Wikipedia suwiki https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepas MediaWiki 1.46.0-wmf.24 first-letter Média Husus Obrolan Pamaké Obrolan pamaké Wikipedia Obrolan Wikipedia Gambar Obrolan gambar MédiaWiki Obrolan MédiaWiki Citakan Obrolan citakan Pitulung Obrolan pitulung Kategori Obrolan kategori Portal Obrolan portal TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul Acara Pembicaraan Acara 0 4003 708607 678085 2026-04-26T16:00:38Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708607 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Solar_eclipse_1999_4.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Poto nalika [[Samagaha 11 Agustus 1999|samagaha taun 1999]]]] '''Samagaha''' atawa '''Gerhana Panonpoé''' téh kajadian katutupna cahya [[Panonpoé]] ka [[Marcapada]] alatan kahalangan [[Bulan]]. <!--This configuration can only occur during a [[New Moon]], when the Sun and Moon are in [[conjunction (astronomy)|conjunction]] as seen from the Earth. In ancient times, and in some cultures today, solar eclipses are attributed to mythical properties. Total solar eclipses can be frightening events for people unaware of their astronomical nature, as the Sun suddenly disappears in the middle of the day and the sky darkens in a matter of minutes. However, the spiritual attribution of solar eclipses is now largely disregarded. Total solar eclipses are very rare events for any given place on Earth because totality is only seen where the Moon's [[umbra]] touches the Earth's surface. A total solar eclipse is a spectacular [[natural phenomenon]] and many people consider travel to remote locations in order to observe one. The [[Solar eclipse of 1999 August 11|1999 total eclipse]] in [[Europe]], said by some to be the most-watched eclipse in human history, helped to increase public awareness of the phenomenon. This was illustrated by the number of people willing to make the trip to witness the [[Solar eclipse of 2005 October 3|2005 annular eclipse]] and the [[Solar eclipse of 2006 March 29|2006 total eclipse]]. The next total solar eclipse will occur on [[Solar eclipse of 2008 August 1|August 1, 2008]]. ==Types of solar eclipses== [[Image:RingfoermigeSonnenfinsternis.jpg|right|thumb|An annular eclipse.]] There are four types of solar eclipses: * A ''total eclipse'' occurs when the Sun is completely obscured by the Moon. The intensely bright disk of the Sun is replaced by the dark outline of the Moon, and the much fainter [[corona]] is visible (see image above). During any one eclipse, totality is visible only from at most a narrow track on the surface of the Earth. * An ''annular eclipse'' occurs when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line, but the apparent size of the Moon is smaller than that of the Sun. Hence the Sun appears as a very bright ring, or [[annulus]], surrounding the outline of the Moon. * A ''hybrid eclipse'' is intermediate between a total and annular eclipse. At some points on the surface of the Earth it is visible as a total eclipse, whereas at others it is annular. Hybrid eclipses are rather rare. * A ''partial eclipse'' occurs when the Sun and Moon are not exactly in line, and the Moon only partially obscures the Sun. This phenomenon can usually be seen from a large part of the Earth outside of the track of an annular or total eclipse. However, some eclipses can only be seen as a partial eclipse, because the umbra never intersects the Earth's surface. The Earth's distance from the Sun is about 400 times the Earth's distance from the Moon. The Sun's [[diameter]] is about 400 times the diameter of the Moon. Because these ratios are approximately the same, the sizes of the Sun and the Moon as seen from Earth appear to be approximately the same: about 0.5 [[degree of arc]] in angular measure. Because the Moon's orbit around the Earth is an [[ellipse]], the Moon's distance from the Earth varies, so the apparent sizes of the Sun and Moon likewise vary.<ref>[http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/time/eclipses.html Solar Eclipses], University of Tennessee</ref><ref>[http://www.eclipse.za.net/html/eclipse_types.html Types of Solar Eclipse], P. Tiedt</ref> The [[magnitude of an eclipse]] is the ratio of the apparent size of the Moon to the apparent size of the Sun during an eclipse. An eclipse when the Moon is near its closest distance from the Earth (i.e., near its [[perigee]]) will be a total eclipse because the Moon will appear to be large enough to cover completely the Sun's bright disk, or [[photosphere]]; a total eclipse has a magnitude greater than 1. Conversely, an eclipse when the Moon is near its farthest distance from the Earth (i.e., near its [[apogee]]), will be an annular eclipse because the Moon will appear to be slightly smaller than the Sun; the magnitude of an annular eclipse is less than 1. Slightly more solar eclipses are annular than total because, on average, the Moon lies too far away from Earth to cover the Sun completely. A hybrid eclipse occurs when the magnitude of an eclipse is very close to 1: the eclipse will appear to be total at some locations on Earth and annular at other locations.<ref>[http://www.mreclipse.com/Special/SEprimer.html Solar Eclipses for Beginners], O. Staiger</ref> The Earth's orbit around the Sun is also elliptical, so the Earth's distance from the Sun varies throughout the year. This also affects the apparent sizes of the Sun and Moon, but not so much as the Earth's varying distance from the Moon. When the Earth approaches its farthest distance from the Sun (the [[aphelion]]) in July, this tends to favor a total eclipse. As the Earth approaches its closest distance from the Sun (the [[perihelion]]) in January, this tends to favor an annular eclipse. ===Terminology=== ''Central eclipse'' is often used as a generic term for a total, annular or hybrid eclipse. This is, however, not completely correct: the definition of a central eclipse is an eclipse during which the central line of the umbra touches the Earth's surface. It is possible, though extremely rare, that part of the umbra intersects with Earth (thus creating an annular or total eclipse), but not its central line. This is then called a non-central total or annular eclipse.<ref>[http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEpath/SEpath.html Central Solar Eclipses], F. Espenak</ref> The term ''solar eclipse'' itself is technically a misnomer. The phenomenon of the Moon passing in front of the Sun is not an eclipse, but an [[occultation]]. Properly speaking, an eclipse occurs when one object passes into the shadow cast by another object. For example, when the Moon disappears at [[Full Moon]] by passing into Earth's shadow, the event is properly called a ''[[lunar eclipse]]''. Therefore, the proper, but rarely used, term for what is commonly called a ''solar eclipse'' is ''eclipse of the Earth''. ==Eclipse predictions== ===Geometry of an eclipse=== [[Image:Solar_eclipse.svg|thumb|250px|right|Diagram of solar eclipse (not to scale).]] The diagram to the right shows the alignment of the Sun, Moon and Earth during a solar eclipse. The dark gray region below the moon is the [[umbra]], where the Sun is completely obscured by the Moon. The small area where the umbra touches the Earth's surface is where a total eclipse can be seen. The larger light gray area is the [[penumbra]], in which only a partial eclipse can be seen. The Moon's orbit around the Earth is inclined at an angle of just over 5 degrees to the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun (the [[ecliptic]]). Because of this, at the time of a New Moon, the Moon will usually pass above or below the Sun. A solar eclipse can occur only when the New Moon occurs close to one of the points (known as [[Orbital node|node]]s) where the Moon's orbit crosses the ecliptic. As noted above, the Moon's orbit is also [[ellipse|elliptical]]. The Moon's distance from the Earth can vary by about 6% from its average value. Therefore, the Moon's apparent size varies with its distance from the Earth, and it is this effect that leads to the difference between total and annular eclipses. The distance of the Earth from the Sun also varies during the year, but this is a smaller effect. On average, the Moon appears to be slightly smaller than the Sun, so the majority (about 60%) of central eclipses are annular. It is only when the Moon is closer to the Earth than average (near its [[perigee]]) that a total eclipse occurs.<ref>[http://www.exploratorium.edu/eclipse/why.html Why Eclipses Happen], R. Hipschman, The Exploratorium</ref><ref>[http://www.earthview.com/tutorial/causes.htm What Causes an Eclipse?], Earth View</ref> The Moon orbits the Earth in approximately 27.3 days, relative to a fixed frame of reference. This is known as the [[sidereal month]]. However, during one sidereal month, the Earth has revolved around the Sun, making the average time between one New Moon and the next longer than the sidereal month: it is approximately 29.6 days. This is known as the [[synodic month]], and corresponds to what is commonly called the [[lunar month]]. [[image:eclipses solares.en.png|left|framed|'''A''' Total eclipse. '''B''' Annular eclipse. '''C''' Partial eclipse]] The Moon crosses from south to north of the ecliptic at its [[ascending node]]. However, the nodes of the Moon's orbit are gradually moving in a [[Prograde and retrograde motion|retrograde]] motion, due to the action of the Sun's gravity on the Moon's motion, and they make a complete circuit every 18.5 years. This means that the time between each passage of the Moon through the ascending node is slightly shorter than the sidereal month. This period is called the [[draconitic month]]. Finally, the Moon's perigee is moving forwards in its orbit, and makes a complete circuit in about 9 years. The time between one perigee and the next is known as the [[anomalistic month]]. The Moon's orbit intersects with the ecliptic at the two nodes that are 180 degrees apart. Therefore, the New Moon occurs close to the nodes at two periods of the year approximately six months apart, and there will always be at least one solar eclipse during these periods. Sometimes the New Moon occurs close enough to a node during two consecutive months. This means that in any given year, there will always be at least two solar eclipses, and there can be as many as five. However, some are visible only as partial eclipses, because the umbra passes above Earth's north or south pole, and others are central only in remote regions of the [[Arctic]] or [[Antarctic]].<ref>F. Espenak, ''Fifty Year Canon of Solar Eclipses: 1986–2035'' (NASA RP-1178, Greenbelt, MD, 1987)</ref><ref>J. Meeus, C. Grosjean, W. and Vanderleen, ''Canon of Solar Eclipses'' (Pergamon Press, New York, 1966)</ref> ===Path of an eclipse=== During a central eclipse, the Moon's umbra (or [[antumbra]], in the case of an annular eclipse) moves rapidly from west to east across the Earth. The Earth is also rotating from west to east, but the umbra always moves faster than any given point on the Earth's surface, so it almost always appears to move in a roughly west-east direction across a map of the Earth (there are some rare exceptions to this which can occur during an eclipse of the [[midnight sun]] in Arctic or Antarctic regions). The width of the track of a central eclipse varies according to the relative apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon. In the most favourable circumstances, when a total eclipse occurs very close to perigee, the track can be over 250 km wide and the duration of totality may be over 7 minutes. Outside of the central track, a partial eclipse can usually be seen over a much larger area of the Earth. <ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568140/Eclipse.html Eclipse], MSN Encarta</ref> ===Occurrence and eclipse cycles=== [[Image:Total_Solar_Eclipse_Paths-_1001-2000.gif|200px|right|thumbnail|Total Solar Eclipse Paths: 1001–2000. This image was merged from 50 separate images from NASA.<ref>[http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEatlas/SEatlas.html World Atlas of Solar Eclipse Paths], F. Espenak</ref>]] Total solar eclipses are rare events. Although they occur somewhere on Earth approximately every 18 months, it has been estimated that they recur at any given place only once every 370 years, on average. Then, after waiting so long, the total eclipse only lasts for a few minutes, as the Moon's umbra moves eastward at over 1700 km/h. Totality can never last more than 7 min 40 s, and is usually much shorter: during each [[millennium]] there are typically fewer than 10 total solar eclipses exceeding 7 minutes. The last time this happened was [[June 30]] [[1973]]. Observers aboard a [[Concorde]] aircraft were able to stretch totality to about 74 minutes by flying along the path of the Moon's umbra. The next eclipse of comparable duration will not occur until [[June 25]], [[22nd century|2150]]. The longest total solar eclipse during the 8,000-year period from 3000 BC to 5000 AD will occur on [[July 16]] [[2186]], when totality will last 7 min 29 s.<ref>F.R. Stephenson, ''Historical Eclipses and Earth's Rotation'' (Cambridge University Press, 1997, p.54)</ref> If the date and time of any solar eclipse are known, it is possible to predict other eclipses using [[eclipse cycle]]s. Two such cycles are the [[Saros]] and the [[Inex]]. The Saros cycle is probably the best known, and one of the most accurate, eclipse cycles. The Inex cycle is itself a poor cycle, but it is very convenient in the classification of eclipse cycles. After a Saros cycle finishes, a new Saros cycle begins one Inex later, hence its name: in-ex. A Saros cycle lasts 6,585.3 days (a little over 18 years), which means that after this period a practically identical eclipse will occur. The most notable difference will be a shift of 120° in longitude (due to the 0.3 days) and a little in latitude. A Saros series always starts with a partial eclipse at a pole, then shifts over the globe through a series of annular or total eclipses, and ends on the other pole a couple of millennia later.<ref>[http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEsaros/SEsaros.html Eclipses and the Saros], F. Espenak</ref> ===Final totality=== Due to [[tidal acceleration]], the orbit of the Moon around the Earth is unstable, and becomes approximately 3.8 cm more distant each year. It is estimated that in 600 million years, the distance from the Earth to the Moon will have increased by 23500 km, meaning that it will no longer be able to completely cover the Sun's disk. This will be true even when the Moon is at [[perigee]], and the Earth at [[aphelion]]. A complicating factor is that the Sun will increase in size over this timescale. This makes it even more unlikely that the Moon will be able to cause a total eclipse. We can therefore say that the last total solar eclipse on Earth will occur in slightly less than 600 million years.<ref>[http://www.damninteresting.com/?p=476 The Final Total Eclipse], A. Kendall</ref> ==Historical solar eclipses== A solar eclipse of [[15 June]] [[763 BC]] mentioned in an [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] text is important for the [[Chronology of the Ancient Orient]]. This is the earliest solar eclipse mentioned in historical sources that has been identified beyond reasonable doubt. There have been other claims to date earlier eclipses, notably that of [[Mursili II]] (likely 1312 BC), in [[Babylonia]], and also in China, but these are highly disputed and rely on much supposition.<ref>[http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEhistory/SEhistory.html Solar Eclipses of Historical Interest], F. Espenak</ref><ref>F.R. Stephenson, ''Historical Eclipses and Earth's Rotation'' (Cambridge University Press, 1997)</ref> [[Herodotus]] wrote that [[Thales|Thales of Miletus]] predicted an eclipse which occurred during a war between the [[Medes|Medians]] and the [[Lydia]]ns. Soldiers on both sides put down their weapons and declared peace as a result of the eclipse. Exactly which eclipse was involved has remained uncertain, although the issue has been studied by hundreds of ancient and modern authorities. One likely candidate took place on [[May 28]], 585 BC, probably near the [[Halys]] river in the middle of modern [[Turkey]].<ref>[http://www.mreclipse.com/Special/quotes1.html Eclipse Quotations], D. Le Conte</ref> An annular eclipse of the Sun occurred at [[Sardis]] on [[February 17]] [[478 BC]], while [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] was departing for his expedition against [[Ancient Greece|Greece]], as Herodotus recorded.<ref>Herodotus book VII, 37</ref> Hind and Chambers considered this absolute date more than a century ago.<ref>Hind and Chambers, 1889: 323</ref> Herodotus also reports that another solar eclipse was observed in [[Sparta]] during the next year, on [[August 1]], 477 BC.<ref>Herodotus book IX, 10, book VIII, 131, and book IX, 1</ref> The sky suddenly darkened in the middle of the day, well after the battles of [[battle of Thermopylae|Thermopylae]] and [[battle of Salamis|Salamis]], after the departure of [[Mardonius]] to [[Thessaly]] at the beginning of the spring of (477 BC) and his second attack on [[Athens]], after the return of [[Cleombrotus]] to [[Sparta]]. Note that the modern conventional dates are different by a year or two, and that these two eclipse records have been ignored so far.<ref>B. E. Schaefer, ''Solar Eclipses That Changed the World'' (Sky and Telescope, May 1994, p.36–39)</ref> It has also been attempted to establish the exact date of [[Good Friday]] by means of solar eclipses, but this research has not yielded conclusive results.<ref>C. J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, ''Dating the Crucifixion'' (Nature, Vol. 306, No. 5945, p.743–746, 22 December 1983)</ref> ==Observing a solar eclipse== <div style="background-color:black"> [[Image:Solar eclips 1999 1.jpg|100px]] [[Image:Solar eclips 1999 2.jpg|100px]] [[Image:Solar eclips 1999 3.jpg|100px]] [[Image:Solar_eclipse_1999_4.jpg|100px]] [[Image:Solar eclips 1999 5.jpg|100px]] [[Image:Solar eclips 1999 6.jpg|110px]] [[Image:Solar eclips 1999 7.jpg|100px]] </div> [[Image:Eclipse_Valladolid_October_3_2005_-02.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Photo taken in [[Valladolid]] ([[Spain]]) during the [[Solar eclipse of 2005 October 3|October 2005]] annular eclipse.]] Looking directly at the [[photosphere]] of the Sun (the bright disk of the Sun itself), even for just a few seconds, can cause permanent damage to the [[retina]] of the eye, because of the intense visible and invisible radiation that the photosphere emits. This damage can result in permanent impairment of vision, up to and including [[blindness]]. The retina has no sensitivity to pain, and the effects of retinal damage may not appear for hours, so there is no warning that injury is occurring. <ref>[http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEhelp/safety.html Eye Safety During Solar Eclipses], F. Espenak</ref> Under normal conditions, the Sun is so bright that it is difficult to stare at it directly, so there is no tendency to look at it in a way that might damage the eye. However, during an eclipse, with so much of the Sun covered, it is easier and more tempting to stare at it. Unfortunately, looking at the Sun during an eclipse is just as dangerous as looking at it outside an eclipse, except during the brief period of totality, when the Sun's disk is completely covered (totality occurs only during a total eclipse and only very briefly; it does not occur during a partial or annular eclipse). Viewing the Sun's disk through any kind of optical aid (binoculars, a telescope, or even an optical camera viewfinder) is even more hazardous.