Wikipedia suwiki https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepas MediaWiki 1.45.0-wmf.7 first-letter Média Husus Obrolan Pamaké Obrolan pamaké Wikipedia Obrolan Wikipedia Gambar Obrolan gambar MédiaWiki Obrolan MédiaWiki Citakan Obrolan citakan Pitulung Obrolan pitulung Kategori Obrolan kategori Portal Obrolan portal TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul Acara Pembicaraan Acara 0 3299 680111 680029 2025-06-29T01:14:05Z 139.195.210.138 680111 wikitext text/x-wiki <!--{{ Frofil persib}}--> {{Infobox football club | clubname =ᮕᮨᮁᮞᮤᮘ᮪ <br />[[File:Star full.svg|27px]] | image = Logo Persib.png | current = Usum Pérsib Bandung 2014 | fullname = Persatuan Sépak Bola Indonésia Bandung | nickname = * ''ᮙᮅᮀ ᮘᮔ᮪ᮓᮥᮀ'' * ''ᮒᮧᮠᮔ᮪ ᮘᮥᮜᮇ'' | founded = [[5-1-1919]] |address = Jl. Sulanjana No. 17 [[Bandung]] | ground = [[Stadion Pakalangan Bandung Sagara Seuneu|Stadion Pakalangan Bandung Sagara Seuneu]] {{br}} [[Kota Bandung|Bandung]], [[Indonesia]] | capacity = 38.000 | owner = PT. Persib Bandung Bermartabat | chrtitle = Présidén | chairman = {{flagicon|IDN}} Glenn Sugita | manager = {{flagicon|IDN}} [[Umuh Muchtar]] | coach = {{flagicon|CRO}} [[Bojan Hodak]] | position = '''JUARA''' | season = 2024/25 | league = [[Liga 1]] | website = http://www.persib.co.id/ | pattern_la1 = _persib2223h | pattern_b1 = _persib2223h | pattern_ra1 = _persib2223h | pattern_sh1 = _persib2223h | pattern_so1 = | leftarm1 = 1434A4FF | body1 = 1434A4FF | rightarm1 = 1434A4FF | shorts1 = 1434A4FF | socks1 = 1434A4FF | pattern_la2 = _persib2223a | pattern_b2 = _persib2223a | pattern_ra2 = _persib2223a | pattern_sh2 = _persib2223a | pattern_so2 = | leftarm2 = FAF9F6FF | body2 = FAF9F6FF | rightarm2 = FAF9F6FF | shorts2 = FAF9F6FF | socks2 = A9A9A9 | pattern_la3 = | pattern_b3 = _persib2223t | pattern_ra3 = | pattern_sh3 = _persib2223t | pattern_so3 = | leftarm3 = 162B55FF | body3 = 162B55FF | rightarm3 = 162B55FF | shorts3 = DEF24AFF | socks3 = 90FF77FF }} '''Persib''' téh mangrupa kasawelasan [[maén bal]] nu aya di [[Bandung]]. Persib nyaéta singgetan tina Persatuan Sépakbola Indonésia Bandung.Klub iyeu dijieun kaping 5 Januari 1919 nu baheula disebat Bandoeng Inlandsche Voetbal Bond (BIVB). == Sajarah == Saméméh dingaranan Persib, di [[Kota Bandung|Dayeuh Bandung]] ajeg Bandoeng Inlandsche Voetball Bond (BIVB) leuwih-kirang warsi 1919. BIVB mangrupa salah sahiji [[organisasi]] pajoangan kaum nasionalis. Nu kungsi kacatet minangka pupuhu BIVB nyaéta Mr. Syamsudin nu dituluykeun ku putra pajoang istri [[Déwi Sartika]], nyaéta R. Atot. Atot ieu nu kacatet minangka Komisaris Daérah [[Jawa Barat|Pasundan]] nu munggaran. BIVB ngamangpaatkeun lapangan [[Tegallega]] di hareupeun tribun pacuan kuda. Tim BIVB sababaraha kali ngayakeun bitotama di lugay dayeuh jiga [[Yogyakarta]] jeung Jatinegara [[Jakarta]]. BIVB gentos wasta janten Persatuan Sépak Bola Indonésia Bandung [PSIB], tuluy mucunghul pakumpulan séjénna nu mamawa nasionalisme Indonésia nyaéta National Voetball Bond (NVB). Tanggal [[14 Maret|18 Maret]] [[1933|1934]], rua pakumpulan ieu sapuk pikeun ngahiji nu balukarna gumelar hiji pakumpulan nu dingaranan Persib. Harita nu jadi pamingpina kapeto Anwar St. Pamoentjak minangka Pupuhu Umum. Kleup-kleup nu ngagabung ka Persib nyaéta SIAP, Soenda, Singgalang, Diana, Matahari, OVU, RAN, HBOM, JOP, MALTA, jeung Merapi. Mangsa harita ogé di Bandung geus aya pakumpulan maén bal séjén nu diluluguan ku urang [[Walanda]] nyaéta Voetbal Bond Bandung & Omstreken (VBBO). Ieu pakumpulan sok nganggap énténg ka Pérsib, nyapirakeun Persib tur nganggap salaku pakumpulan “kelas rua“. VBBO mindeng ngécé ka Persib. Ma'lum waé bitotama-bitotama nu diayakeun ku Persib dilakukeunnana di pasisian Bandung harita—kawas Tegallega jeung Ciroyom. Masarakat ogé wanci harita mah leuwih resep lalajo bitotama anu diayakeun ku VBBO. Geusan lumangsungna bitotamana aya di jero Dayeuh Bandung nu maneuhna dianggap leuwih hadé, nyaéta rua lapangan nu aya di puseur dayeuh, lapang UNI jeung lapang SIDOLIG. Sanggeus “jurit tiis“ sawatara lila, ahirna Persib meunang nu ahirna janten pakumpulan maénbal hiji-hijina keur masarakat Bandung jeung sabudeureunnana. Kleup-kleup nu tadina ngagabung ka VBBO jiga UNI jeung SIDOLIG, lila-lila mah ngahiji jeung Persib. Malahan mah VBBO satuluyna masrahkeun lapangan nu galib dipaké keur tanding nyaéta Lapangan UNI, Lapangan SIDOLIG (kiwari Stadion Persib), jeung Lapangan SPARTA (kiwari Stadion Siliwangi). Kaayaan ieu tangtu waé beuki ngukuhkeun éksisténsi Persib di Bandung. Nalika Indonésia sumérén ka kawasaan [[Jepang]], kagiatan persepakbolaan anu ditangtayungan ku organisasi dieureunkeun sarta organisasina dibredel. Hal ieu henteu lumangsung di Bandung wungkul tapi ogé di sakuliah lemah cai. Ku alatan kitu, otomatis Persib ngalaman mangsa suwung. Sumawona Pamaréntah Kolonial Jepang ogé ngadegkeun perkumpulan anyar anu nangtayungan kagiatan olahraga nalika éta nyaéta Rengo Tai Iku Kai. Tapi minangka organisasi bernapaskeun pajoangan, Persib henteu taluk kitu waé kana kahayang Jepang. Memang ngaran Persib sacara rasmi robah janten ngaran maké basa Jepang tadi. Tapi sumanget joang, tujuan sarta udagan Persib minangka sarana pajoangan henteu robah saeutik ogé. Dina mangsa répolusi Pisik, sanggeus Indonésia mardika, Persib némbongkeun éksisténsina. Kaayaan harita nyababkeun Pérsib teu ngan éksis di Bandung wungkul, tapi mimiti sumebar di sababaraha dayeuh séjénna. Ku kituna aya Persib di [[Tasikmalaya]], Persib di [[Sumedang]], sarta Persib di [[Yogyakarta]]. Dina mangsa éta soldadu-soldadu Siliwangi hijrah ka ibukota pajoangan Yogyakarta. Kakara dina taun [[1948]] Persib nanjeur di Bandung, dayeuh kalahiran anu saterusna ngagedékeunana. Rongrongan Walanda datang, VBBO ditarékahan hirup deui ku Walanda ([[NICA]]) sok sanajan kalawan ngaran anu basana Indonésia, Persib minangka bagian tina bebedasan pajoangan nasional tangtu waé kalawan sabedas tanaga usaha ngagagalkeun usaha eta. Dina mangsa pendudukan NICA kasebut, Persib diadegkeun deui ku alpukah di antarana, dr. Musa, Munadi, H. Alexa, Rd. Sugeng jeung Pupuhu Munadi. Pajoangan Persib sigana mah junun, ku kituna di Bandung ngan aya hiji pakumpulan maénbal nyaéta Persib anu dumasar kana sumanget nasionalisme. Pikeun kapentingan pengelolaan organisasi, dékade [[1950-an]] ieu ogé nyatet kajadian penting. Dina période 1953- 1957 éta pisan Persib mungkas mangsa pindah-pindah sekretariat. Walikota Bandung wanci éta R. Enoch, ngahudangkeun Sekretariat Persib di Ciléntah. Mimiti Persib mibanda gedong anu kiwari aya di Jalan Gurame, nyaéta usaha R. Soendoro, saurang overste replubiken anu anyar kaluar ti [[LP]] Kebonwaru dina taun[[1949]]. Dina waktu éta, ngaliwatan kepengurusan anu dipingpinna, Soendoro nyanghareup ka R. Enoch anu pareng mangrupa sobat dalitna. Tina hasil sawalana, walikota ngarojong sarta mikeun sawidang taneuh di Jalan Gurame ayeuna ieu. Dina danget éta, Persib éstu keur dina kaayan prihatin alatan kakurangan waragad. Persib henteu boga waragad keur ngawangun [[gedong]]. Soendoro ngadeuheus ka Walikota Bandung,“ Taneuh puguh deui, tapi rapet ditiungan ku langit bulao,” ceuk Soendoro. Ahirna Enoch ogé mantuan ngawangun gedong anu saterusna ngalaman dua kali renovasi. Kiprah Soendoro ku anjeun di dunya maén bal diteruskeun ku pala putrana, di antarana Soenarto, Soenaryono, Soenarhadi, Risnandar, sarta Giantoro sarta incuna Hari Susanto. Dina ngajalankeun kikiping organisasi sawatara ngaran anu ogé berperan dina muterna kikiping organisasi Persib nyaéta Mang Andun sarta Mang Andi. Ieu adi lanceuk téh jelema lapang Persib. Pancén duanana, ayeuna ieu dituluykeun ku putra sarta minantuna, Endang sarta Ayi saprak [[1990-an]]. Sajaba ogé staf administrasi Turahman. Renovasi kahiji dipigawé nalika kapamingpinan Engkol. CPM Adella ([[1953]]-[[1963]]). Kiwari sekretariat Persib di Jalan Gurame éta geus cukup representatif, sumawona sanggeus Pupuhu Umum H. Wahyu Hamijaya ([[1994]]-[[1998]]) ngarenovasi gedong kasebut ku kituna jadi kantor anu nyukupan pikeun ngawadahan sagala rupa kagiatan kesekretariatan Persib. Pangabisa Persib ngajaga ajén-inajén sarta talarina sarta ngaluyukeun manéh jeung kamekaran jaman tangtu henteu ucul ti figur Pupuhu Umum lain ngan figur anu boga kamampuan ngokolakeun organisasi dina harti sangkan organisasi éta terus hirup, tapi ogé figur anu sanggup ngadongkar potensi sarta ngakomodasikeun kakuatan anu aya, ku kituna kiprah Persib dina kancah maén bal nasional terus lumangsung liwat sagala rupa karya Persib. Persib nepi ka dina bentukna anu ayeuna ieu tinangtu henteu ucul ti figur-figur Pupuhu Umum anu kungsi dipibogana. Ibarat nyieun wangunan, ti hiji Pupuhu Umum ka Pupuhu Umum anu séjén, sok sambung-sinambung ku kituna kabentuk hiji wangunan anu ngaranna Persib kawas anu urang wawuh ayeuna ieu. == Pamaen sareng ketua umum== === Ketua Umum === Runtuyan Ketua Umum Pérsib ti mangsa ka mangsa nyaéta: # [[Anwar St. Paamoentjak]] ( 1933 ) # [[R. Sadikin]] (henteu kanyahoan mangsa kapamingpinannana) # [[R. Otto Iskandar Dinata]] (henteu kanyahoan mangsa kapamingpinannana) # [[A. Munadi]] ( 1949 ) # [[Dr. Ishak Surjakusumah]] ( 1949 ) # [[R. Soendoro]] ( 1950 ) # [[R. Ibrahim Iskandar]] ( 1956- 1958 ) # [[R. Ating Prawirasastra]] ( 1958- 1960 ) # [[K. Komarawinata]] ( 1961- 1963 ) # [[Kol. Adella]] ( 1963- 1965 ) # [[Kol. D. Hanfiah]] ( 1965- 1972 ) # [[R. Otje Djundjunan]] ( 1972- 1979 ) # [[Solihin GP]] ( 1979- 1985 ) # [[H. Ateng Wahyudi]] ( 1985- 1993 ) # [[H. Wahyu Hamijaya]] ( 1994- 1998 ) # [[Aa Tarmana]] ( 1998- 2002 ) # [[H. Dada Rosada, S.H., M.Si.]] ( 2002 - 2006). # [[H. Umuh Muchtar]] (2007-ayeuna). === Staf Kepelatihan === * Menejer : H. Umuh Muchtar. * Pelatih Kepala : Robert Rene Albert * Asisten pelatih 1 : Budiman Yunus. * Asisten pelatih 2 : [[Asep Sumantri]]. * Asisten pelatih 3 : [[Yusuf Bachtiar]]. * Pelatih kiper : [[Gatot Prasetyo]]. === Pamaen === {| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="center" |+ '''Pamaen Persib Bandung 2018''' ! Nami !! Posisi !! Nomer tonggong !! Nagara asal |- | '''[[M. Natshir Fadhil Mahbuby]]''' || Kiper || 1 || [[Indonesia]] |- | [[Dhika Bayangkara]]''' || Kiper ||81|| [[Indonesia]] |- | [[M. Aqiel Savic|M. Aqil Safiq]]|| Kiper ||30|| [[Indonesia]] |- |[[I Made Wirawan]]|| Kiper ||78|| [[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Nick Kuipers]]''' || Bek ||2|| [[Belanda]] |- | '''[[Henhen Herdiana]]''' || Bek ||12|| [[Indonesia]] |- |[[Ardi Idrus]]|| Bek ||3|| [[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Fabiano Beltrame]]''' || Bek || 15 || [[Indonesia]] |- | [[Supardi Nasir]]''' || Bek || 22 || [[Indonesia]] | '''[[Achmad Jufriyanto]]''' ||Bek|| 16 || [[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Zalnando]]''' || Bek ||17|| [[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Indra Mustafa]]''' || Bek ||19||[[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Mario Jardel]]'' || Bek ||97||[[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Omid Nazari]]''' || Gelandang ||91|| [[Filipina]] |- | '''[[Dedi Kusnandar]]''' || Gelandang || 11 || [[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Esteban Vizcarra]]''' || Gelandang || 9 || [[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Beckham Putra]]''' || [[Gelandang]] ||7|| [[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Gian Zola Nugraha]]''' || [[Gelandang]] || 18 || [[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Abdul Aziz]]''' || Gelandang ||8|| [[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Febri Hariyadi]]''' ||Gelandang||13|| [[Indonesia]] |- |'''[[Kevin Van Kippersluis]]''' ||Gelandang||20|| [[Belanda]] |- | '''[[Kim Kurniawan]]''' ||Gelandang||23|| [[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Hariono]]''' || Gelandang || 24 || [[Indonesia]] |- |[[Syafril Lestaluhu]]|| Gelandang ||67|| [[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Erwin Ramdani]]''' ||Gelandang||93|| [[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Jack Brown]]''' ||Gelandang||34|| [[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Frets Butuan]]''' ||Penyerang||21|| [[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Ghozali Siregar]]''' ||Penyerang||77|| [[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Mario Jardel]]''' ||Penyerang||25|| [[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Ilham Qolba]]''' ||Penyerang||59|| [[Indonesia]] |- | '''[[Ezechiel N'Douasel]]''' || Penyerang ||10|| [[Chad]] | |- |} == Prestasi == ===Liga Nasional=== * '''Perserikatan''' ** Juara (5): [[1937]], [[1961]], [[1986]], [[1990]], [[1994]] ** Runner-up'' (8) : [[1933]], [[1934]], [[1936]], [[1950]], [[1959]], [[1960]], [[1983]], [[1985]] * '''Liga Indonésia''' ** Juara (4): [[1995]], [[2014]], 2024, 2025 ** Runner-Up (1): 2022 * '''Indonésia Super Léague U-21''' ** Juara (1) : 2009–10 ** Runner-Up (0): ===Piala Nasional=== * '''Piala Indonésia''' ** Juara (0): ** Runner-Up (0): ===Turnamen Nasional=== * '''Siliwangi Cup''' ** Juara (4): [[1981]], [[1989]], [[1994]], [[2000]] * '''Piala Walikota Padang''' ** Juara (1):2015 * '''Piala Soeratin''' ** Juara (2): 2003, 2006 * '''Piala Utama''' ** Runner-up: 1992 * '''Persija Cup''' ** Juara (1): [[1991]] * '''Kang Dada Cup''' ** Juara (1): [[2008]] * '''Celebes Cup''' ** Juara (1): [[2012]] * '''Jusuf Cup''' ** Juara (1): [[1979]] * '''Juara Cup''' ** Juara (1): [[1957]] === Internasional === * '''Pesta Sukan''' ('''Sultan Brunei Cup''') ** Juara (1): [[1986]] * '''Liga Champions Asia''' ** Parapatfinal (1): [[1995]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Tutumbu kaluar == * [http://persib.co.id/ Web Resmi Pérsib Bandung] * [http://www.simamaung.com/ Dunia Daring Bobotoh Persib Bandung] * [https://www.unduhlogo.com/2018/09/logo-persib-terbaru-vector.html Logo Pérsib Bandung] [[Kategori:Sunda]] [[Kategori:Pérsib Bandung]] [[Kategori:Kleup maén bal Indonésia]] bvmvkucgzaz9uahmx0zg1zeldarb4b8 0 3549 680106 680104 2025-06-28T14:02:37Z COTV-EX 33868 680106 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Rapikan}} {{lain|Bintang}} '''Béntang''' téh hartina raga [[plasma]] di luar angkasa nu ngahasilkeun [[énergi]] tina [[fusi inti]]. Teu kawas [[planét]], nu cahyana mangrupa pantulan, béntang mah mencarkeun cahya téh alatan [[radiasi raga hideung|panasna anu kacida]]. Sacara ilmiah, béntang didefinisikeun salaku bal plasma ''[[Gravitasi#Self-gravitating system|self-gravitating]]'' dina [[kasatimbangan hidrostatik]], nu ngahasilkeun énergina sorangan tina prosés [[fusi inti]]. Béntang 'leutik' samodél [[Panonpoé]] umumna boga permukaan anu kaciri polos jeung boga [[sunspots|starspots]] anu leutik. Béntang nu leuwih badag (''raksasa'') boga starspot anu leuwih gedé jeung leuwih jelas. Salian ti éta permukaanana nunjukkeun [[stellar limb-darkening]] anu leuwih kuat (stellar limb-darkening téh caangna béntang beuki ka gigir kaciri beuki poek). [[Stellar astronomy]] nyaéta studi bentang-bentang. kabéh béntang (kacuali [[Panonpoé]]) kaciri ku panon manusa jiga titik cahya di langit peuting, anu [[Scintillation (astrophysics)|kelap-kelip lantaran efek atmosfer planet bumi]]. Teleskop [[Interferometer]] dibutuhkeun pikeun ngahasilkeun gambar-gambar objek-objek eta. Panonpoé kaasup béntang ogé, ngan lantaran deukeut pisan jarakna jadina kaciri jiga piringan, jeung nyadiakeun [[cahaya panonpoé]]. Béntang-béntang di [[alam semesta]] téh nyebarna teu rata, nanging biasana mah ngarumpul jadi [[galaksi|galaksi-galaksi]]. Hiji galaksi biasana dibentuk ku ratusan [[milyar]] milyar béntang. Mayoritas béntang silih iket alatan gravitasi jeung béntang séjén, ngabentuk bintang kembar. Sedengkeun kumpulan béntang-béntang anu leuwih loba disebut [[klaster béntang]]. Astronom ngira-ngira paling saeutik aya 70 [[sextillion]] (7×10²²) béntang di [[alam semesta]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3085885.stm]. Hartina aya 70 000 000 000 000 000 000 000, atawa 230 [[milyar]] kali leuwih loba batan 300 milyar di galaksi urang sorangan (galaksi [[Bima Sakti]]). {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} Lolobana bentang téh umurna antara samilyar nepi ka 10 milyar taun. Sababaraha béntang umurna bisa nepi ka 13.7 milyar taun, nyaéta umur alam semesta nu kaukur. (Tingal [[Big Bang|Big Bang theory]] jeung [[stellar evolution]].) Ukuranana rupa-rupa ti [[béntang neutron]] leutik (anu sabenerna béntang paéh) teu leuwih gedé batan kota, to [[supergiant]]s like the [[North Star]] (Polaris) and [[Betelgeuse]], in the [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]] [[constellation]], which have a diaméter about 1,000 times larger than the Sun —about 1.6 [[terametre]]s. However, these have a much lower density than the [[Sun]].<nowiki>[[,nepi ka Maharaksasa saperti Polaris jeung Betelgeus, di konstélasi Orion,miboga diaméter kurang lewih 1.000 kali na panonpoé(1,6 teraméter), ngan dénsitas(padet na Maharaksasa) moal ngaleuwihan ti panon poé]]</nowiki> One of the most massive stars known is [[Eta Carinae|η Carinae]], with 100–150 times as much mass as the Sun. Recent work by [[Donald Figer]], an astronomer at the [[Space Telescope Science Institute]] in [[Baltimore, Maryland]], suggests that 150 solar masses is the upper limit of stars in the current éra of the universe. He used the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] to observe about a thousand stars in the [[Arches cluster]], a massive young [[star cluster]] néar the [[Galactic Center|core of the Milky Way]], and found no stars over that limit despite a statistical expectation that there should be several. The réason for this limit is not precisely known, but the [[Eddington limit]] is part of the answer. The very first stars to form after the Big Bang may have been larger, up to 300 solar masses or more, due to the complete absence of elements héavier than [[lithium]] in their composition. This generation of supermassive star is long extinct, however, and currently only théoretical. With a mass only 93 times that of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]], [[AB Doradus C]], a companion to AB Doradus A, is the smallest known star undergoing nucléar fusion in its core. Smaller bodies are [[brown dwarf]]s, which occupy a poorly-defined grey aréa between stars and [[gas giant]]s. The minimum mass a star can have is estimated to be in the vicinity of 75 Jupiters. The energy produced by stars [[radiation|radiates]] into space as [[electromagnetic radiation]], as a stréam of [[neutrino]]s from the star's core, and as a stréam of particles from the star's outer layers (its [[stellar wind]]).[[apparent magnitude|ud]] The péak frequency of the light depends on the temperature of the outer layers of the star. Besides the emitted visible light, the ultraviolet and infrared components are typically significant. The apparent [[brightness]] of a star is [[measurement|measured]] by its [[apparent magnitude|apparent magnite]].