" sha1="mnlh1s5dsm7fxw8jgl41202hrrtcrim" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]]</text>
      <sha1>mnlh1s5dsm7fxw8jgl41202hrrtcrim</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>371773</id>
      <parentid>371772</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:26:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>371773</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="65" sha1="3b3wazid37eboi5v92k3zawo1po15ai" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جون ذيلي شاخون]]</text>
      <sha1>3b3wazid37eboi5v92k3zawo1po15ai</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي ڪانفرنسون</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>95006</id>
    <revision>
      <id>371779</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:34:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]]</comment>
      <origin>371779</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="38" sha1="mnlh1s5dsm7fxw8jgl41202hrrtcrim" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]]</text>
      <sha1>mnlh1s5dsm7fxw8jgl41202hrrtcrim</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي تنظيمون</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>95007</id>
    <revision>
      <id>371780</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:35:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]]</comment>
      <origin>371780</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="38" sha1="mnlh1s5dsm7fxw8jgl41202hrrtcrim" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]]</text>
      <sha1>mnlh1s5dsm7fxw8jgl41202hrrtcrim</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا ايوارڊ</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>95008</id>
    <revision>
      <id>371781</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:35:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]]</comment>
      <origin>371781</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="38" sha1="mnlh1s5dsm7fxw8jgl41202hrrtcrim" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]]</text>
      <sha1>mnlh1s5dsm7fxw8jgl41202hrrtcrim</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جو ادب</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>95009</id>
    <revision>
      <id>371782</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:36:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]]</comment>
      <origin>371782</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="38" sha1="mnlh1s5dsm7fxw8jgl41202hrrtcrim" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]]</text>
      <sha1>mnlh1s5dsm7fxw8jgl41202hrrtcrim</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا لاحقا</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>95010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>371783</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:37:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]]</comment>
      <origin>371783</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="38" sha1="mnlh1s5dsm7fxw8jgl41202hrrtcrim" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]]</text>
      <sha1>mnlh1s5dsm7fxw8jgl41202hrrtcrim</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جا اسٽب</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>95011</id>
    <revision>
      <id>371784</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:38:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]]</comment>
      <origin>371784</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="38" sha1="mnlh1s5dsm7fxw8jgl41202hrrtcrim" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس]]</text>
      <sha1>mnlh1s5dsm7fxw8jgl41202hrrtcrim</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي تعليم</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>95012</id>
    <revision>
      <id>371790</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:51:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ تعليم]] [[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس بلحاظ ملڪ]]</comment>
      <origin>371790</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="107" sha1="lnzazcetyo02ov6knld572e7iaud48c" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ تعليم]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس بلحاظ ملڪ]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>371791</id>
      <parentid>371790</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:51:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>371791</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="98" sha1="3ii9m0sca5em9gmcnnblojdtimvb0tf" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ تعليم]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس بلحاظ ملڪ]]</text>
      <sha1>3ii9m0sca5em9gmcnnblojdtimvb0tf</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>371792</id>
      <parentid>371791</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:52:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Memon2025 صفحي [[زمرو:زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي تعليم]] کي [[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي تعليم]] ڏانھن چوريو</comment>
      <origin>371791</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="98" sha1="3ii9m0sca5em9gmcnnblojdtimvb0tf" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ تعليم]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس بلحاظ ملڪ]]</text>
      <sha1>3ii9m0sca5em9gmcnnblojdtimvb0tf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>371796</id>
      <parentid>371792</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:56:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>371796</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="107" sha1="ln90l753ewn4f3mhg1kwruuyj4v7gie" xml:space="preserve">

[[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ خاص تعليم]]
[[زمرو:ڪمپيوٽر سائنس بلحاظ ملڪ]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>زمرو:زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي تعليم</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>95013</id>
    <revision>
      <id>371793</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:52:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Memon2025 صفحي [[زمرو:زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي تعليم]] کي [[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي تعليم]] ڏانھن چوريو</comment>
      <origin>371793</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="101" sha1="qknnk7x99rv9jg82ikbzj20kupycub1" xml:space="preserve">{{واپس منتقل زمرو|زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي تعليم}}</text>
      <sha1>qknnk7x99rv9jg82ikbzj20kupycub1</sha1>
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    <ns>14</ns>
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    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2026-04-16T11:58:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Memon2025</username>
        <id>21315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>نئون صفحو: [[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ خاص تعليم جا ادارا]] [[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي تعليم]]</comment>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="137" sha1="snfn5a06wnp3kpkz8h4kxhuathzg511" xml:space="preserve">[[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ خاص تعليم جا ادارا]]
[[زمرو:پاڪستان ۾ ڪمپيوٽر سائنس جي تعليم]]</text>
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