<ref>[http://skyandtelescope.com/observing/objects/eclipses/article_609_1.asp How to Watch a Partial Solar Eclipse Safely], A. M. MacRobert (Sky & Telescope magazine)</ref> Glancing at the Sun with all or most of its disk visible is unlikely to result in permanent harm, as the pupil will close down and reduce the brightness of the whole scene. If the eclipse is near total, the low average amount of light causes the pupil to open. Unfortunately the remaining parts of the Sun are still just as bright, so they are now brighter on the retina than when looking at a full Sun. As the eye has a small [[Optic fovea|fovea]], for detailed viewing, the tendency will be to track the image on to this best part of the retina, causing damage. ===Viewing partial and annular eclipses=== [[Image:Mennekens05b.jpg|right|250px|thumb|The [[camera obscura]] effect during [[Solar eclipse of 2005 October 3|annularity]] in [[Madrid]].]] [[Image:eclipse00.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Crescent marks during partial eclipse as seen in Johannesburg on 21 June 2001]] Viewing the Sun during partial and annular eclipses (and during total eclipses outside the brief period of totality) requires special eye protection, or indirect viewing methods. The Sun's disk can be viewed using appropriate filtration to block the harmful part of the Sun's radiation. Sunglasses are not safe, since they do not block the harmful and invisible [[infrared]] radiation which causes retinal damage. Only properly designed and certified solar filters should ever be used for direct viewing of the Sun's disk. <ref>[http://www.mreclipse.com/Totality/TotalityCh11.html Observing Eclipses Safely], O. Staiger</ref> The safest way to view the Sun's disk is by indirect projection. This can be done by projecting an image of the disk onto a white piece of paper or card using a pair of binoculars (with one of the lenses covered), a telescope, or another piece of cardboard with a small hole in it (about 1 mm diameter), often called a [[pinhole camera]]. The projected image of the Sun can then be safely viewed; this technique can be used to observe [[sunspot]]s, as well as eclipses. However, care must be taken to ensure that no one looks through the projector (telescope, pinhole, etc.) directly. Viewing the Sun's disk on a video display screen (provided by a [[video camera]] or [[digital camera]]) is safe, although the camera itself may be damaged by direct exposure to the Sun. The optical viewfinders provided with some video and digital cameras are not safe. ===Viewing totality during total eclipses=== Contrary to popular belief, it is safe to observe the total phase of a solar eclipse directly with the unaided eye, binoculars or a telescope, when the Sun's photosphere is '''completely''' covered by the Moon; indeed, this is a very spectacular and beautiful sight, and it is too dim to be seen through filters. The Sun's faint [[corona]] will be visible, and even the [[chromosphere]], [[solar prominence]]s, and possibly even a [[solar flare]] may be seen. However, it is important to stop directly viewing the Sun promptly at the end of totality. The exact time and duration of totality for the location from which the eclipse is being observed should be determined from a reliable source. [[Image:TheSun beads.jpg|right|150px|thumb|Baily beads.]] Also very beautiful are the effects just before (and just after) totality. When the shrinking visible part of the photosphere becomes very small, Baily beads will occur (see picture). These are caused by the sunlight still being able to reach Earth through lunar valleys, but no longer where mountains are present. Totality then begins with the diamond ring effect, the last bright flash of sunlight. <ref>[http://www.mreclipse.com/Totality/TotalityCh01.html The Experience of Totality], O. Staiger</ref> Note that it is not entirely safe to view Baily beads or the diamond ring without proper eye protection (because in both cases the photosphere is still visible). ==Other observations== For [[astronomers]], a total solar eclipse forms a rare opportunity to observe the [[corona]] (the outer layer of the Sun's atmosphere). Normally this is not visible because the [[photosphere]] is much brighter than the corona. According to the point reached in the [[solar cycle]], the corona can appear rather small and symmetric, or large and fuzzy. It is very hard to predict this prior to totality.<ref>[http://www.esa.int/esaSC/SEMYK9R1VED_index_0.html The science of eclipses], ESA</ref> During a solar eclipse special (indirect) observations can also be done with the unaided eye only. Normally the spots of light which fall through the small openings between the leaves of a tree, have a circular shape. These are images of the Sun. During a partial eclipse, the light spots will show the partial shape of the Sun, as seen on the picture. Another famous phenomenon is shadow bands (also known as flying shadows), which are similar to shadows on the bottom of a swimming pool. They only occur just prior to and after totality, and are very difficult to observe. Many professional eclipse chasers have never seen them.<ref>[http://www.astro.lu.se/~dainis/HTML/FLYSHAD.html Flying Shadows], D. Dravins (Lund Observatory)</ref> During a partial eclipse, a related effect that can be seen is anisotropy in the shadows of objects. Particularly if the partial eclipse is nearly total, the unobscured part of the sun acts as an approximate line source of light. This means that objects cast shadows which have a very narrow penumbra in one direction, but a broad penumbra in the perpendicular direction. ===Special observation campaigns=== [[Image:1919 eclipse negative.jpg|right|150px|thumb|The original photograph of the 1919 eclipse which was claimed to confirm [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]].]] In 1919, the observation of a total solar eclipse helped to confirm [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]]. By comparing the apparent distance between two stars, with and without the Sun between them, the [[predictive power|theoretical predictions]] about [[gravitational lens]]es were confirmed (though the data were ambiguous at the time). Of course the observation with the Sun between was only possible during totality, since the stars are visible then.<ref>[http://www.esa.int/esaSC/SEM7I9R1VED_index_1.html Relativity and the 1919 eclipse], ESA</ref> Over the years, some less important special observations took place: * [[May 30]], [[1965]]: Launch of [[rocket]]s at [[Charlestown]], [[USA]] * [[May 20]], [[1966]]: Launch of [[rocket]]s at [[Karystos]], [[Greece]] to watch the solar eclipse * [[November 12]], [[1966]]: Launch of two [[Titus (rocket)|Titus]]-rockets fom Las Palmas, Argentina * [[February 26]], [[1979]]: Launch of rockets from [[Red Lake]], [[Canada]] * [[February 16]], [[1980]]: Launch of rockets from [[San Marco platform]] ===Solar eclipse before sunrise or after sunset=== The phenomenon of [[atmospheric diffraction]] makes it possible to observe the Sun (and hence a solar eclipse) even when it is slightly below the horizon. It is however possible for a solar eclipse to attain totality (or in the event of a partial eclipse, near totality) before (visual and actual) sunrise or after sunset from a particular location. When this occurs shortly before the former or after the latter, the sky will appear much darker than it would otherwise be immediately before sunrise or after sunset. On these occasions, an object (especially a [[planet]], often [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]) may be visible near the sunrise or sunset point of the horizon when it could not have been seen without the eclipse. <ref>[http://www.enginova.com/twilight.htm Musings About Twilight], D. Criner</ref> ===Simultaneous occurrence of eclipses and transits=== In principle, the simultaneous occurrence of a Solar eclipse and a transit of a planet is possible. But these events are extremely rare because of their short durations. The next anticipated simultaneous occurrence of a Solar eclipse and a [[transit of Mercury]] will be on [[July 5]], [[6757]], and a Solar eclipse and a [[transit of Venus]] is expected on [[April 5]], [[15232]]. <ref>[http://www.marco-peuschel.de/simtrans.pdf Simultaneous transits], J. Meeus and A. Vitagliano</ref> Only 5 hours after the transit of Venus on [[June 4]], [[1769]] there was a total solar eclipse, which was visible in Northern America, Europe and Northern Asia as partial solar eclipse. This was the lowest time difference between a transit of a planet and a solar eclipse in the historical past. More common, but still quite rare, is a [[astronomical conjunction|conjunction]] of any planet (not confined exclusively to Mercury or Venus) at the time of a total solar eclipse, in which event the planet will be visible very near the eclipsed Sun, when without the eclipse it would have been lost in the Sun's glare. At one time, some scientists hypothesized that there may be a planet (often given the name [[Vulcan (planet)|Vulcan]]) even closer to the Sun than Mercury; the only way to confirm its existence would have been to observe it during a total solar eclipse. However, it is now known that no such planet exists, although there remains some possibility for small [[Vulcanoid|Vulcanoid asteroids]] to exist, although none have ever been found. ===Solar eclipses by and from artificial satellites=== [[Image:ESC large ISS012 ISS012-E-21351.JPG|250px|thumb|The shadow of the moon as seen from the ISS in [[Solar eclipse on 2006 March 29|2006]].]] Artificial satellites can also get in the line between the Earth and the Sun, but none is large enough to cause an eclipse. At the altitude of the [[International Space Station]], for example, an object would need to be about 3.35 km across to blot the Sun out entirely. This means the best you can get is a satellite ''transit'', but these events are difficult to watch, because the zone of visibility is very small. The satellite passes over the face of the Sun in about a second, typically. As with a transit of a planet, it will not get dark.<ref>[http://eclipse.astronomie.info/transit/venus/isstransit/isstransit.html ISS-Venustransit] (German)</ref> Artificial satellites do play an important role in documenting solar eclipses. Images of the umbra on the Earth's surface taken from [[Mir]] and the [[International Space Station]] are among the most spectacular eclipse images in history.<ref>[http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap990830.html Looking Back on an Eclipsed Earth], Astronomy Picture of the Day. </ref> Observations of eclipses from satellites orbiting above the Earth's atmosphere are of course not subject to weather conditions. The direct observation of a total solar eclipse from space is rather rare. The only documented case is [[Gemini 12]] in 1966. The partial phase of the [[Solar eclipse of 2006 March 29|2006 total eclipse]] was visible from the [[International Space Station]]. At first, it looked as though an orbit correction in the middle of March would bring the ISS in the path of totality, but this correction was postponed.<ref>[http://images.jsc.nasa.gov/luceneweb/caption_direct.jsp?photoId=S66-63415 JSC Digital Image Collection]</ref> ==See also== {{commonscat}} [[Image:Mennekens05a.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Series of photos taken during the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Solar eclipse of 2005 October 3|2005]] annular eclipse.]] === Eclipses on other planets === * [[Solar eclipses on Jupiter]] * [[Solar eclipses on Pluto]] * [[Transit of Phobos from Mars]] * [[Transit of Deimos from Mars]] === Eclipse lists === * [[List of solar eclipses]] * [[:Category:Solar eclipses|Dedicated solar eclipse articles]] * [[List of solar eclipses seen from China]] * [[List of solar eclipses visible from the United Kingdom 1000 - 2090 AD]] === Miscellaneous === * [[Allais effect]] * [[Solar eclipses in fiction]] == References == <references />--> == Tumbu kaluar == {{wiktionary}} === Umum === * [https://archive.is/20121205065537/sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/ NASA's Eclipse Home Page], [[Fred Espenak]] * [http://xjubier.free.fr/en/site_pages/Solar_Eclipses.html Solar Eclipse Resources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060624190251/http://xjubier.free.fr/en/site_pages/Solar_Eclipses.html |date=2006-06-24 }} * [http://www.hermit.org/Eclipse/ Detailed eclipse explanations and predictions], Hermit Eclipse * [http://www.zam.fme.vutbr.cz/~druck/Eclipse/ Prof. Druckmüller's eclipse photography site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309153121/http://www.zam.fme.vutbr.cz/~druck/Eclipse/ |date=2021-03-09 }} * [https://archive.is/20120714123918/sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEatlas/SEatlas.html World Atlas of Solar Eclipse Paths], F. Espenak * [http://www.shadowandsubstance.com/ Animated maps of present and past eclipses all over the world] (ShadowandSubstance.com) * [http://www.bibalex.org/eclipse2006/Home.aspx Total Solar Eclipse], Bibliotheca Alexandrina * [http://eclipse.span.ch/eclipse8april.htm Pictures of the [[2005-04-08]] eclipse] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614060709/http://eclipse.span.ch/eclipse8april.htm |date=2006-06-14 }} * [http://www.scalingtheuniverse.com/eclipse March 29th 2006: Solar Eclipse Visualizations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061229213623/http://scalingtheuniverse.com/eclipse/ |date=2006-12-29 }}, P. Hemmingsson (Sciss AB) * [http://solar-eclipse-2006.info Solar Eclipse March 29 2006: All you need to know!] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060402200655/http://solar-eclipse-2006.info/ |date=2006-04-02 }} * [[Antalya]]: [http://www.antalya-ws.com/english Preparations made in Antalya, Turkey, for expected visits by 29 March 2006 solar eclipse observers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320190926/http://www.antalya-ws.com/english |date=20 March 2007 }} === Kasalametan panon === * [https://archive.is/20120716084105/sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEhelp/safety.html Eye Safety During Solar Eclipses], F. Espenak (NASA Goddard Space Flight Center) * [http://skyandtelescope.com/observing/objects/eclipses/article_609_1.asp How to Watch a Partial Solar Eclipse Safely], A. M. MacRobert (Sky & Telescope magazine) * [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/319/7208/469 UK hospitals assess eye damage after solar eclipse], British Medical Journal, [[21 Agustus]] [[1999]], kaca 319–469 {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Samagaha]] [[Kategori:Panonpoé]] [[Kategori:Surya Mandala]] d1ih9jhy8k797b2v6m19ccam5reayps 0 4937 708606 703969 2026-04-26T15:33:37Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708606 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:GFP Mice 01.jpg|jmpl|Dua beurit NOD / SCID ngaéksprésikeun protéin héjo fluorescent (eGFP) handapeun cahaya UV anu diapit hiji beurit NOD / SCID polos tina garis parental anu henteu transgenik.]] '''Rékayasa génétik''' jeung '''modifikasi génétik''' (''genetic modification'' ('''GM''') mangrupa istilah pikeun prosés manipulasi/ngarobah [[gén]], nu ilaharna béda ti prosés [[baranahan|réproduksi]] [[organisme]] anu galib. Rékayasa génétik ngawengku isolasi, manipulasi, jeung réintroduksi (ngasupkeun) [[DNA]] kana [[sél (biologi)|sél]] atawa [[organisme modél]], nu biasana pikeun [[éksprési gén|ngéksprésikeun]] hiji [[protéin]]. Anu dituju taya lian pikeun nyiptakeun ciri anyar, boh dina bentuk fisik atawa [[fisiologi]]s. Contona nyaéta nyiptakeun pepelakan nu tahan [[hérbisida]] atawa nu ngahasilkeun protéin/[[énzim]] séjén, ngahasilkeun [[insulin]] manusa tina [[baktéri]] robahan, [[éritropoietin]] dina sél endog hamster Cina, jeung sato robahan pikeun panalungtikan. ku sabab protéin téh ditangtukeun ku potongan [[DNA]] nu disebut [[gén]], mangka protéin nu dihasilkeun téh bisa dirobah mun urang ngarobah DNA dina génna. [[Daniel Nathans]] jeung [[Hamilton Smith]] nampa [[1978]] [[Hadiah Nobel widang fisiologi jeung kadokteran]] pikeun karyana nu geus hasil ngisolasi [[énzim réstriksi]] nu bisa motong DNA dina loka anu tangtu. Ieu énzim, bareng jeung [[ligase]] nu bisa nyambungkeun DNA potongan, mangrupa alat utama dina téhnologi DNA rékombinan. == Sejarahna == [[Organismeu|Organisme]] nu dihasilkeun ngaliwatan [[rékayasa genetik]] dianggap dirobah genetik sarta éntitas anu dihasilkeun disebut kan disebut [[genetically modified organism]] [[(GMO)]]. Organisme transgenik munggaran nyaéta baktéri anu diproduksi ku [[Herbert Boyer]] sareng Stanley Cohen di 1973. [[Rudolf Jaenisch]] nyiptakeun sato [[transgenik]] munggaran nalika anjeunna nyelapkeun DNA asing dina mencit di 1974. Perusahaan munggaran fokus kana [[rékayasa genetik]], Genentech, diadegkeun dina 1976 sareng ngamimitian ngahasilkeun [[protéin manusa]]. Insulin manusa anu dirobih sacara genetik munggaran diproduksi taun 1978 sareng baktéri anu ngahasilkeun insulin dikomersilkeun dina taun 1982. Kadaharan anu dirobih sacara genetik parantos dijual ti taun 1994, sareng munculna tomat ti [[Flavr Savr.]] Flavr Savr direkayasa pikeun boga umur rak leuwih panjang, tapi ayeuna lolobana pepelakan [[GMO]] dirobah pikeun ngaronjatkeun daya tahan ka serangga jeung [[herbisida.]] [[GloFish]], [[sato transgenik]] munggaran, dijual di [[Amérika Serikat]] dina bulan Désémber 2003. Dina 2016, geus aya [[salmon]] nu geus dirobah ku [[hormon pertumbuhan]]. Mecenghulna pepelakan anu di komersil keun sacara genetik [[parantos nyayogikeun]] kauntungan ékonomi pikeun para patani di seueur nagara, tapi ogé janten sumber kontroversi. Ieu parantos aya ti [[saprak]] mimitina, lapangan uji [[kahijina]] dirusak ku aktivis [[anti-GMO]]. Sanaos aya konsensus ilmiah yén pangan anu diturunkeun tina pepelakan [[GMO]] henteu nyababkeun résiko anu langkung ageung pikeun kaséhatan manusa tibatan tuangeun konvensional, kasalametan pangan [[GMO]] tetep janten pusat kritik. Aliran gén, dampak kana organisme non-target, kontrol suplai kadaharan sarta hak cipta intelektual ogé tunduk kana debat. Masalah ieu nyababkeun ngembang keun kerangka pangaturan, anu di mimitian dina taun 1975. [[Perjangjian internasional]] ogé di satujuan dina taun 2000, nyaéta [[Protokol Cartagena]] ngeunaan [[Biosafety]]. Unggal nagara geus ngembangkeun sistem pangaturan [[sorangan ngeunaan GMO]]<nowiki/>s, ditandaan ku bédana antara [[Amérika Serikat]] jeung [[Éropa.]] [[DNA]] bisa diasupkeun langsung kana organisme inang atawa kana sél nu lajeng ngahiji atawa hibridisasi jeung inang.Prosés ieu ngandelkeun téknik asam nukléat rékombinan pikeun ngabentuk kombinasi anyar bahan genetik nu bisa diwariskeun dituturkeun ku incorporation bahan boh sacara teu langsung ngaliwatan sistem vektor atawa langsung ngaliwatan micro-injection, [[macro-injection]] atawa [[micro-encapsulation.]] Rékayasa genetik biasana henteu kalebet kawin silang tradisional, fértilisasi in vitro, induksi polyploidy, mutagenesis sareng téknik fusi sél anu henteu nganggo asam nukléat rékombinan atanapi organisme anu dirobih sacara genetik dina prosésna. Nanging, sababaraha definisi rékayasa genetik kalebet pembiakan selektif. [[Kloning]] jeung panalungtikan sél stem, sanajan teu dianggap rékayasa genetik, masih raket patalina jeung [[rékayasa genetik]] bisa dipaké barengan prosés ieu. Biologi sintétik nyaéta widang élmu anu muncul anu ngajadikeun [[rékayasa genetika]] langkung maju ku cara ngenalkeun bahan anu disintésis sacara artifisial kana hiji [[Organismeu|organisme]].