(Béntang ngaluarkeun énergi radiasi éléktromagétik, dina bentuk aliran neutrino nu kaluarna tina inti béntang, jeung dina bentuk angin béntang anu dibentuk tina lapisan-lapisan anu luar The néarest star to the éarth, apart from the Sun, is [[Proxima Centauri]], which is 39.9 trillion kilométers, or 4.2 [[light year]]s away (light from Proxima Centauri takes 4.2 yéars to réach éarth). Travelling at the orbit speed of the [[Space Shuttle]] (5 miles per second—almost 30,000 kilométers per hour), it would take about 150,000 yéars to get there. Distances like this are typical inside galactic discs, where the Sun and éarth are located. Stars can be much closer to éach other in the centres of galaxies and [[globular cluster]]s, or much further apart in [[galactic halo]]s. == Star formation and evolution == [[Star formation]] occurs in [[molecular cloud]]s, large regions of high density in the [[interstellar medium]] (though still less dense than the inside of an éarthly [[vacuum chamber]]). Star formation begins with gravitational instability inside those clouds, often triggered by shockwaves from [[supernova]]e or collision of two [[galaxy|galaxies]] (as in a [[starburst galaxy]]). High mass stars powerfully illuminate the clouds from which they formed. One example of such a [[nebula]] is the [[Orion Nebula]]. Stars spend about 90% of their lifetime [[nuclear fusion|fusing]] [[hydrogen]] to produce [[helium]] in high-temperature and high-pressure réactions néar the core. Such stars are said to be on the [[main sequence]]. Small stars (called [[red dwarf]]s) burn their fuel very slowly and last tens to hundreds of billions of yéars. At the end of their lives, they simply become dimmer and dimmer, fading into [[black dwarf]]s. However, since the lifespan of such stars is gréater than the current age of the universe (13.6 billion yéars), no black dwarfs exist yet. As most stars exhaust their supply of hydrogen, their outer layers expand and cool to form a [[red giant]]. In about 5 billion yéars, when the Sun is a red giant, it will be so large that it will consume both [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] and [[Venus (planet)|Venus]]. Eventually the core is compressed enough to start [[helium]] fusion, and the star héats up and contracts. Larger stars will also fuse héavier elements, all the way to [[iron]], which is the end point of the process. Since iron nuclei are more [[binding energy|tightly bound]] than any héavier nuclei, they cannot be fused to reléase energy. Likewise, since they are more tightly bound than all lighter nuclei, energy cannot be reléased by [[fission]]. In old, very massive stars, a large core of inert iron will accumulate in the center of the star. An average-size star will then shed its outer layers as a [[planetary nebula]]. The core that remains will be a tiny ball of [[degenerate matter]] not massive enough for further fusion to take place, supported only by degeneracy pressure, called a [[white dwarf]]. These too will fade into black dwarfs over very long stretches of time. In larger stars, fusion continues until an iron core accumulates that is too large to be supported by [[electron degeneracy pressure]]. This core will suddenly collapse as its electrons are driven into its protons, forming neutrons and neutrinos in a burst of [[electron capture|inverse beta decay]]. The [[shockwave]] formed by this sudden collapse causes the rest of the star to explode in a [[supernova]]. Supernovae are so bright that they may briefly outshine the star's entire home galaxy. When they occur within the [[Milky Way]], supernovae have historically been observed by naked-eye observers as "new stars" where none existed before. Eventually, most of the matter in a star is blown away by the explosion (forming nebulae such as the [[Crab Nebula]]) and what remains will be a [[neutron star]] (sometimes a [[pulsar]] or [[X-ray burster]]) or, in the case of the largest stars, a [[black hole]]. The blown-off outer layers of dying stars include héavy [[chemical element|elements]] which may be recycled during new star formation. These héavy elements allow the formation of rocky [[planet]]s. The outflow from supernovae and the [[solar wind|stellar wind]] of large stars play an important part in shaping the interstellar medium. [[Stellar evolution]] explains how stars are créated and die in gréater detail. == Star classification == There are different [[stellar classification|classifications of stars]] ranging from type '''W''' which are very large and bright, to '''M''' which is often just large enough to start ignition of the hydrogen. Some of the more common classifications are O, B, A, F, G, K, M, and can perhaps be more éasily remembéréd using the [[mnemonic]] "'''O'''h, '''B'''e '''A''' '''F'''ine '''G'''irl, '''K'''iss '''M'''e" (variant: change "girl" to "guy"), invented by [[Annie Jump Cannon]] ([[1863]]-[[1941]]). There are many [[List of mnemonics for star classification|other mnemonics]] for star classification; the most frequent addition tacks "'''R'''ight '''N'''ow, '''S'''weetheart" for the red dwarf sub-types R, N and S. The new types L and T have also been recently appended to the end of the OBAFGKM sequence to classify the coldest low-mass stars and [[brown dwarfs]], prompting such additions as "'''L'''ovingly '''T'''onight" to the mnemonic. éach letter has 9 subclassifications. Our Sun is a G2, which is very néar the middle in terms of quantities observed. Most stars fall into the [[main sequence]] which is a description of stars based on their [[absolute magnitude]] and [[spectral type]]. The [[Sun]] is taken as the prototypical star (not because it is special in any way, but because it is the closest and most studied star we have), and most characteristics of other stars are usually given in solar units. <br /> For example, the [[mass]] of the Sun is :''M''_Sun = 1.9891×10³⁰ [[kilogram|kg]] The masses of other stars can be given in terms of [[Solar mass|M_Sun]]. == Naming of stars == Most stars are identified only by catalogue numbers; only a few have names as such. The names are either traditional names (mostly from Arabic), [[Flamsteed designation]]s, or [[Bayer designation]]s. The only body which has been recognized by the scientific community as having competence to name stars or other celestial bodies is the [[International Astronomical Union]] (IAU). A number of private companies (e.g. the "[[International Star Registry]]") purport to sell names to stars; however, these names are not recognized by the scientific community, nor used by them, and many in the astronomy community view these organizations as [[fraud]]s preying on péople ignorant of how stars are in fact named. See [[star designation]]s for more information on how stars are named. For a list of traditional names, see the [[list of stars by constellation]]. == Nuclear fusion reaction pathways == A variety of different nucléar fusion réactions take place inside the cores of stars, depending upon their mass and composition (see [[Stellar nucleosynthesis]]). Stars begin as a cloud of mostly hydrogen with about 25% helium and héavier elements in smaller quantities. In the Sun, with a 10⁷ K core, hydrogen fuses to form helium in the [[proton-proton chain]]: :4[[protium|¹H]] → 2[[deuterium|²H]] + 2[[positron|e⁺]] + 2[[neutrino|ν_e]] (4.0 M[[electron volt|eV]] + 1.0 MeV) :2¹H + 2²H → 2[[Helium-3|³He]] + 2[[gamma ray|γ]] (5.5 MeV) :2³He → [[Helium-4|⁴He]] + 2¹H (12.9 MeV) These réactions result in the overall réaction: :4¹H → ⁴He + 2e⁺ + 2γ + 2ν_e (26.7 MeV) In more massive stars, helium is produced in a cycle of réactions [[catalyst|catalyzed]] by [[carbon]], the [[CNO cycle|carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle]]. In stars with cores at 10⁸ K and masses between 0.5 and 10 solar masses, helium can be transformed into carbon in the [[triple-alpha process]]: :⁴He + ⁴He + 92 keV → ^8*Be :⁴He + ^8*Be + 67 keV → ^12*C :^12*C → [[Carbon-12|¹²C]] + γ + 7.4 MeV For an overall réaction of: :3⁴He → ¹²C + γ + 7.2 MeV == Mitologi == As well as certain [[constellation]]s and the [[Sun]] itself, stars as a whole have their own mythology. They were thought to be the souls of the déad, or gods/goddesses. == Rujukan == * [[Cliff Pickover]] (2001). ''The Stars of Heaven''. Oxford University Press * [[John Gribbin]] & Mary Gribbin (2001). ''Stardust: Supernovae and Life — The Cosmic Connection''. Yale University Press. == Baca ogé == * [[Liang hideung]] * [[Konstélasi|Konstélasi béntang]] * [[Uy Scuti]] == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/telescopes/coast/betel.html Images of starspots on the surface of Betelgeuse] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/sim-fid.pl Find out what is known about any given star by entering its name or position] * [http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/stars/startypes.shtml Star Classification] [[Kategori:Béntang]] [[Kategori:Astronomi]] [[Kategori:Sumber cahaya]] d6af3nn94dkcxl25gdrb4dqf2jupmb3 0 32912 680110 679591 2025-06-29T00:27:27Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 680110 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotak info nagara Butan}} '''Butan''' ([[basa Dzongkha|Dzongkha]]: {{lang |dz|འབྲུག་ཡུལ་}}; [[Alihaksara Wylie]]: ''ʼbrug-yul''{{nbsp|2}}"Druk Yul"), resmina '''Karajaan Butan''', nyaéta hiji [[nagara daulat|nagara]] nu [[nagara nu dilingkung|dilingkung]] di [[Asia Kidul]], aya di wewengkon wétan [[Himalaya]]. Butan wawatesan jeung [[Cina]] di kalér sarta [[India]] di kidul, wétan, jeung kulon. Leuwih ka kulonna aya [[Nepal]], dipisahkeun ku nagara bagian India, [[Sikkim]]. Leuwih ka kidulna aya [[Bangladés]], dipisahkeun ku nagara bagian India, [[Assam]] jeung [[Benggala Kulon]]. Ibu kota Butan sareng kota panggedéna nyaéta [[Thimphu]]. Butan aya salaku wewengkon ti sababaraha karajaan nepi ka awal abad ka-17 nalika [[Lama]] sarta pamingpin militér [[Shabdrung]] [[Ngawang Namgyal]] nu kabur ti panarajangan kaagamaan di [[Tibét]], ngahijikeun wewengkon Butan sarta melak hiji cicirén Butan nu béda. Teras dina awal abad ka-20, Butan tepang jeung [[Kakaisaran Britania]] sarta miboga hubungan bilateral nu kiat jeung India sanggeus kamerdikaanna. Dina taun 2006, dumasar kana survéy sadunya, ''[[Business Week]]'' nyimpen Butan salaku [[nagara nu pangbagjana]] sa-Asia sarta ka-8 sadunya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://images.businessweek.com/ss/06/10/happiest_countries/index_01.htm |title=The World's Happiest Countries |publisher=Business Week |date=2006-10-11 |accessdate=2009-04-23 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090426174928/http://images.businessweek.com/ss/06/10/happiest_countries/index_01.htm? |archivedate=26 April 2009 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061025024213/http://images.businessweek.com/ss/06/10/happiest_countries/index_01.htm |date=2006-10-25 }}</ref> Lemah Butan kasusun ti dataran [[subtropis]] di kidul nepi ka daratan luhur Himalaya [[sub-alpen]] di kalér, di mana sababaraha titik miboga kaluhuran leuwih ti {{j|{{convert|7000|m|ft}}}}. Lega wewengkonna dilaporkeun kira-kira {{convert|46500|km2|abbr=on}} taun 1997<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/08fyp.pdf |title=8th Five Year Plan (1997–2002) |format=PDF |publisher=[[Pamaréntah Butan]] |year=1997 |accessdate=2011-08-22 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304190503/http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/08fyp.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> and {{convert|38394|km2|sqmi}} in 2002.<ref name=FYP9>{{cite web |url=http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/5yp09_main.pdf |title=9th Five Year Plan (2002–2007) |publisher=Pamaréntah Karajaan Bhutan |year=2002 |accessdate=2011-08-22 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320060614/http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/5yp09_main.pdf |date=2012-03-20 }}</ref><ref name=official>{{cite web |url=http://www.bhutan.gov.bt/government/aboutbhutan.php |title=Portal Nasional Butan |publisher=Departemén Ténologi Informasi Butan |accessdate=2011-08-22 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120423102833/http://www.bhutan.gov.bt/government/aboutbhutan.php |date=2012-04-23 }}</ref> Agama nasional Butan nyaéta [[Budha Vajrayana]] sarta pangeusina, diperkirakeun jumlahna méh 750.000 jiwa,<ref name=clock/> utamina ngagem [[Budha]]. [[Hindu]] mangrupa agama nu panggedéna kadua.<ref>"Bhutan." ''World Almanac & Book Of Facts'' (2008): 752-753. Academic Search Premier. Web. 8 Dés. 2011.</ref> Taun 2008, Butan ngarobih wangun nagara ti [[monarki absolut]] ka [[monarki konstitusional]] jeung miboga pamilihan umum kahijina. Butan mangrupa anggota ti [[Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] sareng [[Asosiasi Asia Kidul pikeun Sabilulungan Wewengkon]] (SAARC) sarta minangka tuan rumah pikeun [[Daptar patepungan SAARC|Patepungan SAARC XVI]] dina April 2010. == Étimologi == Kecap nu mirip jeung Butan{{spaced ndash}}kaasup ''Bottanthis'', ''Bottan'', jeung ''Bottanter''{{spaced ndash}}mimiti muncul dina peta Éropa sabundeureun 1580-an. ''Six Voyages'' taun 1676 beunangna [[Jean-Baptiste Tavernier]] minangka nu kahiji anu nyutat ngaran ''Boutan''. Tapi, dina sadaya kasus, katingalna ngaran-ngaran ieu dipaké sanés pikeun Butan modéren ieu tapi pikeun [[Tibét (1912–1951)|Karajaan Tibét]]. Bébéda modéren antara duanana mimiti ku ékspedisi [[George Bogle (diplomat)|Bogle]] taun 1774{{mdash}}sadar kana bébéda antara 2 wewengkon éta, ogé budayana jeung pamaréntahanna. Teras laporan ahirna pikeun [[East India Company]] (EIC, Pasarikatan Dagang Inggris di Hindia Wétan) sacara resmi ngajukeun ngaran karajaanna [[Druk Desi]] salaku "Boutan" sarta nu [[Panchen Lama]] salaku "Tibét". Survéyor jéndral EIC, [[James Rennell]], kahijina nga-Inggris-keun ngaran Perancis éta kana "Bootan" sarta teras ngapopulérkeun yén Butan jeung Tibét téh béda.<ref name="Kuensel">[http://www.keystobhutan.com/bhutan/bhutan_history_europe.php "History of Bhutan: How Europe heard about Bhutan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216090138/http://www.keystobhutan.com/bhutan/bhutan_history_europe.php |date=2012-02-16 }}. ''Kuensel''. 24 August 2003. Diaksés 28 Sépt 2011.</ref> Asal ngaran "Butan" sacara pastina heunteu terang, sanajan kamungkinan gedéna, ngaran ieu diturunkeun ti [[éndonim]] dina [[basa Tibét Heubeul]], ''Bod'', dipaké pikeun [[Tibét Raya]]. Sacara tradisional, ngaran éta dipaké dina basa [[Sangsakarta]] ''Bhoṭa-anta'' (भोट-अन्त, "ahir [[Tibét]]"), nunjukkeun lokasi Butan di wewengkon pakidulan plato jeung kabudayaan Tibét.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Cultural History of Bhutan |volume=1 |first=Balaram |last=Chakravarti |publisher=Hilltop |year=1979 |page=7 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6VxuAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref><ref name="Names&Histories">Taylor, Isaac. ''[http://www.archive.org/details/namesandtheirhi00taylgoog Names and Their Histories; a Handbook of Historical Geography and Topographical Nomenclature]''. Gale Research Co. (Detroit), 1898. Diaksés 24 Séptémber 2011.</ref> Sacara lokalna, Butan kawanoh dina loba ngaran. Cutatan di Dunya Kulon nu pangkolotna ngeunaan Butan, ''Relação'' 1627 [[masarakat Yésus|Yésuit]] [[Karajaan Portugal|Portugis]] [[Estêvão Cacella]] jeung [[João Cabral]], nyutat ngaranna dina raloba rupa salaku ''Cambirasi'' (di antara [[Koch Bihar]]<ref>Cacella, Estêvão. Trans. by Baillie, Luiza Maria. [http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/jbs/JBS_01_01_01.pdf "Laporan di mana Rama Father Estevao Cacella ti Masarakat Yésus Ngintun ka Rama Alberto Laercio, Pangurus pikeun Propinsi Malabar, India Wétan, ngeunaan Lalampahanna ka Katay, nepi Anjeunna Sumping di Karajaan Bhotanta"] (1627). Diaksés 28 Séptémber 2011.</ref>), ''Potente'', jeung ''Mon'' (éndonim pikeun Tibét beulah kidul).<ref name="Kuensel"/> Kahiji kalina hiji Karajaan Butan nu bener muncul dina peta urang Kulon, dina ngaran lokalna nyaéta "Broukpa".<ref name="Kuensel"/> Ngaran lian misalna ''Lho Mon'' ("Pakidulan Poék"), ''Lho Tsendenjong'' ("Pakidulan [[Cypress]]"), ''Lhomen Khazhi'' ("Pakidulan 4 Padeukeutan"), sarta ''Lho Men Jong'' ("Pakidulan [[apotek hirup|Ubar Hirup]]").<ref>{{cite book |title=Beneath Blossom Rain: Discovering Bhutan on the Toughest Trek in the World |series=Outdoor Lives |first=Kevin |last=Grange |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year=2011 |isbn=0-8032-3433-3 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bWco7DY94fsC|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZvrWAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=2011-09-01 |title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Folklore and Folklife |volume=2 |series=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Folklore and Folklife: Southeast Asia and India, Central and East Asia, Middle East |first=William M. |last=Clements |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-313-32849-8 |page=105}}</ref> == Sajarah == {{utama|Sajarah Butan|Gurat wanci sajarah Butan}} Pakakas, pakarang, [[gajah|gagajah]]an, sarta wangunan tina batu ngabuktikeun yén Butan dieusian kira-kira saprak taun [[abada ka-20 SM|2000 SM]], sanajan euweuh cutatan ti jaman éta. Sajarawan miboga téori yén nagara ''Lhomon'' ("poék kidul"), atanapi ''Monyul'' ("Lemah Poék", sesebutan nu ngarah kana [[urang Monpa|Monpa]], [[urang pribumi]] Butan) bisa jadi enggeus aya antawis 500 SM jeung 600 M. Ngaran ''Lhomon Tsendenjong'' (Nagara [[Cendana]]), jeung ''Lhomon Khashi'', atanapi Mon Kidul (nagara 4 padeukeutan), dipanggih dina hikayat-hikayat Butan jeung Tibét kuna.<ref name=WIAS>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldinstituteforasianstudies.org/buthan.html|title=Bhutan|publisher=World Institute for Asian Studies|date=2006-08-21|accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref><ref name=CS0>{{Country study|country=Bhutan|abbr=bt|editor=Savada, Andrea Matles|year=1991|section=Origins and Early Settlement, A.D. 600–1600|author=Worden, Robert L|pd=yes}}</ref> [[File:Cloud-hidden, whereabouts unknown (Paro, Bhutan).jpg|thumb|left|[[Dzong]] di [[Lebak Paro]], diwangun taun 1646]] Agama Budha kahiji kalina disebarkeun di Butan dina abad ka-7 M. Raja Tibét, [[Songtsän Gampo]]<ref name=Padel>{{cite book|title=Tigers in Red Weather: a Quest for the Last Wild Tigers|first=Ruth|last=Padel|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA|year=2006|isbn=0-8027-1544-3|pages=139–40|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zYLJp0X04mUC|accessdate=2011-08-21}}</ref> (maréntah 627–649), nu pindah agama ka Budha, ngalegakeun Kakaisaran Tibét nepi ka Sikkim jeung Butan,<ref>Sailen Debnath, Essays on Cultural History of North Bengal, ISBN 9788186860427; & Sailen Debnath, The Dooars in Historical Transition, ISBN 9788186860441</ref> maréntahkeun diwangunna 2 kuil Budha, di [[Bumthang (kota)|Bumthang]] di Butan bagian tengah sarta di Kyichu (deukeut [[Paro, Butan|Paro]]) di [[Lebak Paro]].<ref name=CS1>{{Country study|country=Bhutan|abbr=bt|editor=Savada, Andrea Matles|year=1991|section=Arrival of Buddhism|author=Worden, Robert L|pd=yes}}</ref> Agama Budha disebarkeun luas<ref name=Padel/> dina taun 746<ref name=Hattaway>{{cite book|title=Peoples of the Buddhist World: a Christian Prayer Diary|first=Paul|last=Hattaway|publisher=William Carey Library|year=2004|isbn=0-87808-361-8|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OzEOKNPsv2EC|page=30|accessdate=2011-08-20}}</ref> jaman pamaréntahan Raja Sindhu Rāja (''ogé'' Künjom;<ref name=Rennie>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sHAnAtNrUQoC|title=Bhutan: Ways of Knowing|first1=Frank|last1=Rennie|first2=Robin|last2=Mason|publisher=IAP|pages=18, 58|year=2008|isbn=1-59311-734-5|accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref> Sendha Gyab; Chakhar Gyalpo), saurang raja [[urang India|India]] dina pangasingan nu ngawangun pamaréntahan di Bumthang jeung Istana Chakhar Gutho Palace.<ref name=HBB>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yA9uAAAAMAAJ|title=History of Bhutan Based on Buddhism|first=C. T.|last=Dorji|publisher=Sangay Xam, Prominent Publishers|year=1994|isbn=81-86239-01-4|accessdate=2011-08-12}}</ref>{{rp|35}} <ref name=Harding>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rlxdncBwpbgC|title=The Life and Revelations of Pema Lingpa|first1=Padma-gliṅ-pa (Gter-ston)|first2=Sarah|last2=Harding|editor=Harding, Sarah|publisher=Snow Lion Publications|year=2003|isbn=1-55939-194-4|accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref>{{rp|13}} [[File:Tashigang Dzong 111120.jpg|thumb|Dzong Trashigang, diwangun taun 1659.]] Ulama Budha [[Padmasambhava|Padma Sambhava]] (kawanoh ogé salaku [[Guru Rinpoche]]) sumping ka Butan dina taun 747.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=18,963,0,0,1,0 |title=Taktshang: a Buddhist Legend |first=Kinley |last=Dorji |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online |work=Buddhist Channel |date=2005-03-30 |accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> Sajarah awal Butan kalobaanana teu terang ku sabab raloba cutatan sajarah ancur nalika ibu kota heubeul, [[Punakha]], kaduruk dina taun 1827. Di abad ka-10, kaayaan pulitik Butan loba dipangaruhan ku sajarah kaagamaanna. Rupa-rupa aliran Budha muncul nu didukung ku rupa-rupa pamingpin militér [[Mongol]]. Sanggeus teuleumna [[Dinasti Yuan]] dina abad ka-14, aliran-aliran ieu silih sihung pikeun dominasi sacara pulitik jeung kaagamaan, nu teras ngarah kana unggulna aliran [[Druk]]pa di abad ka-16.<ref name=CS1/><ref name=CS4>{{country study |country=Bhutan |abbr=bt |editor=Savada, Andrea Matles |year=1991 |section=Rivalry among the Sects |author=Worden, Robert L |pd=yes}}</ref> Nepi ka awal abad ka-17, Butan aya salaku wewengkon ti sababaraha karajaan leutik, nepi ka dihijikeun ku Lama Tibét sarta paminpin militér [[Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal]] nu kabur ti panarajangan kaagamaan di Tibét. Pikeun ngalindungan nagarana ti panarajangan Tibét, Namgyal ngawangun hiji jaringan ''[[dzong]]'' (bénténg), jeung nyusun [[Tsa Yig]], hiji undang-undang nu nyieun raja-raja lokal aya dina pangawasaan séntral. Loba ''dzong'' masih aya jeung minangka puseur kaagamaan sarta pamaréntahan distrik. [[Masarakat Yésus|Yésuit]] [[urang Portugis|Portugis]] [[Estêvão Cacella]] jeung [[João Cabral]] kacutat minangka urang Éropa kahiji nu sumping ka Butan, dina lalampahan ka Tibét. Aranjeunna tepang jeung Ngawang Namgyal, ningalikeun pakarang seuneu, [[mésiu]], hiji [[téléskop]], sarta nawiskeun pitulunh dina perang ngalawan Tibét. Nanging Shabdrung teu nampi tawaran éta. Sanggeus ngawengi méh 8 bulan, Cacella nyerat hiji surat nu panjang ti [[Kuil Chagri]] ngeunaan lalampahan anjeunna. Surat ieu mangrupa hiji ti saeutik cutatan ngeunaan Shabdrung.<ref name=LP>{{cite book|title=Bhutan |series=Country Guides |first1=Lindsay |last1=Brown |first2=Stan |last2=Armington |edition=3 |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] |year=2007 |pages=26, 36 |isbn=1-74059-529-7 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=s-L8NUlW_QgC |accessdate=2011-10-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Jesuit on the Roof of the World: Ippolito Desideri's Mission to Eighteenth-Century Tibet |first=Trent |last=Pomplun |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=0-19-537786-9 |page=49 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-3iG4p85PHgC |accessdate=2011-10-19}}</ref> Sanggeus maotna Ngawang Namgyal taun 1651, warta ngeunaan maotna éta dirusiahkeun pikeun 54 taun. Teras sanggeus ngagabung sajaman, Butan peupeus kana papaséaan jero nagri. Taun 1711, Butan perang jeung [[Kakaisaran Mughal]] sarta [[Subedar]]na, nu ngarebut [[Koch Bihar]] di kidul. Nalika karusuhan sanggeusna, Tibét teu hasil narajang Butan taun 1714.<ref name=CS3>{{Country study|country=Bhutan|abbr=bt|editor=Savada, Andrea Matles|year=1991|section=Administrative Integration and Conflict with Tibet, 1651–1728|author=Worden, Robert L|pd=yes}}</ref> Dina abad ka-18, Butan narajang jeung ngajajah Karajaan [[distrik Cooch Behar|Cooch Behar]] di kidul. Taun 1772, Cooch Behar mundut ka [[Sarikat Dagang Hindia Wétan Britania|Sarikat Dagang Hindia Wétan]] [[Karajaan Britania Raya|Britania]] nu teras nulungan dina ngusir Butan sarta narajang Butan dina taun 1774. Hiji pajangjian karapihan ditandatanganan di mana Butan satuju pikeun mulih deui ka wewengkonna saméméh taun 1730. Tatapi, karapihan kaayaanna leuleus. Patempuran perwatesan jeung [[India Birtania|Britania]] lanjut sababaraha taun senggeusna. Patempuran-patempuran ieu ahirna ngarah ka [[Perang Duar]] (1864–1865), ngarebutkeun kadali kana [[Duar]] [[Benggala]]. Sanggeus Butan éléh dina perang éta, [[Pajangjian Sinchula]] ditandatanganan antawis [[India Britania]] jeung Butan. Salaku bagian ti [[pamulihan paska-perang]], Duar dibéré ka [[Britania Raya|Britania]] pikeun dana injeuman Rs. 50.000. Pajangjian ieu ngeureunkeun sagala karusuhan antawis India Britania jeung Butan. Dina taun 1870-an, papaséaan antawis [[Paro, Butan|Paro]] jeung [[Tongsa]] ngarah ka perang sadulur di Butan, sarta teras diangkatna [[Ugyen Wangchuck]], ''ponlop'' (gubernur) Tongsa. Ti basis kakiatanna di Butan bagian tengah, Ugyen Wangchuck ngéléhkeun musuh pulitikna sarta ngahijikeun nagara dina sababraha perang sadulur jeung pemberontakan taun 1882–1885.<ref name=CS2>{{Country study|country=Bhutan|abbr=bt|editor=Savada, Andrea Matles|year=1991|section=British Intrusion, 1772–1907|author=Worden, Robert L|pd=yes}}</ref> Dina taun 1907, taun nu penting pikeun nagara Butan, Ugyen Wangchuck dipilih salaku raja ku hiji majelis ti pandita-pandita luhur Budha, pajabat pamaréntahan, jeung pamingpin-pamingpin kulawarga ageung. Pamaréntah Britania gancang ngakuan kadaulatan monarki anyar ieu, sarta teras dina taun 1910, Butan nanndatanganan [[Pajangjian Punakha]], pakta aliansi nu méré Britania kakawsaan kana hubungan luar nagri Butan. Hartina, Butan diperlakukeun salaku [[nagara bagian kabangsawanan]] India. Dina praktikna, pajangjian ieu boga pangaruh nu saeutik, ku Butan ogé dumasar sajarahna sipatna teu gaul jeung dunya luar, sarta katingalna heunteu mangaruha hubungan tradisional antawis Butan jeung Tibét. Sanggeus [[Dominion India|Sarikat India]] miboga [[Kamerdikaan India|kamerdikaan]] ti Britania Raya dina 15 Agustus 1947, Butan mangrupa salah sahiji ti nagara-nagara kahiji nu ngakuan kamerdikaan India. Dina 8 Agustus 1949, hiji pajangjian nu mirip jeung Pajangjian Punakha ditandatanganan bareng India.<ref name=WIAS/> Taun 1953, Raja [[Jigme Dorji Wangchuck]] ngadegkeun badan législatif nagara mangrupa [[Majelis Nasional]] kalawan 130 anggota dina tujuan pikeun ngawangun pamaréntahan nu leuwih démokratis. Dina taun 1965, anjeunna nyusun hiji Déwan Panaséhat Karajaan, sarta taun 1968 anjeunna ngawangun hiji kabinét. Taun 1971, Butan gabung ka [[Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]], sanggeus nyekel status anggota panénjo dina 3 taun. Dina bulan Juli 1972, [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]] naék tahta dina yuswa 16 taun sanggeus ramana, Dorji Wangchuck, maot. ===Réformasi pulitik jeung modérenisasi=== {{seealso|Hukum Bhutan|Undang-Undang Dasar Bhutan}} Raja [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]] mikawanohkeun sababaraha réformasi pulitik, mindahkeun raloba kakawasaan pamaréntahanna ka Déwan Mentri Kabinét sarta ngijinkeun ayana [[pamakzulan]] Raja ku 2 per 3 anggota Majelis Nasional.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.democracy-international.org/fileadmin/di/pdf/papers/di-bhutan.pdf|last=Hoffman|first=Klus|title=Democratization from Above: The Case of Bhutan|format=PDF|date=2006-04-01|accessdate=2010-04-24}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003014927/http://www.democracy-international.org/fileadmin/di/pdf/papers/di-bhutan.pdf |date=2006-10-03 }}</ref> Dina taun 1999, pamaréntah ngahupus larangan dina [[televisi]] jeung [[Internét]], nyieun Butan salah sahiji ti nagara nu karak mimiti maké televisi. Dina biantarana, anjeunna nyarios yén televisi mangrupa léngkah penting dina [[modérenisasi]] Butan sarta mangrupa panyumbang gedé pikeun [[Kabagjaan Nasional Bruto]] nagara (Butan mangrupa sahiji-hijina nagara nu ngukur kabagjaan),<ref>{{cite journal|last=Larmer|first=Brook|year=2008|month=March|title= Bhutan's Enlightened Experiment|work=ngm.nationalgeographic.com|journal=National Geographic|issn=0027-9358|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/03/bhutan/larmer-text/2|accessdate=2010-06-19}}</ref> tatapi miélingkeun yén "panyalahgunaan" televisi bisa ngahupus ajén-ajén tradisi Butan.<ref>{{cite web|first1=Cathy|last1=Scott-Clark|first2=Adrian|last2=Levy|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,3605,975769,00.html|title=Fast Forward into Trouble|publisher=The Guardian|date=2003-06-14|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref> Hiji [[undang-undang dasar]] nu anyar dipikawanohkeun dina awal taun 2005. Dina bualn Désémber 2005, Raja Jigme Singye Wangchuck ngabéwarakeun yén anjeunna badé [[abdikasi|masihan]] tahtana ka putrana dina taun 2008. 14 Désémber 2006, anjeunna ngumumkeun yén abdikasi badé dilaksanakeun dina wanci deukeut. Hal ieu dimiluan ku [[Pamilihan umum di Butan|pamilihan umum parlemén]] nu kahiji dina bulan [[Pamilihan umum Déwan Nasional Butan 2007–2008|Désémber 2007]] jeung [[pamilihan umum Butan 2008|Maret 2008]]. Dina 6 Nopémber 2008, [[Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck]], putra pangluhurna ti Raja [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]], diangkat minangka Raja.<ref>{{cite web|first=Nitasha|last=Kaul|title=Bhutan Crowns a Jewel|work=UPI Asia|publisher=United Press International|url=http://www.upiasia.com/Politics/2008/11/10/bhutan_crowns_a_jewel/1962|date=2008-11-10|accessdate=2011-06-19|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110615005027/http://www.upiasia.com/Politics/2008/11/10/bhutan_crowns_a_jewel/1962|archivedate=15 June 2011 <!--DASHBot-->|deadurl=no}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615005027/http://www.upiasia.com/Politics/2008/11/10/bhutan_crowns_a_jewel/1962 |date=2011-06-15 }}</ref> ==Pulitik jeung pamaréntahan== [[File:Tashichoedzong-Bhutan-2001.JPG|250px|thumb|Pamandangan [[Dzong Tashichhoe]], [[Thimphu]], puseur pamaréntahan Butan saprak 1952.]] {{utama|Pulitik Butan}} Sistim pulitik Butan geus robah ti [[monarki absolut]] kana [[monarki konstitusional]]. Taun 1999, Raja Butan ka-4, [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]], nyieun hiji lembaga nu ngaranna [[Lhengye Zhungtshog]] (Déwan Para Mentri). ''[[Druk Gyalpo]]'' (Raja Druk Yul) minangka [[pupuhu nagara]]. [[Kakawasaan éksekutif]] dilaksanakeun ku Lhengye Zhungtshog, déwan para mentri. [[Kakawasaan législatif]] dilaksanakeun ku [[pamaréntah]] jeung [[Tshogdu]] (Majelis Nasional). Dina kaping 17 Désémber 2005, Raja Jigme Singye Wangchuck ngabéwarakeun yén pamilihan umum nu munggaran bakal dilaksanakeun taun 2008 jeung anjeunna badé masihan tahtana ka putra makutana nyaéta putrana nu pangluhurna.<ref>{{cite web|author=Gelay Jamtsho|author2=Keys to Bhutan|url=http://www.keystobhutan.com/bhutan/bhutan_king_speech.php|title=His Majesty the King's Historic National Day Address – 2005|publisher=Keystobhutan.com|date=2008-10-31|accessdate=2009-04-23}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213023237/http://www.keystobhutan.com/bhutan/bhutan_king_speech.php |date=2008-02-13 }}</ref> Raja [[Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck]] nampi tahta dina kaping 14 Désémber 2006. Anjeunna dipaparin Makuta Gagak Butan dina upacara di Thimphu kaping 6 Nopémber 2008, ku kitu janten pamingpin monarki nu panganomna sadunya.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7521429.stm|title=Bhutan King to be Crowned at Last|publisher=BBC News online|date=2008-07-23|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref> Sistim pulitik nu anyar miboga majelis luhur jeung majelis handap, nu saterasna miboga dasar kana afiliasi partéy pulitik. [[Pamilihan umum Déwan Nasional Butan 2007–2008|Pamilihan umum]] pikeun majelis luhur ([[Déwan Nasional Butan|Déwan Nasional]]) dilaksanakeun kaping 31 Désémber 2007, samentara [[Pamilihan umum Butan 2008|pamilihan umum]] pikeun [[Majelis Nasional Butan|Majelis Nasional]] (majelis handap) dilaksanekun kaping 24 Maret 2008. 2 partéy pulitik, [[Partéy Démokrasi Rahayat (Butan)|Partéy Démokrasi Rahayat]] (PDR) nu dipingpin ku [[Sangay Ngedup]], sareng Partéy [[Druk Phuensum Tshogpa]] (DPT) nu dipingpin ku [[Jigmi Thinley]], marebutkeun 47 korsi di Majelis Nasional. Druk Phuensum Tshogpa unggul dina pamilihan umum, ngawasaan 45 ti 47 korsi di majelis.<ref>{{cite web|first=Aradhana|last=Sharma|url=http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080044949&ch=3/25/2008%2012:28:00%20AM|title=Royalist Party Wins Election in Bhutan|publisher=NDTV.com|date=2008-03-25|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref> [[Kakawasaan yudikatif]] dilaksanakeun ku [[Mahkamah]] Butan. [[Hakim Agung]]na nyaéta pupuhu [[administrasi publik|administratif]] [[lembaga yudikatif]] nagara. ===Hak asasi manusa=== ====Papaséaan étnis==== [[File:Lotshampa refugees in Beldangi Camp.jpg|thumb|Urang katurunan Nepal ti Butan nu ngungsi ka Nepal dina awal 1990-an.]] Taun 1990-an, Butan ngusir atanapi maksa méh 1 per 5 pangeusina ku alesan pikeun ngajaga idéntitas budaya Budha Mahayana Tibét-na, nyebut yén maranéhna anu diusir téh pangeusi ilégal.<ref name=theweek11>{{cite web |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110511104731/http://theweek.myrepublica.com/details.php?news_id=30312 |archivedate=2011-05-11 |url=http://theweek.myrepublica.com/details.php?news_id=30312 |title=Family Portrait of Bhutan Nepalis in USA |publisher=The Week Republica |date=2011-04-15 |accessdate=2011-04-19 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511104731/http://theweek.myrepublica.com/details.php?news_id=30312 |date=2011-05-11 }}</ref><ref name=CIDCM/><ref name=unhcr08/> Kaputusan ieu boga dasar yén étnis minoritas Nepal nu tumuwuhna gancang bisi ngawasaan nagara, ngulang kajadian nu sarua nu nyababkeun bubarna Karajaan Sikkim taun 1975. [[Lhotshampas]], pihak nu teu satuju kana pamikiran éta, diperkirakeun jadi tujuan panyiksaan jeung panahanan,<ref name="hrw.org">Frelick, Bill. ''For Bhutan's Refugees, There's no Place Like Home.'' Human Rights Watch. Mar 3 2011. Web. Dec 30 2011. http://www.hrw.org/news/2011/03/30/bhutan-s-refugees-there-s-no-place-home</ref> ngakibatkeun unjuk rasa dina 1990-an. Saterasna, pasukan kaamanan Butan mimiti ngusir urang-urang sanggeus nyieun maranéhna ngabatalkeun klaim imah jeung lemburna. Ku lantaran karusuhan nu lumangsung, Urang Butan katurunan Nepal, mayoritasna ngagem agama Hindu, kaluar. Numutkeun [[UNHCR]], langkung ti 107.000 [[Pangungsi Butan]] ngeusi 7 kémah pangungsian di [[Nepal]] beulah wétan sarta geus didokuméntasi dina taun 2008.<ref name=unhcr08>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/search?page=search&docid=47a30dc82&query=bhutan|title=Refugees from Bhutan Poised for New Start|publisher=UNHCR|date=2008-02-01|accessdate=2011-04-19| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110510005625/http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/search?page=search&docid=47a30dc82&query=bhutan| archivedate= 10 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ngeunaan bener heunteuna sadaya pangeusi kémah téh pangungsi diragukeun sabab UNHCR heunteu mariksa pangeusi-pangeusi awal sacara bener.<ref>{{cite web|last=Casella|first=Alexander|title=Nepal Finally Waves off Refugees|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/KL15Ad03.html|publisher=Asia Times Online}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923190108/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/KL15Ad03.html |date=2015-09-23 }}, 15 Désémber 2009</ref> Sarana di jero pangungsian, nu kacutat leuwih alus ti batan wewengkon sabundereunana, ngarojong masarakat Nepal asup ka pangungsian. Sanggues raloba taun di pangungsian, raloba pangeusi ayeuna pindah ka nagara lian saperti Kanada, Norwégia, Britania Raya, Australia, jeung Amérika Sarikat salaku pangungsi. [[Amérika Sarikat]] nyutat 30.870 pangungsi ti taun kauangan 2008 nepi ka 2010.<ref>''Reguee Arrival Data.'' Departemén Kaséhatan jeung Palayanan Kamanusaan Amérika Sarikat. 3 Nopémber 2011. Web. 30 Désémber 2011. http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/data/refugee_arrival_data.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111207045007/http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/data/refugee_arrival_data.htm |date=2011-12-07 }}</ref> Pamaréntah heunteu ngijinkeun dibéréna status kawarganagaraan pikeun pangungsi Butan, ku kituna raloba pangungsi heunteu miboga status kawarganagaraan.<ref name=hrr/> Urusan birokrasi nu riweuh dipaké alesan pikeun ngahalangan kulawarga <!--- "relatives" disebutkeun di en.wikpedia -->maranéhna miboga kartu idéntitas jeung hak sora.<ref name=hrr/> Butan nganggap partéy pulitik ti pangungsi-pangungsi ieu heunteu sah sarta mangrupa kelompok téroris.<ref name=hrr/> Kelompok hak asasi manusa nyebutkeun yén pamaréntah mangaruhan hak asasi individu ku cara ngaatur yén sadaya warga, kaasup anggota étnis minoritas ieu, maké pakéan tradisionalna étnis mayoritas di tempat umum. Nanging, pamaréntah sacara kawates nerapkeun aturan ieu ukur di wangunan kaagaamaan Budha, kantor pamaréntahan, sakola, pajabat pamaréntah, sarta parayaan-parayaan umum.<ref name=hrr>[http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/sca/136086.htm], U.S. Department of State, February 25, 2009</ref> ====Kabébasan agama==== [[Budha Mahayana]] mangrupa dasar warisan kaagamaan nagara, tapi undang-undang ngarojong kabébasan agama.<ref name=hrr/> == Militér jeung hubungan luar nagri == {{utama|Militér Butan|Hubungan luar nagri Butan}} [[Angkatan Pakarang Karajaan Butan]] mangrupa angkatan pakarang Butan. Lembaga militér ieu ngawengku [[Pasukan Pangaman Karajaan Bhutan|Pangaman Karajaan]] sareng [[Kapulisian Karajaan Butan]]. Kaanggotaan militér sipatna sukaréla. Yuswa minimal pikeun asup ka militér nyaéta 18 taun. Jumlah personil kira-kira 16.000 urang, nu dilatih ku [[Angkatan Darat India]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Arun |last=Bhattacharjee |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/EL19Df04.html |title=Bhutan Army Sees Action at Last |publisher=Atimes.com |date=2003-12-19 |accessdate=2009-04-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121042613/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/EL19Df04.html |date=2016-11-21 }}</ref> Angkatan Pakarang Karajaan Butan miboga dana alokasi taunan kira-kira [[dolar Amérika Sarikat|$]]13,7 yuta (1,8% [[Produk doméstik bruto|PDB]]). Minangka [[nagara nu dilingkung]], Butan heunteu miboga angkatan laut. Butan ogé teu boga angkatan udara atanapi korps udara angkatan darat. Angkatan pakarangna ngandalkeun Komando Udara Wétan ti [[Angkatan Udara India]] pikeun pitulungan. Butan miboga hubungan ékonomi, stratégi, jeung militér nu kiat jeung tatanggana, India.<ref>[http://www.ndtv.com/video/player/exclusive/bhutan-pm-india-is-closest-ally/33779 Bhutan PM: India is closest ally, NDTV, July 16, 2008]</ref><ref>[http://www.thebhutanese.bt/pm-stresses-on-importance-of-foreign-relations/ PM stresses on importance of foreign relations, The Bhutanese, 12 Julu 2012]</ref> Taun 2007, Butan jeung India nandatanganan hiji pajangjian anyar ngijinkeun Butan ngawasaan hubungan luar nagrina. Pajangjian ieu ngahupus kaayaan nu diakibatkeun ku pajangjian satacanna taun 1949. Pajangjian nu satacanna éta ayuen kadang-kadang ogé dijadikeun alesan pikeun kadali India kana hubungan luar nagri Bhutan, nanging pamaréntah Butan ngadali sadaya hubungan luar nagrina, kaasup sababaraha maslaah di mana India miboga perhatosan, kawas status wates Butan jeung [[Cina]].<!--Library of Congress|Foreign Relations--> Butan miboga hubungan diplomatik sateng 21 nagara sarta [[Uni Éropa]] sarta mibboga misi di India, [[Bangladés]], [[Thailand]], jeung [[Kuwait]]. Butan miboga 2 misi [[Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa|PBB]], hiji di New York sarta hiji di [[Jénéwa]]. Ngan India jeung Bangladés nu miboga kadutaan pangeusi di Butan, samentara Thailand miboga kantor konsulat di Butan. [[File:Bhutan CIA WFB 2010 map.png|thumb|Peta Butan némbongkeun watesna jeung Cina sarta India sakumaha dina taun 2012.]] Ku hiji pasatujuan nu lila, warga nagara India jeung Butan tiasa sumping ka masing-masing nagara tanpa [[paspor]] atanapi [[visa]], ukur butuh kartu idéntitas nagarana. Warga Butan ogé tiasa gawé di india tanpa palarangan hukum. Butan teu boga hubungan diplomatik resmi jeung tatangga kalérna, [[Républik Rahayat Cina]], sanajan paturakan kunjungan dina raloba tingkat pernah aya. Pasatujuan bilateral nu kahiji antawis Cina jeung Butan ditandatanganan dina taun 1998. Butan ogé miboga konsulat husus di [[Makau]] jeung [[Hong Kong]]. Wates Butan jeung Cina kalobaanana heunteu di[[démarkasi]] sarta ku kituna aya papaséaan di sababaraha tempat. Kira-kira 269 kilométer pasagi aya dina sawala antawis kadua nagara.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=7833 |title=Indo-Bhutan Border Finalised |first=Samten |last=Wangchuk |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online |date=2006-12-13 |accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> Dina 13 Nopémber 2005, prajurit Cina asup ka wewengkon papaséaan antara Cina jeung Butan, sarta mimiti ngawangun jalan jeung sasak.