<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2021-10-12|title=Rekayasa genetika|url=https://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rekayasa_genetika&oldid=19251967|language=id}}</ref> == Larapan == Ubar munggaran hasil rékayasa génétik (RG), nyaéta [[insulin]] [[Manusa sunda|manusa]], munggaran diloloskeun ku BPPOM AS ([[FDA]]) taun [[1982]][http://www.mspca.org/site/pp.asp?c=gtIUK4OSG&b=134379] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060810133647/http://www.mspca.org/site/pp.asp?c=gtIUK4OSG&b=134379 |date=2006-08-10 }}. Larapan awal RG lianna nyaéta ngahasilkeun hormon kamekaran manusa salaku gaganti ubar nu saméméhna diékastraksi tina mayit. Taun [[1986]], FDA ngaloloskeun vaksin RG munggaran pikeun manusa, nyaéta vaksin [[hépatitis B]][http://www.mspca.org/site/pp.asp?c=gtIUK4OSG&b=134379] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060810133647/http://www.mspca.org/site/pp.asp?c=gtIUK4OSG&b=134379 |date=2006-08-10 }}. Larapan RG anu paling kawentar nyaéta pikeun ngahasilkeun [[organisme robahan genetik]] (''genetically modified organism'', GMO) [[Rékayasa genetik]] biasana henteu kalebet kawin silang tradisional, [[fértilisasi in vitro]], [[induksi polyploidy]], [[mutagenesis]] sareng [[téknik fusi sé]]<nowiki/>l anu henteu nganggo asam nukléat rékombinan atanapi organisme anu dirobih sacara genetik dina prosésna. Nanging, sababaraha definisi rékayasa genetik kalebet pembiakan selektif. Kloning jeung panalungtikan sél [[Semenanjung|stem]], sanajan teu dianggap [[rékayasa genetik,]] masih raket patalina jeung rékayasa genetik bisa dipaké barengan prosés ieu. [[Biologi|Biologi sintétik]] nyaéta widang élmu anu muncul anu ngajadikeun rékayasa genetika langkung maju ku cara ngenalkeun bahan anu di [[Sintésis organik|sintésis]] sacara [[artifisial]] kana hiji organisme. [[Tutuwuhan]], [[sasatoan]] atawa [[mikro-organisme]] anu geus dirobah ngaliwatan [[rékayasa genetik]] disebut organisme dirobah genetik. Lamun bahan genetik tina spésiés séjén ditambahkeun kana host, organisme nu dihasilkeun disebut transgenik. Lamun bahan genetik tina spésiés atawa spésiés anu sarua anu bisa baranahan sacara alami kalawan inangna mangka organisme anu dihasilkeun disebut cisgenesis. Lamun rékayasa genetik dipaké pikeun ngaleungitkeun bahan genetik tina udagan, organisme anu dihasilkeun disebut [[organisme knockout.]] Di [[Éropa]] modifikasi genetik sinonim jeung rékayasa genetik, sedengkeun di [[Amérika Serikat]] jeung [[Kanada]] modifikasi genetik ogé dipaké pikeun ngarujuk kana [[Métode Taguchi|métode]] beternak [[konvensional.]] == Baca ogé == * [[Biorobot]] * [[Biotéhnologi]] * [[Bio-pirasi]] * [[Kloning]] * [[Terapi gén]] * [[Dahareun robahan genetik]] * [[Organisme robahan genetik]] * [[Rékayasa genetik manusa]] * [[Proyék Génom Manusa]] * [[Tutuwuhan silangan]] * [[Rékayasa protéin]] * [[Réprogenetika]] * [[Sél Stém]] * [[Transformasi (genetika)|Transformasi]] * [[Tutuwuhan transgenik]] == Rujukan == <references/> == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.agbioworld.org/biotech-info/articles/biotech-art/raney.html Economic Impact of Transgenic Crops in Developing Countries] * [http://www.gene-watch.org Council for Responsible Genetics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616104339/http://gene-watch.org/ |date=2017-06-16 }} - Council for Responsible Genetics * [http://www.genengnews.com Genetic Engineering News (GEN)] - Genetic Engineering News (GEN) - Widely réad, léading publication on genetic engineering * [http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/gmplants/ Debate on the genetic modification of plants] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041101092121/http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/gmplants/ |date=2004-11-01 }} * [http://www.vega.org.uk/series/tnbt/gmfoods/index.php Round table discussion from the Vega Science Trust] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051121033340/http://www.vega.org.uk/series/tnbt/gmfoods/index.php |date=2005-11-21 }} * [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/gm-food Everything you wanted to know about GM organisms] — Provided by '' [[New Scientist]]''. * [http://www.fao.org/ag/ FAO Agriculture Department] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110801011733/http://www.fao.org/ag/ |date=2011-08-01 }} and its [http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5160e/y5160e00.HTM SOFA report on Agricultural Biotechnology] addressing the methods used in genetic engineering ** [http://www.greenfacts.org/gmo/index.htm Genetically Engineered Crops] - A unautohorized summary for non-specialists of the above FAO report by [[GreenFacts]]. * [http://biosci.umn.edu/~pregal/ryanpromoter.htm CaMV Promoter is A Recombination Hotspot - No Transgenic Plant Containing CaMV Promoter Should be Released] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060827033229/http://biosci.umn.edu/~pregal/ryanpromoter.htm |date=2006-08-27 }}; also [http://www.biotech-info.net/CMV.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060721115239/http://www.biotech-info.net/CMV.pdf |date=2006-07-21 }} as a [[PDF]] * [http://www.i-sis.org.uk/list.shtml Open Letter from Scientists to All Governments calling for a moratorium on GE technology] (825 Names) * [http://www.agbioworld.org/declaration/index.html Petition from Scientists In Support Of Agricultural Biotechnology]. (3400 names) * [http://www.monbiot.com/archives/2002/05/14/the-fake-persuaders/ The Fake Persuaders] article by [[George Monbiot]], published in ''[[The Guardian]]'', on [[Monsanto]]'s use of [[viral marketing]] and its role in shaping scientific discourse on native maize contamination. * [http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/DP5/genetic.htm Genetic Engineering: Dream or Nightmare?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060429101059/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/dp5/genetic.htm |date=2006-04-29 }} * [http://thegreenreport.com/nature2.0 Nature 2.0 beta] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613031545/http://thegreenreport.com/nature2.0/ |date=2006-06-13 }} Nature 2.0 beta by Pamela Drew Legislation, Politics, Science and Spin Behind Genetically Modified Foods. * [http://www.merid.org/fs-agbiotech/ Food Security and Ag-Biotech News] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615091402/http://www.merid.org/fs-agbiotech/ |date=2006-06-15 }} * [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=0009FCA4-1A8F-1085-94F483414B7F0000 Scientific American Magazine (May 2004 Issue) Synthetic Life] {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Biotéhnologi]] [[Kategori:Étika]] [[Kategori:Génétika molekular]] 48rb7py486pz9s0mkmogf3ukkrr4wk5 0 5094 708622 534113 2026-04-26T19:44:04Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708622 wikitext text/x-wiki {{kacamatan|nami=Wanaraja |dati2=Kabupatén |nami dati2=Garut |lega=- km&sup2; |pangeusi=- |kalurahan=- |nami camat=- |kapadetan=- jiwa/km&sup2; |propinsi=Jawa Barat }} '''Wanaraja''' nyaéta hiji [[kacamatan]] di [[Kabupatén Garut]], [[Propinsi]] [[Jawa Barat]], [[Indonésia]].<ref name=wana>{{cite book|title=Agribisnis Tanaman Rami|first=Hj Mien|last=Aminah Musaddad|pages=19020|year=2007|publish=Niaga Swadaya|ISBN=9789790020573}}</ref> mibanda kode POS 44183.<ref name=kode>{{cite web|url=http://kodepos.nomor.net/_kodepos.php?_i=desa-kodepos&sby=000000&daerah=Kecamatan-Kab.-Garut&jobs=Wanaraja|title=kode pos Indonesia 2017}}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Aya hiji kabiasaan nu perlu ditiru ku daérah séjén, taya lian aya hiji [[pasantrén]] nu mana unggal poé kemis malem jumaah sok ngalaksanakeun solat hajat babarengan.<ref name=raja/> ''Mustamina'' ogé henteu saeutik, juljol daratang ti unggal daerah malah aya nu datang ti saluareun [[Garut Kota, Garut|Garut]] ogé, timimiti rahayat biasa nepika para [[inohong]] jeung ''selebriti''.<ref name=raja>{{cite book}|title =Ternyata Shalat & Puasa Sunah Dapat Mempercepat Kesuksesan|year=2012|ISBN=9786028389730|first=Ceceng|last=Salamudin, M.Ag|publish=Ruang Kata}}</ref> Dina cara tatanén di Wanaraja ngajalankeun hiji konsép tatanén ''rami terpadu'', numana kiwari geus bisa ngabantu nyumponan kabutuhan ékonomi di éta wewengkon.<ref name=wana/> Lahan nu geus disadiakeun pikeun melak [[tangkal]] [[rami]] legana 34 ha, ieu ogé kaasup diversifikasi usaha nu geus aya sagigireun, ngukut [[hayam]], [[domba]], tani [[supa]], rupa-rupa karajinan, jeung réa-réa deui.<ref name=wana/> Salah saurang inohong sunda nu kawentar taya lian Prof.K.H Anwar Musadda, mangsa nuju anomna nyantri di pasantren Cipari, Wanaraja.<ref name=Musad=>{{cite book|title=Api sejarah|last=Suryanegara|first=Ahmad Mansyur|ISBN=9786027123724|year=2017}}</ref> Nepika kiwari masjid Cipari jadi hiji ''cagar'' [[budaya]], kaasup salah sahiji situs tininggal zaman kolonial.<ref name=cipari>{{cite book|title =Katalog situs/benda cagar budaya Jawa Barat|first=Emi|last=Nurtiningsih|year=2008|place=University of Wisconsin - Madison|Publish=Balai Pengelolaan Kepurbakalaan, Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional, Dinas Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata, Provinsi Jawa Barat}}</ref> Aya deui keris (duhung) nu kapanggih di [[Cimanuk]] hilir, titinggal jaman karajaan [[Hindu]] di [[Jawa Barat]]. <ref name=duhung>[[cite book|title=IPS TERPADU : - Jilid 1B|ISBN=9789797346942|Publish=ESIS|page=68|year=2011|location=Jakarta}}</ref> Di Wanaraja ogé ngadeg salah sahiji [[pabrik]], pangolahan walirang nu dihasilkeun ti sababarah [[gunung]] salah sajijina [[gunung patuha]].<ref name=patuha>{{cite book|title= Ensiklopedia pelajaran dan umum|last= Komandoko|first=Gamal|year=2010|ISBN=9789796103713|Publish=Pustaka Widyatama}}</ref> {{Kabupatén Garut}} {{Wanaraja, Garut}} {{Kacamatan-pondok}} ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Kacamatan di Jawa Kulon|{{PAGENAME}}]] [[Kategori:Kacamatan di Kabupatén Garut|{{PAGENAME}}]] h8j4mowv8cat61uc5ia8mdh6dfc989o 0 17692 708626 603281 2026-04-27T03:22:52Z ~2026-25493-25 36589 /* Nu babar */ 708626 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taun nav|1979}} Taun ka-'''1979''' [[Maséhi]] dina [[Kalénder Grégorian]]. == Kajadian == == Nu babar == * [[11 Januari]] – [[Siti Nurhaliza]], tukang ngawih jeung aktris [[Malaysia]]. == Nu pupus == == Poé peré == == Tumbu luar == {{kalender-pondok}} rv3q02mncxi4apdvod3mpza2vvf5col 0 25760 708601 708219 2026-04-26T14:51:43Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 /* Pantangan Dina Ibadah Haji */ 708601 wikitext text/x-wiki {{islam}} '''Haji''' nyaéta [[rukun]] (tihang ageman) [[Islam]] anu kalima sanggeus [[sahadat]], solat, [[zakat]] sarta [[Saum|puasa]]. Ngalaksanakeun ibadah haji mangrupikeun ritual taunan [[umat|kaum muslim]] sa-dunya anu mampuh (boh sacara matérial, fisik, sarta élmuna) ku cara nganjang sarta ngalaksanakeun runtuyan kagiatan di sababaraha tempat di [[Arab Saudi]] dina wanci anu ditangtoskeun nyaéta usum haji (bulan Dzulhijjah).<ref>{{cite web |title=Hajj |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/hajj |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=27 Maret 2026}}</ref> Hal ieu béda sareng [[Umroh|ibadah umroh]] anu bisa dilaksanakeun sawaktu-waktu. Kagiatan inti ibadah haji dimimitian dina tanggal 8 Dzulhijjah nalika umat Islam mondok aranapi mabit di [[Mina]], diteraskeun ku [[Wukuf]] (cicing) di [[Arafah|Padang Arafah]] dina tanggal 9 Dzulhijjah, sarta lekasan sanggeus ngabalangkeun [[jumrah]] (ngabalangkeun batu simbolisasi sétan) dina tanggal 10 Dzulhijjah. Masarakat [[Indonésia]] ilaharna ogé nyebutna lebaran Haji/ [[Idul Adha]] minangka Poé raya haji jalaran waktosna sareng puncak dilaksanakeunna ibadah Haji ieu.<ref>Al-Qurthubi. ''Al-Jami' li Ahkam al-Qur'an'', Tafsir Surah Al-Hajj.</ref> ==Harti== Sacara ''lughawi'', haji hartosna ngadon atawa nuju sarta ngadatangan. Nurutkeun étimologi [[basa Arab]], kecap haji miboga harti ''qashd'', nyaéta tujuan, maksud, sarta ngadon. Nurutkeun istilah syara', haji téh nuju ka [[Ka'bah|Baitullah]] sarta tempat-tempat nu tangtu pikeun ngalaksanakeun amalan-amalan [[ibadah]] nu tangtu ogé. Anu dimaksud kalawan temat-tempat nu tangtu dina définisi diluhur, sajaba [[Ka'bah]] sarta [[[[Sa'i|Mas'a]]]] (tempat sa'i), ogé [[Arafah]], [[Muzdalifah]], sarta [[Mina]]. Anu dimaksud jeung waktu nu tangtu tayalian bulan-bulan haji anu dimimitian ti [[Syawal]] nepi ka sapuluh poé kahiji bulan [[Dzulhijjah]]. Sedengkeun amal ibadah nu tangtu tayalian [[thawaf]], [[sa'i]], [[Wukuf]], [[[[Mabit|mazbit]]]] di Muzdalifah, [[jumrah]], mabit di Mina, sarta séjén-séjén. == Hakékat Haji == Salaku ibadah anu jangkep, haji miboga hakékat batiniah anu kacida jerona salian ti runtuyan gerakan fisikna:<ref>Al-Ghazali. ''Ihya Ulumiddin'', Kitab al-Asrar al-Hajj. Dar al-Minhaj.</ref> * '''Simbol Mulang:''' Nganjang ka [[Kabah|Baitullah]] mangrupikeun hakékat "mulangna" hiji hamba ka "imah" asalna, nyaéta mulang ka Gusti Allah SWT (''simbolisasi'' maot sateuacan maot). * '''Kamanunggalan:''' Wukuf di [[Arafah|Padang Arafah]] nyaéta gambaran [[Padang Mahsyar]], di mana sakabéh manusa ngumpul dina derajat anu sarua, teu ditingal pangkatna, hartana, atanapi sukuna. * '''Ngalawan Nafsu:''' Ngabalangkeun [[jumrah]] hakékatna sanés mung malédog tugu, tapi simbol ngalawan sarta miceun hawa nafsu sétan anu aya dina diri manusa. * '''Ihram:''' Ngagunakeun lawon bodas (ihram) hakékatna nyaéta ngaleupaskeun sagala rupa ''atribut'' kadunyaan supados manusa sadar yén nalika maot, taya harta anu dibawa iwal ti amal ibadah. ==Filosofi == Ibadah haji sanés ngan saukur ritual fisik, tapi mangrupa perjalanan spiritual anu jero. Ali Syariati dina bukuna ''Makna Haji'' ngagambarkeun yén haji téh prosés manusa ngaleupaskeun "ego" nuju ka jati diri anu murni. Hiji cutatan anu kasohor ngeunaan beuratna ieu perjalanan ruhani nyaéta: {{Quote|text=''Kutanya dia bagaimana telah menempuh? Perjalanan yang sangat sulit dan menakutkan ini'".|person=[[Ali Syariati]]|source=''Makna Haji''}}<ref name="Syariati">{{cite book |last=Syariati |first=Ali |author-link=Ali Syariati |title=Makna Haji |translator=Anas Mahyuddin |publisher=Pustaka |location=Bandung |year=1984 |isbn= |language=id}}</ref> Sawatara éta, [[Imam al-Ghazali]] dina kitab ''[[Ihya Ulumuddin]]'' nekenkeun yén hakekat haji téh nyaéta "Ziarah ka Pangéran". Nurutkeun anjeunna, unggal tahapan haji (saperti Wukuf sarta Tawaf) mangrupa simbol tina kaayaan manusa di poé ahéret engké.<ref>Al-Ghazali. ''Ihya Ulumuddin''. Jilid 1, Bab Rahasia-rahasia Haji.</ref> ==Sajarah== Ibadah haji mangrupikeun syariat anu parantos aya ti jaman [[Nabi Ibrahim]] as. nalika anjeunna dipasihan paréntah ku [[Allah SWT]] pikeun ngawangun deui [[Ka'bah|Baitullah]].<ref>Dr. Muhammad Ilyas Abdul Ghani, Sejarah Haji & Manasik, (2004), kaca 15. ISBN 978-9960-944-40-1.</ref> Peristiwa penting anu janten dadasar manasik haji modéren di antarana nyaéta pangurbanan Nabi Ismail as. sareng perjuangan Siti Hajar nalika milarian cai antara pasir Shafa sareng Marwah.<ref>Syaikh Safiyurrahman Al-Mubarakfuri, Sirah Nabawiyah, (2012), kaca 450. ISBN 978-602-7635-39-5.</ref> Jalma-jalma [[Arab]] dina [[jaman jahiliah]] geus mikawanoh ibadah haji ieu anu diwariskeun ti karuhun maranéhanana warisi kalawan ngalakonan parobahan diditu-didieu. Tapi, wangun umum palaksanaanana masih tetep aya, kawas ''thawaf'', ''sa'i'', ''[[Wukuf]]'', sarta malédog jumrah. Ngan waé dina prakna réa anu henteu luyu deui jeung saréat anu sabenerna.<ref>Sayyid Sabiq, Fiqih Sunnah, Jilid 3, (2013), kaca 25. ISBN 978-979-3210-44-5.</ref> Syariat haji nembé disampurnakeun sacara gembleng dina taun ka-10 Hijriah nalika Rasulullah saw. ngalaksanakeun Haji Wada' salaku conto manasik anu sah dugi ka dinten kiamat.<ref>Syaikh Safiyurrahman Al-Mubarakfuri, Sirah Nabawiyah, (2012), kaca 458.</ref> Ku kituna, [[Islam]] datang sarta ngabenerkeun lebah-lebah anu salah sarta tetep ngajalankeun naon-naon anu geus luyu kalawan pituduh syara' (saréat), sakumaha anu diatur dina al-qur'an sarta [[sunnah]] [[Rasul|rosul]]. Kasang tukang ibadah haji ieu ogé didasarkan dina ibadah sarupa anu dilaksanakeun ku nabi-nabi dina ageman Islam, utamana [[Nabi Ibrahim]] (nabina ageman Tauhid). Ritual thawaf didasarkan dina ibadah sarupa anu dilaksanakeun ku umat-umat saméméh nabi Ibarahim. Ritual sa'i, nyaéta lumpat antara [[pasir]] Shafa sarta Marwah (wewengkon rada luhur di kira-kira Ka'bah anu geus jadi hiji kahijian [[Masjid al-Haram|Masjid Al Haram]], [[Makkah]]), ogé pikeun miéling ritual pamajikan kadua nabi Ibrahim sabot néangan susu pikeun anakna anu tayalian [[Nabi Ismail]. Samentara [[Wukuf]] di Arafah nyaéta ritual pikeun miéling tempat paamprokna nabi [[Adam]] sarta [[Siti Hawa]] di alam dunya, nyaéta asal mula ti gumelarna sakumna umat manusa di dunya. == Dasar Hukum == Paréntah haji dumasar kana dawuhan Allah SWT dina Al-Qur'an: <blockquote>وَلِلَّهِ عَلَى ٱلنَّاسِ حِجُّ ٱلْبَيْتِ مَنِ ٱسْتَطَاعَ إِلَيْهِ سَبِيلًا</blockquote> <blockquote>"Sarta (ngalaksanakeun) haji téh mangrupikeun kawajiban manusa ka Allah, nyaéta pikeun jalma anu mampuh ngayakeun perjalanan ka Baitullah..." ([[Surah Ali Imran|QS. Ali Imran]]: 97).<ref>{{cite web |title=Surah Ali 'Imran - 97 |url=https://quran.com/3/97 |website=Quran.com |access-date=27 Maret 2026}}</ref></blockquote> Sarta dumasar kana dawuhan Rasulullah SAW ngeunaan tatacara (manasik) haji: <div style="margin: 1em 0; padding: 0.5em 1.5em; border-left: 4px solid #006400; font-style: italic; line-height: 1.6;"> "Candak ku aranjeun tina conto manasik haji sim kuring (Rasulullah SAW), sabab sim kuring teu terang naha sim kuring bakal haji deui saatos taun ieu." <br>— '''[[Hadits]] Riwayat Muslim no. 1297'''<ref>{{cite web |title=Sahih Muslim - The Book of Hajj |url=https://sunnah.com/muslim/15/346 |website=Sunnah.com |access-date=27 Maret 2026}}</ref> </div> == Syarat Haji (Istitha'ah) == Kecap ''Istitha'ah'' hartosna kamampuh. Jalma anu wajib haji téh nyaéta anu: * Mampuh sacara '''ékonomi''' pikeun bekel indit, mulang, sarta nafkah kulawarga anu ditinggalkeun. * Sehat sacara '''fisik''' sarta '''méntal''' pikeun ngalakukeun ''aktivitas'' ibadah anu beurat. * Aman dina perjalanan (''kaamanan''). ==Jenis ibadah haji== [[Gambar:Supplicating Pilgrim at Masjid Al Haram. Mecca, Saudi Arabia.jpg|300px|thumb|top|left|Ritual haji, rukun Islam anu pamungkas.]] Saban [[jamaah]] bébas pikeun milih jenis ibadah haji anu hayang dilaksanakeunana. [[Muhammad|Rasulullah SAW]] mikeun kabébasan dina hal éta, sakumaha katémbong dina [[hadis]] katut. [[Aisyah]] RA ngomong: Kami indit ibadah babarengan [[Muhammad|Rasulullah SAW]] dina taunhajjatul wada. di antara kami aya anu ihram, pikeun haji sarta [[umroh]] sarta aya ogé anu berihram pikeun haji. Jelema anu berihram pikeun umroh ber-[[Tahallul]] sabot geus aya di [[Kabah|Baitullah]]. Keur jelema anu berihram pikeun haji lamun manéhna ngumpulkeun haji sarta [[umroh]]. Mangka manéhna henteu ngalakonan [[Tahallul]] nepi ka kalawan réngsé ti nahar. Katut nyaéta jenis sarta pengertian haji anu dimaksud. * '''Haji ifrad''', hartosna nyorangan. Ngalaksanakeun ibadah haji disebut ifrad lamun salahsaurang boga maksud nyorangan, boh nyorangan haji boh nyorangan [[umroh]]. Dina hal ieu, anu diheulakeun nyaéta ibadah haji. Hartina, sabot maké pakéan ihram di miqat-na, jelema kasebut boga niat ngalaksanakeun ibadah haji heula. Lamun ibadah haji geus réngsé, mangka jelema kasebut maké ihram deui pikeun ngalaksanakeun [[umroh]]. * '''Haji tamattu''', miboga harti senang-senang atawa nyalsé kalawan ngalakonan umroh leuwih tiheula di bulan-bulah haji, tuluy [[Tahallul]]. Saterusna maké pakéan ihram deui pikeun ngalaksanakeun ibadah haji, ditaun anu sarua. Tamattu' bisa ogé hartosna ngalaksanakeun ibadah sajeroning bulan-bulan sarta dina taunanu sarua, henteu leuwih tiheula balik ka nagari asal. * '''Haji qiran''', ngandung harti ngagabungkeun, ngahijikeun atawa nyakaliguskeun. Anu dimaksud didieu nyaéta ngahijikeun atawa nyakaliguskeun ihramna pikeun ngalaksanakeun ibadah haji sarta umroh. Haji qiran dipigawé kalawan tetep maké ihram saprak miqat ''makani'' sarta ngalaksanakeun kabéh rukun sarta wajib haji nepi ka réngsé, sanajan meureun baris méakeun waktu lila. Nurutkeun [[Abu Hanifah]], ngalaksanakeun haji qiran, hartosna ngalakonan dua thawaf sarta dua sa'i. ==Kagiatan ibadah haji== Katut nyaéta kagiatan utama dina ibadah haji dumasar urutan waktu: * Saméméh 8 Dzulhijjah, [[umat Islam]] ti sakumna [[dunya]] mimiti ngaleut pikeun ngalaksanakeun [[Thawaf]] Haji di Masjid Al Haram, Makkah. * 8 Dzulhijjah, jamaah haji kudu meuting di [[Mina]]. Saméméhnana dina isuk-isuk 8 Dzulhijjah, kabéh umat Islam maké pakéan [[Ihram]] (dua lembar lawon bodas henteu aya kaputan minangka pakéan haji), saterusna boga niat haji, sarta maca bacaan Talbiyah. Isuk-isuk poé tanggal 8 Dzulhijjah, jamaah nuju Mina. Peuting poéna, kabéh jamaah haji kudu meuting di Mina. * 9 Dzulhijjah, isuk-isuk poéna kabéh jamaah haji indit ka [[Arafah]]. Saterusna jamaah ngalaksanakeun ibadah [[Wukuf]], nyaéta cicing sarta ngadua di padang lega ieu nepi ka cunduk Magrib. Saméméh peuting datang, jamaah geura-giru nuju sarta meuting di [[Muzdalifah]]. * 10 Dzulhijjah, sanggeus isuk-isuk di [[Muzdalifah]], jamaah geura-giru nuju [[Mina]] pikeun ngalaksanakeun ibadah [[Jumrah Aqabah]], nyaéta malédogkeun batu saloba tujuh kali ka tugu kahiji minangka perlambang ngusir sétan. Sanggeus mencukur buuk atawa sawaréh buuk, jamaah bisa Thawaf Haji (ngabéréskeun Haji), atawa bermalam di Mina sarta ngalaksanakeun jumrah sambungan (Ula sarta Wustha). * 11 Dzulhijjah, malédog jumrah sambungan (Ula) di tugu kahiji, tugu kadua, sarta tugu katilu. * 12 Dzulhijjah, maledohkeun jumrah sambungan (Ula) di tugu kahiji, tugu kadua, sarta tugu katilu. * Saméméh balik ka nagara séwang-séwangan, jamaah ngalaksanakeun [[Tawaf Wada']] (thawaf paturay tineung). ==Rukun Haji== Amalan- amalan anu teu meunang henteu kudu dilaksanakeun nalika ibadah haji, umpamana ieu amalan diliwat atawa henteu dipigawé tinangtu hajina henteu sah alias batal.