<ref name=dispcb/> Perdana Mentri Luar Nagri Butan, [[Lyonpo Khandu Wangchuk|Khandu Wangchuk]] ngomongkeun masalah ieu jeung pamaréntah Cina sanggeus masalah ieu diomongkeun di parlemén Butan. Balesanna, Juru Carios Kamentrian Luar Nagri Cina, [[Qin Gang]] nyebatkeun yén wates éta masih aya dina papaséaan sarta kadua pihak tetep ngalajengkeun diskusi nu rapih jeung hadé pikeun nangtukeun solusina.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.china.com/zh_cn/domestic/945/20051201/12906175.html|title=中国不丹同意平等友好协商早日解决边界问题 |trans_title=China and Bhutan Agree to Equal and Amicable Talks in Order to Resolve the Border Issue Quickly|language=Chinese|publisher=News.china.com|date=2005-12-01|accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> Pajabat intélijen India nyebatkeun yén délégasi Cina di Butan nngomong ka Butan yén Butan téh "''overreacting''." Hiji koran Butan ''Kuensel'' nuliskeun yén Cina bisa maké jalanan éta pikeun alesan klaim Cina sapanjang wates éta.<ref name=dispcb>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/7598_1583871,000500020006.htm|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060824075647/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/7598_1583871,000500020006.htm|archivedate=2006-08-24|title=Alarm over Chinese Incursion|first=Pramod|last=Giri|publisher=Web.archive.org|date=2005-10-28|accessdate=2009-04-23}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071229111417/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/7598_1583871%2C000500020006.htm |date=2007-12-29 }}</ref> Dina 8 Pébruari 2007, Pajangjian Kasababaturan India-Butan dirévisi. Pajangjian 1949, Pasal 2 nyebtkeun: "Pamaréntah India heunteu ngalaksanakeun sagala campur tangan dina administrasi jero nagri Butan. Pamaréntah Butan salaku bagianna, satuju pikeun dipandu dina naséhat Pamaréntah India ngeunaan hubungan luar nagrina." Dina pajangjian nu enggeus dirévisi ayeuna katulis "Pikeun ngajaga hubungan sababaturan jeung sabilulungan nu parantos aya antawis Butan jeung India, Pamaréntah Karjaaan Butan sareng Pamaréntah Républik India bakal gawé bareng sacara husus dina masalah perkawis kaayaan nasionalna. Kadua pamaréntah heunteu tiasa mangpaatkeun wewengkonna pikeun kagiatan anu ngancem kaamanan jeung kaayaan nasional kadua nagara." Pajangjian nu enggeus dirévisi ieu ogé ngawengku kalimah pamuka ieu: "Negaskeun kamerdikaan, kadaulatan, sarta intregitas nasional masing-masing pihak", hiji kaayaan nu euweuh dina vérsi saméméhna. Pajangjian Kasababaturan India-Butan 2007 negaskeun status Butan salaku nagara nu merdika jeung daulat. Butan miboga [[hubungan luar nagri Butan|hubungan diplomatik]] sareng sababraha nagara [[Asia]] jeung [[Éropa]], [[Kanada]], jeung [[Brasil]]. Nagara lian, saperti [[Amérika Sarikat]] jeung [[Britania Raya]], heunteu miboga hubungan diplomatik resmi jeung Butan, tapi miboga hubungan teu resmi (informal) langkung kadutaan masing-masing nagara di [[New Delhi]] sarta konsulat husus Butan di [[London]] jeung [[Washington, D.C.]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/2010/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=18408 |title=Bhutan establishes ties with Spain |first=Gyalsten K |last=Dorji |publisher=[[Kuensel]] |date=2011-02-15 |accessdate=2011-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.embassiesabroad.com/embassies-of/Bhutan#18596 |title=Overseas Embassies and Consulates of Bhutan |work=Go Abroad.com |accessdate=2011-03-29 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309070142/http://www.embassiesabroad.com/embassies-of/Bhutan#18596 |date=2009-03-09 }}</ref><ref name=state>{{cite web|url=http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1068.html|title=Bhutan Country Specific Information|work=[[United States Department of State]]|accessdate=2008-03-24|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080328065136/http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1068.html|archivedate=28 March 2008 <!--DASHBot-->|deadurl=no}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328065136/http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1068.html |date=2008-03-28 }}</ref> ==Géografi== [[File:HaaValley.jpg|thumb|left|Lebak Haa.]] [[File:Bhutan topo en.jpg|thumb|Peta topografis Bhutan.]] [[File:GangkharPuensum3.jpg|thumb|[[Gangkhar Puensum]] ti Ura La, Butan.]] {{utama|Géografi Butan}} Butan aya di léréng kidul jeung wétan [[Himalaya]], dilingkung ku [[Wewengkon Otonom Tibét]], Cina di kalér jeung nagara bagian [[Sikkim]], [[Benggala Kulon]], [[Assam]], jeung [[Arunachal Pradesh]], India di kulon jeung kidul. Butan aya di antara gurat lintang [[26 lintang kalér|26°]] sarta [[29 lintang kalér|29°N]], serta [[88 méridian wétan|88°]] sarta [[93 méridian wétan|93°]] méridian wétan. Wewengkonna ngawengku utamina [[pagunungan di Butan|pagunungan]] diliwatan ku walungan, nu ngawangun lebak nu jero. Tingkat kaluhuran antara {{convert|200|m|ft|abbr=on}} di suku pasir di pakidulan nepi ka leuwih ti {{convert|7000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Karagaman géografis ieu ditambih jeung karagaman iklim miboga pangaruh kana ralobana karagaman hayati jeung ékosistem Butan.<ref name=official/> Wewengkon kalér nagara diwangun ti hiji wilayah [[Padang jukut jwung rungkun alpen Hiimalaya Wétan]], ngaluhur ka pagunungan glasial kalawan iklim nu tiis pisan di titik-titik puncakna. Raloba titik puncak di kalér aya dina kaluhuran leuwih ti {{convert|7000|m|ft|abbr=on}} ti beungeut laut. Titik pangluhurna di Butan nyaéta [[Gangkhar Puensum]] dina {{convert|7570|m|ft}}, nu mana minangka [[puncak pangluhurna nu teu pernah didaki]] sadunya.{{sfn|CIA—The World Factbook}} Titik panghandapna nyaéta {{convert|98|m|ft|abbr=on}}, di lebak di [[Drangme Chhu]], di mana aya walungan nu misahkeun Butan jeung India.{{sfn|CIA—The World Factbook}} Kalawan walungan nu ngalir ti salju, lebak alpen di wewengkon ieu nyadiaakeun [[padang jukut]] pikeun angon, dipiara ku masarakat pangangon ngumbara nu nyumebar. [[Pagunungan Hideung (Butan)|Pagunungan Hideung]] di bagian tengah Butan ngawangun hiji wates antara 2 walungan utama Butan: [[Walungan Mo Chhu]] sarta [[Walungan Drangme Chhu]]. Puncak-puncak Pagunungan Hideung aya antara {{convert|1500|m|ft|abbr=on}} nepi ka {{convert|4925|m|ft|abbr=on}} luhureun beungeut laut. Leuwung di pagunungan Butan beulah tengah kasusun ti [[leuweung koniféra sub-alpen Himalaya Wétan]] di beulah luhur sarta [[leuwung tutuwuhan kembang Himalaya Wétan]] di beulah handap pagunungan. Leuwugn di wewengkon tengah nyadiakeun mayoritas produksi leuweung Butan. Walungan [[Walungan Torsa|Torsa]], [[Walungan Raidak|Raidak]], [[Walungan Sankosh|Sankosh]], jeung [[Walungan Manas|Manas]] mangrupa walungan-walungan utama Butan, ngalir ngaliwatan wewengkon ieu. Kalobaannana warga ngeusian daratan luhur bagian tengah. Di beulah kidul, aya [[Papasiran Shiwalik]] nu ditutupan ku [[leuweung tutuwuhan kembang sub-tropis Himalaya]] nu padet, lebak walungan aluvial, sarta pagunungan nepi ka {{convert|1500|m|ft|abbr=on}} luhureun beungeut laut. Bagian handap pasir turun nepi ka dataran sub-tropis [[Duars]]. Kalobaannana bagian Duars aya di India, sanajan hiji sela kalawan lébar {{convert|10|km|mi|abbr=on}} nepi ka {{convert|15|km|mi|abbr=on}} manjang nepi ka Butan. Duars di Butan dibagi kana 2 bagian: kalér jeung kidul. Duars kalér, nu wawatesan jeung suku papasiran Himalaya, rupana kagurat, ngawangun léréng-léréng, jeung taneuh nu saat jeung ngabeulah kalawan tutuwuhan nu padet sarta raloba margasatwa. Duars kidul taneuhna subu5, kalawan sabana, leuwung nu padet, sarta cinyusu. Walungan-walungan, nu sumberna ti salju atanapi hujan muson, ngalir ka [[Walungan Brahmaputra]] di India. Data nu dirilis ku Kamentrian Tatanén némbongkeun yén Butan miboga tutupan leuwung saluas 64% dina Oktober 2005. Iklim di Butan dipangaruhan ku kaluhuranana. Ti iklim sub-tropis di kidul nepi ka [[iklim sedeng]] di daratan luhur sarta iklim [[iklim kutub|jenis kutub]], kalawan salju sapanjang taun di kalér. Butan miboga 5 rupa usum: panas, [[muson]], gugur, tiis, jeung semi. Butran beulah kulon miboga hujan muson nu leuwih loba. Butan beulah kidul miboga usum panas nu lembap jeung panas sarta usum tiis nu tiis. Butan beulah tengah jeung wétan iklimna sedeng sarta leuwih saat ti batan beulah kulon, kalawan usum panas nu haneut sarta usum tiis nu tiis.<!--Library of Congress|Geography--> {{Geographic location | Centre={{Flagicon|Butan}} Butan | North={{Flagicon|Cina}} [[Cina]] | East={{Flagicon|India}} [[India]] | South={{Flagicon|India}} [[India]] | West={{Flagicon|India}} [[India]] }} == Kaayaan hayati == [[File:Takin, Thimphu mini-zoo.jpg|thumb|[[Takin]], [[sato nasional]] Butan.]] {{see also|Daptar mamalia di Butan}} Butan nanda tanganan [[Konvénsi Kaanékaragaman Biologi]] dina 11 Juni 1992, sarta jadi bagian ti konvénsi éta dina 25 Agustus 1995.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbd.int/convention/parties/list/ |title=List of Parties |date=|accessdate=8 Désémber 2012}}</ref> Butan teras nyieun hiji [[Rancangan Aksi Kaanékaragaman Hayati|Rancangan Aksi jeung Stratégi Kaanékaragaman Hayati Nasional]], kalawan 2 révisi, nu mana nu panganyarna ditarima ku konvénsi dina 4 Pébruari 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/bt/bt-nbsap-v3-en.pdf |title=Biodiversity Action Plan 2009 |date=|accessdate=9 Désémber 2012}}</ref> ===Sasatoan=== Butan miboga rupa-rupa primata, saperti spésiés langka kawas [[langur emas]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=1990|title=Primates in Bhutan |journal=Oryx |volume=24 |page=125}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=1992|title=Golden langur – Distribution Confusion|journal=Oryx|volume=26|pages=172–173}}</ref> Hiji varian makaka Assam, nu dianggaep ku sababaraha otoritas salaku hiji spésiés anyar, ''Macaca munzala'', kacutat di Butan.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=2008|title=Primates of Bhutan and Observations of Hybrid Langurs|journal=Primate Conservation|volume=23|pages=65–73}}</ref> [[Lodaya Benggala]], [[badak India]], [[macan dahan]], [[kelenci Assam]], jeung [[ontohod sloth]] hirup di daratan handap tropis jeung leuwung kai kandel di kidul. Di wewengkon iklim sedeng, [[langur kulawu]], lodaya, [[maung tutul India]], [[goral]], jeung [[serow]] tiasa dipanggih dina leuwung campuran koniféra, camara, jeung tutuwuhan kembang. Tutuwuhan buah jeung awi nyadiakeun habitat pikeun [[ontohod hideung Himalaya]], [[panda beureum]], [[bajing]], [[uncal sambar]], [[bagong]], jeung [[mencek]]. Wewengkon alpen di Pagunungan Himalaya di kalér mangrupa habitat pikeun [[maung tutul salju]], [[domba paul]], [[marmot]], [[ajag Tibét]], [[antelop]], [[uncal kasturi Himalaya]], jeung [[sato nasional]] Butan, [[takin]]. Munding cai liar ngeusian Butan beulah kidul kalawan populasi nu saeutik.<ref>{{cite book|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=2010 |title=The Vanishing Herds: Wild Water Buffalo|publisher=Gibbon Books & The Rhino Foundation for Nature in North East India|location=Guwahati, India}}</ref> Leuwih ti 770 spésiés manuk enggeus kacutat hirup di Butan. Spésiés kaancem, [[meri jangjang bodas]], karak sababaraha taun ditambahkeun ka daptar manuk di Butan.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=2007|title=White-winged duck ''Cairina (=Asarcornis) scutulata'' and Blue-tailed Bee-eater ''Merops philippinus'': two new country records for Bhutan.|journal=Forktail|volume=23|pages=153–155}}</ref> ===Konsérvasi=== {{seealso|Masalah lingkungan di Butan}} {{utama|Daptar suaka alam di Butan}} {{Annotated image |caption = [[Suaka alam di Bhutan]] dina warna ungu; [[Wildlife corridor|biological corridor]] dina warna héjo. |image-width=300 |width=300 |imagemap=<imagemap> Image:Bhutan protected areas location map.png|300px default [[File:Bhutan protected areas location map.png]] desc none </imagemap> |annotations= {{Annotation|63|57|<small>[[Taman Nasional Jigme Dorji|Jigme Dorji]]</small>}} {{Annotation|75|80|<small>''[[Suaka Alam Motithang Takin|Motithang]]''</small>}} {{Annotation|116|50|<small>[[Kebon Raya Pangélingan Wangchuck|Wangchuck]]</small>}} {{Annotation|220|65|<small>[[Suaka Margasatwa Bumdeling|Bumdeling]]</small>}} {{Annotation|150|90|<small>[[Taman Nasional Thrumshingla|Thrumshingla]]</small>}} {{Annotation|264|138|<small>[[Suaka Margasatwa Khaling|Khaling]]</small>}} {{Annotation|20|100|<small>[[Suaka Alam Torsa|Torsa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|115|110|<small>[[Taman Nasional Jigme Singye Wangchuck|Jigme Singye]]</small>}} {{Annotation|75|145|<small>[[Suaka Margasatwa Phibsoo|Phibsoo]]</small>}} {{Annotation|150|140|<small>[[Taman Nasional Karajaan Manas|Manas]]</small>}} {{Annotation|250|100|<small>[[Suaka Margasatwa Sakteng|Sakteng]]</small>}} }} [[Himalaya]] Wétan kawanoh salaku titik puncak [[biodivérsitas]] sarta mangrupa salah sahiji ti 234 [[wewengkon ékologi]] istiméwa sadunya ti analisis [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]] antara taun 1995 jeung 1997. Butan dianggep salaku modél inisiatif [[konsérvasi]]. Nagara ieu enggeus pernah narima pujian internasional ti usaha ngamumulé kaanékarupaan hayatina. Butan nangtukeun yén saeutikna 60% wewengkon daratna katutup ku [[leuweung]], kalawan 40%<ref name=BTF1>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutantrustfund.bt/parks-of-bhutan|title=Parks of Bhutan|work=Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation online|publisher=Bhutan Trust Fund|accessdate=2011-03-26}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217080833/http://www.bhutantrustfund.bt/parks-of-bhutan/ |date=2016-12-17 }}</ref><ref name=BTF2>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutantrustfund.bt/about-bhutan-trust-fund/the-organisation|title=The Organisation|work=Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation online|publisher=Bhutan Trust Fund|accessdate=2011-03-26}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100329063448/http://www.bhutantrustfund.bt/about-bhutan-trust-fund/the-organisation |date=2010-03-29 }}</ref> wewengkon nagarana pikeun taman nasional, suaka alam, jeung wewengkon tangtayungan lianna. [[File:DholeT.zoo.jpg|thumb|200px|Nepi ka taun 2010, [[pamangsa apéks]] Asia anu pangrawanna tina [[kapunahan]] nyaéta ''[[dhole]]''. Diperkirakeun kirang ti 2.500 ékor anu kasésa sadunya.]] Sanajan kaayaan alam Butan ralobana masih alus, pamaréntah ngumumkeun yén konsérvasi masih kénéh dipertimbangkeun sarta mangrupa salah sahiji tujuan nasional pikeun sababaraha taun jagana. Anceman pikeun kahirupan alam di Butan enggeus mimiti katingal, saperti tekenan pangeusi, modérenisasi tatanén, moro tanpa ijin, pawangunan PLTA, tambang, industrialisasi, urbanisasi, panataan limbah jeung runtah, pariwisata, papaséaan lemah pikeun pawangunan jalan sarta pangaruh infrastruktur sosial jeung ékonomi lianna. Dina kanyataanana, wates wewengkon tangtayungan jeung wewengkon pamukiman anu pacampur-campur ngarah kana masalah lian. Sasatoan kalindung asup ka lemah tatanén warga, ngaruksak tatangkalan jeung maéhan angon. Ku kituna, Butan nyieun hiji rancangan pawangunan pager alarm tanaga surya, munara panénjo, jeung lampu sorot, sarta nyadiakeun pangan sasatoan jeung tempat uyah di luar pamukiman warga sangkan sasatoan heunteu asup.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/addressing-human-wildlife-conflict|title=Addressing Human-Wildlife Conflict|first=Jigme|last=Wangchuk|publisher=[[Bhutan Observer]] online|date=2011-07-08|accessdate=2011-07-13}}</ref> Harga pasaran supa ''[[Ophiocordyceps sinensis]]'' anu dicandak ti alam nyababkeun pamangpaatan leuwih anu sesah diorganisasikeun.<ref>P.F. Cannon, N.L. Hywel-Jones, N. Maczey, L. Norbu, Tshitila, T. Samdup & P. Lhendup, ''Steps towards sustainable harvest of Ophiocordyceps sinensis in Bhutan'' Biodivers. Conserv. 18: 2263-2281 (2009).</ref> == Ékonomi == [[File:10 Ngultrum Vorderseite.jpg|thumb|Mata uang Butan nyaéta [[Ngultrum]].]] [[File:Tree map export 2009 Bhutan.jpeg|thumb|Babagian ékspor Butan.]] {{utama|Ékonomi Butan}} Mata uang Butan nyaéta [[Ngultrum]], nu peunteunna [[Ajén tukeur katangtu|disaruakeun]] jeung [[Rupee India]]. Rupee India ogé ditarima salaku [[alat tukeur sah]] di Butan. Sanajan ékonomi Butan mangrupa salah sahiji anu pangleutikna sadunya, ékonomi Butan enggues tumuwuh dina sababaraha taun ieu, 8% dina 2005 sarta 14% dina 2006. Taun 2007, ékonomi Butan mangrupa anu ka-2 panggancangna tumuwuhna sadunya, kalawan tingkat tumuwuh ékonomi taunan 22,4%. Kaayaan ieu disababkeun utamina ku proyék agung [[Proyék Pambangkit Listrik Tanaga Cai Tala|PLTA]] [[Tala, Butan|Tala]]. Nepi ka Maret 2006, [[pamasukan per kapita]] Butan nyaéta US$1,321. Ékonomi Butan utamina aya dina kagiatan [[tatanén di Butan|tatanén]], kaleuweungan, pariwisata, jeung panjualan [[tanaga hidroéléktrik]] ka India. Kagiatan tatanén mangrupa pagawéan utami ti leuwih ti 80 persén wargi Butan. Kagiatan [[agraris]]na utamina mangrupa [[tatanén subsistén]] jeung [[kaingonan]]. Karajinan leungeun, utaminan tinunan jeung banda kaagamaan, mangrupa [[industri désa]] leutik. Wewengkon anu robah-robah ti pasir jeung pagunungan nyababkeun pawangunan jalan jeung [[infrastruktur]] lianna sesah jeung awis. Hal ieu ditambah ku euweuhna aksés sagara nyababkeun Butan hésé miboga kauntungan signifikan ti padagangan banda produksina. Butan heunteu miboga [[angkutan rél|karéta]], sanajan [[Indian Railways]] ngarencanakeun nyambungkeun wewengkon Butan beulah kidul jeung jaringan karéta di India dina hiji pasatujuan anu ditandatanganan dina Januari 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050126/main5.htm |first=Rajeev |last=Sharma |title=MoUs with Bhutan on Rail Links, Power Projects |publisher=Tribuneindia.com |date=2011-01-25 |accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> Butan jeung India nandatanganan hiji pasatujuan 'dagang bébas' dina 2008, anu ngijinkeun impor jeung ékspor Butan ti jeung ka nagara lian tiasa transit di India tanpa [[béa cukai]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/india_e.htm |title=MEMBER INFORMATION: India and the WTO |publisher=[[World Trade Organization]] (WTO) |accessdate=2009-04-23| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090422224717/http://www.wto.org/english/theWTO_e/countries_e/india_e.htm| archivedate= 22 April 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Butan miboga hubungan padagangan jeung wewengkon [[Wewengkon Otonom Tibét|Tibét]] nepi ka taun 1960, nalika Butan nutup watesna jeung Cina sanggeus raloba pangungsi anu asup ka Butan.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/JA12Ad02.html |title=In Bhutan, China and India Collide |first=Mohan |last=Balaji |date=2008-01-12 |accessdate=2010-10-03 |publisher=[[Asia Times]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509184053/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/JA12Ad02.html |date=2008-05-09 }}</ref> Pamasukan leuwih ti [[Ngultrum|Nu]] 100.000 [[per taun]] dikeunakeun pajak, tapi ngan saeutik wajib pajak anu minuhan sarat éta. TInkgat inflasi Butan diperkirakeun aya dina tingkat 3% dina taun 2003. Butan miboga [[Produk Doméstik Bruto]] kira-kira [[dolar Amérika Sarikat|$AS]] 2,913 milyar <!-- (disaruakeun jeung [[Purchasing Power Parity]])-->. Pamasukan per kapita kira-kira $1.400,{{sfn|CIA—The World Factbook}}. Pamasukan pamaréntah totalna $272 yuta, sanajan pangaluaranna sagedé $350 yuta. 60 persén <!---CIA factbook|CIA-economy---> pangaluaran nagara, dibayar ku Kamentrian Luar Nagri India.<ref group=note>Kamentrian Luar Nagri India nyadiakeun pitulung kauangan ka nagara taanggana dina "gawé bareng sacara téhnis jeung ékonomi jeung nagara lianna sarta kamajuan pikeun pamaréntahan nagara luar."</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020301/budget.htm |title=BUDGET |publisher=The Tribune (India) online |accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref> Ékspor Butan, utamina tanaga listrik, [[kapulaga]], [[gips]], [[kai]], karajinan, semén, bubuahan, batu mulia, jeung [[rempah]], total [[Euro|€]]128 yuta (perk. 2000). Sanajan kitu, tingkat imporna nyaéta €164 yuta, ngarah kana [[défisit]]. Komoditas impor utama ngawengku [[béngsin]] jeung [[minyak bumi]], [[pangan]], [[mesin]], kandaraan, kaén, jeung [[béas]]. Mitra utama ékspor Butan's nyaéta India, ngawengku 58,6% ti total éksporna. [[Hong Kong]] (30,1%) jeung [[Bangladés]] (7,3%) nyaéta 2 mitra ékspor salajengna.{{sfn|CIA—The World Factbook}} Ku sabab watesna jeung Tibét ditutup, padagangan antara Butan jeung Cina ayeuna méh euweuh. == Babagian administratif ==<!--Kahubugn jeung Citakan:Ngeunaan Butan--> {{utama|Distrik di Butan|Blok di Butan|Undang-Undang Pamaréntahan Lokal Butan 2009}} Butan dibagi kana 20 ''[[dzongkhag]]'' (distrik), diparéntah ku hiji lembaga anu disebut ''Dzongkhag Tshogdu''. Di sababaraha ''[[thromde]]'' (kalurahan), tingkat adiministrasi di handapeunana aya kahubung langusng jeung administrasi Dzongkhag. Kalobaanana daérah, ''[[gewog]]'' padésaan (blok désa) diparéntah ku hiji lembaha anu disebut ''Gewog Tshogde''.<ref name=LGA09>{{cite web |url=http://www.nab.gov.bt/downloadsact/Dzo74.pdf |format=PDF |title=Undang-Undang Pamaréntahan Lokal Butan 2009 |publisher=[[Pamaréntah Butan]] |date=2009-09-11 |accessdate=2011-01-20 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162642/http://www.nab.gov.bt/downloadsact/Dzo74.pdf |date=2011-07-06 }}</ref> Thromde (kalurahan) milih ''Thrompon'' salaku pamingpin sarta wakil Thromde éta di Dzongkhag Tshogdu. Gewog ogé milih pamingpin anu disebut ''gup'', wakilna disebut ''mangmi'', anu ogé minangka wakil di Dzongkhag Thshogdu. Pikeun perkawis pamilihan umum, daérah pamilihan di Butan nyaéta ''[[chiwog]]'', babagian ti gewog anu ditangtukeun ku Komisi Pamilihan Umum.<ref name=LGA09/> {{Annotated image |caption = [[Distrik di Butan]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.election-bhutan.org.bt/index.php?option=com_content&id=132&Itemid=84 |title=Delimitation |publisher=Komisi Pamilihan Umum, [[Pamaréntah Butan]] |year=2011 |accessdate=2011-07-31 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110720105402/http://www.election-bhutan.org.bt/index.php?option=com_content&id=132&Itemid=84 |archivedate=20 July 2011 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720105402/http://www.election-bhutan.org.bt/index.php?option=com_content&id=132&Itemid=84 |date=2011-07-20 }}</ref> |image- style="width:300px;" |width=300 |float=right |imagemap=<imagemap> Image:Bhutan location map.svg|320px default [[File:Bhutan location map.svg]] desc none # </imagemap> |annotations= {{Annotation|160|65|<small>[[Distrik Bumthang|Bumthang]]</small>}} {{Annotation|63|145|<small>[[Distrik Chukha|Chukha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|90|130|<small>[[Distrik Dagana|Dagana]]</small>}} {{Annotation|95|45|<small>[[Distrik Gasa|Gasa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|40|110|<small>[[Distrik Haa|Haa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|200|55|<small>[[Distrik Lhuntse|Lhuntse]]</small>}} {{Annotation|207|120|<small>[[Distrik Mongar|Mongar]]</small>}} {{Annotation|50|82|<small>[[Distrik Paro|Paro]]</small>}} {{Annotation|215|135|<small>[[Distrik Pemagatshel|Pema-<br>gatshel]]</small>}} {{Annotation|87|73|<small>[[Distrik Punakha|Punakha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|260|145|<small>[[Distrik Samdrup Jongkhar|Samdrup Jongkhar]]</small>}} {{Annotation|15|140|<small>[[Distrik Samtse|Samtse]]</small>}} {{Annotation|135|155|<small>[[Distrik Sarpang|Sarpang]]</small>}} {{Annotation|40|60|<small>[[Distrik Thimphu|Thimphu]]</small>}} {{Annotation|250|110|<small>[[Distrik Trashigang|Trashigang]]</small>}} {{Annotation|240|80|<small>[[Distrik Trashiyangtse|Trashiyangtse]]</small>}} {{Annotation|145|100|<small>[[Distrik Trongsa|Trongsa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|125|140|<small>[[Distrik Tsirang|Tsirang]]</small>}} {{Annotation|105|90|<small>[[Distrik Wangdue Phodrang|Wangdue<br>Phodrang]]</small>}} {{Annotation|160|130|<small>[[Distrik Zhemgang|Zhemgang]]</small>}} }} {{col|2}} # [[Distrik Bumthang|Bumthang]] # [[Distrik Chukha|Chukha]] (''Chhukha'') # [[Distrik Dagana|Dagana]] # [[Distrik Gasa|Gasa]] # [[Distrik Haa|Haa]] # [[Distrik Lhuntse|Lhuntse]] # [[Distrik Mongar|Mongar]] # [[Distrik Paro|Paro]] # [[Distrik Pemagatshel|Pemagatshel]] (''Pemagatsel'') # [[Distrik Punakha|Punakha]] # [[Distrik Samdrup Jongkhar|Samdrup Jongkhar]] # [[Distrik Samtse|Samtse]] (''Samchi'') # [[Distrik Sarpang|Sarpang]] (''Sarbhang'') # [[Distrik Thimphu|Thimphu]] # [[Distrik Trashigang|Trashigang]] (''Tashigang'') # [[Distrik Trashiyangtse|Trashiyangtse]] # [[Distrik Trongsa|Trongsa]] (''Tongsa'') # [[Distrik Tsirang|Tsirang]] (''Chirang'') # [[Distrik Wangdue Phodrang|Wangdue Phodrang]] (''Wangdi Phodrang'') # [[Distrik Zhemgang|Zhemgang]] (''Shemgang'') </div> == Dayeuh jeung kota == {{utama|Daptar kota di Butan}} * [[Thimphu]], ibu kota jeung kota panggedéna di Butan. * [[Damphu, Tsirang|Damphu]], puseur administratif [[Distrik Tsirang]]. * [[Jakar]], puseur administratif [[Distrik Bumthang]] sarta lokasi di mana Buddha asup ka Butan. * [[Mongar]], puseur padagangan di Butan beulah wétan. * [[Paro, Butan|Paro]], lokasi [[Bandar Udara Internasional Paro]]. * [[Phuentsholing]], puseur padagangan Butan. * [[Punakha]], ibu kota heubeul. * [[Samdrup Jongkhar]], kota wates jeung India. * [[Trashigang]], puseur administratif [[Distrik Trashigang]], distrik anu panglobana pangeusina di Butan. {{Largest cities of Bhutan}} == Démografi == {{Historical populations |type= |footnote= Source: <small>http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/people-population/ Angka taun 2005 heunteu ngawengku pangeusi teu tetep jeung migran</small> |1969 |930614 |1980 |1165000 |1991 |1375400 |2005 |634982 }} [[File:Bhutanese people.jpg|thumb|left|Urang Butan keur maké pakéan nasional dina Parayaan Wangdi Phodrang.]] {{utama|Démografi Butan}} Urang Butan utamina disusun ku Urang [[Ngalop]] (Butan Kulon) jeung [[urang Sharchop|Sharchop]] (Butan Wétan). Urang [[Lhotshampa]] (urang kidul) nyaéta kelompok urang anu hétérogén kalawan komposisi utama urang katurunan [[Urang Nepal|Nepal]]. Urang Lhotshampa dianggep ngawasaan 45% total pangeusi Butan dina sénsus taun 1988<ref name="bns">http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/people-population/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116201719/http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/people-population/ |date=2011-11-16 }}</ref>. Dina awal jaman 1970-an, pernikahan campuran antawis Urang jeung and masarakat Butan utama dirojong ku pamaréntah. Tatapi dina ahir jaman 1980-an, pamaréntah Butan ngaluarkeun kira-kira 108.000 Urang Lhotshampa ti wewengkonna ka kémah-kémah pangungsian.<ref name="hrw.org"/> Tingkat [[beunta hurup]] di Butan nyaéta 59,5%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE=BTN |title=Report: Data Profile |publisher=World Bank |year=2008 |accessdate=2009-04-23 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080801053414/http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE=BTN |archivedate=2008-08-01}}</ref> Butan miboga yuswa médian 24,8 taun.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html CIA World Factbook: Bhutan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228202246/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html |date=2010-12-28 }}</ref> Tingkat [[harepan hirup]] nyaéta 62,2 taun (61 lalaki, 64,5 awéwé). Rasio jenis kelamin nyaéta 1.070 lalaki per 1.000 awéwé.<!---CIA factbook|CIA-4---> ===Agama=== {{bar box |title=Agama di Butan |left1=agama |right1=perséntase |float=right |bars = {{bar percent|Buddha|gold|76}} {{bar percent|Hindu|purple|23}} {{bar percent|Lianna|black|1}} }} [[File:Takstan-monastery.jpg|thumb|''Taktshang Goemba'' di Butan, [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=27.491884,89.363544&spn=0.011706,0.026157&t=h&z=16&vpsrc=6&lci=com.panoramio.all aya dina gawir saluhur 900 méter]]] {{utama|Agama di Butan}} Diperkirakeun antawis dua per tilu jeung tilu per opat populasi Butan ngagem [[Buddha Vajrayana]], nu mangrupa [[agama nagara]]. Kirang leuwih saperopat nepi ka sapertilu populasi ngagem [[Hindu]]. Pangagem agama lian ngawengku kirang ti 1% populasi.<ref name=USDOS>{{cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report 2007–Bhutan|publisher=U.S. Department of State|date=2007-09-14|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90227.htm|accessdate=2008-01-06| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080109063821/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90227.htm| archivedate= 9 Januari 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Aturan undang-undang anu ayeuna ngarojong kana [[kabébasan agama]]; tatapi [[proselytism]] dilarang ku hiji kawijakan pamaréntah<ref name=USDOS/> sarta tina interpretasi yudikatif [[Undang-Undang Dasar Butan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/main-news/pastor-sentenced-to-3-yrs-in-prison|title=Pastor Sentenced to Three Years in Prison|work=Bhutan News Service|publisher=Bhutan News Service|date=2010-12-12|accessdate=2011-01-25}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101216034352/http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/main-news/pastor-sentenced-to-3-yrs-in-prison/ |date=2010-12-16 }}</ref> Agama Buddha dipikawanohkeun ka Butan dina abad ka-7 maséhi. Raja Tibét [[Songtsän Gampo]] (ngajabat 627–649), maréntahkeun diwangunna 2 wihara Buddha, di [[Bumthang (kota)|Bumthang]] Jampa Lhakhang di Butan bagian tengah jeung di Kyichu Lhakhang (di deukeut [[Paro, Butan|Paro]]) di [[Lebak Paro]].<ref name="CS1"/> ===Basa=== {{utama|Basa di Butan}} {{Annotated image |caption=[[Basa di Butan]] |image- style="width:300px;" |width=300 |float=left |image-bg-color=#F4E2BA |imagemap=<imagemap> Image:Languages of Bhutan.svg|300px default [[File:Languages of Bhutan with labels.svg]] desc none # Dots and long names in small, Dzongkha in big </imagemap> |annotations= {{Annotation|50|65|'''[[Basa Dzongkha]]'''}} {{Annotation|149|73|<small>'''[[Basa Bumthang|Bumthang]]'''</small>}} {{Annotation|174|16|<small>[[Basa Kurtöp|Kurtöp]]</small>}} {{Annotation|204|42|<small>[[Basa Dzala|Dzala]]</small>}} {{Annotation|231|28|<small>[[Basa Khams Tibét|Khampa Tibét]]</small>}} {{Annotation|122|42|<small>[[Lakha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|100|81|<small>[[Nyenkha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|136|91|<small>[['Olekha|'Olekha (Monpa)]]</small>}} {{Annotation|165|56|<small>[[Basa Brokkat|Brokkat]]</small>}} {{Annotation|207|61|<small>[[Chocangacakha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|213|90|<small>[[Basa Chali|Chali]]</small>}} {{Annotation|222|80|<small>[[Basa Dakpa|Dakpa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|275|75|<small>[[Basa Brokpa|Brokpa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|264|138|'''[[Basa Nepal|Nepal]]'''}} {{Annotation|10|118|'''[[Basa Nepal|Nepal]]'''}} {{Annotation|120|123|'''[[Basa Nepal|Nepal]]'''}} {{Annotation|53|113|<small>[[Basa Lepcha|Lepcha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|58|126|<small>[[Basa Lhokpu|Lhokpu]]</small>}} {{Annotation|165|111|<small>[[Basa Kheng|Kheng]]</small>}} {{Annotation|192|119|<small>[[Basa Gongduk|Gongduk]]</small>}} {{Annotation|228|100|<small>'''[[Basa Tshangla|Tshangla]]<br>[[Basa Tshangla|(Sharchopkha)]]'''</small>}} }} Basa resmi nagara nyaéta Basa Butan ([[Basa Dzongkha|Dzongkha]]), salah sahiji ti 53 basa di [[rungkun basa Tibét]]. Aksarana anu disebut ''Chhokey'', sarungkun jeung aksara Tibét klasik. Di sakola-sakola, Basa Inggris mangrupa basa panganteur pangatikan sedengkeun Dzongkha diajar salaku basa nasional. [[Ethnologue]] nulis 24 basa anu kiwari dipaké di Butan, sadayana mangrupa bagian tu [[rungkun basa Tibet-Burma]], iwal [[Basa Nepal]] anu asup kana [[rungkun basa Indo-Arya]]. Nepi ka taun 1980-an, pamaréntah ngarojong pangajaran Basa Nepal di sakola-sakola di Butan beulah kidul. Tapi, sanggeus karusuhan pakarang, Basa Nepal dikaluarkeun ti kurikulum. Saméméh 1980-an, [[Lhotshampa]] (masarakat panyatur Basa Nepal), utamina ngeusian Butan beulah kidul, ngawengku kira-kira 30% populasi Butan.<ref name=CIDCM>{{cite web |title=MAR {{!}} Data |2=Assessment for Lhotshampas in Bhutan |url=http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar/assessment.asp?groupId=76001 |work=Database |publisher=Puseur Pamekaran Internasional jeung Manajemén Konflik [[Universitas Maryland]] |accessdate=2011-08-09 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622213816/http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar/assessment.asp?groupId=76001 |date=2012-06-22 }}</ref> == Budaya == [[File:Bhutanese thanka of Mt. Meru and the Buddhist Universe.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Thanka]]'' [[Gunung Meru (mitos)|Gunung Meru]] jeung jagad Buddha (abad ka-19, [[Tongsa|Dzong Tongsa]], Tongsa, Butan).]] [[File:Bhutan-masked-dance.jpg|thumb|200px|''Chaam'', sacara taunan dipéntaskeun dina parayaan kaagamaan.]] {{utama|Budaya Butan}} Butan miboga loba budaya khas anu sacara umum masih asli lantaran isolasi Butan ti dunya luar nepi ka awal 1960-an. Tradisi Butan patali jeung pangaruh agama Buddha.<ref>Kharat, Rajesh. "Bhutan's Security Scenario." ''Contemporary South Asia'' 13.2 (2004): 171-185. Academic Search Premier. Web. 8 Désémber 2011.</ref><ref>Martin Regg, Cohn. "Lost horizon." ''Toronto Star'' (Canada) n.d.: Newspaper Source Plus. Web. 8 Désémber 2011.</ref> [[Hindu]] mangrupa agama dominan anu kadua di Butan, utamina di pakidulan.<ref>Zurick, David. "Gross National Happiness And Environmental Status In Bhutan." ''Geographical Review'' 96.4 (2006): 657-681. Academic Search Premier. Web. 8 Désémber 2011.</ref> The government is incréasingly making efforts to preserve and sustain the current culture and traditions of the country. ku sabab kaayaan alam jeung warisan budayana anu saeutik kapangaruh ti luar, Butan disebut ogé salaku ''[[Shangri-la]] Pangahirna''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/edens/bhutan|title=Bhutan – the Last Shangri La|publisher=PBS online|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref> [[Sangu]], [[soba]], jeung [[jagong]] mangrupa kadaharan utama dina [[kulinér Butan]]. Kadaharan lianna aya ogé saperti daging [[daging babi]], [[daging sapi|sapi]], [[yak]], [[hayam]], jeung [[daging domba|domba]]. [[Produk susu]], saperti [[mantéga]] and kiju ti yak jeung [[sapi]], ogé populér. Inuman populér contona [[entéh mantéga]], [[entéh]], ''[[ara (inuman)|ara]]'', jeung [[bir]]. Butan mangrupa nagara kahiji di dunya anu ngalarang dijualna [[bako]] liwat [[Undang-Undang Pangadalian Bako Butan 2010|UU Bako 2010]].<ref name=LP/> [[Arsitéktur Butan]] mangrupa arsitéktur karuhun anu khas. Arsitéktur tradisionalna heunteu maké paku boh rangkay beusi dina ngajieunana.<ref name=LP/><ref>{{cite book|title=Earth Architecture |first=Ronald |last=Rael |publisher=Princeton Architectural Press |year=2008 |isbn=1-56898-767-6 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BsLAeifqe4EC |page=92 |accessdate=2011-10-31}}</ref><ref name=bbc98>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/country_profile/54627.stm |title=Country profile – Bhutan: a land frozen in time |date=1998-02-09 |publisher=BBC News online |accessdate=2010-10-01| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101111083203/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/country_profile/54627.stm| archivedate= 11 Nopémber 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Salah sahiji wangunan cicirén Butan nyaéta wangunan bénténg anu disebut ''[[dzong]]''. Ti jaman kuna, dzong dipaké salaku puseur pamaréntahan jeung kaagamaan di wewengkonna.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Amundsen |first=Ingun B |url=http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/jbs/JBS_05_02.pdf |format=PDF |title=On Bhutanese and Tibetan Dzongs |journal=Journal of Bhutan Studies |volume=5 |edition=Winter |year=2001 |pages=8–41 |accessdate=2011-10-19}} ([http://www.digitalhimalaya.com/collections/journals/jbs/ JBS])</ref> [[Universitas Texas El Paso]] ti Amérika Sarikat maké gaya arsitéktur Butan dina wangunan kampusna, kitu ogé ku sababaraha wangunan lian di kota [[El Paso]].<ref>{{cite web|work=UTEP Handbook of Operations |title=1.1 University History|url=http://admin.utep.edu/Default.aspx?PageContentMode=1&tabid=30289|publisher=University of Texas, El Paso|accessdate=2011-09-01| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110723225636/http://admin.utep.edu/Default.aspx?PageContentMode=1&tabid=30289| archivedate= 23 Juli 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Butan miboga [[poé peré di Butan|loba poé peré]], kalobaanana mangrupa parayaan tradisional usuman, sékulér, jeung kaagamaan. Di antarana saperti [[Dongzhi|titik balik panonpoé]] (kira-kira 1 Januari, dumasar [[kalénder bulan]]), Taun Anyar (kalénder bulan, Pébruari atanapi Maret), tepang taun Raja, sarta poé pangistrénana, ahir resmi usum [[muson]] (22 Séptémber), Poé Nasional (17 Désémber), sareng rupa-rupa parayaan Buddha jeung Hindu. [[Musik Butan]] sacara umum dibagi kana varian tradisional jeung modéren. Musik tradisional mangrupa musik kaagamaan jeung rahayat, saperti ''[[zhungdra]]'' jeung ''[[boedra]]''.<ref name=Greenwood>{{cite book|title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Folklore and Folklife: Southeast Asia and India, Central and East Asia, Middle East |volume=2 |first=William M. |last=Clements |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-313-32849-8 |pages=106–110 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZvrWAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> Musik modéren saperti ''[[rigsar]]'' dimaénkeun ku alat musik campuran antara instrumén tradisional jeung organ listrik, nu tiasa ditulusuran balik ka jaman awal 1990-an. Musik ieu némbongkeun pangaruh ti musik populér India, hiji campuran ti musik tradisional jeung pangaruh musik populér Kulon.<ref name=k1>{{cite web|accessdate=2011-10-16 |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=2420 |first=Ugyen |last=Penjor |title=From Ngesem Ngesem to Khu Khu Khu&nbsp;... Rigsar music woos local music fans |date=2003-01-19 |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |accessdate=2011-10-16 |url=http://www.raonline.ch/pages/bt/visin/bt_music01a.html |title=Rigsar Dranyen |work=RAOnline |date=2011-06-17 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717012409/http://www.raonline.ch/pages/bt/visin/bt_music01a.html |date=2012-07-17 }}</ref> Dina kulawarga Butan, warisan ilaharna dipasihan ka gurat katurunan awéwé ti batan ka lalaki. Budak awéwé bakal diwariskeun imah kolotna. Budak lalaki dipiharep sangkan tiasa nyieun kahirupanna sorangan sarta remenna pindah ka imah pamajikanana. [[Nikah ku bogoh]] ilahar di wewengkon kota, tapi tradisi [[perjodohan]] masih kénéh umum di wewengkon désa. Sanajan teu umum, [[poligami]] dianggep biasa, malah ogé sok janten cara pikeun ngajaga harta tetep dina kulawarga.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sikkim and Bhutan|publisher=Vikas Publications, Indian Council for Cultural Relations |first=V.H. |last=Coelho |year=1970 |accessdate=2011-09-01 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KD0KAQAAIAAJ |page=82}}</ref> Raja saméméhna, [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]], anu ngabdikasi taun 2006, miboga 4 prameswari, anu sadayana sadulur. Raja anu ayeuna, [[Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck]], nikah jeung [[Jetsun Pema]], 21, masarakat biasa sarta putrina saurang pilot. == Olahraga == [[File:Bhutan archery.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Stadion Changlimithang]] keur dipaké pawai.]] Olahraga nasional Butan nyaéta [[panahan]], sarta pasanggiri dilaksanakeun sacara régulér ku raloba désa. Panahanna béda jeung standar [[cabang olimpiade|olimpiade]] saperti panempatan sasaran sarta kaayaan sakurilingna. 