<ref name=Guz>{{Cite book | title =Peta Perjalanan Haji Dan Umrah| first =Guz | last =Arifin| publisher =Elex Media Komputindo| location =Jakarta| year =2004| pages =25|ISBN=9789792776614|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=DsYqOKK3IdUC&pg=PA25&dq=rukun+haji&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj179jGj5mSAxX4zjgGHZ-SIk0Q6AF6BAgJEAE#v=onepage&q=rukun%20haji&f=false|accessdate=(disungsi – 20 Januari 2026)}}</ref>Numutkeun istilah fikih rukun hartina sagala anu baris nyieun hiji hal henteu bisa ngawujud mun henteu aya inyana. Kitu deui dina ibadah haji, rukun téh sagala rupa hal anu ngabalukarkeun ibadah haji jadi teu sah atawa batal lamun aya hal anu geus tangtu teu dipigawé.<ref name=Ahm/> # ''[[Ihram]]'': Nyaéta mimitina lumaku kaharama-kaharaman dina ibadah haji dimimitian, kayaning ngawinkeun kitu ogé kawin, sapatemon, maéhan sasatoan, neukteuk kuku jeung buuk, maké minyak seungit, maké baju anu dikaput pikeun lalaki, nutupan beungeut tur dampal leungeun pikeun awéwé.<ref name=Ahm/> Larangan atawa kaharaman ieu lumaku salila ngalaksanakeun haji kurang leuwih lima poé, lamun seug éta larangan dirumpak maka baris meunang denda (dam)/kudu mayar denada.<ref name=Ahm>{{Cite book | title =Ensiklopedia Fikih Indonesia: Haji & Umrah| first =Ahmad | last =Sarwat, Lc, M.A| publisher =Gramedia Pustaka| location =Jakarta| year =2019| pages =25|ISBN=9786020382975|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=P3yMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA86&dq=rukun+haji&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj179jGj5mSAxX4zjgGHZ-SIk0Q6AF6BAgLEAE#v=onepage&q=rukun%20haji&f=false|accessdate=(disungsi – 20 Januari 2026)}}</ref> # ''[[Wukuf]] Di Arafah'' : Ieu téh rukun anu paling utama malahan bakat ku pentingna saupama ieu rukun teu dilaksanakeun tinangtu sakabéh rukun hajina baris batal atawa teu sah sarta hajina kudu dibalikan deui taun hareupna. [[Wukuf]] téh dipigawé ngan satuan sakali nyaéta tanggal 9 Zulhijah wungkul.<ref name=Ahm/> # ''[[Tawaf Ifadah|Thawaf Ifadhah]]'': Tayalian dilaksanakeun samulangna ti Arafah sarta meuting di Muzdalifah, jamaah haji leumpang ngurilingan kabah lobana tujuh kuriling dimimitian ti hajar aswad nepika tepung deui di hajar aswad éta disebut sakuriling. Ibadah ieu teumeunang diwakilkeun kanu séjén, lamun teu dipigawé tangtuna hajina teu sah atawa batal.<ref name=Ahm/> # ''[[Sa'i]] Antara Shafa Jeung Marwa'': Tayalian leumpang ti mimiti [[pasir]] Shafa nepi kan [[pasir]] Marwa diitung sakali/sabalik anu lobana nepika 7 balikan kudu noron dipigawena teumeunang kaselang ku amalan séjén, dilaksanakeunna sabada thawaf ifadhah.<ref name= KH>{{Cite book | title =Inti Fiqih Haji dan 'Umrah: Terjemah Kitab al-Manasik al-Shughra li Qashid Umm al-Qura karya KH. Hasyim Asy'ari| first = KH. Muhammad | last =Hasyim Asy'ari| publisher =Genius Media Malang| location =Malang| year =2004| pages =25|ISBN=9786021442111|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=C2zsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26&dq=rukun+haji&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj179jGj5mSAxX4zjgGHZ-SIk0Q6AF6BAgIEAE#v=onepage&q=rukun%20haji&f=false|accessdate=(disungsi – 20 Januari 2026)}}</ref><ref name=Ahm/> # ''[[Tahallul|Tahalul]]'': Nyaéta neukteuk buuk dina sirah urang sakurang-kurangna tilu lambar, teu meunang neukteuk buuk tina bagéan awak anu séjéna. Tahalul ogé sok disebut al-halqu wa at-taqshir anu pihartieuna ngadugulan buuk sirah atawa neukteuk [[buuk]] [[sirah]] sawaréh.<ref name= KH/><ref name=Ahm/> # Tartib : Maksudna migawé rukun Haji kudu luyu jeung katangtuanna teu meunang di aclogan tina rukun ka hiji tuluy migawé rukun ka lima atawa rukun séjéna salian ti rukun ka dua. Jadi dina prakna kudu merenah éntépanna kahiji, ka dua, ka tilu, jeung saterusna.<ref name= KH/><ref name=Ahm/> ==Wajib Haji== Jamaah haji kudu migawé katangtuan wajib haji, umpamana henteu kapigawé alatan aya halangan bisa diganti kujalan mayar denda (Dam) sanajan kitu hajina tetep sah.<ref name= H./> Tapi umpama teu migawé wajib haji ieu alatan ngahaja sok komo bari nyapirakeun, ieumah baris ngadatangkeun dosa sarta kudu meuncit kurban. Sakumaha anu diunggel dina hadist riwayat Malik '''"Singsaha waé anu ninggalkeun hiji ibadah wajib dina Haji atawa poho, mangka anjeuna kudu meuncit kurban"''.<ref name= H./> Wajib haji téh aya lima, kayaning: # ''[[Mabit]]'': Meuting di [[Muzdalifah]] dina peuting tangga 10 Dzulhijah # ''Mabit'': Maeting di Mina dina peuting tanggal 11-13 Dzulhijah # ''[[Jumrah Aqabah|Jumrah Aqobah]]'' : Maledogkeun batu kana patok anu geus disayagikeun lobana 7 kali dina poé 10 Dzulhijah # ''[[Jumrah Ula]], [[Jumrah Wustha|Wustha]], Aqabah : Malédogkeun batu kana unggal tihang éta anu lobana 7 kali dina unggal tihang # ''[[Tawaf Wada'|Thawaf Wada]]'' : Thawaf paturay tineung saméméh jamaah haji kaluar ti kota [[Mekah]]<ref name= H.>{{Cite book | title =The Journey To Arafah : Kisah Perjalanan Spiritual| first = H. Wahyudi| last =ST., M.Eng.| publisher =PT Adab Indonesia| location =Indramayu| year =2019| pages =32|ISBN=9786238776429|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=QcExEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA37&dq=Arafah&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiFl4Or75mSAxXI7jgGHQU4JzYQ6AF6BAgEEAE#v=onepage&q=Arafah&f=false|accessdate=(disungsi – 21 Januari 2026)}}</ref> ==Pantangan Dina Ibadah Haji== Aya genep perkara anu dipantang dina waktu ngajalankeun [[ibadah]] haji jeung [[umrah]] tayalian: # Maké [[kaméja]], [[calana]], '''muzah''' (sapatu kulit), jeung [[sorban]]. Pikeun kaum [[lalaki]] tambahan ku teu meunang nutupan [[sirah]]na, alatan ihramna lalaki nya dina sirah. Pikeun kaum [[awéwé]]mah meunang maké [[baju]] beunang [[ngaput]] tapi teumeunang nutupan [[beungeut]]na, alatan ihramna awéwémah dina beungeutna.<ref name=Al-/> # Teumeunang maké seuseungitan saperti minyak seungit jeung sajabana, sarta ngajauhan sagala rupa anu seungit-seungit. Umpama pantangan ieu dirumpak, hukumna kudu mayar dengda (dam) kujalan meuncit [[domba]]. # Neukteuk [[buuk]] ogé neukteuk kuku ieu téh dipantang pisan nalika ihram,lamun dirumpak hukumana sarua kudu meuncit domba.<ref name=Al-/> # [[Sapatemon]], ngupat batur, paréa-réa omong, ieu pagawéan baris ngaruksak haji lamun seug dipigawé saméméh tahalul. Lamun seug dirumpak ieu pantangan kudu mayar dam dina palebah dieu ku [[onta]] [[bikang]], [[sapi]], atawa 7 [[domba]]. Tapi lamun dibigawéna sabada [[[[Tahallul|tahalul]]]] wajib hukumna meuncit onta bikang sangkan hajina henteu ruksak.<ref name=Al-/> # Ngalakukeun pagawéan, omongan, atawa rindat anu matak ngadatangkeun napsu/birahi pikeun sapatemon ieu dipantang pisan, Lamun seug dirumpak baris meunang hukuman kudu mayar hiji domba. Kitu deui kawin atawa ngawinkeun ieu hukumna henteu sah, sagigireun ti éta kudu mayar dam ogé.<ref name=Al-/> # Teumeunang maéhan [[sato]] darat, [[moro]] jeung sajabana. Lamun dirumpak ieu pantangan, kudu ngaganti sato anu paéh éta ku sato anu sarua kalawan beurat jeung ukuran anu sarua.<ref name=Al->{{Cite book | title =Rahasia Haji dan Umrah| first =Al-Ghazali| last =Imam| publisher =Turos| location =Jakarta| year =2017| pages =69|ISBN=9786021583487|url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/43449800-rahasia-haji-umrah|accessdate=(disungsi – 22 Januari 2026)}}</ref> ==Lokasi utama dina ibadah haji== ===Makkah Al Mukaromah=== Di dayeuh ieu pisan nangtung puseur ibadah umat Islam sadunya, [[Ka'bah]], anu aya di puseur [[Masjidil Haram]]. Dina ritual haji, [[Makkah]] jadi tempat bubuka sarta panutup ibadah ieu sabot jamaah diwajibkeun ngalaksanakeun niat sarta thawaf haji. ===Arafah=== Dayeuh di palebah wétan Makkah ieu ogé dipikawanoh minangka tempat puseurna haji, tayalian tempat [[Wukuf]] dilaksanakeun. Wewengkon ngawangun padang lega ieu téh tempat ngariungna kira-kira dua juta jamaah haji ti sakuliah dunya. Di luar usum haji, wewengkon ieu henteu dipaké. ===Mina=== Tempat nangtungna tugu [[jumrah]], nyaéta tempat palaksanaan kagiatan melontarkan batu ka tugu jumrah minangka simbolisasi tindakan [[Nabi Ibrahim]] sabot ngusir setan. Dimasing-maising tempat éta nangtung tugu anu dipaké pikeun palaksanaan: [[Jumrah Aqabah]], [[Jumrah Ula]], sarta [[Jumrah Wustha]]. Di tempat ieu jamaah ogé diwajibkeun pikeun menginap hiji peuting. ===Muzdalifah=== Tempat di deukeut Mina sarta Arafah, dipikawanoh minangka tempat jamaah haji ngalakonan Mabit (Bermalam) sarta ngumpulkeun bebatuan pikeun ngalaksanakeun ibadah jumrah di Mina. ===Madinah=== Nyaéta dayeuh suci kadua umat Islam. Di tempat ieu pisan panutan umat Islam, [[Muhammad|Nabi Muhammad SAW]] dimakamkan di [[Masjid Nabawi]]. Tempat ieu sabenerna henteu asup ka dina ritual ibadah haji, tapi jamaah haji ti sakumna dunya biasana menyempatkan diri nganjang ka dayeuh anu tempatna kurang leuwih 200&nbsp;km kalér [[Makkah]] ieu pikeun berziarah sarta ngalaksanakeun [[solat|sholat]] di masjid Nabi. ==Waktu Jeung Tempat Ibadah Haji== {| class="wikitable" style="width: 100%; border: 1px solid black; font-size: 95%;" |- style="background-color: #2e8b57; color: white; text-align: center;" ! Kaping !! Waktos !! Kagiatan & Tempat !! Detil Ritual !! Rujukan Arab & Hartosna |- | style="text-align: center;" | '''8'''<br><small>(Tarwiyah)</small> || 08.00 - Isya || '''Niat & Mabit'''<br>[[Mina]] || Nganggo ihram sarta nginep di Mina. || style="text-align: right;" | '''فَأَهَلُّوا بِالْحَجِّ'''<br><small>"...maka maranéhna ngamimitian ihram pikeun haji." (HR. Muslim 1218)</small> |- | style="text-align: center;" | '''9'''<br><small>(Arafah)</small> || 12.00 - 18.00 || '''[[Wukuf]]'''<br>[[Arafah]] || Puncak haji: Dzikir sarta ngadu'a. || style="text-align: right;" | '''فَإِذَا أَفَضْتُمْ مِنْ عَرَفَاتٍ'''<br><small>"Maka nalika aranjeun parantos angkat ti Arafat..." (QS. Al-Baqarah: 198)</small> |- | style="text-align: center;" | '''9-10''' || 19.00 - Subuh || '''Mabit'''<br>[[Muzdalifah]] || Nginep sakedap sarta mulung krikil. || style="text-align: right;" | '''فَاذْكُرُوا اللَّهَ عِنْدَ الْمَشْعَرِ الْحَرَامِ'''<br><small>"...kudu nyebut Allah di Masy'aril Haram." (QS. Al-Baqarah: 198)</small> |- | style="text-align: center;" | '''10'''<br><small>(Nahr)</small> || 06.00 - 11.00 || '''[[Jumrah Aqabah]]'''<br>[[Mina]] || Ngalémpar 7 krikil sarta '''Tahallul'''. || style="text-align: right;" | '''يَرْمِي الْجَمْرَةَ يَوْمَ النَّحْرِ'''<br><small>"Nabi ngalémpar jumrah dina dinten Nahr." (HR. Bukhari 1745)</small> |- | style="text-align: center;" | '''10''' || 12.00 - Isya || '''[[Tawaf Ifadah]]'''<br>[[Masjidil Haram]] || Muteran [[[[Kabah|Baitullah]]]] (Ka'bah) 7 kali. || style="text-align: right;" | '''وَلْيَطَّوَّفُوا بِالْبَيْتِ الْعَتِيقِ'''<br><small>"...sarta kudu tawaf maranéhna di Baitul Atiq." (QS. Al-Hajj: 29)</small> |- | style="text-align: center;" | '''11-12'''<br><small>(Tasyrik)</small> || Saatos Duhur || '''Lémpar 3 Jumrah'''<br>[[Mina]] || Ula, Wustha, Aqabah (@7 krikil). || style="text-align: right;" | '''وَاذْكُرُوا اللَّهَ فِي أَيَّامٍ مَعْدُودَاتٍ'''<br><small>"Sarta kudu dzikir ka Allah dina poé nu geus ditangtukeun." (QS. Al-Baqarah: 203)</small> |- | style="text-align: center;" | '''13'''<br><small>(Tasyrik)</small> || Saatos Duhur || '''Nafar Tsani'''<br>[[Mina]] || Husus pikeun anu netep sapeuting deui. || style="text-align: right;" | '''فَمَنْ تَعَجَّلَ فِي يَوْمَيْنِ فَلَا إِثْمَ عَلَيْهِ'''<br><small>"Sing saha nu gura-giru (mulang) dina dua poé, maka euweuh dosa." (QS. Al-Baqarah: 203)</small> |- | style="text-align: center;" | '''Ahir''' || Sateuacan Mulang || '''[[Tawaf Wada']]'''<br>[[Masjidil Haram]] || Tawaf pamitan (perpisahan). || style="text-align: right;" | '''يَكُونَ آخِرُ عَهْدِهِمْ بِالْبَيْتِ'''<br><small>"...sangkan (tawaf) jadi ahir lalampahan maranéhna." (HR. Muslim 1327)</small> |} ==Catetan kacilakaan ibadah haji== * [[Désémber]] [[1975]]: 200 jamaah palastra di deukeut dayeuh Makkah sanggeus hiji pipa gas ngajelegur sarta ngaduruk sapuluh tenda. * [[4 Désémber]] [[1979]]: 153 jamaah palastra sarta 560 séjénna tatu sanggeus patugas kaamanan Arab Saudi anu dibantuan patugas [[Perancis]] mecakan membébaskan Masjidil Haram anu disandera sajumplukan militan salila dua minggu. * [[31 Juli]] [[1987]]: 402 jamaah palastra, 275 di antarana ti Iran, sanggeus rébuan jamaah Iran anu ngalakonan demonstrasi meunang lalawanan fisik ti kaamanan Arab Saudi. Alatan ti insiden éta Arab Saudi megatkeun hubungan diplomatik jeung Iran, anu ahirna henteu ngirimkeun jamaahna ka Makkah nepi ka taun1991. * [[10 Juli]] [[1989]]: hiji jamaah palastra sarta 16 tatu alatan penembakan didalam Masjidil Haram. Balukarna 16 urang Kuwait anu ngalakonan penyerangan dihukum tembak mati. * [[15 Juli]] [[1989]]: lima jamaah asal Pakistan palastra sarta 34 séjénna tatu alatan insiden penembakan ku sajumplukan jelema nyekel pakarang di padumukan maranéhanana di Makkah. * [[2 Juli]] [[1990]]: 1.426 jamaah palastra lolobana ti Asia alatan terperangkap didalam torowongan Mina. * [[24 Méi]] [[1994]]: 270 jamaah palastra alatan silih dorong sarta injak di Mina. * [[7 Méi]] [[1995]]: tilu jamaah palastra alatan kebakaran di Mina. * 15 April [[1997]]: 343 jamaah palastra sarta 1.500 séjénna tatu alatan kehabisan nafas alatan terjebak didalam kebakaran tenda di Mina. * [[9 April]] [[1998]]: 118 jamaah palastra alatan berdésak–désakkan waktu palaksanaan lontar jumroh. * [[5 Maret]] [[2001]]: 35 jamaah palastra sarta puluhan séjénna tatu – tatu alatan berdésak – désakan di Jammarat. * [[11 Pebruari]] [[2003]]: 14 jamaah palastra di Jumrotul Mina – genep di antarana wanoja. * [[1 Pebruari]] [[2004]]: Saloba 251 jamaah palastra salila palaksanaan lontar jumrah. * [[23 Januari]] [[2005]]: 29 jamaah palastra alatan caah panggoréngna dina 20 taunpamungkas di Madinah. * [[5 Januari]] [[2006]]: Saloba 76 palastra alatan runtuhnya hiji penginapan al-rayahin di jalan Gaza, kira-kira 200 méter palebah kulon Masjidil Haram. * [[12 Jan]] [[2006]]: Saeutikna 345 jamaah palastra di Jammarat salila palaksanaan lontar jumrah. Insiden ieu lumangsung dina jam 15.30 waktu satempat réngsé solat dzuhur, sanggeus jutaan jamaah silih berdésak–désakkan di panto asup palebah kalér lanté dua Jammarat. == Rujukan == * {{cite book|last=Bianchi|first=Robert R.|year=2004|title=Guests of God: Pilgrimage and Politics in the Islamic World|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-517107-5}} * {{cite book|last=Hammoudi|first=Abdellah|year=2006|title=A Season in Mecca: Narrative of a Pilgrimage|publisher=Hill and Wang|isbn=978-0-8090-7609-3|author-link=Abdellah Hammoudi|url=https://archive.org/details/seasoninmeccanar00hamm}} * Khan, Qaisra, "Hajj & 'Umra", in ''Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God'' (2 vols.), edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol. I, pp.&nbsp;239–245. * {{cite book|last=Patler|first=Nicholas|title=From Mecca to Selma: Malcolm X, Islam, and the Journey tnto the American Civil Rights Movement|year=2017|publisher=The Islamic Monthly|url=http://theislamicmonthly.com/mecca-to-selma/}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230082856/https://www.theislamicmonthly.com/mecca-to-selma/ |date=2022-12-30 }} * {{cite book|last=Trojanow|first=Ilija|year=2007|title=Mumbai to Mecca: A Pilgrimage to the Holy Sites of Islam|publisher=Haus Publishing|isbn=978-1-904950-29-5|author-link=Ilija Trojanow}} ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Haji]] [[Kategori:Rukun islam]] {{Ibadah Haji}} 8ngl009nabi4vrksmwkahpelm6uytlr 0 25860 708599 651515 2026-04-26T13:22:42Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708599 wikitext text/x-wiki {{otheruses}} {{Infobox City Japan |Name= Osaka |JapaneseName= 大阪市 |MapImage= Osaka-osaka-city.svg |Region= [[Kansai]] |Prefecture= [[Osaka Prefecture|Osaka]] |District= |Area_km2= 222.11 |PopDate= [[1 Januari]], [[2007]] |Population= 2,636,257<br />(19,220,000 in [[Metropolitan Area]]) |Density_km2= 11869 |Coords= {{coor dm|34|42|N|135|30|E|type:city_region:JP}} |Tree= [[Sakura]] |Flower= [[Pansy]] |Bird= |SymbolImage= |SymbolDescription= |Mayor= [[Kunio Hiramatsu]] |CityHallPostalCode= 530-8201 |CityHallAddress= 1-3-20 Nakanoshima, Kita-ku, Ōsaka-shi, Ōsaka-fu |CityHallPhone= 06-6208-8181 |CityHallLink= [http://www.city.osaka.jp/english/ Kota Osaka] }} {{nihongo|'''Kota Osaka'''|大阪市|Ōsaka-shi}} {{Audio|ja-Osaka.ogg|listen}} nyaéta hiji [[Kota-kota Jepang|kota]] di [[Jepang]], aya di muara [[Yodo River|Walungan Yodo]] di [[Osaka Bay|Basisir Osaka]], [[Wewengkon Kansai]] di Pulo Utama [[Honshū]]. Kota ieu mangrupa ibukota [[Osaka Prefecture|Préféktur Osaka]]. Disebut [[second city|kota nomer dua]] Jepang, Osaka sacara sajarah mangrupa ibukota dagang Jepang, tur kiwari nomer dua panggedéna di Jepang, wewengkon metropolitan [[Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto]] nomer salapan di dunya, nu populasina is 19,220,000. Nu narik ti Kota Osaka nyaéta tempat nomer hiji keur beurang ka peuting babandingan populasina nyaéta 141%,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/kokusei/2000/jutsu1/00/01.htm |title=Population Census: I Daytime Population |accessdate=2007-03-28 |date=2002-03-29 |work=Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications}}</ref> nu ngayankinkeun yén Osaka pusat ekonomi jeung dagang. Mangsa peuting populasi nomer tilu di Jepang nyaéta 2.6 juta, sedengkeun beurang ampit 3.7 juta, nomer dua sanggeus [[Tokyo]].<ref>Counting [[Special wards of Tokyo]], which is not a single incorporated city, for statistical purpose. See the [[Tokyo]] article for more information on the definition and makeup of Tokyo.</ref> Sacara tradisional, Osaka dianggap {{nihongo|"dapur nasional"|天下の台所|tenka no daidokoro}} atawa kota pusat kadaharan Jepang.<ref name="osakahist">{{cite web|title=Historical Overview, the City of Osaka official homepage|url=http://www.city.osaka.jp/english/for_tourists/c_historical_overview.html|accessdate=2007-03-22}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071106162354/http://www.city.osaka.jp/english/for_tourists/c_historical_overview.html |date=2007-11-06 }} Navigate to the equivalent Japanese page (大阪市の歴史 タイムトリップ20,000年 (History of Osaka, A timetrip back 20,000 years))[http://www.city.osaka.jp/city/history/history.html/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226221108/http://www.city.osaka.jp/city/history/history.html |date=2009-02-26 }} for additional information.