2 sasaran ditempatkeun kapisah 100 méter. Pamaén manah ti hiji ujung lapangan ka ujung lianna. Unggal pamaén dina hiji tim manah 2 panah per babak. Panahan tradisional Butan mangrupa acara masarakat sarta pasanggiri diatur antara désa, kota, jeung tim. Usaha pikeun ngaganggu musuh saperti nangtung di deukeutna sasaran atanapi moyokan pamanah. ''Khuru'' mangrupa olahraga lian anu ogé populér, di mana anak panah kai kalawan ujung mangrupa paku 10&nbsp;cm dialungkeun ka sasaran 10 nepi ka 20 méter jauhna. Olahraga tradisional lianna nyaéta ''[[Digor (olahraga)|Digor]]''. Olahraga lian saperti [[krikét]] miboga popularitas di Butan, utamina sanggeus dipikawanohkeunana saluran televisi ti India. [[Tim nasional krikét Butan]] mangrupa salah sahiji ti tim afiliasi anu suksés. Conto lianna di antarana [[maén bal]]. Taun 2002, tim nasional maén bal Butan maén ngalawan [[Montserrat]], nu disebut salaku [[Final nu Lian]]; pertandinganna dilaksanakeun dina poé anu sarua jeung pertandingan Brasil ngalawan Jérman dina [[Final Piala Dunya FIFA 2002|final Piala Dunya]]. Pertandingan éta dilaksanakeun di [[Stadion Changlimithang]] di Thimpu. == Atikan == Butan miboga hiji universitas kalawan 11 kampus konstituén anu kasebar sanagara, [[Universitas Karajaan Butan]]. == Patalimarga jeung Angkutan == {{utama|Angkutan di Butan}} ===Udara=== [[Gambar:Paro Airport.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Bandar Udara Internasional Paro]]. Bandar udara internasional sahiji-hijina di Butan.]] [[Bandar Udara Internasional Paro]] nyaéta bandar udara internasional sahiji-hijina di Butan. Aya ogé bandar udara doméstik saperti [[Bandar Udara Yongphulla]] di [[Trashigang]] nu mimiti dirénovasi taun 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=13325 |title=Domestic Air Service to Take Wing Soon |first=Tshering |last=Palden |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online |date=2009-09-01 |accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref> Aya rancangan pikeun ngawangun sababaraha bandar udara doméstik deui di Butan saperti di [[Bathpalathang]], [[Distrik Bumthang]] jeung di [[Gelephu]], [[Distrik Sarpang]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=14069 |title=Two Domestic Airports by 2010 |first=Gyalsten K |last=Dorji |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online |date=2009-11-26 |accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref> ===Rél jeung karéta=== Butan heunteu miboga [[angkutan rél]]. Sanajan kitu, Butan enggeus nyieun hiji pasatujuan jeung India dina ngahubungkeun Butan beulah kidul jeung jaringan rél India kalawan ngawangun rél karéta {{convert|11|mi|0|adj=on}}, {{RailGauge|1676mm}} [[lébar jalur karéta India|trak India]], antara Hashimara di Benggala Kulon jeung Toribari di Butan. Konstruksi rél ngaliwatan Satali, Bharna Bari, jeung Dalsingpara dibayar ku India.<ref name="times2009">{{cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article6970997.ece |work=The Times |date=2009-12-30 |title=Isolated Buddhist kingdom of Bhutan to get its first railway link |first=Jeremy |last=Page |publisher=Times Newspapers Ltd |accessdate=2011-06-10 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ===Jalan=== [[Jalan Lateral]] mangrupa jalan utama nu ngahubungkeun Butan beulah wétan jeung kulon, nyambungkeun [[Phuentsholing]] di kidul-kulon ka [[Trashigang]] di wétan. Di antarana, Jalan Lateral ngaliwatan [[Wangdue Phodrang]], [[Trongsa]], sarta puseur pamukiman lianna. Jalan Lateral ogé miboga cabang ka [[Thimphu]] sarta kota utama lianna saperti [[Paro, Butan|Paro]] jeung [[Punakha]]. Jalan Lateral jeung jalan lianna di Butan miboga kualitas anu kirang ku lantaran kaayaan permukaannana, gawir, tikungan, cuaca, jeung longsor.<ref>{{cite book|title=Beyond the Sky and the Earth: A Journey into Bhutan|first=Jamie|last=Zeppa|publisher=[[Penguin Books|Penguin]]|year=2000|isbn=1-57322-815-X|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=383rWqWgga8C}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=4775|title=Icy Roads Claim Lives|publisher=[[Kuensel]] online|date=2004-12-04|accessdate=2011-07-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=16502|title=Landslide at Dzong Viewpoint|first=Samten|last=Yeshi|publisher=[[Kuensel]] online|date=2010-08-24|accessdate=2011-07-25}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == {{portal|Géografi|Asia|Asia Kidul|Himalaya|SAARC|Butan}} * [[Ihtisar Butan]] * [[Asia Kidul]] * [[Thimpu]] {{clear}} == Cutatan == {{reflist|group=note}} {{clear}} == Rujukan== {{col|2}} {{reflist}} </div> ; Sitasi lianna * {{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html |title=CIA — The World Factbook |work=cia.gov |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |date=2011-05-26 |accessdate=2011-06-22 |ref={{harvid|CIA—The World Factbook}} |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110623034614/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html |archivedate=23 June 2011 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228202246/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html |date=2010-12-28 }} == Bacaan leuwih lajengna == {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite book |last=Osmani |first=Siddiqur R. |coauthors=Bajracharya, B.B.; Tenzing, S.; Wangyal, T. |title=Macroeconomics of Poverty Reduction: The Case Study of Bhutan |publisher=UNDP |year=2007 |edition=2 |location=Colombo |page=302 |url=http://www.bt.undp.org/assets/files/publication/Macroeco_cs_for_Bhutan.pdf |format=PDF |isbn=978-955-1416-00-3 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728143237/http://www.bt.undp.org/assets/files/publication/Macroeco_cs_for_Bhutan.pdf |date=2011-07-28 }} * {{cite book|last=Wangchhuk |first=Lily |title=Facts About Bhutan: The Land of the Thunder Dragon |publisher=Absolute Bhutan Books| year=2008 |location=Thimphu |isbn=99936-760-0-4}} * {{cite web |title=A Hidden and Mysterious Kingdom |work=Toplum Postasi |url=http://www.toplumpostasi.net/index.php/cat/9/col/85/art/1026/PageName/English |accessdate=2006-06-14 }} * {{cite news |title=A New Measure of Well-Being From a Happy Little Kingdom |work=The New York Times |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/04/science/04happ.html?ex=1129089600&en=de859301f49c121d&ei=5070&emc=eta1 |accessdate=2005-10-04 |first=Andrew C. |last=Revkin |date=2005-10-04 }} * {{cite web |title=Border tension pushes MEA allocation |work=The Tribune, Chandigarh |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020301/budget.htm |accessdate=2005-09-08 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20050722073624/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020301/budget.htm |archivedate=22 July 2005 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no }} * {{cite encyclopedia |title=Bhutan |publisher=MSN Encarta |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568123/Bhutan.html |accessdate=2005-09-08 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwQ2kjMZ |archivedate=2009-10-31 |deadurl=yes }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028031131/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568123/Bhutan.html |date=2009-10-28 }} * {{cite web |title=Bhutan-China Relations |work=Bhutan News Online |url=http://www.bhutannewsonline.com/bhutan_china.html |accessdate=2005-09-08 }} * {{cite web |title=BTI 2008 — Bhutan Country Report |work= |location=Gütersloh |publisher=Bertelsmann Stiftung |year=2007 |url=http://www.bertelsmann-transformation-index.de/index.php?id=1393&tt_news=&type=98&L=1 |accessdate=2008-12-11 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224045249/http://www.bertelsmann-transformation-index.de/index.php?id=1393&tt_news=&type=98&L=1 |date=2012-02-24 }}— [http://www.bertelsmann-transformation-index.de/fileadmin/pdf/Gutachten_BTI_2008/ASO/Bhutan.pdf PDF version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217110834/http://www.bertelsmann-transformation-index.de/fileadmin/pdf/Gutachten_BTI_2008/ASO/Bhutan.pdf |date=2008-12-17 }} * {{cite book |author=A.P. Agarwala |title=Sikkim and Bhutan |publisher=Nest and Wings |year=2003 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Xnw-2sU1KMoC |accessdate=2011-09-01 |isbn=81-7824-008-4 }} * {{cite book |last=Datta-Ray |first=Sunanda K. |authorlink=Sunanda K. Datta-Ray |title=Smash and Grab: The Annexation of Sikkim |publisher=Vikas |year=1984 |isbn=0-7069-2509-2 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RCMuAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=2011-09-01 }} * {{cite book|author=Foning, A.R. |title=Lepcha, My Vanishing Tribe |publisher=Sterling Publishers |year=1987 |isbn=81-207-0685-4}} * {{cite book|author=Rose, Leo |title=The Nepali Ethnic Community in the Northeast of the Subcontinent |publisher=University of California, Berkeley}} * {{cite book|author=Napoli, Lisa |title=Radio Shangri-La: What I Learned in Bhutan, the Happiest Kingdom on Earth |publisher=Crown |year=2011 |isbn=0-307-45302-2}} {{refend}} == Tumbu kaluar== {{Sister project links|voy=Bhutan}} * [http://www.bhutan.gov.bt/ Bhutan.gov.bt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051230224419/http://www.bhutan.gov.bt/ |date=2005-12-30 }} - Portal resmi Pamaréntah Butan * {{CIA World Factbook link|bt|Bhutan}} * [http://www.library.gov.bt/misc/bhutan-links.html Bhutan Links] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410084644/http://www.library.gov.bt/misc/bhutan-links.html |date=2009-04-10 }} di [[Perpustakaan Nasional Butan]]. * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12480707 Bhutan profile], [[BBC News]]. * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/bhutan.htm Bhutan] ti ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''. * [http://www.bhutanrebirth.com/ Bhutan portal] di [[Bhutan Telecom]]. * [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/64215/Bhutan Bhutan], éntri ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. * {{Dmoz|Regional/Asia/Bhutan|Butan}} * {{Wikiatlas|Bhutan|Butan}} * [http://www.tourism.gov.bt/ Déwan Pariwisata Butan] {{Bhutan topics}} {{Countries and Territories of South Asia}} {{Countries of Asia}} {{South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation}} {{Monarchies}} [[Kategori:Butan| ]] [[Kategori:Monarki konstitusional]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu dilingkung]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]] [[Kategori:Anggota Asosiasi Asia Kidul pikeun Sabilulungan Wewengkon]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Asia Kidul]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu ngadeg taun 1949]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] gyosfdgyoanrtxd39m1e4xmn9bda378 0 38236 680105 678081 2025-06-28T13:12:48Z Egilus 29010 /* Panarimaan */ Intenational --> International 680105 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} :''Pikeun novélna, tingali [[Pintu Terlarang (novél)]]'' {{Infobox Film | name = Pintu Terlarang | image = | image_size = | caption = | director = [[Joko Anwar]] | producer = [[Sheila Timothy]] | eproducer = | aproducer = | writer = [[Joko Anwar]] | starring = [[Fachri Albar]]<br />[[Marsha Timothy]]<br />[[Ario Bayu]]<br />[[Otto Djauhari]]<br />[[Tio Pakusadewo]]<br />[[Henidar Amroe]] | music = Aghi Narottama<br />Bemby Gusti<br />Ramondo Gascaro | cinematography = Ipung Rahmat Syaiful | editing = Wawan I Wibowo | distributor = Lifelike Pictures | release_date = 22 Januari [[2009]] | runtime = 115 menit | country = [[Indonésia]] | awards = | movie_language = [[Basa Indonésia]] | budget = | gross = | preceded_by = | followed_by = | website = http://www.pintuterlarang.com | amg_id = | imdb_id = 1288645 }} {{Penghargaan film |award1=[[Festival Film Indonésia 2009]] |ket-award1= * '''Tata Sinematografi Terbaik''' : [[Ipung Rachmat Syaiful]] * '''Penyuntingan Terbaik''' :[[Wawan I. Wibowo]] }} {{DISPLAYTITLE:''Pintu Terlarang''}} '''''Pintu Terlarang''''' (''Forbidden Door'') nyaéta hiji [[pilem horor]]/[[carita geter]] [[Indonésia]] nu dirilis dina taun [[2009]]. Pilem ieu dieusian di antarana ku [[Fachri Albar]], [[Marsha Timothy]], [[Ario Bayu]], [[Otto Djauhari]], [[Tio Pakusadewo]], jeung [[Henidar Amroe]]. Carita pilem ieu diadaptasi ti novél kalawan judul ''Pintu Terlarang'', beunang [[Sekar Ayu Asmara]]. == Pamaén == * [[Fachri Albar]] minangka Gambir * [[Marsha Timothy]] minangka Talyda/Ranti * [[Ario Bayu]] minangka Dandung * [[Otto Djauhari]] minangka Rio * [[Tio Pakusadewo]] minangka Koh Jimmy * [[Henidar Amroe]] minangka Menik Sasongko * [[Atiqah Hasiholan]] minangka Resepsionis == Panarimaan == * Pintu Terlarang mibanda panghargaan '''Best of Puchon''' di [[Puchon International Fantastic Film Pestival]] nu digelar di [[Korea Kidul]] dina 16-26 Juli 2009<ref>[http://movie.detikhot.com/read/2009/07/24/172420/1171074/229/pintu-terlarang-jawara-di-korea-selatan 'Pintu Terlarang' Jawara di Korea Selatan]{{Dead link|date=March 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} - movie.detikhot.com</ref>. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.21cineplex.com/pintu-terlarang,movie,2006.htm Ulasan di Cineplex] * [http://blog.pintuterlarang.com/ Situs resmi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120430063847/http://blog.pintuterlarang.com/ |date=2012-04-30 }} * [http://www.blog.pintuterlarang.com Blog resmi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120430063847/http://blog.pintuterlarang.com/ |date=2012-04-30 }} * [http://www.herosase.com herosase.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220183355/http://www.herosase.com/ |date=2014-12-20 }} * [http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/film/2009/01/06/brk,20090106-153944,id.html Menguak Pintu di Dalam Jiwa], resensi Tempo * [http://celebrity.okezone.com/index.php/ReadStory/2009/01/29/35/187543/pintu-terlarang-pematung-menjelma-pencabut-nyawa Pintu Terlarang, Pematung Menjelma Pencabut Nyawa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090131194537/http://celebrity.okezone.com/index.php/ReadStory/2009/01/29/35/187543/pintu-terlarang-pematung-menjelma-pencabut-nyawa |date=2009-01-31 }}, resensi okezone.com * [http://www.thebestmoviereview.com/movie/asian-movies/2009/25653/pintu-terlarang "Pintu Terlarang"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305000832/http://www.thebestmoviereview.com/movie/asian-movies/2009/25653/pintu-terlarang |date=2016-03-05 }} at TheBestMovieReview.com [[Kategori:Pilem Indonesia taun 2009]] {{film-indo-stub}} gz8hp4wps3g6yepg8xsrmurh0d71jq2 0 102028 680107 679850 2025-06-28T15:42:36Z Poco a poco 3323 Gambar 680107 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Hagia sophia museum.jpg|jmpl|397x397px|Aya Sopia]] [[Gambar:Santa Sofía, Estambul, Turquía, 2024-09-30, DD 07-09 HDR.jpg|jmpl]] '''Aya Sopia''' atawa ''Hagia Sofia''  nyaéta [[musium]] anu panggedéna jeung pangalusna sadunya, ayana di Istanbul [[Turki]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Kamus Basa Sunda|last=Danadibrata|first=R.A|publisher=PT Kiblat|year=2006|isbn=979-3631-93-7|location=Bandung|pages=41}}</ref>. [[Panalungtikan|Panalungtik]] [[sajarah]] nyebutkeun yén Aya Sopia mangrupa ''Keajaiban Dunia Kedelapan,'' lantaran kawéntar ku ciri has [[seni]] jeung [[Arsitéktur|arsitékturna]]. [[UNESCO]] ngajenengkeun Aya Sopia jadi situs ''warisan dunia.'' Taun 1453 Aya Sopia jadi saksi [[sajarah]] transisi kakawasaan di Istanbul (baheula Konstantinopel) ti sistim [[Katolik|Katolik Ortodoks]] ka sistim pamaréntahan [[Islam]]. Sanggeus ngadeg 500 taun, di taun 1934 Aya Sopia robah deui fungsina jadi [[musium]]. 11 Juli 2020, Aya Sopia robah deui fungsina jadi [[Masjid|masigit]], diistrénan ku Présidén Erdogan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tirto.id/sejarah-hagia-sophia-museum-yang-dijadikan-masjid-oleh-erdogan-fQVy|title=Sejarah Hagia Sophia, Museum yang Dijadikan Masjid oleh Erdogan|website=tirto.id|language=id|accessdate=2021-04-06}}</ref>. == Sajarah == Baheula fungsi Aya Sopia nyaéta tempat ibadahna urang [[Kristen]] Ortodoks. Ieu tempat, mimiti diwangun taun 360 M, nalika Kaisar Bizantium Constantius jadi pamingpin di Konstantinopel (ayeuna Istanbul)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://dunia.tempo.co/read/1364070/sejarah-hagia-sophia-dari-gereja-masjid-hingga-museum|title=Sejarah Hagia Sophia: Dari Gereja, Masjid, hingga Museum|last=Saputra|first=Eka Yudha|website=Tempo|language=en|accessdate=2021-04-06}}</ref>. Di taun 395-408 aya konflik pulitik di kulawarga Kaisar Arkadios. Akibatna, di taun 404 M struktur wangunan Arya Sopia ancur diduruk<ref name=":0" />. Taun 415 M, Aya Sopia diwangun deui ku Kaisar Arkadios. Di taun 527-565 Aya Sopia diruntuhkeun deui lantaran [[Patelak|konflik]] [[Pulitik|pulitik.]] Di taun 537 Aya Sopia réngsé diwangun. 27 Desember taun 537 M, Aya Sopia mimiti dipaké pikeun tempat ibadah ibadah<ref name=":0" />. ===== ''Kekaisaran Bizantium'' ===== Udagan awal diwangunna Aya Sopia pikeun jadi [[Simbolik|simbol]] ''Kekaisaran Bizantium.'' Di taun 360 M, éta wangunan téh dimekarkeun jadi [[garéja]] (tempat ibadah) pikeun masarakat [[Katolik]] Ortodoks. Di taun 1344 daérah Konstantinopel (ayeuna [[Turki]]) kamusibahan [[Lini|''gempa bumi'']], anu ngalantarankeun wangunan Aya Sopia ancur. Akibatna Aya Sopia ditutup heula pikeun tempat ibadah<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://travel.tempo.co/read/1371669/4-era-penting-dalam-1500-tahun-sejarah-hagia-sophia|title=4 Era Penting dalam 1500 Tahun Sejarah Hagia Sophia|last=Kustiani|first=Rini|website=Tempo|language=en|accessdate=2021-04-06}}</ref>. ===== ''Kesultanan Ottoman'' ===== Di taun 1453 aya kajadian Perang Salib, antara ''Bizantium'' jeung ''Ottoman.'' Hasil ahirna, ''Kesultanan Ottoman'' mampuh ngéléhkeun ''Kekaisaran Bizantium. Kesultanan Ottoman'' dipingpin ku Sultan Mehmed II. Hal ieu ngalantarankeun sistim pamaréntahan ngilu robah, ti sistim Ortodoks ka sisitim pamaréntahan [[Islam]]. Aya Sopia anu jadi [[Simbolik|simbol]] tempat ibadah urang Kristen, robah fungsi jadi [[masigit]]. Ornamén-ormén di Aya Sopia dipinuhan ku [[kaligrafi]] karya seniman Kazasker Mustafa Izzet<ref name=":3" />. ===== Kapamingpinan Kemal Ataturk ===== ''Kekaisaran Ottoman'' di Konstantinopel ancur. Sistim pamaréntahana ngilu robah, jadi Nagara Républik. Ngaran nagara ogé ngilu robah, anu asalna Konstantinopel, jadi [[Turki|Turki.]] Pamingpin munggaran nagara [[Turki]] nyaéta Kemal Ataturk. Fungsi Aya Sopia anu tadina [[masigit]], robah jadi [[musium]]. Ornamén jeung karya seni antara dua agama [[Islam|(Islam]] jeung [[Kristen]]) jadi ciri has wangunan Aya Sopia. Lantaran miboga kasang tukang [[sajarah]] anu penting, sarta kawéntar ku karya senina, di taun 1985, Aya Sopia dilélér kalungguhan salaku ''warisan dunia'' ku UNESCO<ref name=":3" />''.'' ===== Kapamingpinan Erdogan ===== Di taun 2020, Aya Sopia robah deui fungsina jadi [[masigit]] nalika Erdogan mingpin [[Turki]]. Masarakat [[Islam]] di [[Turki]], bisa ngalaksanakeun kagiatan ibadah di Aya Sopia<ref name=":3" />. == Ornamén == Aya Sopia mimiti diwangun udaganana pikeun tempat ibadah [[Garéja|(garéja]])<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://jateng.idntimes.com/travel/destination/bandot-arywono/7-fakta-museum-hagia-sophia-c1c2-regional-jateng|title=7 Fakta Keindahan Hagia Sophia yang Kembali Disahkan Menjadi Masjid|last=Times|first=I. D. N.|last2=Arywono|first2=Bandot|website=IDN Times|language=id|accessdate=2021-04-06}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308135351/https://jateng.idntimes.com/travel/destination/bandot-arywono/7-fakta-museum-hagia-sophia-c1c2-regional-jateng |date=2021-03-08 }}</ref>. Kaisar Justinian I, maréntahkeun dua [[Arsitéktur|arsiték]] anu kawéntar pikeun ngararancang ''[[Desain percobaan|desain]]'' Aya Sopia sangkan jadi wangunan anu miboga ciri has ''kekaisaran Bizantium'' anu éndah. Dua arsiték éta téh nyaéta Isidorus Miletus (ahli [[fisika]] jeung [[Matematika|matématika]]) jeung Anthemius of Tralles (ahli [[Matematika|matématika]] jeung [[Geometri simpangan baku|géométri]])<ref name=":2" />. Aya Sopia diwangun  ku cara ngagabungkeun  téhnik tradisional ''basilika'' Ortodoks<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://kumparan.com/kumparantravel/menilik-gereja-dan-masjid-dalam-rangkulan-hagia-sophia-turki-1tU1pyhuyaa|title=Menilik Gereja dan Masjid dalam Rangkulan Hagia Sophia, Turki|website=kumparan|language=id-ID|accessdate=2021-04-06}}</ref>. Ciri hasna miboga kubah anu gedé. Sakabéh [[propinsi]] anu aya di Konstantinopel kudu ngirimkeun karya [[arsitéktur]] panghadéna keur ngawangun Aya Sopia. Bahan baku pikeun nyieun lalangit dikirim ti [[Suriah]] jeung Anatolia (ayeuna Turki Timur). Batu bata dikirim ti nagara [[Afrika Kidul|Afrika]]<ref name=":1" />. == Daftar Référénsi == <references /> [[Kategori:Islam]] [[Kategori:Sajarah]] [[Kategori:Pariwisata]] 1wz1tg8z5ez498crk0b7noj35b1uvvn 0 102357 680112 665567 2025-06-29T04:49:15Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 680112 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|cs1-dates=ly|date=June 2020}} {{Automatic taxobox | image = Cyathea Capenis - TreeFern - Cape Town.JPG | image_caption = ''[[Alsophila capensis]]'' | taxon = Alsophila (plant) | authority = [[Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)|R.Br.]]