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Aprodicio A. Laquian |title=Beyond metropolis: the planning and governance of Asia's mega-urban regions |publisher=Woodrow Wilson Center Press |location=Washington, D.C |year=2005 |pages=27 |isbn=0-8018-8176-5 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=edited by James L. McClain and Wakita Osamu |title=Osaka, the merchants' capital of early modern Japan |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, N.Y |year=1999 |pages=67 |isbn=0-8014-3630-3 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Robert C. Hsu |title=The MIT encyclopedia of the Japanese economy |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, Mass |year=1999 |pages=327 |isbn=0-262-08280-2 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> == Transportasi == === Udara === [[Kansai International Airport|Bandara Internasional Kansai]] nyaéta [[airport|bandara]] utama: bentuk [[artificial island|pulo buatan]] kotan di basisir Osaka tur ngalayanan Osaka jeung kota-kota sabudeureunna saperti [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], [[Kobe]], jeung [[Kyoto]]. [[Kansai]] nyaéta watesan géografi keur wewengkon kulon Honshū sabudeureun Osaka. Bandara dihubungkeun ku [[bus]] jeung [[train]] ka pusat kota jeung sub urban utama. [[Osaka International Airport|Bandara Internasional Osaka]], aya di water kota [[Itami]] jeung [[Toyonaka]], masih dipaké keur penerbangan domestik ka sababaraha wewengkon metropolitan. === Kareta api === Sistem [[Osaka Municipal Subway]] nyaetéa bagéan tina sistim transportasi umum di Osaka. Sistim ieu, nomer 8 di dunya dumasar kana jumlah penumpangna, kurang leuwih 912 juta sataun. Salian ti eta, aya jaringan séjén boh [[West Japan Railway Company|JR]] atawa jalur swasta nu ngahubungkeun ka daerah sub urban jeung Osaka sabudeureunna. Jalur [[Keihan Electric Railway|Keihan]] jeung [[Hankyu Railway|Hankyu]] ngahubungkeun ka Kyoto, Jalur [[Hanshin Railway|Hanshin]] jeung [[Hankyu Kobe Line|Hankyu]] ngahubungkeun ka Kobe, jalur [[Kintetsu]] ka Nara jeung [[Nagoya]], sarta jalur [[Nankai Railway|Nankai]] ka [[Wakayama]]. 10 juta jiwa di Gréater Osaka ngagunakeun kareta keur ''transportasi utama sapopoena'', nomer dua sanggeus Gréater Tokyo, sarta leuwih ti [[United States]]. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{wikivoyage|Osaka}} {{commonscat|Osaka}} * [http://www.wikimapia.org/#y=34680000&x=135500000&z=11&l=1&m=a WikiSatellite view of Osaka at WikiMapia] * [http://www.city.osaka.jp/english/ Official City of Osaka homepage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081009075903/http://www.city.osaka.jp/english/ |date=2008-10-09 }} * [http://www.tourism.city.osaka.jp/en/index.htm Osaka Tourist Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060203165929/http://www.tourism.city.osaka.jp/en/index.htm |date=2006-02-03 }}* [http://libcom.org/tags/osaka A collection of articles about the Kamagasaki area of Osaka] on libcom.org * [http://www.runmuki.com/paul/writing/japantrip.html Bicycling in Osaka] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120083318/http://www.runmuki.com/paul/writing/japantrip.html |date=2019-11-20 }} * [http://www.osaka.fr/ Osaka City Paris Office] {{Osaka}} {{Regions and administrative divisions of Japan}} {{World's most populated urban areas}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Kota di Préféktur Osaka]] [[Kategori:Kota basisir]] [[Kategori:Osaka| ]] [[Kategori:Daya tarik keur nu pelesir di Préféktur Osaka]] [[Kategori:Kota palabuan di Jepang]] l17pnpgh05szqdn0hmhwpy5i32s4n5u 0 31045 708614 708274 2026-04-26T17:53:19Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708614 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{Infobox World Heritage Site | WHS = Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon | Image = [[Gambar:Ujungkulon.jpg|200px|Ujung Kulon]] | State Party = {{INA}} | Type = Natural | Criteria = vii, ix | ID = 608 | Region = [[Daptar Loka Warisan Dunya di Asia jeung Australasia|Asia-Pasifik]] | Year = 1991 | Session = ka-15 | Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/608 }} '''Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon''' nyaéta taman nasional nu perenahna di tungtung kulon [[Jawa (pulo)|Jawa]], [[Indonesia]]. Ujung Kulon ngawengku jumplukan kapuloan vulkanik [[Rakata|Krakatoa]] jeung kapuloan liana kaasup [[Panaitan]], [[Handeuleum]] jeung [[Peucang]]. Taman ieu legana 1,206&nbsp;km² (443&nbsp;km² cai), nu lolobanaana ngampar di hiji [[semenanjung]]/[[Ancol]] nu yolongodor ka [[Samudra India]]. Wewengkon daratna baheulana mangrupa wewengkon keur tatanén tepi ka populasina béak taun 1883 nalika bituna Krakatoa nu satuluyna balik deui kana kaayaan aslina mangrupa leuweung. == Kaistimewaan == Ieu kawasan mangrupa taman nasional munggaran di [[Indonésia]] sarta ditetepkeun salaku Situs Warisan Dunya (''World Heritage Site'') ku [[UNESCO]] dina taun 1992, lantaran miboga leuweung hujan tropis ''(rainforest)'' dataran landeuh anu panglegana di Pulo [[Jawa]].<ref name="UNESCO">UNESCO World Heritage Centre. [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/608 Ujung Kulon National Park].</ref> Salian ti éta, kawasan ieu ogé jadi salah sahiji ti dua tempat panyalindungan pikeun sato anu kaancam punah, nyaéta [[Badak sunda|Badak Jawa]].<ref name="IUCN">IUCN. [https://www.iucn.org/ Protected Areas: Ujung Kulon].</ref> Populasi badak di Ujung Kulon aya sakitar 50 nepi ka 60 ékor, sedengkeun populasi anu leuwih saeutik (sakitar 10 ékor atawa kurang) aya di [[Taman Nasional Cat Tien]], [[Vietnam]].<ref name="GBIF">GBIF.org. [https://www.gbif.org/dataset/84457580-705d-11e0-911d-00145eb45e97 Biodiversity in Ujung Kulon]{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.</ref> Taman nasional ieu nangtayungan 57 spésiés tutuwuhan langka. Aya 35 spésiés mamalia anu ngawengku [[Banténg]], [[Owa Jawa]] (''Silvery Gibbon''), [[Lutung Jawa]] (''Javan Lutung''), [[Monyét]] (''Crab-eating Macaque''), [[Maung Tutul]] ''(Leopard)'', [[''Peucang'']] (''Java Mouse-deer''), sarta [[Uncal]] (''Rusa Deer'').<ref name="Dephut">Kamentrian Lingkungan Hidup jeung Kehutanan. [http://www.ujungkulon.org/ Profil Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon].</ref> Aya ogé 72 spésiés réptil jeung amfibi, sarta 240 spésiés manuk.<ref name="NCBI">NCBI. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi Taxonomy Browser: Ujung Kulon Fauna].</ref> == Fasilitas jeung Palayanan == [[File:TAMAN NASIONAL UJUNG KULON.jpg|150px|left|jempol|TAMAN_NASIONAL_UJUNG_KULON]] Ijin pikeun asup ka taman nasional sayagi di kota [[Labuan]], nyaéta di kantor Balai Taman Nasional. Kantor lianna ogé aya di Tamanjaya.<ref name="Dephut"/> Pikeun pameuleuman atawa ''akomodasi'', sayagi di Pulo Handeuleum jeung Pulo Peucang.<ref name="IUCN"/> == Tempo ogé == {{portal|Indonesia}} * [[Daptar taman nasional di Indonesia]] * [[Geograpi Indonesia]] == Tumbu luar == * [http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=608 Ujung Kulon National Park] at UNESCO World Heritage website. * [http://www.ujung-kulon.net/lokasi.php Official website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090621085706/http://www.ujung-kulon.net/lokasi.php |date=2009-06-21 }} (Indonésian) {{World Heritage Sites in Indonesia}} {{coord|6|45|S|105|20|E|display=title|region:ID_type:isle_source:nlwiki}} [[Kategori:Loka Warisan Dunya di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Taman Nasional di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Taman warisan ASEAN]] [[Kategori:Selat Sunda]] [[Kategori:Taman nasional]] {{WJava-geo-stub}} j692xk5aksggnywuv01gs0pgphquu1d 0 33639 708616 704613 2026-04-26T18:15:39Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708616 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Writer | name = Tini Kartini | image = | imagesize = 200px | caption = Tini Kartini | pseudonym = | birth_date = [[29 Oktober]] [[1933]] | birth_place = [[Tasikmalaya]] | death_date = | death_place = | occupation = Pangarang | nationality = Indonésia | period = | genre = Carpon jeung hasil panalungtikan basa&sastra Sunda | subject = | movement = | debut_works = | spouse = | partner = | children = | relations = | influences = | influenced = | signature = | website = | footnotes = }} '''Tini Kartini''' lahir di [[Tasikmalaya]] tanggal [[29 Oktober]] [[1933]].<ref name="internet1">[http://daluang.com/baca/eusi/tini-kartini Tini Kartini] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111219061506/http://daluang.com/baca/eusi/tini-kartini |date=2011-12-19 }} (Diakses tanggal 12 Oktober 2011)</ref> Sabada namatkeun SGA (Sakola Guru), kungsi jadi guru bari milu keurseus B-1 basa Sunda. Mangsa milu keurseus B-1, Tini sakelas pisan jeung [[Ahmad Bakri]], pangarang produktif Ciamis téa.<ref name="internet2">[http://lalayang-girimukti.tripod.com/tagog.htm Tina Kahirupan Tini Kartini] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126170433/https://lalayang-girimukti.tripod.com/tagog.htm |date=2022-11-26 }} (Diakses tanggal 12 Oktober 2011)</ref> Tuluy Tini nyuprih pangarti di [[IKIP]] [[Bandung]], Jurusan Basa jeung Sastra Indonésia nepi ka tamat taun [[1969]].<ref name="penemuan1">Tim Redaksi.2000.Ensiklopedi Sunda Alam, Manusia dan Budaya.Jakarta:Pustaka Jaya dan Yayasan Kebudayaan Rancage</ref> Kungsi jadi girang serat jeung pupuhu Jurusan Bahasa & Sastra Indonésia IKIP Bandung Éksténsion Tasikmalaya ([[1970]]-[[1972]]).<ref name="penemuan1"/> Tuluy pindah ka Bandung, jadi staf Widang Permusiuman ([[1972]]-[[1974]]) jeung staf Widang Atikan Masyarakat ([[1974]]-[[1989]]) Kanwil Depdikbud Jawa Barat.<ref name="penemuan1"/> Kungsi jadi dosén luar biasa di [[Universitas Islam Nusantara]] ([[1984]]-[[1989]]).<ref name="penemuan1"/> Sabada pangsiun ti Depdikbud ([[1989]]) jadi dosén luar biasa di [[Universitas Pasundan]].<ref name="penemuan1"/> Ti taun [[1994]] jadi kepala Perpustakaan [[Prof. Dr. Doddy A. Tisna Amidjaja]].<ref name="internet1"/> Kapilih jadi [[Sesepuh Paguyuban Sastrawati Sunda]] [[Patrem]] nu munggaran ([[1982]]-[[1990]]).<ref name="internet1"/> Sering kapeto jadi juri rupa-rupa sayémbara, di antarana saban taun jadi anggota juri [[Hadiah Sastra Taunan LBSS]] ti mimiti taun 1990 sarta [[Hadiah Sastra D.K Ardiwinata]].<ref name="internet1"/> Salian ti éta, Tini ogé aktif di sawatara organisasi sosial non profit salaku girang serat [[Yayasan Keluarga Sejahtera Provinsi Jawa Barat]] jeung girang serat [[Yayasan Amal Bakti Ibu Provinsi Jawa Barat]].<ref name="internet1"/> ==Karya-karya Tini Kartini== Tini leuwih kasohor salaku pangarang carita pondok. Sawatara buku kumpulan carita pondokna nyaéta:<ref name="internet1"/> # ''Jurig!'' ([[1963]]). # ''Paséa'' ([[1965]]). # ''Nyi Karsih'' ([[1984]]). # ''Paméran''. Bukuna nu séjén mangrupa kumpulan dongéng Si Kabayan dijudulan ''Jurig Kabayan'' ([[1988]]).<ref name="internet2"/> Carpon Tini anu dijudulan Nyi Karsih kungsi diIndonésiakeun ku Ajip Rosidi.<ref name="internet2"/> Dimuat dina koleksi ''Dua Orang Dukun'' ([[Yayasan Obor Indonesia]], [[2001]]) bareng jeung tarjamahan tina karya para pangarang Sunda lianna, karangan Tini nu éta geus milu ngabeungharan sastra Indonésia.<ref name="internet2"/> Tini ogé kungsi nyundakeun sawatara carpon beunang para pangarang dunya kayaning [[Akutagawa Ryunosuke]], [[Mishima Yukio]], [[Soséki Natsumé]], [[Somerset Maugham]], [[John Stéinbeck]], jeung lian-lianna deui. Tétéla, manéhna mah lain baé resep ngarang tapi deuih resep macaan karangan nu séjén.<ref name="internet2"/> Réa bahan babandingan, réa luang pikeun ngajembaran wawasan.<ref name="internet2"/> Salian ti nulis karya kréatif, Tini ogé réa ngayakeun panalungtikan ngeunaan basa jeung sastra Sunda, di antarana anu geus dibukukeun nyaéta # ''Daéng Kanduruan Ardiwinata, Sastrawan Sunda'' ([[1979]]) # ''Yuhana, Sastrawan Sunda''(minangka Ketua Tim, [[1979]]) # ''Biografi dan Karya Pujangga Haji Hasan Mustafa'' (Ketua Tim, [[1985]]) # ''Struktur Cerita Pantun Sunda Masa'' [[1945]]-[[1965]] (Ketua Tim, [[1978]]) # ''M.A. Salmun, Sastrawan Sunda'' (Ketua Tim, [[1987]]) # ''Undak-Usuk Basa Sunda'' (Ketua Tim, [[1977]]) # ''Sastra Lakon dalam Bahasa Sunda'' (Ketua Tim, [[1981]]) # ''Pupujian dalam Bahasa Sunda'' (Ketua Tim, [[1984]]) # ''Pemakaian Bahasa Indonésia oléh Masyarakat Désa di Jawa Barat''(Ketua Tim, [[1985]]) # Tokoh Si Kabayan: Karakter dan Perannya (Ketua Tim, [[1989]]) tacan katingal dibukukeun.<ref name="internet1"/> {{Sastra-pondok}} ==Referensi== {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Inohong Sunda]] [[Kategori:Pangarang Sunda]] [[Kategori:Pangarang Sunda Wanoja]] b1tqrxnyo3nrmcn339th5fuey3vufsn 0 34486 708620 653942 2026-04-26T19:07:41Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 /* Sarat jeung katangtuan kurban */ 708620 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kurban''' (Bahasa Arab: قربن, transliterasi: Qurban), disebut ogé ''Udhhiyah'' atawa ''Dhahiyyah'' sacara harfiah berarti sato anu dipencit.<ref name="kurban"/> Sedengkeun ritual kurban nyaéta salah sahiji ritual ibadah [[agama Islam]].<ref name="kurban"/> Ibadah kurban persisisna di [[bulan Dzulhijjah]] nyaéta [[tanggal 10]] (poé nahar), 11,12 jeung 13 (poé tasyrik) pas poé Raya [[Idul Adha]].<ref name="kurban"/> =='''Hukum kurban'''== Mayoritas [[ulama]] tina kalangan sohabat, tabi’in, tabiut tabi’in, jeung fuqaha (ahli fiqh) ngébréhkeun yén hukum kurban nyaéta [[sunnah muakkadah]] (utama), euweuh nu ngawajibkeun iwal [[Abu Hanifah]] (tabi’in).<ref name="kurban"/> [[Ibnu Hazm]] ngébréhkeun euweuh saurang sahabat Nabi anu ngébréhkeun yén kurban téh wajib.<ref name="kurban">[http://indonesian.iloveallaah.com/hukum-dan-adab-berkurban/ HUKUM DAN ADAB BERKURBAN] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108081236/http://indonesian.iloveallaah.com/hukum-dan-adab-berkurban/ |date=2012-01-08 }}(Dicutat tanggal 26 November 2011)</ref> == Dalil Kurban == [https://www.dalilnaqli.com/2020/07/dalil-kurban-ayat-hadits-perintah.html Dalil kurban] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724080535/https://www.dalilnaqli.com/2020/07/dalil-kurban-ayat-hadits-perintah.html |date=2020-07-24 }} tina al-Qur'an diantarana: * al-Kautsar ayat 2 * al-Hajj ayat 34 * as-Saffat ayat 102 =='''Sarat jeung katangtuan kurban'''== Syarat jeung katangtuan ngabagi daging kurban di antarana : * Jalma anu kurban kudu mampuh nyadiakeun sato pikeun dipencit kalayan cara anu halal jeung teu nganjuk.<ref name="sato"/> * Sato nu di kurbankeun kudu sato ternak, saperti onta, sapi, embé atawa [[biri-biri]].<ref name="sato"/> Sato anu dipencit henteu cacat, henteu [[lolong]], cingked, gering jeung boh ceuli boh buntutna kudu utuh.<ref name="sato"/> * Sato anu di kurbankeun geus nyukupan kana umurna, nyaéta [[onta]] umurna 5 taun atawa leuwih, [[sapi]] atawa [[munding]] umurna 2 taun, jeung [[domba]] atawa [[embé]]umurna leuwih ti sataun.<ref name="sato"/> * Jalma anu rék kurban lain ''budak'', kudu geus ''baligh'' jeung miboga akal.<ref name="sato"/> * Daging kurban dibagi tilu, 1/3 pikeun didahar ku nu kurban, 1/3 disodakohkeun,jeung 1/3 bagian dihadiahkeun ka batur.<ref name="sato">[http://terkiniterbaru.com/makanan-minuman/syarat-hewan-kurban-hari-raya-kurban-idhul-adha.html Syarat Hewan Kurban – Hari Raya Kurban Idhul Adha] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119070614/http://terkiniterbaru.com/makanan-minuman/syarat-hewan-kurban-hari-raya-kurban-idhul-adha.html |date=2011-11-19 }}(Dicutat tanggal 26 November 2011)</ref> ==catetan== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Islam]] [[Kategori:Ibadah]] krs30ozm7422ffc6h01qdpxphnjmnl7 708627 708620 2026-04-27T03:42:58Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 /* Dalil Kurban */ 708627 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kurban''' (Bahasa Arab: قربن, transliterasi: Qurban), disebut ogé ''Udhhiyah'' atawa ''Dhahiyyah'' sacara harfiah berarti sato anu dipencit.<ref name="kurban"/> Sedengkeun ritual kurban nyaéta salah sahiji ritual ibadah [[agama Islam]].<ref name="kurban"/> Ibadah kurban persisisna di [[bulan Dzulhijjah]] nyaéta [[tanggal 10]] (poé nahar), 11,12 jeung 13 (poé tasyrik) pas poé Raya [[Idul Adha]].<ref name="kurban"/> =='''Hukum kurban'''== Mayoritas [[ulama]] tina kalangan sohabat, tabi’in, tabiut tabi’in, jeung fuqaha (ahli fiqh) ngébréhkeun yén hukum kurban nyaéta [[sunnah muakkadah]] (utama), euweuh nu ngawajibkeun iwal [[Abu Hanifah]] (tabi’in).<ref name="kurban"/> [[Ibnu Hazm]] ngébréhkeun euweuh saurang sahabat Nabi anu ngébréhkeun yén kurban téh wajib.<ref name="kurban">[http://indonesian.iloveallaah.com/hukum-dan-adab-berkurban/ HUKUM DAN ADAB BERKURBAN] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108081236/http://indonesian.iloveallaah.com/hukum-dan-adab-berkurban/ |date=2012-01-08 }}(Dicutat tanggal 26 November 2011)</ref> == Dalil Kurban == [https://www.dalilnaqli.com/2020/07/dalil-kurban-ayat-hadits-perintah.html Dalil kurban] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724080535/https://www.dalilnaqli.com/2020/07/dalil-kurban-ayat-hadits-perintah.html |date=2020-07-24 }} tina al-Qur'an diantarana: * [[Surah Al-Kautsar|al-Kautsar]] ayat 2 * [[Surah Al-Hajj|al-Hajj]] ayat 34 * [[As Saff|as-Saffat]] ayat 102 =='''Sarat jeung katangtuan kurban'''== Syarat jeung katangtuan ngabagi daging kurban di antarana : * Jalma anu kurban kudu mampuh nyadiakeun sato pikeun dipencit kalayan cara anu halal jeung teu nganjuk.<ref name="sato"/> * Sato nu di kurbankeun kudu sato ternak, saperti onta, sapi, embé atawa [[biri-biri]].<ref name="sato"/> Sato anu dipencit henteu cacat, henteu [[lolong]], cingked, gering jeung boh ceuli boh buntutna kudu utuh.<ref name="sato"/> * Sato anu di kurbankeun geus nyukupan kana umurna, nyaéta [[onta]] umurna 5 taun atawa leuwih, [[sapi]] atawa [[munding]] umurna 2 taun, jeung [[domba]] atawa [[embé]]umurna leuwih ti sataun.<ref name="sato"/> * Jalma anu rék kurban lain ''budak'', kudu geus ''baligh'' jeung miboga akal.<ref name="sato"/> * Daging kurban dibagi tilu, 1/3 pikeun didahar ku nu kurban, 1/3 disodakohkeun,jeung 1/3 bagian dihadiahkeun ka batur.<ref name="sato">[http://terkiniterbaru.com/makanan-minuman/syarat-hewan-kurban-hari-raya-kurban-idhul-adha.html Syarat Hewan Kurban – Hari Raya Kurban Idhul Adha] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119070614/http://terkiniterbaru.com/makanan-minuman/syarat-hewan-kurban-hari-raya-kurban-idhul-adha.html |date=2011-11-19 }}(Dicutat tanggal 26 November 2011)</ref> ==catetan== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Islam]] [[Kategori:Ibadah]] tju2ckislqzbzz45jcwqzcrzd644qmm 708628 708627 2026-04-27T03:44:10Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 /* Sarat jeung katangtuan kurban */ 708628 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kurban''' (Bahasa Arab: قربن, transliterasi: Qurban), disebut ogé ''Udhhiyah'' atawa ''Dhahiyyah'' sacara harfiah berarti sato anu dipencit.<ref name="kurban"/> Sedengkeun ritual kurban nyaéta salah sahiji ritual ibadah [[agama Islam]].<ref name="kurban"/> Ibadah kurban persisisna di [[bulan Dzulhijjah]] nyaéta [[tanggal 10]] (poé nahar), 11,12 jeung 13 (poé tasyrik) pas poé Raya [[Idul Adha]].<ref name="kurban"/> =='''Hukum kurban'''== Mayoritas [[ulama]] tina kalangan sohabat, tabi’in, tabiut tabi’in, jeung fuqaha (ahli fiqh) ngébréhkeun yén hukum kurban nyaéta [[sunnah muakkadah]] (utama), euweuh nu ngawajibkeun iwal [[Abu Hanifah]] (tabi’in).<ref name="kurban"/> [[Ibnu Hazm]] ngébréhkeun euweuh saurang sahabat Nabi anu ngébréhkeun yén kurban téh wajib.<ref name="kurban">[http://indonesian.iloveallaah.com/hukum-dan-adab-berkurban/ HUKUM DAN ADAB BERKURBAN] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108081236/http://indonesian.iloveallaah.com/hukum-dan-adab-berkurban/ |date=2012-01-08 }}(Dicutat tanggal 26 November 2011)</ref> == Dalil Kurban == [https://www.dalilnaqli.com/2020/07/dalil-kurban-ayat-hadits-perintah.html Dalil kurban] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724080535/https://www.dalilnaqli.com/2020/07/dalil-kurban-ayat-hadits-perintah.html |date=2020-07-24 }} tina al-Qur'an diantarana: * [[Surah Al-Kautsar|al-Kautsar]] ayat 2 * [[Surah Al-Hajj|al-Hajj]] ayat 34 * [[As Saff|as-Saffat]] ayat 102 =='''Sarat jeung katangtuan kurban'''== Syarat jeung katangtuan ngabagi daging kurban di antarana : * Jalma anu kurban kudu mampuh nyadiakeun sato pikeun dipencit kalayan cara anu halal jeung teu nganjuk.<ref name="sato"/> * Sato nu di kurbankeun kudu sato ternak, saperti onta, sapi, embé atawa [[biri-biri]].<ref name="sato"/> Sato anu dipeuncit henteu cacat, henteu [[lolong]], cingked, gering jeung boh ceuli boh buntutna kudu utuh.<ref name="sato"/> * Sato anu di kurbankeun geus nyukupan kana umurna, nyaéta [[onta]] umurna 5 taun atawa leuwih, [[sapi]] atawa [[munding]] umurna 2 taun, jeung [[domba]] atawa [[embé]]umurna leuwih ti sataun.<ref name="sato"/> * Jalma anu rék kurban lain ''budak'', kudu geus ''baligh'' jeung miboga akal.<ref name="sato"/> * Daging kurban dibagi tilu, 1/3 pikeun didahar ku nu kurban, 1/3 disodakohkeun,jeung 1/3 bagian dihadiahkeun ka batur.<ref name="sato">[http://terkiniterbaru.com/makanan-minuman/syarat-hewan-kurban-hari-raya-kurban-idhul-adha.html Syarat Hewan Kurban – Hari Raya Kurban Idhul Adha] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119070614/http://terkiniterbaru.com/makanan-minuman/syarat-hewan-kurban-hari-raya-kurban-idhul-adha.html |date=2011-11-19 }}(Dicutat tanggal 26 November 2011)</ref> ==catetan== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Islam]] [[Kategori:Ibadah]] 2twv1tvfzqrt6febvtiwny8ags3cry6 708629 708628 2026-04-27T03:44:45Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 /* Sarat jeung katangtuan kurban */ 708629 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kurban''' (Bahasa Arab: قربن, transliterasi: Qurban), disebut ogé ''Udhhiyah'' atawa ''Dhahiyyah'' sacara harfiah berarti sato anu dipencit.<ref name="kurban"/> Sedengkeun ritual kurban nyaéta salah sahiji ritual ibadah [[agama Islam]].<ref name="kurban"/> Ibadah kurban persisisna di [[bulan Dzulhijjah]] nyaéta [[tanggal 10]] (poé nahar), 11,12 jeung 13 (poé tasyrik) pas poé Raya [[Idul Adha]].<ref name="kurban"/> =='''Hukum kurban'''== Mayoritas [[ulama]] tina kalangan sohabat, tabi’in, tabiut tabi’in, jeung fuqaha (ahli fiqh) ngébréhkeun yén hukum kurban nyaéta [[sunnah muakkadah]] (utama), euweuh nu ngawajibkeun iwal [[Abu Hanifah]] (tabi’in).<ref name="kurban"/> [[Ibnu Hazm]] ngébréhkeun euweuh saurang sahabat Nabi anu ngébréhkeun yén kurban téh wajib.<ref name="kurban">[http://indonesian.iloveallaah.com/hukum-dan-adab-berkurban/ HUKUM DAN ADAB BERKURBAN] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108081236/http://indonesian.iloveallaah.com/hukum-dan-adab-berkurban/ |date=2012-01-08 }}(Dicutat tanggal 26 November 2011)</ref> == Dalil Kurban == [https://www.dalilnaqli.com/2020/07/dalil-kurban-ayat-hadits-perintah.html Dalil kurban] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724080535/https://www.dalilnaqli.com/2020/07/dalil-kurban-ayat-hadits-perintah.html |date=2020-07-24 }} tina al-Qur'an diantarana: * [[Surah Al-Kautsar|al-Kautsar]] ayat 2 * [[Surah Al-Hajj|al-Hajj]] ayat 34 * [[As Saff|as-Saffat]] ayat 102 =='''Sarat jeung katangtuan kurban'''== Syarat jeung katangtuan ngabagi daging kurban di antarana : * Jalma anu kurban kudu mampuh nyadiakeun sato pikeun dipencit kalayan cara anu halal jeung teu nganjuk.<ref name="sato"/> * Sato nu di kurbankeun kudu sato ternak, saperti onta, sapi, embé atawa [[biri-biri]].<ref name="sato"/> Sato anu dipeuncit henteu cacat, henteu [[lolong]], cingked, gering jeung boh ceuli boh buntutna kudu utuh.<ref name="sato"/> * Sato anu di kurbankeun geus nyukupan kana umurna, nyaéta [[onta]] umurna 5 taun atawa leuwih, [[sapi]] atawa [[munding]] umurna 2 taun, jeung [[domba]] atawa [[embé]] umurna leuwih ti sataun.<ref name="sato"/> * Jalma anu rék kurban lain ''budak'', kudu geus ''baligh'' jeung miboga akal.<ref name="sato"/> * Daging kurban dibagi tilu, 1/3 pikeun didahar ku nu kurban, 1/3 disodakohkeun,jeung 1/3 bagian dihadiahkeun ka batur.<ref name="sato">[http://terkiniterbaru.com/makanan-minuman/syarat-hewan-kurban-hari-raya-kurban-idhul-adha.html Syarat Hewan Kurban – Hari Raya Kurban Idhul Adha] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119070614/http://terkiniterbaru.com/makanan-minuman/syarat-hewan-kurban-hari-raya-kurban-idhul-adha.html |date=2011-11-19 }}(Dicutat tanggal 26 November 2011)</ref> ==catetan== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Islam]] [[Kategori:Ibadah]] dzjsrglm505gs1b6q1030i96t0k62sm 708630 708629 2026-04-27T03:45:26Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 /* Sarat jeung katangtuan kurban */ 708630 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kurban''' (Bahasa Arab: قربن, transliterasi: Qurban), disebut ogé ''Udhhiyah'' atawa ''Dhahiyyah'' sacara harfiah berarti sato anu dipencit.<ref name="kurban"/> Sedengkeun ritual kurban nyaéta salah sahiji ritual ibadah [[agama Islam]].<ref name="kurban"/> Ibadah kurban persisisna di [[bulan Dzulhijjah]] nyaéta [[tanggal 10]] (poé nahar), 11,12 jeung 13 (poé tasyrik) pas poé Raya [[Idul Adha]].<ref name="kurban"/> =='''Hukum kurban'''== Mayoritas [[ulama]] tina kalangan sohabat, tabi’in, tabiut tabi’in, jeung fuqaha (ahli fiqh) ngébréhkeun yén hukum kurban nyaéta [[sunnah muakkadah]] (utama), euweuh nu ngawajibkeun iwal [[Abu Hanifah]] (tabi’in).<ref name="kurban"/> [[Ibnu Hazm]] ngébréhkeun euweuh saurang sahabat Nabi anu ngébréhkeun yén kurban téh wajib.<ref name="kurban">[http://indonesian.iloveallaah.com/hukum-dan-adab-berkurban/ HUKUM DAN ADAB BERKURBAN] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108081236/http://indonesian.iloveallaah.com/hukum-dan-adab-berkurban/ |date=2012-01-08 }}(Dicutat tanggal 26 November 2011)</ref> == Dalil Kurban == [https://www.dalilnaqli.com/2020/07/dalil-kurban-ayat-hadits-perintah.html Dalil kurban] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724080535/https://www.dalilnaqli.com/2020/07/dalil-kurban-ayat-hadits-perintah.html |date=2020-07-24 }} tina al-Qur'an diantarana: * [[Surah Al-Kautsar|al-Kautsar]] ayat 2 * [[Surah Al-Hajj|al-Hajj]] ayat 34 * [[As Saff|as-Saffat]] ayat 102 =='''Sarat jeung katangtuan kurban'''== Syarat jeung katangtuan ngabagi daging kurban di antarana : * Jalma anu kurban kudu mampuh nyadiakeun sato pikeun dipencit kalayan cara anu halal jeung teu nganjuk.<ref name="sato"/> * Sato nu di kurbankeun kudu sato ternak, saperti onta, sapi, embé atawa [[biri-biri]].<ref name="sato"/> Sato anu dipeuncit henteu cacat, henteu [[lolong]], cingked, gering jeung boh ceuli boh buntutna kudu utuh.<ref name="sato"/> * Sato anu di kurbankeun geus nyukupan kana umurna, nyaéta [[onta]] umurna 5 taun atawa leuwih, [[sapi]] atawa [[munding]] umurna 2 taun, jeung [[domba]] atawa [[embé]] umurna leuwih ti sataun.<ref name="sato"/> * Jalma anu rék kurban lain ''budak'', kudu geus ''baligh'' jeung miboga akal.<ref name="sato"/> * Daging kurban dibagi tilu, 1/3 pikeun didahar ku nu kurban, 1/3 disodakohkeun, jeung 1/3 bagian dihadiahkeun ka batur.<ref name="sato">[http://terkiniterbaru.com/makanan-minuman/syarat-hewan-kurban-hari-raya-kurban-idhul-adha.html Syarat Hewan Kurban – Hari Raya Kurban Idhul Adha] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119070614/http://terkiniterbaru.com/makanan-minuman/syarat-hewan-kurban-hari-raya-kurban-idhul-adha.html |date=2011-11-19 }}(Dicutat tanggal 26 November 2011)</ref> ==catetan== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Islam]] [[Kategori:Ibadah]] rz8qzzc5j9yjufcggjy81u910uh1d7t 708632 708630 2026-04-27T04:12:45Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 /* Sarat jeung katangtuan kurban */ 708632 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kurban''' (Bahasa Arab: قربن, transliterasi: Qurban), disebut ogé ''Udhhiyah'' atawa ''Dhahiyyah'' sacara harfiah berarti sato anu dipencit.<ref name="kurban"/> Sedengkeun ritual kurban nyaéta salah sahiji ritual ibadah [[agama Islam]].<ref name="kurban"/> Ibadah kurban persisisna di [[bulan Dzulhijjah]] nyaéta [[tanggal 10]] (poé nahar), 11,12 jeung 13 (poé tasyrik) pas poé Raya [[Idul Adha]].<ref name="kurban"/> =='''Hukum kurban'''== Mayoritas [[ulama]] tina kalangan sohabat, tabi’in, tabiut tabi’in, jeung fuqaha (ahli fiqh) ngébréhkeun yén hukum kurban nyaéta [[sunnah muakkadah]] (utama), euweuh nu ngawajibkeun iwal [[Abu Hanifah]] (tabi’in).<ref name="kurban"/> [[Ibnu Hazm]] ngébréhkeun euweuh saurang sahabat Nabi anu ngébréhkeun yén kurban téh wajib.<ref name="kurban">[http://indonesian.iloveallaah.com/hukum-dan-adab-berkurban/ HUKUM DAN ADAB BERKURBAN] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108081236/http://indonesian.iloveallaah.com/hukum-dan-adab-berkurban/ |date=2012-01-08 }}(Dicutat tanggal 26 November 2011)</ref> == Dalil Kurban == [https://www.dalilnaqli.com/2020/07/dalil-kurban-ayat-hadits-perintah.html Dalil kurban] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724080535/https://www.dalilnaqli.com/2020/07/dalil-kurban-ayat-hadits-perintah.html |date=2020-07-24 }} tina al-Qur'an diantarana: * [[Surah Al-Kautsar|al-Kautsar]] ayat 2 * [[Surah Al-Hajj|al-Hajj]] ayat 34 * [[As Saff|as-Saffat]] ayat 102 =='''Sarat jeung katangtuan kurban'''== Syarat jeung katangtuan ngabagi daging kurban di antarana : * Jalma anu kurban kudu mampuh nyadiakeun sato pikeun dipencit kalayan cara anu halal jeung teu nganjuk.<ref name="sato"/> * Sato nu di kurbankeun kudu sato ternak, saperti onta, sapi, embé atawa [[biri-biri]].<ref name="sato"/> Sato anu dipeuncit henteu cacat, henteu [[lolong]], cingked, gering jeung boh ceuli boh buntutna kudu utuh.<ref name="sato"/> * Sato anu di kurbankeun geus nyukupan kana umurna, nyaéta [[onta]] umurna 5 taun atawa leuwih, [[sapi]] atawa [[munding]] umurna 2 taun, jeung [[domba]] atawa [[embé]] umurna leuwih ti sataun.<ref name="sato"/> * Jalma anu rék kurban lain ''budak'', kudu geus ''baligh'' jeung miboga akal.<ref name="sato"/> * Daging kurban dibagi tilu, 1/3 pikeun didahar ku nu kurban, 1/3 disodakohkeun, jeung 1/3 bagian dihadiahkeun ka batur.<ref name="sato">[http://terkiniterbaru.com/makanan-minuman/syarat-hewan-kurban-hari-raya-kurban-idhul-adha.html Syarat Hewan Kurban – Hari Raya Kurban Idhul Adha] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119070614/http://terkiniterbaru.com/makanan-minuman/syarat-hewan-kurban-hari-raya-kurban-idhul-adha.html |date=2011-11-19 }}(Dicutat tanggal 26 November 2011)</ref><ref>Surat Al-Hajj ayat 34; ''Shahih Muslim'' no. 1963.</ref> Rasulullah SAW ngalarang meuncit sato anu mibanda cacat anu atra, saperti lolong sabeulah, gering, pincang, atawa anu kacida begangna nepi ka taya sungsuman.<ref>Hadits Riwayat Abu Daud no. 2802 sarta Tirmidzi no. 1497.</ref> Dina tata carana, péso anu dipaké kudu kacida seukeutna pikeun ngamulyakeun sato sarta ngurangan rasa nyeri nalika dipeuncit.<ref>''Shahih Muslim'' no. 1955.</ref> ==catetan== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Islam]] [[Kategori:Ibadah]] 26u0vwkngm6dylbjkrj9uq1zlie4n8q 708633 708632 2026-04-27T04:18:41Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 708633 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kurban''' (Bahasa Arab: قربن, transliterasi: Qurban), disebut ogé ''Udhhiyah'' atawa ''Dhahiyyah'' sacara harfiah berarti sato anu dipencit.<ref name="kurban"/> Sedengkeun ritual kurban nyaéta salah sahiji ritual ibadah [[agama Islam]].<ref name="kurban"/> Ibadah kurban persisisna di [[bulan Dzulhijjah]] nyaéta [[tanggal 10]] (poé nahar), 11,12 jeung 13 (poé tasyrik) pas poé Raya [[Idul Adha]].<ref name="kurban"/> =='''Hukum kurban'''== Mayoritas [[ulama]] tina kalangan sohabat, tabi’in, tabiut tabi’in, jeung fuqaha (ahli fiqh) ngébréhkeun yén hukum kurban nyaéta [[sunnah muakkadah]] (utama), euweuh nu ngawajibkeun iwal [[Abu Hanifah]] (tabi’in).<ref name="kurban"/> [[Ibnu Hazm]] ngébréhkeun euweuh saurang sahabat Nabi anu ngébréhkeun yén kurban téh wajib.<ref name="kurban">[http://indonesian.iloveallaah.com/hukum-dan-adab-berkurban/ HUKUM DAN ADAB BERKURBAN] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108081236/http://indonesian.iloveallaah.com/hukum-dan-adab-berkurban/ |date=2012-01-08 }}(Dicutat tanggal 26 November 2011)</ref> == Dalil Kurban == [https://www.dalilnaqli.com/2020/07/dalil-kurban-ayat-hadits-perintah.html Dalil kurban] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724080535/https://www.dalilnaqli.com/2020/07/dalil-kurban-ayat-hadits-perintah.html |date=2020-07-24 }} tina al-Qur'an diantarana: * [[Surah Al-Kautsar|al-Kautsar]] ayat 2 * [[Surah Al-Hajj|al-Hajj]] ayat 34 * [[As Saff|as-Saffat]] ayat 102 =='''Sarat jeung katangtuan kurban'''== Syarat jeung katangtuan ngabagi daging kurban di antarana : * Jalma anu kurban kudu mampuh nyadiakeun sato pikeun dipencit kalayan cara anu halal jeung teu nganjuk.<ref name="sato"/> * Sato nu di kurbankeun kudu sato ternak, saperti onta, sapi, embé atawa [[biri-biri]].<ref name="sato"/> Sato anu dipeuncit henteu cacat, henteu [[lolong]], cingked, gering jeung boh ceuli boh buntutna kudu utuh.<ref name="sato"/> * Sato anu di kurbankeun geus nyukupan kana umurna, nyaéta [[onta]] umurna 5 taun atawa leuwih, [[sapi]] atawa [[munding]] umurna 2 taun, jeung [[domba]] atawa [[embé]] umurna leuwih ti sataun.<ref name="sato"/> * Jalma anu rék kurban lain ''budak'', kudu geus ''baligh'' jeung miboga akal.<ref name="sato"/> * Daging kurban dibagi tilu, 1/3 pikeun didahar ku nu kurban, 1/3 disodakohkeun, jeung 1/3 bagian dihadiahkeun ka batur.<ref name="sato">[http://terkiniterbaru.com/makanan-minuman/syarat-hewan-kurban-hari-raya-kurban-idhul-adha.html Syarat Hewan Kurban – Hari Raya Kurban Idhul Adha] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119070614/http://terkiniterbaru.com/makanan-minuman/syarat-hewan-kurban-hari-raya-kurban-idhul-adha.html |date=2011-11-19 }}(Dicutat tanggal 26 November 2011)</ref><ref>Surat Al-Hajj ayat 34; ''Shahih Muslim'' no. 1963.</ref> Rasulullah SAW ngalarang meuncit sato anu mibanda cacat anu atra, saperti lolong sabeulah, gering, pincang, atawa anu kacida begangna nepi ka taya sungsuman.<ref>Hadits Riwayat Abu Daud no. 2802 sarta Tirmidzi no. 1497.</ref> Dina tata carana, péso anu dipaké kudu kacida seukeutna pikeun ngamulyakeun sato sarta ngurangan rasa nyeri nalika dipeuncit.<ref>''Shahih Muslim'' no. 1955.</ref> == Adab sarta Kaséhatan Sato == Salian ti sarat sah dumasar [[fikih]], aya sababaraha hal anu kedah diperhatoskeun nalika prosés kurban: * '''Kasehatan:''' [[Sato]] kedah bébas tina panyakit anu bisa népa ka manusa (zoonosis).<ref>Kementerian Pertanian RI, ''Pedoman Pemotongan Hewan Qurban'', 2023.</ref> * '''Adab:''' Nalika badé dipeuncit, sato kedah diperlakukeun kalayan saé, [[péso]] kedah seukeut, sarta sato kedah dibéré nginum anu cukup sateuacanna.<ref>''Shahih Muslim'' no. 1955.</ref> * '''Kabersihan:''' Tempat meuncit kedah beresih sarta limbahna ([[getih]] sarta eusi beuteung) kedah dipiceun kalayan bener supados henteu ngotoran lingkungan. ==catetan== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Islam]] [[Kategori:Ibadah]] 6hw93whkpaspw8lsa5e7l5hjjv5duu2 708634 708633 2026-04-27T04:23:11Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 708634 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width: 22em; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; background-color: #f8f9fa; font-size: 88%; line-height: 1.5em; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; padding: 0.2em;" |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold; background-color: #cedff2; padding: 0.4em;" | Ibadah Kurban |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 0.2em;" | [[File:Hazaribagh Cattle Market Eid al-Adha 2024-06-16 (PID-0007841).jpg|250px|center|Suasana pasar sato nalika nyanghareupan Idul Adha.]]<br/><small>Suasana pasar sato kurban nalika Idul Adha 2024.</small> |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #f2f2f2; width: 40%;" | Nami sanés | Qurban, Idul Adha, Lebaran Haji |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #f2f2f2;" | Waktos | 10 - 13 Dzulhijjah |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #f2f2f2;" | Jenis sato | Unta, Sapi, Embé, Domba |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #f2f2f2;" | Dasar Hukum | [[Sunnah Muakkad]] |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #f2f2f2;" | Rujukan Utama | Al-Qur'an & Hadits |} '''Kurban''' (Bahasa Arab: قربن, transliterasi: Qurban), disebut ogé ''Udhhiyah'' atawa ''Dhahiyyah'' sacara harfiah berarti sato anu dipencit.<ref name="kurban"/> Sedengkeun ritual kurban nyaéta salah sahiji ritual ibadah [[agama Islam]].<ref name="kurban"/> Ibadah kurban persisisna di [[bulan Dzulhijjah]] nyaéta [[tanggal 10]] (poé nahar), 11,12 jeung 13 (poé tasyrik) pas poé Raya [[Idul Adha]].<ref name="kurban"/> =='''Hukum kurban'''== Mayoritas [[ulama]] tina kalangan sohabat, tabi’in, tabiut tabi’in, jeung fuqaha (ahli fiqh) ngébréhkeun yén hukum kurban nyaéta [[sunnah muakkadah]] (utama), euweuh nu ngawajibkeun iwal [[Abu Hanifah]] (tabi’in).<ref name="kurban"/> [[Ibnu Hazm]] ngébréhkeun euweuh saurang sahabat Nabi anu ngébréhkeun yén kurban téh wajib.<ref name="kurban">[http://indonesian.iloveallaah.com/hukum-dan-adab-berkurban/ HUKUM DAN ADAB BERKURBAN] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108081236/http://indonesian.iloveallaah.com/hukum-dan-adab-berkurban/ |date=2012-01-08 }}(Dicutat tanggal 26 November 2011)</ref> == Dalil Kurban == [https://www.dalilnaqli.com/2020/07/dalil-kurban-ayat-hadits-perintah.html Dalil kurban] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724080535/https://www.dalilnaqli.com/2020/07/dalil-kurban-ayat-hadits-perintah.html |date=2020-07-24 }} tina al-Qur'an diantarana: * [[Surah Al-Kautsar|al-Kautsar]] ayat 2 * [[Surah Al-Hajj|al-Hajj]] ayat 34 * [[As Saff|as-Saffat]] ayat 102 =='''Sarat jeung katangtuan kurban'''== Syarat jeung katangtuan ngabagi daging kurban di antarana : * Jalma anu kurban kudu mampuh nyadiakeun sato pikeun dipencit kalayan cara anu halal jeung teu nganjuk.<ref name="sato"/> * Sato nu di kurbankeun kudu sato ternak, saperti onta, sapi, embé atawa [[biri-biri]].<ref name="sato"/> Sato anu dipeuncit henteu cacat, henteu [[lolong]], cingked, gering jeung boh ceuli boh buntutna kudu utuh.<ref name="sato"/> * Sato anu di kurbankeun geus nyukupan kana umurna, nyaéta [[onta]] umurna 5 taun atawa leuwih, [[sapi]] atawa [[munding]] umurna 2 taun, jeung [[domba]] atawa [[embé]] umurna leuwih ti sataun.<ref name="sato"/> * Jalma anu rék kurban lain ''budak'', kudu geus ''baligh'' jeung miboga akal.<ref name="sato"/> * Daging kurban dibagi tilu, 1/3 pikeun didahar ku nu kurban, 1/3 disodakohkeun, jeung 1/3 bagian dihadiahkeun ka batur.<ref name="sato">[http://terkiniterbaru.com/makanan-minuman/syarat-hewan-kurban-hari-raya-kurban-idhul-adha.html Syarat Hewan Kurban – Hari Raya Kurban Idhul Adha] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119070614/http://terkiniterbaru.com/makanan-minuman/syarat-hewan-kurban-hari-raya-kurban-idhul-adha.html |date=2011-11-19 }}(Dicutat tanggal 26 November 2011)</ref><ref>Surat Al-Hajj ayat 34; ''Shahih Muslim'' no. 1963.</ref> Rasulullah SAW ngalarang meuncit sato anu mibanda cacat anu atra, saperti lolong sabeulah, gering, pincang, atawa anu kacida begangna nepi ka taya sungsuman.<ref>Hadits Riwayat Abu Daud no. 2802 sarta Tirmidzi no. 1497.</ref> Dina tata carana, péso anu dipaké kudu kacida seukeutna pikeun ngamulyakeun sato sarta ngurangan rasa nyeri nalika dipeuncit.<ref>''Shahih Muslim'' no. 1955.</ref> == Adab sarta Kaséhatan Sato == Salian ti sarat sah dumasar [[fikih]], aya sababaraha hal anu kedah diperhatoskeun nalika prosés kurban: * '''Kasehatan:''' [[Sato]] kedah bébas tina panyakit anu bisa népa ka manusa (zoonosis).<ref>Kementerian Pertanian RI, ''Pedoman Pemotongan Hewan Qurban'', 2023.</ref> * '''Adab:''' Nalika badé dipeuncit, sato kedah diperlakukeun kalayan saé, [[péso]] kedah seukeut, sarta sato kedah dibéré nginum anu cukup sateuacanna.<ref>''Shahih Muslim'' no. 1955.</ref> * '''Kabersihan:''' Tempat meuncit kedah beresih sarta limbahna ([[getih]] sarta eusi beuteung) kedah dipiceun kalayan bener supados henteu ngotoran lingkungan. ==catetan== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Islam]] [[Kategori:Ibadah]] jjs3b7tm4cij52r1xxl0igkhgmj6vma 0 35000 708625 527266 2026-04-26T20:04:04Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708625 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Gambar:Yoshitaka Amano Oct 2006.