<ref name=PPGI/> }} [[Image:Silver Fern Koru2.JPG|thumb|upright|Pucukna anu muringkel kénéh ''[[Alsophila dealbata]]'']] '''''Paku tihang beureum ''''' ; ''Alsophila'' nyaéta hiji tutuwuhan paku anu asalna tina kulawarga [[Cyatheaceae]].<ref name=PPGI/> Éta ogé parantos dianggap bagéan tina genus ''Cyathea''. '' Alsophila '' ayeuna dipisahkeun sareng genera anu sanés dina kulawarga ''Cyatheaceae'' utamina dumasar kana [[Molékuler filogénetik | filogénetik molekular]].<ref name=PPGI/><ref name=“Heyne”>{{Cite book | title =DE NUTTIGE PLANTEN VAN NEDERLANDSCH-INDIË| first =K.| last =Heyne| publisher =RUYGROK & Co BATAVIA| location =Library New York Botanical Garden| year =1913| pages =151|url=https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten01heyn/page/26/mode/2up?view=theater|accessdate=(disungsi) 10 Mei 2021}}</ref> ==Ciri mandiri == Spésiés '' Alsophila '' tangkalna ajeg ka luhur tur henteu mibanda dahan, ilaharna mingkin ka luhur tangkalna mingkin ngaleutikan. Palapah daunna baradag, kitu deui gagangna .<ref name=FoC_10240/> Anu ngabédakeun ''Alsophila'' jeung ''Sphaeropteris'' tayalian ukuran gagangna, sareng rambut ''apikal'' atanapi tulang tonggong (''seta''), teu sapertos ''Cyathea''. Hiasan spora ogé ngabédakeun '' Alsophila '' sareng '' Cyathea ''.<ref name=WeigLehn16/><ref name=KoraConaMetzSchn07/> ==Taksonomi== Genus ''Alsophila'' mimiti diguar ku [[Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)|Robert Brown]] taun 1810.<ref name=IPNI_328001-2/> Éta ditempatkeun dina kulawarga ''[[Cyatheaceae]]''.<ref name=PPGI/> Babagian kulawarga turta ''genera'' ieu parantos ngagaduhan sajarah anu panjang sareng parobahan/''kontroversial''.<ref name=KoraConaMetzSchn07/> Tilu atanapi opat ''[[clade]]'' diusulkeun dumasar kana [[Molékul filogénetik | filogénetik molekular]]. ''Klasifikasi'' [[Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group]] klasifikasi 2016 (PPG I) nampi tilu genera, nempatkeun '' Gymnosphaera '' clade dina '' Alsophila ''.<ref name=PPGI/> Dina taun 2018, Dong jeung Zuo ngusulkeun hubungan anu dipidangkeun dina cladogram di handap, sareng nyayogikeun nami-nami dina '' Gymnosphaera '' pikeun spésiés anu dianggapna kagolong kana genus ieu.<ref name=DongZuo18/> {{clade |label1=[[Cyatheaceae]] |1={{clade |1=''[[Sphaeropteris]]'' |2={{clade |1=''[[Cyathea]]'' |label2 = ''Alsophila'' sensu lato |2={{clade |1=''Alsophila'' sensu stricto |2=''Gymnosphaera'' }} }} }} }} Sumber anu langkung lami, sapertos ngadaptar Organisasi New Zealand {{As of|lc=yes|2000|October}} taun (2004), nempatkeun '' Alsophila '' dina jero anu ditetepkeun sacara umum '' Cyathea ''.<ref name=NZOR/><ref name=LargBrag04/> ===Spésiés=== Golongan. [[Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group]] classification of 2016 (PPG I) bagéan tina genus ''Alsophila'' kalawan mibanda 275 spésiés.<ref name=PPGI/> {{As of|2019|August}}, ''Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World'' nempatkeun spésiés :<ref name=CFLWg/> {{div col|colwidth=25em}} *''[[Alsophila abbottii]]'' ([[Synonym (taxonomy)|syn.]] ''Cyathea abbottii'') *''[[Alsophila acanthophora]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea acanthophora'') *''[[Alsophila acaulis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea hancockii'') *''[[Alsophila acrostichoides]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea acrostichoides'') *''[[Alsophila acuminata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea acuminata'') *''[[Alsophila acutula]]'' *''[[Alsophila albida]]'' *''[[Alsophila alderwereltii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea alderwereltii'') *''[[Alsophila alleniae]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea alleniae'') *''[[Alsophila alpina]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea alpicola'') *''[[Alsophila alta]]'' *''[[Alsophila alternans]]'' *''[[Alsophila alticola]]'' *''[[Alsophila amboinensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea amboinensis'') *''[[Alsophila andersonii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea andersonii'') *''[[Alsophila andohahelensis]]'' *''[[Alsophila aneitensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea aneitensis'') *''[[Alsophila angiensis]]'' *''[[Alsophila annae]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea annae'') *''[[Alsophila apiculata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea apiculata'') *''[[Alsophila apoensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea apoensis'') *''[[Alsophila appendiculata]]'' *''[[Alsophila approximata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea approximata'') *''[[Alsophila archboldii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea archboldii'') *''[[Alsophila atropurpurea]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea atropurpurea'') *''[[Alsophila auneae]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea pubescens'') *''[[Alsophila auriculata]]'' *''[[Alsophila australis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea australis'') *''[[Alsophila austroyunnanensis]]'' *''[[Alsophila baileyana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea baileyana'') *''[[Alsophila balanocarpa]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea balanocarpa'') *''[[Alsophila basirotundata]]'' *''[[Alsophila batjanensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea batjanensis'') *''[[Alsophila bellisquamata]]'' *''[[Alsophila biformis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea biformis'') *''[[Alsophila binayana]]'' *''[[Alsophila bisquamata]]'' *''[[Alsophila boiviniiformis]]'' *''[[Alsophila borbonica]]'' *''[[Alsophila borneensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea borneensis'') *[[Alsophila × boytelii|''Alsophila'' × ''boytelii'']] *''[[Alsophila brausei]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea hunsteiniana'') *''[[Alsophila brevipinna]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea brevipinna'') *''[[Alsophila brooksii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea brooksii'') *''[[Alsophila bryophila]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea bryophila'') *''[[Alsophila buennemeijeri]]'' *''[[Alsophila bullata]]'' *''[[Alsophila callosa]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea callosa'') *''[[Alsophila camerooniana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea camerooniana'') *''[[Alsophila capensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea capensis'') *''[[Alsophila catillifera]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea catillifera'') *''[[Alsophila caudata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea caudata'') *''[[Alsophila celebica]]'' *''[[Alsophila celsa]]'' *''[[Alsophila cincinnata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea cincinnata'') *''[[Alsophila cinerea]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea cinerea'') *''[[Alsophila coactilis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea coactilis'') *''[[Alsophila colensoi]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea colensoi'') *''[[Alsophila commutata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea recommutata'') *''[[Alsophila conantiana]]'' *''[[Alsophila conferta]]'' *''[[Alsophila confinis]]'' *''[[Alsophila costalisora]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea costalisora'') *''[[Alsophila coursii]]'' *''[[Alsophila crenulata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea raciborskii'') *''[[Alsophila crinita]]'' *''[[Alsophila cubensis]]'' *''[[Alsophila cucullifera]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea cucullifera'') *''[[Alsophila cunninghamii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea cunninghamii'') *''[[Alsophila cuspidata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea cuspidata'') *''[[Alsophila dealbata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea dealbata'', silver fern) *''[[Alsophila deckenii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea deckenii'') *''[[Alsophila decrescens]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea decrescens'') *''[[Alsophila dicksonioides]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea dicksonioides'') *''[[Alsophila dilatata]]'' *''[[Alsophila dimorpha]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea dimorpha'') *''[[Alsophila doctersii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea doctersii'') *''[[Alsophila dregei]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea dregei'') *''[[Alsophila dryopteroides]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea dryopteroides'') *''[[Alsophila edanoi]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea edanoi'') *''[[Alsophila elata]]'' *''[[Alsophila emilei]]'' *''[[Alsophila engelii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea elongata'') *''[[Alsophila erinacea]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea erinacea'') *''[[Alsophila eriophora]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea eriophora'') *''[[Alsophila esmeraldensis]]'' *''[[Alsophila everta]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea everta'') *''[[Alsophila excavata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea excavata'') *[[Alsophila × fagildei|''Alsophila'' × ''fagildei'']] *''[[Alsophila fenicis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea fenicis'') *''[[Alsophila ferdinandii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea macarthurii'') *''[[Alsophila ferruginea]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea ferruginea'') *''[[Alsophila firma]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea mexicana'') *''[[Alsophila foersteri]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea foersteri'') *''[[Alsophila fulgens]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea fulgens'') *''[[Alsophila fuliginosa]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea fuliginosa'') *''[[Alsophila gastonyi]]'' *''[[Alsophila geluensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea geluensis'') *''[[Alsophila gigantea]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea gigantea'') *''[[Alsophila glaberrima]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea glaberrima'') *''[[Alsophila glabra]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea glabra'') *''[[Alsophila glaucifolia]]'' *''[[Alsophila gleichenioides]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea gleichenioides'') *''[[Alsophila grangaudiana]]'' *''[[Alsophila gregaria]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea gregaria'') *''[[Alsophila grevilleana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea grevilleana'') *''[[Alsophila halconensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea halconensis'') *''[[Alsophila havilandii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea havilandii'') *''[[Alsophila hebes]]'' *''[[Alsophila henryi]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea henryi'') *''[[Alsophila hermannii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea christii'') *''[[Alsophila heterochlamydea]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea heterochlamydea'') *''[[Alsophila hooglandii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea hooglandii'') *''[[Alsophila hookeri]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea hookeri'') *''[[Alsophila hornei]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea hornei'') *''[[Alsophila horridula]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea horridula'') *''[[Alsophila hotteana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea hotteana'') *''[[Alsophila humbertiana]]'' *''[[Alsophila humilis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea humilis'') *''[[Alsophila hyacinthei]]'' *''[[Alsophila hymenodes]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea hymenodes'') *''[[Alsophila imbricata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea imbricata'') *''[[Alsophila impolita]]'' *''[[Alsophila imrayana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea imrayana'') *''[[Alsophila incana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea incana'') *''[[Alsophila incisoserrata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea incisoserrata'') *''[[Alsophila inquinans]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea inquinans'') *''[[Alsophila insulana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea insulana'') *''[[Alsophila isaloensis]]'' *''[[Alsophila javanica]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea javanica'') *''[[Alsophila jimeneziana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea crassa'') *''[[Alsophila junghuhniana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea junghuhniana'') *''[[Alsophila katoi]]'' *''[[Alsophila kermadecensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea kermadecensis'') *''[[Alsophila khasyana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea khasyana'') *''[[Alsophila kirkii]]'' *''[[Alsophila klossii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea klossii'') *''[[Alsophila lamoureuxii]]'' *''[[Alsophila lastii]]'' *''[[Alsophila latebrosa]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea latebrosa'') *''[[Alsophila latipinnula]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea latipinnula'') *''[[Alsophila leichhardtiana]]'' *''[[Alsophila lepidoclada]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea lepidoclada'') *''[[Alsophila lepifera]]'' *''[[Alsophila leptochlamys]]'' *''[[Alsophila ligulata]]'' *''[[Alsophila lilianiae]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea kanéhirae'') *''[[Alsophila lisyae]]'' *''[[Alsophila loerzingii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea loerzingii'') *''[[Alsophila loheri]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea loheri'') *''[[Alsophila longipes]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea longipes'') *''[[Alsophila longipinnata]]'' *''[[Alsophila longispina]]'' *''[[Alsophila lurida]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea lurida'') *''[[Alsophila macgillivrayi]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea macgillivrayi'') *''[[Alsophila macgregorii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea macgregorii'') *''[[Alsophila macropoda]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea macropoda'') *''[[Alsophila magnifolia]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea magnifolia'') *''[[Alsophila major]]'' *''[[Alsophila manniana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea manniana'') *''[[Alsophila mapahuwensis]]'' *''[[Alsophila marattioides]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea marattioides'') *[[Alsophila × marcescens|''Alsophila'' × ''marcescens'']] (syn. ''Cyathea'' × ''marcescens'') *''[[Alsophila masapilidensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea masapilidensis'') *''[[Alsophila matitanensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea madagascarica'') *''[[Alsophila media]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea media'') *''[[Alsophila medinae]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea'' × ''medinae'') *''[[Alsophila melleri]]'' *''[[Alsophila meridionalis]]'' *''[[Alsophila mesosora]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea mesosora'') *''[[Alsophila metteniana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea metteniana'') *''[[Alsophila microchlamys]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea microchlamys'') *''[[Alsophila microphylloides]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea microphylloides'') *''[[Alsophila mildbraedii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea mildbraedii'') *''[[Alsophila milnei]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea milnei'') *''[[Alsophila minervae]]'' *''[[Alsophila minor]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea minor'') *''[[Alsophila modesta]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea modesta'') *''[[Alsophila montana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea costulisora'') *''[[Alsophila mossambicensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea mossambicensis'') *''[[Alsophila mostellaria]]'' *''[[Alsophila muelleri]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea muelleri'') *''[[Alsophila murkelensis]]'' *''[[Alsophila negrosiana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea negrosiana'') *''[[Alsophila nicklesii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea nicklesii'') *''[[Alsophila nigrolineata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea nigrolineata'') *''[[Alsophila nigropaleata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea nigropaleata'') *''[[Alsophila nilgirensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea nilgirensis'') *''[[Alsophila nockii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea nockii'') *''[[Alsophila obtecta]]'' *''[[Alsophila obtusiloba]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea obtusiloba'') *''[[Alsophila odonelliana]]'' *''[[Alsophila ogurae]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea ogurae'') *''[[Alsophila ohaensis]]'' *''[[Alsophila oinops]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea oinops'') *''[[Alsophila oosora]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea oosora'') *''[[Alsophila orientalis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea orientalis'') *''[[Alsophila orthogonalis]]'' *''[[Alsophila pachyrrhachis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea pachyrrhachis'') *''[[Alsophila pacifica]]'' *''[[Alsophila pallidipaleata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea pallidipaleata'') *''[[Alsophila patellifera]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea patellifera'') *''[[Alsophila percrassa]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea percrassa'') *''[[Alsophila perpelvigera]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea perpelvigera'') *''[[Alsophila perpunctulata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea perpunctulata'') *''[[Alsophila perrieriana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea perrieriana'') *''[[Alsophila phlebodes]]'' *''[[Alsophila physolepidota]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea physolepidota'') *''[[Alsophila pilosula]]'' *''[[Alsophila plagiostegia]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea plagiostegia'') *''[[Alsophila podophylla]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea podophylla'') *''[[Alsophila polycarpa]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea polycarpa'') *''[[Alsophila polystichoides]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea polystichoides'') *''[[Alsophila poolii]]'' *''[[Alsophila portoricensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea portoricensis'') *''[[Alsophila pruinosa]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea pruinosa'') *''[[Alsophila pseudobellisquamara]]'' *''[[Alsophila pseudomuelleri]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea pseudomuelleri'') *''[[Alsophila punctulata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea punctulata'') *''[[Alsophila pycnoneura]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea pycnoneura'') *''[[Alsophila