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Yoshitaka Amano]] {{nihongo|'''Yoshitaka Amano'''|天野 喜孝}} gumelar ping 28 Juli 1952 di kota leutik deukeut kaki [[Gunung Fuji]] [[Shizupka]], [[Jepang]].<ref name="Sumber 1">[http://goingreen.tripod.com/amano/amano.html Sumber 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423042348/http://goingreen.tripod.com/amano/amano.html |date=2014-04-23 }}</ref> Yoshitaka Amano nyaéta salah saurang désainer vidéo game ti Jepang.<ref name="Sumber 1"/> ==Awal Karir== Nalika indit ka babaturanna nu aya di [[Tokyo]] taun 1967, anjeunna latihan ngalukis di studio animasi Tatsunoko, nu nyieun animasi [[Mach Go GO]] jeung [[Space Ace]].<ref name="Sumber 2">[http://yoshitaka-amano.kouryu.info/biographie_eng.html Sumber 2]</ref> Sabada sataun latihan, Amano nyokot bagéan dina nga disain karakter-karakter kartun anu populér harita anu di terbitkeun ku studio Tatsunoko, di antawisna ''Gatchaman'' (dirilis di [[Amerika Serikat]] nu judulna ''G-Force and Battle of the Planets''), ''Hutch the Honeybee'', jeung ''Cashaan: Robot Hunter''.<ref name="Sumber 2"/> Sabada 15 taun digawé di éta studio, ahirna Amano ngajukeun surat pengunduran diri, harita Amano 30 taun.<ref name="Sumber 2"/> Taun 1984 Amano ngarilis koléksi lukisan mimitina, Maten (Evil Universe).<ref name="Sumber 2"/> Dituluykeun ku kolaborasi jeung panulis séjén, nu ahirna hampir kana 20 buku [[Komik]] anu ka jual jautaan éksemplar.<ref name="Sumber 2"/> Karya-karya nu di hasilkeun ku Amano di antawisna ''Hideyuki Kikuchi's Vampire Hunter D'', ''Kaoru Kurimonto's Guin Saga'', ''Yoshiki Tanaka's Arslan Chronicals'', jeung ''Rasen-O (Spiral King) and Chimera''.<ref name="Sumber 2"/> ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Desainer Video Game]] 5dzz5xmj7t2kjw2hkz5esmg7ncac1ii 0 35983 708610 705016 2026-04-26T16:40:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708610 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Gambar:Sigmund Freud LIFE.jpg|thumb|260px|Sigmund Freud ([[1922]])]] '''Sigmund Freud''' ([[1856]]-[[1939]]) nyaéta [[élmuwan]] anu kasohor dina widang [[psikologi]] anu lahir di [[Freiberg]], [[Cekoslovakia]] (harita masih ngahiji jeung [[Austria]]) tanggal [[6 Méi]] [[1856]]<ref name="bio">[http://www.biografitokohdunia.com/2011/05/biografi-sigmund-freud.html Biografi Sigmund Freud] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413112057/http://www.biografitokohdunia.com/2011/05/biografi-sigmund-freud.html |date=2012-04-13 }} (diaksés tanggal 4 Désémber 2011)</ref><ref name="id">[http://id.shvoong.com/books/biography/2215588-biografi-sigmund-freud-teori-teori/ Tiori-tiori Sigmund Freud] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111225045410/http://id.shvoong.com/books/biography/2215588-biografi-sigmund-freud-teori-teori/ |date=2011-12-25 }} (diaksés tanggal 4 Désémber 2011)</ref>. Freud lulus ti Universitas Wina Fakultas Kadokteran, tapi Freud teu pernah boga niat pikeun muka prakték, najan ahirna ma Freud tetep mua prakték sabab Freud butuh dana pikeun ngabiayaan panalungtikanna <ref name="bio" /><ref name="id" />. Sacara inténsip, Freud ngalaksanakeu kajian psikologi, nagbentuk staf klinik psikiatri, muka prakték pribadi dina widang [[neurologi]], gawé di Paris jeung neurolog [[Perancis]], [[Jean Charcot]] katut dokter asal Wina, [[Josef Breuer]]<ref name="bio" />. Najan kawatesanan ruang gerak, Sigmund Freud henteu pareumeun léngkah, manéhna terus produktip, loba buku-buku anu dihasilkeunana, dimulai tina buku ngeunaan hysteria ([[1895]]), nepi ka buku ''Outline of psychoanalisis''<ref name="bio" /><ref name="id" />. Freud ogé ngabentuk kelompok diskusi anu nalungtik ngeunaan psikologi di [[Wina]] dina taun [[1902]]<ref name="bio" /><ref name="id" />. Kontribusi Sigmund Freud dina mekarkeun élmu psikologi kacida gedéna, utamana panalungtikan ngeunaan prosés alam bawah sadar, sacara gurat badag diécéskeun saperti kieu: # Freud nunjukkeun yén alam bawah sadar mérépangaruh kana [[ngimpi]] anu sok kaalaman ku manusa, # Freud ngembangkeun téhnik psikoanalisa minangka métodeu pikeun ngubaran panyakit anu patalina jeung kajiwaan, # Freud ngarumuskeun tiori ngeunaan kapribadian manusa, # Freud ngembangkeun tiori psikologi anu patalina jeung rasa hariwang, mékanismeun pertahanan diri, sublimasi, jrrd<ref name="bio" /><ref name="id" />. == Pamikiran == === Alam bawah sadar === Sigmun Freud mertélakeun yén alam bawah sadar mangrupakeun bagéan panggedéna tina pikiran. [[Alam bawah sadar]] nyaéta paranti nyimpen pikiran anu rumit siga kahayang, naluri, kenangan, atawa émosi anu timbul tina trauma. Alam bawah sadar ogé mangrupakeun sumber motivasi pikeun kahayang jalma boh anu sederhana atawa anu sifatna kréatif.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wjiaya, A., dan Darmawan, I. P. A.|date=2019|title=Optimalisasi Superego dalam Teori Psikoanalisis Sigmund Freud untuk Pendidikan Karakter|url=https://repository.uksw.edu/bitstream/123456789/19628/1/PROS_Hengki%20Wijaya_I%20Putu%20Ayub%20Darmawan_Optimalisasi%20Superego%20dalam%20Teori%20Psikoanalisis%20Sigmun%20Freud%20untuk%20Pendidikan%20Karakter.pdf|journal=Proceedings Seminar Nasional: Merajut Keragaman Untuk Mencapai Kesejahteraan Psikologis Dalam Konteks Masyarakat 5.0|pages=22}}</ref> Numutkeun Freud, sumber alam bawah sadar asalna tina warisan filogénétik. Warisan ieu nyayogikeun pangalaman anu diulang sacara [[génétika]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Warsah|first=Idi|date=2017|title=Kontekstualita, Vol. 33, No. 1, 2017 54Interkoneksi Pemikiran Al-Ghazāli dan Sigmund Freud Tentang Potensi Manusia|url=http://e-journal.lp2m.uinjambi.ac.id/ojp/index.php/Kontekstualita/article/view/30/10|journal=Kontekstualita: Jurnal Penelitian Sosial dan Keagamaan|volume=33|issue=1|pages=63|issn=2548-1770}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126112928/https://e-journal.lp2m.uinjambi.ac.id/ojp/index.php/Kontekstualita/article/view/30/10 |date=2022-11-26 }}</ref> Ku kituna, lolobana kalakuan jalma anu diwangun ku kakuatan psikologis teu tiasa ditingali kaayannana.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rahmawati|date=2016|url=https://feb.unmul.ac.id/uploads1manajemen/files/Buku-Rahmawati-Manajemen-Pemasaran.pdf|title=Manajemen Pemasaran|location=Samarinda|publisher=Mulawarman University Press|editor-last=Fitriastuti, T., dan Kiswanto|pages=39-40|url-status=live|access-date=2022-03-10|archive-date=2021-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717003209/https://feb.unmul.ac.id/uploads1manajemen/files/Buku-Rahmawati-Manajemen-Pemasaran.pdf|dead-url=yes}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717003209/https://feb.unmul.ac.id/uploads1manajemen/files/Buku-Rahmawati-Manajemen-Pemasaran.pdf |date=2021-07-17 }}</ref> === Psikoanalisis === Sigmund Freud nyaéta jalma anu pang mimitina ngajelaskeun téori psikoanalitik. Téori ieu dipaké pikeun méré katerangan sistematis ngeunaan kapribadian hiji jalma dumasar kana kualitas psikologisna. [[Psikoanalisis]] disebut ogé [[psikologi]] jero. Ieu kusabab éta henteu ngan ukur ngajelaskeun penampilan luar kapribadian tapi ogé kapribadian batin anu teu disadari ku jalma éta.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Saleh|first=Adnan Achiruddin|date=2018|url=http://repository.iainpare.ac.id/1262/1/Buku%20Pengantar%20Psikologi.pdf|title=Pengantar Psikologi|location=Makassar|publisher=Penerbit Aksara Timur|isbn=978-602-5802-10-2|pages=15-16|url-status=live}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127232931/http://repository.iainpare.ac.id/1262/1/Buku%20Pengantar%20Psikologi.pdf |date=2023-01-27 }}</ref> === Ageman === Sigmund Freud nyaéta salah sahiji pamikir anu ragu kana ayana agama.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kasno|date=2018|url=http://digilib.uinsby.ac.id/44143/1/Kasno_Filsafat%20Agama.pdf|title=Filsafat Agama|location=Surabaya|publisher=Alpha|isbn=978-602-6681-18-8|editor-last=Salsabila|editor-first=Intan|pages=106|url-status=live}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423101216/http://digilib.uinsby.ac.id/44143/1/Kasno_Filsafat%20Agama.pdf |date=2022-04-23 }}</ref> Sikep Freud kana agama jeung spiritualitas kacida pesimisna. Dina téori kapribadianna, anjeunna ngajelaskeun yén sangkan boga agama mangrupakeun fénoména anu nunjukkeun teu mampuna manusa pikeun ngarengsekeun masalah kahirupan. Numutkeun Freud, manusa yakin kana agama jeung spiritualitas ngan saukur wentuk pangauban jalma jeung pikeun ngurangan beban kahirupan.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rusydi|first=Ahmad|date=2015|url=https://repository.uinjkt.ac.id/dspace/bitstream/123456789/49462/1/Ahmad%20Rusydi%20-%20SPS.pdf|title=Kecemasan dan Psikoterapi Spiritual Islam|publisher=Istana Publishing|pages=3-4|url-status=live}}</ref> == Maotna == Sigmund Freud maot dina umur 83 taun di [[London]] tanggal [[23 Séptémber]] [[1939]] sabada dipaksa pindah lantaran Austria geus dikawasa ku [[NAZI]], [[Jerman]]<ref name="bio" /><ref name="id" />. Ditambah panyakit kanker tulang rahang anu dirandapan ti taun [[1923]], Freud kungsi di Operasi nepi ka 30 kali salila hirupna<ref name="bio" /><ref name="id" />. ==Référénsi== {{reflist}} {{authority control}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Élmuwan asal Austria]] [[Kategori:Psikolog]] 70cmu7x5h0avaxewy1l5q0dojyyp56x 0 38245 708598 703797 2026-04-26T13:16:32Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708598 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|OIC}} {{Infobox country |name = Organisasi Sabilulungan Islam<br />''Organisation of Islamic Cooperation''<br />''منظمة التعاون الاسلامي''<br />''Organisation de la Coopération Islamique'' |linking_name = Organisasi Sabilulungan Islam |image_flag = |alt_flag = Bandéra OSI |motto = <!--"to safeguard the interests and ensure the progress and well-being of Muslims"--> |anthem = <!--''[anthem name]''--> |text_symbol_type = <!--for other types of text symbol--> |text_symbol = <!--e.g. ''[hymn name]''--> |image_map = OIC map.png |alt_map = <!--alt text for map image--> |map_width = 275px |map_caption = <div style="text-align:left; padding-left:1em; font-size:110%;"> {{legend|#41A317|Nagara anggota}}{{legend|#FF0000|Nagara panénjo}}{{legend|navy|Nagara nu diblokade}}</div> |org_type = <!--e.g. Trade bloc--> |membership_type = Anggota |membership = [[Nagara anggota Organisasi Sabiluulngan Islam|57 nagara anggota]] |admin_center_type = Puseur administratif |admin_center = [[Jeddah]], [[Arab Saudi]] |languages_type = [[Basa resmi]] |languages = Basa [[Basa Arab|Arab]], [[Basa Inggris|Inggris]], [[Basa Perancis|Perancis]] |leader_title1 = Sékrétaris Jéndral |leader_name1 = [[Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu]] |leader_title2 = <!--e.g. "Deputy chair", etc.--> |leader_name2 = |established = |established_event1 = Piagam OIC ditandatanganan |established_date1 = 25 Séptémber 1969 |established_event2 = |established_date2 = |official_website = http://www.oic-oci.org/ |area_rank = |area_magnitude = |area_km2 = |area_sq_mi = |area_footnote = |percent_water = |area_label = |area_label2 = |area_dabodyalign = |population_estimate = 1,6 milyar (2011) |population_estimate_rank = |population_estimate_year = |population_density_km2 = |population_density_sq_mi = |population_density_rank = |GDP_ Nominal = 6.150.000.000.000(6,15 triliun) |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_year = |GDP_PPP_per_capita = |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal = |GDP_nominal_rank = |GDP_nominal_year = |GDP_nominal_per_capita = |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = |Gini = |Gini_year = |Gini_category = |HDI = |HDI_rank = |HDI_year = |HDI_category = |currency = |currency_code = |time_zone = |utc_offset = <!-- +N, where N is number of hours --> |footnotes = <!--For generic non-numbered footnotes--> |footnote1 = |footnote2 = }} '''Organisasi Sabilulungan Islam''' ({{lang-en|Organisation of Islamic Cooperation}} ('''OIC'''); {{lang-ar|منظمة التعاون الاسلامي}}; {{lang-fr|Organisation de la Coopération Islamique}} (OCI))<ref group="a">Upon the groups's renaming, some sources provided the English-language translation "'''Organisation of the Islamic Cooperation'''", but [http://www.oic-oci.org/ the OIC's official website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704173219/http://www.oic-oci.org/ |date=2012-07-04 }} and [http://www.oicun.org/ the website of the OIC Mission to the UN] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130114221835/http://www.oicun.org/ |date=2013-01-14 }} have since indicated the preferred English translation omits the "the".</ref> nyaéta hiji [[organisasi internasional]] anu dieusian ku [[Nagara anggota Organisasi Sabilulungan Islam|57 nagara anggota]]. OSI mibopga délegasi permanén ka [[Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]], sarta mangrupa organisasi internasional nu panggedéna salian ti Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/biog/140123.htm|title=Special Envoy to the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC)|author=US Department of State|accessdate=16 Feb 2012}}</ref> Basa resmi OSI nyaéta Basa Arab, Inggris, jeung Perancis. Ngaranna dirobah ti '''Organisasi Konferénsi Islam''' ({{lang-en|Organisation of the Islamic Conference}}; {{lang-ar|منظمة المؤتمر الإسلامي}}; {{lang-fr|'''Organisation de la Conférence Islamique'''}}) ka ngaranna nu ayeuna dina 28 Juni 2011.<ref>[http://pakobserver.net/detailnews.asp?id=100388 OIC changes name, emblem] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023092323/http://pakobserver.net/detailnews.asp?id=100388 |date=2014-10-23 }} [[Pakistan Observer]]</ref> == Anggota == Organisasi Sabilulungan Islam miboga 57 anggota, 56 di antarana dikelompokkeun ku Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa Salaku nagara anggota. Sababarhana, utamina nu ti Afrika Kulon, sanés mangrupa [[nagara nu mayoritasna Muslim]] sanajan lamun populasi Muslimna loba. Sababaraha nagara kalawan populasi Muslim, kawas [[Rusia]] jeung [[Thailand]], aya di posisi Nagara Panénjo, samentara [[India]] jeung [[Étiopia]], sanés anggota. {| class="wikitable sortable" |- style="background:#ececec;" ! Nagara anggota !Gabung !Catetan |- | {{flag|Apganistan}} |1969 | Katunda 1980 - Maret 1989 |- | {{flag|Aljazair}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Chad}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Mesir}} | 1969 | Katunda Méi 1979 - Maret 1984 |- | {{flag|Guinéa}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Indonésia}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Iran}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Yordania}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Kuwait}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Libanon}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Libya}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Malaysia}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Mali}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Mauritania}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Maroko}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Niger}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Pakistan}} | 1969 | Ngablokade kaanggotaan [[India]] |- | {{flag|Paléstina}}<ref>[[Nagara Paléstina]] neraskeun posisi [[Organisasi Pangbébasan Paléstina]] sanggeus [[Déklarasi Kamerdikaan Paléstina]] 1988.</ref> | 1969<ref>[http://www.oic-oci.org/member_states.asp OIC member states] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704173219/http://www.oic-oci.org/index.asp |date=2012-07-04 }}</ref> | |- | {{flag|Arab Saudi}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Sénégal}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Sudan}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Somalia}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Tunisia}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Turki}} | 1969 | |- | {{flag|Yaman}} | 1969 | Ti 1990 salaku [[Républik Yaman]] ngahiji jeung [[Républik Démokratik Rahayat Yaman]] |- | {{flag|Bahrain}} | 1970 | |- | {{flag|Oman}} | 1970 | |- | {{flag|Qatar}} | 1970 | |- | {{flag|Suriah}} | 1970 | |- | {{flag|Uni Émirat Arab}} | 1970 | |- | {{flag|Sierra Leone}} | 1972 | |- | {{flag|Bangladés}} | 1974 | |- | {{flag|Gabon}} | 1974 | |- | {{flag|Gambia}} | 1974 | |- | {{flag|Guinéa-Bissau}} | 1974 | |- | {{flag|Uganda}} | 1974 | |- | {{flag|Burkina Faso}} | 1975 | |- | {{flag|Kamerun}} | 1975 | |- | {{flag|Komoro}} | 1976 | |- | {{flag|Irak}} | 1976 | |- | {{flag|Maladéwa}} | 1976 | |- | {{flag|Djibouti}} | 1978 | |- | {{flag|Bénin}} | 1982 | |- | {{flag|Brunéi}} | 1984 | |- | {{flag|Nigeria}} | 1986 | |- | {{flag|Azerbaijan}} | 1991 | |- | {{flag|Albania}} | 1992 | |- | {{flag|Kirgizstan}} | 1992 | |- | {{flag|Tajikistan}} | 1992 | |- | {{flag|Turkménistan}} | 1992 | |- | {{flag|Mosambik}} | 1994 | |- | {{flag|Kazakhstan}} | 1995 | |- | {{flag|Uzbékistan}} | 1995 | |- | {{flag|Suriname}} | 1996 | |- | {{flag|Togo}} | 1997 | |- | {{flag|Guyana}} | 1998 | |- | {{flag|Basisir Gading}} | 2001 | |- ! colspan="3" | Katunda atanapi kaluar |- | {{flag|Zanzibar}} | 1993 | Kaluar Agustus 1993 |- ! colspan="3" | Nagara Panénjo |- | {{flag|Bosnia jeung Hérzégovina}} | 1994 | |- | {{flag|Républik Afrika Tengah}} | 1997 | |- | {{flag|Siprus Kalér}} salaku 'Nagara Siprus Turki' | 1979<ref>[http://www.oic-oci.org/page_detail.asp?p_id=179 OIC observers]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> | Panandaan dirobih dina 2004<ref>[[urang Siprus Turki|Komunitas Siprus Turki]] di [[Siprus]] jadi hiji “komunitas panénjo” OSI dina 1979 dina ngaran “Komunitas Muslim Turki Siprus”. Patepungan Mentri Luar Nagri OSI ka-31 di Istanbul dina Juni 2004, nangtoskeun yén Komunitas Siprus Turki éta (diwakilkeun ku [[Républik Turki Siprus Kalér]]) bakal milu dina patepungan OSI kalawan ngaran nu dipertimbangkeun dina [[Rancangan Annan pikeun Siprus]] (“Nagara konstituén Siprus Turki Républik Siprus Ngahiji” atanapi pondokna [[Nagara Siprus Turki]]). [http://www.mfa.gov.cy/mfa/embassies/embassy_doha.nsf/misc_en/52D53EC97ACC4A52432572CC003B9E90?OpenDocument Cyprus and the Organization of Islamic Conferences] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201161835/http://www.mfa.gov.cy/mfa/embassies/embassy_doha.nsf/misc_en/52D53EC97ACC4A52432572CC003B9E90?OpenDocument |date=2023-02-01 }}</ref> |- | {{flag|Thailand}} | 1998 | |- | {{flag|Rusia}} | 2005 | |- ! colspan="3" | Organisasi jeung Komunitas Muslim Panénjo |- | [[Fron Pangbébas Nasional Moro]] | 1977 | Ngablokade kaanggotan [[Pilipina]] |- ! colspan="3" | Lembaga Islam panénjo |- | [[Uni Parlemén Nagara Anggota OSI]] | 2000 | |- | Forum Kanungoraan Konferénsi Islam pikeun Dialog jeung Sabilulungan | 2005 | |- ! colspan="3" | Organisasi Internasional Panénjo |- | [[Liga Arab]] | 1975 | |- | [[Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] | 1976 | |- | [[Gerakan Non-Blok]] | 1977 | |- | [[Organisasi Sabilulungan Shanghai]] | | |- | [[Uni Afrika]] | 1977 | |- | [[Organisasi Sabilulungan Ékonomi]] | 1995 | |} == Sékrétaris Jéndral OSI == {| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%; text-align:left;" |+ style="padding-top:1em;" |Sékrétaris Jéndral Organisasi Sabilulungan Islam<ref>[http://www.oic-oci.org/page_detail.asp?p_id=38 Former Secretaries-General–OIC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624104044/http://www.oic-oci.org/page_detail.asp?p_id=38 |date=2013-06-24 }}.</ref> ! No. !! Nami !! Nagara asal !! Awal jabatan !! Ahir jabatan |- | 1 || [[Tunku Abdul Rahman]] || {{flag|Malaysia}} || 1971 || 1973 |- | 2 || [[Hassan Al-Touhami]] || {{flag|Mesir}} || 1974 || 1975 |- | 3 || [[Amadou Karim Gaye]] || {{flag|Sénégal}} || 1975 || 1979 |- | 4 || [[Habib Chatty]] || {{flag|Tunisia}} || 1979 || 1984 |- | 5 || [[Syed Sharifuddin Pirzada]] || {{flag|Pakistan}} || 1985 || 1988 |- | 6 || [[Hamid Algabid]] || {{flag|Niger}} || 1989 || 1996 |- | 7 || [[Azeddine Laraki]] || {{flag|Maroko}} || 1997 || 2000 |- | 8 || [[Abdelouahed Belkeziz]] || {{flag|Maroko}} || 2001 || 2004 |- | 9 || [[Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu]] || {{flag|Turki}} || 2005 || |} == Tingali goé == * [[Hubungan Pakistan-OSI]] == Catetan jeung rujukan == <references group="a"/> {{Reflist}} == Bacaan salajengaa == * Ankerl, Guy Coexisting Contemporary Civilisations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva, INUPress, 2000, ISBN 2-88155-004-5 * Al-Huda, Qamar. "Organisation of the Islamic Conference." ''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World''. Diédit ku Martin, Richard C. Macmillan Reference, 2004. vol. 1 p.