quadrata]]'' *''[[Alsophila ramispina]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea ramispina'') *''[[Alsophila ramispinoides]]'' *''[[Alsophila rebeccae]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea rebeccae'') *''[[Alsophila recurvata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea recurvata'') *''[[Alsophila rigens]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea rigens'') *''[[Alsophila rolandii]]'' *''[[Alsophila roroka]]'' *''[[Alsophila rosenstockii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea ascendens'') *''[[Alsophila rouhaniana]]'' *''[[Alsophila rubella]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea rubella'') *''[[Alsophila rubiginosa]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea rubiginosa'') *''[[Alsophila rufopannosa]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea rufopannosa'') *''[[Alsophila rupestris]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea rupestris'') *''[[Alsophila saccata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea saccata'') *''[[Alsophila salletii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea salletii'') *''[[Alsophila salvinii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea salvinii'') *''[[Alsophila scandens]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea scandens'') *''[[Alsophila schlechteri]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea schlechteri'') *''[[Alsophila schliebenii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea fadenii'') *''[[Alsophila sechellarum]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea sechellarum'') *''[[Alsophila semiamplectens]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea semiamplectens'') *''[[Alsophila serratifolia]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea serratifolia'') *''[[Alsophila setosa]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea setosa'') *''[[Alsophila setulosa]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea setulosa'') *''[[Alsophila similis]]'' *''[[Alsophila simulans]]'' *''[[Alsophila sinuata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea sinuata'') *''[[Alsophila smithii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea smithii'') *''[[Alsophila societarum]]'' *''[[Alsophila solomonensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea solomonensis'') *''[[Alsophila spinulosa]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea spinulosa'') *''[[Alsophila stelligera]]'' *''[[Alsophila sternbergii]]'' *''[[Alsophila subdubia]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea subdubia'') *''[[Alsophila subtripinnata]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea subtripinnata'') *''[[Alsophila sumatrana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea sumatrana'') *''[[Alsophila tanzaniana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea schliebenii'') *''[[Alsophila tenuis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea tenuicaulis'') *''[[Alsophila ternatea]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea ternatea'') *''[[Alsophila thomsonii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea thomsonii'') *''[[Alsophila tryoniana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea tryoniana'') *''[[Alsophila tsaratananensis]]'' *''[[Alsophila tsilotsilensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea tsilotsilensis'') *''[[Alsophila tussacii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea tussacii'') *''[[Alsophila tuyamae]]'' *''[[Alsophila urbanii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea urbanii'') *''[[Alsophila valdesquamata]]'' *''[[Alsophila vandeusenii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea vandeusenii'') *''[[Alsophila veitchii]]'' *''[[Alsophila vieillardii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea vieillardii'') *''[[Alsophila viguieri]]'' *''[[Alsophila walkerae]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea walkerae'') *''[[Alsophila weidenbrueckii]]'' *''[[Alsophila welwitschii]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea welwitschii'') *''[[Alsophila wengiensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea wengiensis'') *''[[Alsophila woodwardioides]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea woodwardioides'') *''[[Alsophila woollsiana]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea woollsiana'') *''[[Alsophila zakamenensis]]'' (syn. ''Cyathea zakamenensis'' {{div col end}} ==Sebaran sareng habitat== Genus ''Alsophila'' ieu, loba kapanggih hirup di wewengkon [[tropis]] aya ogé di [[subtropis]], ti Amérika Kalér sareng Kidul, ngaliwatan Afrika, Madagaskar sareng tropis Asia, ka wétan [[Australasia]] dugi ka kidul dugi ka subantarctic kapuloan [[ Auckland]].<ref name="POWO_328001-2">{{cite web |title=''Alsophila'' R.Br. |work=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|url=http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:328001-2 |access-date=2019-09-27 }}</ref><ref name=FoC_10240/> Éta aya di [[leuweung]] [[montane]] anu beueus, di [[lamping]] atanapi di jurang, janten bagian tina kanopi handap, tengah, ''understorey'' atanapi lapisan luhur taneuh.<ref name=FoC_10240/> ==Budidaya== ''Alsophila'' spésiés sadayana meryogikeun lingkungan tiris atanapi ampir teu aya dina ibun, beueus sacara permanén , kaayaan kaiuhan. Anu parantos dipelak di Éropa di luar habitat asalna kaasup ''[[Alsophila australis|A.&nbsp;australis]]'', ''[[Alsophila cunninghamii|A.&nbsp;cunninghamii]]'', ''[[Alsophila dealbata|A.&nbsp;dealbata]]'', ''[[Alsophila leichhardtiana|A.&nbsp;leichhardtiana]]'' and ''[[Alsophila rebeccae|A.&nbsp;rebeccae]]''.<ref name=WaltBradBricCull86/> Spésiés séjén dipelak di daérah asalna. Di Australia, ''[[Alsophila australis|A.&nbsp;australis]]'' ilahar dipelak sareng mangrupa spésiés anu kuat, kuat kapanasan salami aya dina taneuh anu beueus.<ref>{{Citation |title=''Cyathea australis'', ''Cyathea cooperi'' |website=Growing Native Plants |publisher=Centre for Australian National Biodiversity Research |url=https://www.anbg.gov.au/gnp/interns-2003/cyathea-spp.html |access-date=2019-09-27 }}</ref> ''[[Alsophila australis|A.&nbsp;dregei]]'' mangrupikeun pepelakan kebon anu kawentar di [[Afrika Kidul]], ieu tutuwuhan dikumpulkeun ti alam liar sahingga sering kajantenan ieu tutuwuhan tumpur di sababaraha daérah.<ref name=MasiNdulSkhoNott18>{{Citation |last1=Masinga |first1=Nonhlanhla |last2=Nduli |first2=Luckyboy |last3=Skhosana |first3=Mlondi |last4=Notten |first4=Alice |date=November 2018 |title=''Alsophila dregei '' |website=PlantZAfrica.com |url=http://pza.sanbi.org/alsophila-dregei |access-date=2019-09-27 |name-list-style=amp }}</ref> ==Kabudayaan== ''[[Alsophila dealbata]]'' Parantos janten hiji lambang anu dipiwanoh ku balaréa di [[New Zealand]], sanaos sanés lambang ''pejabat nasional''.<ref name=TeAra>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/government-and-nation/9 |title=Government and nation - National animal and flower |date=3 March 2009 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=2019-09-27 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226002909/https://teara.govt.nz/en/nation-and-government/page-9 |date=2018-12-26 }}</ref> Dina taun 1971 pilem komedi ''[[A New Leaf (film)|A New Leaf]]'', Henrietta Lowell (salaku [[Elaine May]]) tayalian ahli tutuwuhan anu impianana pikeun ngaguar sarta ngantétkeun pirang-pirang spésiés pakis anyar. Dina hiji mangsa, anjeunna memang mendakan spésiés énggal anu namina ''Alsophila grahami'' ieu dicokot tina ngaran salakina "Henry Graham" sarta ngaguar rupa-rupa ciri mandirina. ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|refs= <ref name=CFLWg>{{Citation |mode=cs1 |last1=Hassler |first1=Michael |last2=Schmitt |first2=Bernd |date=June 2019 |title=Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World |volume=8 |issue=2 |url=https://worldplants.webarchiv.kit.edu/ferns/ |access-date=2019-08-21 |name-list-style=amp }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902225743/http://worldplants.webarchiv.kit.edu/ferns/ |date=2017-09-02 }}</ref> <ref name=DongZuo18>{{Cite journal |last1=Dong |first1=Shi-Yong |last2=Zuo |first2=Zheng-Yu |date=2018 |title=On the Recognition of ''Gymnosphaera'' As a Distinct Genus in Cyatheaceae |journal=Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden |volume=103 |issue=1 |pages=1–23 |doi=10.3417/2017049 |s2cid=90852235 |name-list-style=amp }}</ref> <ref name=FoC_10240>{{cite book |first1=Xianchun |last1=Zhang |first2=Harufumi |last2=Nishida |contribution=Alsophila |contribution-url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=10240 |access-date=2019-09-27 |editor-last=Wu |editor-first=Zhengyi |editor2-last=Raven |editor2-first=Peter H. |editor3-last=Hong |editor3-first=Deyuan <!--|year=1994 onwards--> |title=Flora of China ''(online)'' |publisher=eFloras.org |url=http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2 |name-list-style=amp }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501095724/http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2 |date=2012-05-01 }}</ref> <ref name=IPNI_328001-2>{{cite web |title=''Alsophila'' R.Br. |work=[[International Plant Names Index|The International Plant Names Index]] |url=https://www.ipni.org/n/328001-2 |access-date=2019-09-27 }}</ref> <ref name=KoraConaMetzSchn07>{{Cite journal |last1=Korall |first1=Petra |last2=Conant |first2=David S. |last3=Metzgar |first3=Jordan S. |last4=Schneider |first4=Harald |last5=Pryer |first5=Kathleen M. |date=2007 |title=A molecular phylogeny of scaly tree ferns (Cyatheaceae) |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=94 |issue=5 |pages=873–886 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51186907 |access-date=2019-08-22 |doi=10.3732/ajb.94.5.873 |pmid=21636456 |name-list-style=amp }}</ref> <ref name=LargBrag04>{{Citation |mode=cs1 |last1=Large |first1=Mark F. |last2=Braggins |first2=John E. |date=2004 |title=Tree Ferns |publisher=Timber Press |isbn=978-0-88192-630-9 |name-list-style=amp |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/treeferns00mark }}</ref> <ref name=NZOR>{{Citation |date=October 2000 |title=Alsophila R.Br. |website=NZOR New Zealand Organisms Register |url=http://www.nzor.org.nz/names/7cbda6d1-6f23-4b98-a7e1-7ded0b90feb4 |access-date=2019-09-27 }}</ref> <ref name=PPGI>{{citation |mode=cs1|author=PPG I |year=2016 |title=A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=563–603 |doi=10.1111/jse.12229|s2cid=39980610 }}</ref> <ref name=WaltBradBricCull86>{{Citation |date=1986 |editor1-last=Walters |editor1-first=S.M. |editor2-last=Brady |editor2-first=A. |editor3-last=Brickell |editor3-first=C.D. |editor4-last=Cullen |editor4-first=J. |editor5-last=Green |editor5-first=P.S. |editor6-last=Lewis |editor6-first=J. |editor7-last=Matthews |editor7-first=V.A. |editor8-last=Webb |editor8-first=D.A. |editor9-last=Yeo |editor9-first=P.F. |editor10-last=Alexander |editor10-first=J.C.M. |contribution=Alsophila |title=European Garden Flora |volume=1 |page=35 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-76147-5 |name-list-style=amp }}</ref> <ref name=WeigLehn16>{{Citation |last1=Weigand |first1=Anna |last2=Lehnert |first2=Marcus |date=2016 |title=The scaly tree ferns (Cyatheaceae-Polypodiopsida) of Brazil |journal=Acta Botanica Brasilica |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=336–350 |doi=10.1590/0102-33062016abb0065 |name-list-style=amp |doi-access=free }}</ref> }} {{Taxonbar|from1=Q17198593|from2=Q2150610}} [[Kategori :Tutuwuhan tropis ]] [[Kategori :Tutuwuhan paku ]] [[Kategori : Cyatheaceae]] dss2hfczaqaieiv9gcd81ztk9l9bn98 0 103646 680109 675253 2025-06-28T23:25:40Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 680109 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Areuy leuksa, leuksa | status = | image = Nothocnide-repanda-ALA-1.jpg | image_caption = | domain = | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Tracheophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Rosales]] | familia = [[Urticaceae]] | genus = [[Nothocnide]] | species = '''Nothocnide repanda''' | binomial = Nothocnide repanda | binomial_authority = (BI.) [[Carl Ludwig Blume|Bl.]] | range_map = | range_map_caption = | image2 = | image2_caption = | synonyms = ''Urtica repanda'' <small>[[Carl Ludwig Blume|Bl.]]</small><br>''Pseudopipturus repandus'' <small>([[Carl Ludwig Blume|Bl.]]) [[Carl Skottsberg|Skottsb.]]</small><br>''Pipturus subalpinus'' <small>[[Adolph Daniel Edward Elmer|Elmer]]</small><br>''Pipturus repandus'' <small>([[Carl Ludwig Blume|Bl.]]) [[Hugh Algernon Weddell|Wedd.]]</small><br>''Perlarius repandus'' <small>([[Carl Ludwig Blume|Bl.]]) [[Carl Ernst Otto Kuntze|Kuntze]]</small><br>''Boehmeria trinervis'' <small>[[Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Miquel|Miq.]]</small><br>''Boehmeria repanda'' <small>[[Justus Carl Hasskarl|Hassk.]]</small> }} '''Areuy leuksa''' atawa '''leuksa''' ('''''Nothocnide repanda''''')<ref name = "C132"/> nyaéta hiji spésiés tutuwuhan ti suku ''[[Urticaceae]]''.<ref name = "COL"/><ref name = "source"/> Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.<ref name = "COL"/> ==Rujukan== <references> <ref name = "COL">{{cite web|url= http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2014/details/species/id/16805673|title= Species 2000 & ITIS [[Catalogue of Life]]: 2014 Annual Checklist.|author= Roskov Y., Kunze T., Orrell T., Abucay L., Paglinawan L., Culham A., Bailly N., Kirk P., Bourgoin T., Baillargeon G., Decock W., De Wever A., Didžiulis V. (ed)|year= 2014|publisher= Species 2000: Reading, UK.|accessdate= 26 May 2014}}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> <ref name = "C132">Bl., 1853 ''In: Mus. Bot. Lugd. Bat. 2: 137, in nota, t. 14 (1856) [1853]''</ref> <ref name = "source">[http://worldplants.webarchiv.kit.edu/ World Plants: Synonymic Checklists of the Vascular Plants of the World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318221109/http://worldplants.webarchiv.kit.edu/ |date=2019-03-18 }}</ref> </references> {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Nothocnide]] 37yydgtehfakjeuq4n4t7qrdqr40sqc 0 104048 680108 671697 2025-06-28T23:18:46Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 680108 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Analogi''' nyaéta sasaruaan atawa koréspondénsi antara dua objék atawa dua hal anu béda. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kbbi.web.id/analogi|title=Arti kata analogi - Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI) Online|website=kbbi.web.id|accessdate=2020-10-02}}</ref> Dina [[linguistik]], analogi mangrupa hasil kabentukna unsur-unsur basa alatan pangaruh pola-pola séjén dina basa. Salah sahiji conto nyaéta kabentukna konstruksi ''neonisasi'' alatan aya pola dina konstruksi ''mekanisasi''. <ref name="Harimurti Kridalaksana">{{Cite book|last=[[Harimurti Kridalaksana]]|first=|date=1982|url=https://books.google.co.id/books/about/Kamus_linguistik.html?id=5Q_xHAAACAAJ&redir_esc=y|title=Kamus Linguistik|location=Jakarta|publisher=Gramedia Pustaka Utama|isbn=|page=12|pages=|language=id}}</ref> Sajaba ti éta, analogi ogé ngawengku nalar anu asalna tina hiji hal nu tangtu kana hal séjén nu sarupa lajeng nyimpulkeun yén naon bener keur hiji hal ogé bakal bener keur hal séjén. Analogi henteu ngan ukur nunjukkeun kamiripan dua hal anu béda, tapi kacindekanana bakal ditarik dumasar kana kamiripan éta. Ku kituna analogi bisa dipaké salaku katerangan atawa salaku bagian tina nalar. <ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Offirstson|first=Topic|date=2014|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=US0mDAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA43&dq=analogi+adalah&hl=en|title=Aktivitas Pembelajaran Matematika Melalui Inkuiri Berbantuan Software Cinderella|location=Jakarta|publisher=Deepublish|isbn=978-602-280-255-6|pages=43|language=id}}{{Dead link|date=July 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Kacindekan tina hiji analogi bisa nepikeun atawa ngabandingkeun fakta nu tangtu jeung [[fakta]] husus séjénna. Ieu pamikiran biasa disebut pamikiran ngaliwatan persamaan atawa pamikiran ngaliwatan analogi, atawa disebut ogé analogi logis. Analogi sok disebut ogé analogi induktif, nyaéta prosés nalar tina hiji fénoména ka fénoména séjénna nu sarupa tuluy nyindekkeun yén naon nu lumangsung dina fénoména kahiji ogé bakal kajadian ka fénoména séjén, ku kituna paham kana analogi upama urang rék dirumuskeun ana kawatesanan. Jadi kacindekan analogi téh aya 3 unsur, nyaéta kajadian poko anu jadi dadasar tina analogi, persamaan utama anu jadi ngiket, jeung tilu fénoména anu rék dianalogikeun. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Waston|first=|date=2019|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ihYjEAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA148&dq=analogi+adalah&hl=id|title=Filsafat Ilmu dan Logika|location=Surakarta|publisher=Muhammadiyah University Press|isbn=978-602-361-236-9|pages=148|language=id}}</ref> == Ciri == Analogi mibanda ciri ieu di handap. * Ngabandingkeun dua hal anu sarua atawa sarua dina istilah atawa ciri umum. * Paragraf analogi ngandung dua hal, nyaéta hiji hal mangrupa pasemon jeung hiji hal séjén mangrupa kajadian anu saluyu jeung pasemon. * Ngagunakeun [[Kecap (basa Sunda)|kecap]] saperti, kawas, jiga jeung alusna mah. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ukulele.co.nz/analogi-adalah/|title=Analogi Adalah; Arti, Tujuan, Macam, Ciri, & Contoh Analogi|last=Wijaya|first=Putut|last2=|language=en-US|accessdate=2021-12-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202144620/https://www.ukulele.co.nz/analogi-adalah/ |date=2023-02-02 }}</ref> == Wanda == Analogi digolongkeun jadi dua wanda. * Analogi induktif nyaéta analogi anu dumasar kana persamaan prinsip pikeun dua fénoména anu béda, mangka dicindekkeun yén naon anu dikandung dina fénoména kahiji ogé aya dina fénoména kadua. <ref name=":0"/> Anu kudu diperhatikeun dina analogi induktif nyaéta persamaan anu ngandung ciri-ciri penting anu raket patalina jeung kacindekan anu ditepikeun. Jadi, kacindekan tina analogi induktif teu universal tapi husus. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Sihotang|first=Kasdin|date=2019|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5vr6DwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA168&dq=analogi+adalah&hl=id|title=Berpikir Kritis: Kecakapan Hidup di Era Digital|location=Sleman|publisher=PT Kanisius|isbn=978-979-21-6620-0|pages=168|language=id}}</ref> <syntaxhighlight lang="inform6"> Rumusan yang digunakan dalam induksi analogi adalah sebagai berikut. A mempunyai karakteristik X B mempunyai karakteristik X A mempunyai karakteristik Y Jadi B mempunyai karakteristik Y </syntaxhighlight> * Analogi déklaratif nyaéta métode pikeun ngajelaskeun hiji hal anu can kanyahoan atawa masih kénéh samar, ngagunakeun hal-hal anu geus dipikanyaho. Diajar ku cara mekarkeun penalaran analogis dipiharep bisa mantuan maham kana métode ngaliwatan babandingan jeung métode séjénna, nya éta ku cara néangan sasaruaan sipat antara métode anu dibandingkeun. <ref name=":0"/> * Hubungan kausal biasana disebut penalaran anu dicandak tina gejala anu aya hubunganana. Dina hubungan kausal aya hubungan kausal. Hubungan kausal dina hubungan kausal bisa nepi ka kacindekan nu aya dina wangun éfék atawa sabalikna. Biasana hubungan kausal lumangsung dina tilu pola. Hubungan ieu bentukna sabab akibat, akibat kana akibat, sareng akibat pikeun akibat. Pola anu biasa nyaéta sabab jadi akibat sareng akibat jadi sabab. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Jalinus|first=Nizwardi|last2=Ganefri|first2=Yunos|last3=Jailani|first3=Emeritus|last4=Alias|first4=Maizam|last5=Syahril|first5=Sukardi|last6=|date=2021-05-01|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MZYwEAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA18&dq=analogi+adalah&hl=id|title=RISET PENDIDIKAN DAN APLIKASINYA|location=Surakarta|publisher=UNP PRESS|isbn=978-602-1178-71-3|pages=19|language=id}}</ref> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Linguistik]] [[Kategori:Basa]] 7q2w3e9qzkfwg20dtg0ei8yv3pom280