&nbsp;394. 20 April 2008 == Tumbu kaluar == * {{twitter|OIC_OCI}} * {{Official website|1=http://www.oic-oci.org/home.asp}} {{Organisation of the Islamic Conference}} [[Kategori:Organisasi nu markasna di Arab Saudi]] [[Kategori:Organisasi Sabilulungan Islam| ]] [[Kategori:Organisasi nu ngadeg taun 1969]] [[Kategori:Jeddah]] [[Kategori:Panénjo Majelis Umum Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] {{organisasi-stub}} 1zgd1g4kg94128nzvlgx40dg0bamg2n 0 48266 708609 654612 2026-04-26T16:35:14Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708609 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} '''Shishapangma''',<ref>Potterfield, Peter; Viesturs, Ed; Breashears, David (2009). ''Himalayan Quest: Ed Viesturs Summits All Fourteen 8,000-Meter Giants''. National Geographic. p.137 ISBN 1-4262-0485-X.</ref><ref>Spelled "Shisha Pangma" in Messner, Reinhold (1999). ''All 14 eight-thousanders''. Mountaineers Books. p.105. ISBN 0-89886-660-X.</ref> disebut ogé '''Gosainthān''', nyaéta gunung pangluhurna ka-14 di dunya kalawan jangkungna 8.027 méter di luhureun laut. {{Tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} ==Name== Géologist [[Toni Hagen]] explained the name as méaning a "grassy plain" or "meadow" (''pangma'') above a "comb" or a "range" (''shisha'' or ''chisa'') in the local [[Tibetic languages|Tibetan]] dialect, thereby signifying the "crest above the grassy plains".<ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Dyhrenfurth | first1=Günther. O. | last2=Dyhrenfurth | first2=Norman | title=Shisha Pangma | journal=Mountain | publisher=[[Youth Hostels Association (England & Wales)]] | issue=53–64 | year=1977 | page=47 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Baume | first = Louis | title = Sivalaya: explorations of the 8000-metre peaks of the Himalaya | publisher = The Mountaineers | year = 1979 | location = Seattle | pages = 131–132 | isbn = 0-916890-71-6 }}</ref> On the other hand, Tibetologist Guntram Hazod records a local story that explains the mountain's name in terms of its literal méaning in the [[Standard Tibetan]] language: ''shisha'', which méans "meat of an animal that died of natural causes" and ''sbangma'' which méans "malt dregs left over from brewing beer". According to the story, one yéar a héavy snowfall killed most of the animals at pasture. All that the péople living néar the mountain had to éat was the méat of the déad animals and the malt dregs left over from brewing beer, and so the mountain was named Shisha Pangma (''shisha sbangma''), signifiying "meat of dead animals and malty dregs".<ref>{{Cite book | last=Hazod | first=Guntram | chapter=bKra shis 'od 'bar. On the History of the Religious Protector of the Bo dong pa | page=65 | editor-last=Blondeau | editor-first=Anne-Marie | title=Tibetan mountain deities, their cults and representations: papers presented at a panel of the 7th seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Graz, 1995 | publisher=Verlag der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften | year=1998 | isbn=978-3-7001-2748-2 }}</ref> The [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] name of the mountain, ''Gosainthan'', méans "place of the saint" or "Abode of God".<ref name="Baume130">Baume, 1979, op. cit. pp 130-134</ref> Still, its most common name is Shishapangma. ==Geography== Shishapangma is located in south-central [[Tibet]], five kilometres from the border with [[Nepal]]. It is the only eight-thousander entirely within Chinese territory. It is also the highest péak in the [[Jugal Himal]] which is contiguous with and often considered part of [[Langtang]] Himal.<ref name=aaj_1985/> The Jugal/Langtang Himal straddles the Tibet/Nepal border. Since Shishapangma is on the dry north side of the Himalayan crest and further from the lower terrain of Nepal, it has less dramatic vertical relief than most major Himalayan péaks. Shishapangma has a subsidiary péak higher than 8000 m: Central-Péak at 8008 m.<ref name="8000ers2" /> == Ascents and attempts == Up to 2014, [[List of deaths on eight-thousanders#Shishapangma|27 people have died]] climbing Shishapangma, including [[Alex Lowe]] and Dave Bridges (both US) in 1999, and veteran Portuguese climber Bruno Carvalho. Nevertheless, Shishapangma is one of the "easier" eight-thousanders to climb. The standard route ascends via the northwest face and northéast ridge and face ("Northern Route"), and boasts relatively éasy access, with vehicle travel possible to base camp at {{convert|5000|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}}. Routes on the steeper southwest face are more technically demanding and involve {{convert|2200|m|ft|-1}} of ascent on a 50-degree slope. ===First ascent=== Shishapangma was first climbed via the Northern Route on 2 May 1964 by a [[China|Chinese]] expedition led by Xǔ Jìng 许竞. In addition to Xǔ Jìng, the summit téam consisted of Zhāng Jùnyán 张俊岩, [[Wang Fuzhou]] (Wáng Fùzhōu 王富洲), Wū Zōngyué 邬宗岳, Chén Sān 陈三, Soinam Dorjê (Suǒnán Duōjí 索南多吉), Chéng Tiānliàng 程天亮, Migmar Zhaxi (Mǐmǎ Zháxī 米马扎西), Dorjê (Duōjí 多吉) and Yún Dēng 云登.<ref name="Baume130"/> === Later ascents and attempts === * 1980 7 May, "Northern Route", (2nd ascent) by Michl Dacher, Wolfgang Schaffert, Gunter Sturm and Fritz Zintl; Sigi Hupfauer and Manfred Sturm (12 May); as part of a German expedition.<ref name="ScottMacIntyre">Scott &amp; MacIntyre <!-- need page # --></ref> * 1980: 13 October, "Northern Route", (3rd ascent) by Ewald Putz and Egon Obojes, as part of an Austrian expedition.<ref name="SM303-306">Scott & Macintyre 2000, op. cit., pp 303-306</ref> * 1981: 30 April, "Northern Route", (4th ascent) by [[Junko Tabei]], Rinzing Phinzo and Gyalbu Jiabu, as part of a Japanese women's expedition.<ref name="SM303-306"/> * 1981: 28 May, "Northern Route", (5th ascent) by [[Reinhold Messner]] and Friedl Mutschlechner, as part of an Austrian expedition.<ref name="SM303-306"/> * 1982: 28 May, "British Route", southwest face, also known as "Right-hand couloir" ([[alpine style]]), FA by [[Doug Scott]], [[Alex Macintyre]] and [[Roger Baxter-Jones]] (all UK). Route follows the right-hand couloir on the southwest face.<ref name="ScottMacIntyre"/> * 1987: 18 September,<ref name=8000ers>[http://www.8000ers.com/cms/en/download.html?func=download&id=164&chk=ae20db26f4ecf3c3bd876bdaa75c7c55&no_html=1 www.8000ers.com] Ascents - Shisha Pangma</ref><ref name=Sale-Cleare>R. Sale, J. Cleare: ''On top of the world. Climbing the world's 14 highest mountains'', lists of ascents, HarperCollins Publ., 2000, page 221</ref><ref name=him-info1>[http://www.himalaya-info.org/shisha_geschichte.htm himalaya-info.org] List of significant ascents of Shisha Pangma,(with further links to pdf files with details)</ref> Elsa Ávila and [[Carlos Carsolio]] become the first [[Mexicans]] to summit Shishapangma. For Ávila, her first eight-thousander and for Carsolio, his second, via the northern face/ridge to the central summit, then along the arete to the main summit, with [[Wanda Rutkiewicz]], Ramiro Navarrete, and Ryszard Warecki.<ref name="SM303-306"/><ref name=8000ers/><ref name=Sale-Cleare/> * 1987: 18 September, west ridge, FA by [[Jerzy Kukuczka]] and [[Artur Hajzer]] (both Poland). A new road along the ridge west, by the western summit (first entry) and continue through by the middle summit on the main summit. Kukuczka skied down from néar the summit. This was his last of fourteen eight-thousanders.<ref name="SM303-306"/><ref name=8000ers/><ref name=Sale-Cleare/><ref name=him-info1/> * 1987: 19 September, central couloir, north face, FA by Alan Hinkes (UK) and Steve Untch (US).<ref name="SM303-306"/><ref name=8000ers/><ref name=Sale-Cleare/><ref name=him-info1/> * 1989: 19 October, Central buttress, southwest face, FA by Andrej Stremfelj and Pavle Kozjek.<ref name=8000ers/><ref name=Sale-Cleare/><ref name=him-info1/><ref name=Korea>[http://www.k2news.com/sp2002kor.htm "Korean Highway Corporation 2002 Shishapangma Expedition"], k2news.com, 17 May 2002</ref> * 1990: Left-hand couloir, southwest face (not réaching the main summit<ref name=8000ers/><ref name=Sale-Cleare/>), [[Wojciech Kurtyka]] (Poland), FA by [[Erhard Loretan]] (Switzerland) and [[Jean Troillet]] (Switzerland)<ref name=him-info1/><ref name=evnews>[http://www.everestnews.com/sproute.htm " Korean Alpinists Climb New Route on SW Face of Shishapangma"], everestnews.com.</ref> * 1993: Far-right couloir, southwest face, FA solo by [[Krzysztof Wielicki]] (Poland).<ref name=8000ers/><ref name=Sale-Cleare/><ref name=him-info1/><ref name=evnews/> * 1994: Left-hand couloir, southwest face (not réaching the main summit<ref name=8000ers/><ref name=Sale-Cleare/>), Erik Decamp (France), [[Catherine Destivelle]] (France). * 1999: 28 September, Edmond Joyeusaz (Italy) first ski descent from central summit. * 2002: 5 May, "Korean Route" on southwest face, FA by Park Jun Hun and Kang Yéon Ryoung (both South Koréa).<ref name=Korea/> * 2002 26 October: Tomaž Humar(Slovenia), Maxut Zhumayev, Denis Urubko, Alexey Raspopov and Vassily Pivtsov got to the summit. Tomaž Humar climbed last 200 m (80°/50–60°, 200 m) of ascent and descent (65–75°, 700 m) * 2004: 11 December, [[Jean-Christophe Lafaille]] (France) provokes controversy when he climbs the "British Route" on the southwest face, solo, and claims a winter ascent. Since this was not calendar winter, he changes his claim to an ascent "in winter conditions."<ref name="alpinist_11"/> * 2005: 14 January, first (calendar) winter ascent by [[Piotr Morawski]] (Poland) and [[Simone Moro]] (Italy).<ref name=8000ers/> * 2011: 16–17 April, [[Ueli Steck]] (Switzerland) solos the southwest face in 10.5 hours, léaving base camp (5,306m) at 10:30 pm on 16 April and returning to base camp 20 hours later.<ref name=climbing_2011/><ref name=himspeed_2011/> * 2014: September 24, [[Sebastian Haag]] died together with the Italian mountaineer Andréa Zambaldi in an avalanche accident.<ref name=double8/> He was 35.<ref name=bild/> ==Bibliography== * ''A Photographic record of the Mount Shisha Pangma Scientific Expedition''. Science Press Peking 1966. * {{cite book | last1 = Scott | first1 = Doug | authorlink = | first2 = Alex | last2 = MacIntyre | title = Shisha Pangma: The Alpine Style First Ascent of the South-West Face | publisher = The Mountaineers Books | date = 2000 | origyear = 1984 | location = Seattle| isbn = 0-89886-723-1 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Venables | first1 = Stephen | authorlink = | first2 = Andy | last2 = Fanshawe | title = Himalaya Alpine-Style: The Most Challenging Routes on the Highest Peaks | publisher = Mountaineers Books | year = 1996 | location = Seattle| pages = | isbn = 0-89886-456-9 }} * Sale, Richard, Cléare, John: ''On Top of the World (Climbing the World's 14 Highest Mountains)'', lists of ascents, HarperCollins Publ., 2000, ISBN 978-0-00-220176-6. <!--Hardcover edition ''Climbing the World's 14 Highest Mountains: The History of the 8,000-Meter Peaks''--> ==Notes and references== {{reflist|3|refs= <ref name="peakbagger"> {{cite peakbagger|pid=10631|name=Shishapangma|accessdate=2014-08-24}}</ref> <ref name="dili360"> {{cite web | url = http://www.dili360.com/cng/article/p5350c3d6cd76f83.htm | title = 青藏高原的伟大崛起 | date = October 2009 | publisher = China National Geographic | accessdate = 2014-08-24}}</ref> <ref name="8000ers2"> {{cite web | url = http://www.8000ers.com/cms/en/shisha-pangma-general-info-198.html | title = Shisha Pangma | date = 13 February 2008 | publisher = 8000ers.com | accessdate = 2014-08-24}}</ref> <ref name="summitpost"> {{cite web | url = http://www.summitpost.org/shisha-pangma/150807 | title = Shisha Pangma | date = Mar 7, 2007 | publisher = summitpost.org | accessdate = 2014-08-24}}</ref> <ref name=aaj_1985> {{Cite journal | author = Carter, H. Adams | title = Classification of the Himalaya | journal = American Alpine Journal | volume = 27 | issue = 59 | year = 1985 | pages = 122–3 | publisher = American Alpine Club | url = http://c498469.r69.cf2.rackcdn.com/1985/109_carter_himalaya_aaj1985.pdf | accessdate = 2011-05-01}}</ref> <ref name="alpinist_11"> {{cite web | url = http://www.alpinist.com/doc/ALP11/climbing-note-lafaille-2 | title = Shishapangma, Southwest Face | date = 1 June 2005 | author = Lafaille, Jean-Christophe | publisher = Alpinist Magazine| accessdate = 2014-02-02}}</ref> <ref name=bild> {{cite web | url = http://www.bild.de/news/ausland/himalaya/zwei-tote-bei-lawine-37902702.bild.html | title = Tragödie am Gipfel des Shisha Pangma | language = German | date = September 25, 2014 | publisher = bilde.de | accessdate = 2014-09-27}}</ref> <ref name=climbing_2011>{{cite web | url = http://www.climbing.com/news/hotflashes/steck_solos_shishapangma_in_105_hours/ | title = Steck Solos Shishapangma in 10.5 Hours | date = 18 April 2011 | publisher = climbing.com | accessdate = 2014-02-02 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723101129/http://www.climbing.com/news/hotflashes/steck_solos_shishapangma_in_105_hours/ |date=2012-07-23 }}</ref> <ref name=double8> {{cite web | url = http://expedition-double8.dynafit.com/ | title = Avalanche accident at Shisha Pangma | date = September 25, 2014 | publisher = Double 8 | accessdate = 2014-09-27}}</ref> <ref name=himspeed_2011>{{cite web | url = http://www.himalayaspeed.com/2011/04/news-flash-ueli-solos-shisha-pangma-in-10-5-hours/ | title = News Flash: Ueli Solos Shisha Pangma in 10.5 Hours | date = 19 April 2011 | publisher = himalayaspeed.com | accessdate = 2014-02-02 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220191303/http://www.himalayaspeed.com/2011/04/news-flash-ueli-solos-shisha-pangma-in-10-5-hours/ |date=2014-02-20 }}</ref> }} ==External links== {{Commons category}} *[http://www.himlaya-info.org/Map%20langtang_shisha_pangma.htm Shisha Pangma main page on Himalaya-Info.org]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} *[http://www.summitpost.org/mountain/rock/150807/shisha-pangma.html Shisha Pangma description on Summitpost] *[http://www.peakware.com/peaks.html?pk=1004 Shisha Pangma on Peakware] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102204247/http://peakware.com/peaks.html?pk=1004 |date=2010-01-02 }} <!--*[http://www.accsask.ca/expeditions/shish.htm Shishapangma expedition report with photos] (link inactive on October 2013)--> *[http://www.8000ers.com/cms/download.html?func=startdown&id=164 Shisha Pangma on www.8000ers.com], the complete list of ascent up to 2009 by Eberhard Jurgalski (PDF) *[http://www.everestnews.com/sproute.htm Shisha Pangma on everestnews.com], photodiagram of the routes on the SW face *[http://www.himalaya-info.org/shisha_pangma_panorama.htm himalaya-info.org panoramas from the slopes and peak of Shisha Pangma with exact explanations], images 6th to 13th are from very top. The topography of variations to normal route from northern side is explained by the two last photographs (no. 13 i 14), including the view from main summit to the other two. {{de icon}} 70eir4hozhwinz62skw5q609gv76a0x 0 50631 708602 707934 2026-04-26T15:00:25Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708602 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width:22em; font-size:90%; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9; padding:5px;" |- ! colspan="2" style="font-size:125%; background-color:#ccffcc; text-align:center;" | Génggéhék |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[File:Barb gonio 080525 9625 ltn.jpg|250px]]<br/>''Génggéhék (Mystacoleucus marginatus) ti Bogor.'' |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Regnum | [[Animalia]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Phylum | [[Chordata]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Classis | [[Actinopterygii]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Ordo | [[Cypriniformes]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Familia | [[Cyprinidae]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Genus | [[Mystacoleucus]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Species | '''''M. marginatus''''' |} '''Regis/génggéhék''' (''Mystacoleucus marginatus'') nyaéta lauk darat/(lain lauk [[laut]]) tina [[kulawarga]] [[Cyprinidae]]. Lauk génggéhék loba kampanggih hirup liar di [[susukan]], [[walungan]], [[situ]] jeung [[rawa]]. Ieu [[lauk]] ku urang [[Lampung]] mah disebutna téh ''kapyah''; ''lawak, lalawak'' ceuk urang [[betawi]]; ''wader, wader eco'' ceuk urang [[Jawa]] <ref name="weber">{{aut|Weber, M. and L.F. de Beaufort}}. 1916. [http://www.archive.org/details/fishesofindoaust03weberich ''The Fishes of The Indo-Australian Archipelago''] '''III''':108-109. E.J. Brill. Leiden.</ref>; ''keprek'' di ([[Jawa Timur|Jatim]]). == [[Vérnakular]] == * Di [[Jawa Kulon]], lauk ieu kawéntar ku nami '''[[Génggéhék]]'''.<ref name="Kottelat">Kottelat, M., dkk. (1993). ''Freshwater Fishes of Western Indonesia and Sulawesi''. Periplus Editions. https://archive.org/details/freshwaterfishes0000kott</ref> * Di daérah séjén, lauk ieu ogé disebut '''[[Kapiat]]''' atanapi '''[[Lauk Masik]]'''. * Dina basa Inggris, lauk ieu disebut ku nami '''[[Bordered Barb]]'''.<ref name="BritGeng">Encyclopaedia Britannica. ''Cyprinidae distribution''. https://www.britannica.com/animal/cyprinid</ref> == [[Sebaran sarta Habitat]] == * '''[[Sebaran]]''': Kapanggih di [[Thailand]], [[Malaysia]], [[Viétnam]], [[Kamboja]], sarta Indonésia. * '''[[Habitat]]''': Génggéhék resep hirup di walungan anu caina herang sarta arusna sedeng dugi ka gancang. Lauk ieu sering kapanggih di bagian walungan anu dasarna taringgul atanapi taringgul ku batu-batu leutik.<ref name="Kottelat"/> == Pedaran == [[file:Barb gonio 080525 9636 ltn.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Toggong lauk génggéhék]] Pangawakan lauk génggéhek kawilang leutik, panjang awakna anu geus déwasa ngan 200 [[milimeter|mm]], sisitna bodas tur hérang. Kénca jeung katuhu mibanda gurat sisi lobana kurang leuwih 26-29 sisit; Dina biwirna aya kumisan laleutik 4 siki. Jangkung awakna dimimitian tina tungtung cécépét tonggongna kurang leuwih 2,7-3 kali tina ukuran panjang awakna (henteu kaasup buntut). Panjang huluna 4,1-4,2 kali tina ukuran panjang [[awak]]na (henteu kaasup buntut). Cécépét dina tonggongna bijil dimimitian sisit ka-9 atawa ka-10 tina jajaran guratan .<ref name="weber"/> [[file:Barb gonio 080525 9641 ltn Df.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Cucuk cécépét panggédéna aya rérégéan kawas ragaji]] Cécépét-cécépét anu séjéna diwangun ku sababaraha [[ramo]]-ramo : cécépét dina tonggongna aya IV (ramo-ramo heuras tur cucukan).8 (ramo-ramo séjéna leuleus, tur semu nyagak; ''cécépét'' palebah bujurna III ramo-ramo heuras jeung 8-9 (ramo-ramo leuleusna); cécépét palebah dadana I jeung 14-15; dina palebah beuteungna I.8. Ramo-ramo cécépét anu panggedéna, heuras tur rérégéan aya dina lebah tonggongna, sakapeung sok katémbong tungtungna aya seuseukeutna nolol kaluar (''procumbent dorsal spine''). palebah puhu buntutna dikurilingan ku 14 sisit.<ref name="weber"/> Buntutna kawas gunting keur calawak tur sisina ngagarpuh (diwangun ku sababaraha ramo-ramo). Sisitna bodas ngagurilap kawas [[perak]], cécépét tonggong jeung buntut palebah tutungna semu hideung.<ref name="weber"/> == Tempat hirup == [[file:Barb gonio 080526 9660 ltn Af.jpg|thumb|left|180px|cécépét palebah handapeun beuteung diwangun ku 8-9 ramo-ramo leuleus]] Génggéhék loba kapanggih hirup di susukan, utamana dina leuwi atawa dina susukan anu jero, dina [[bendungan]],[[situ]], jeung [[rawa]]. Ieu lauk kagolongkeun [[herbivora]] kahakananna lukut jeung dangdaunnan ogé tangkal anu hirup di cai [[detritus]], gumantung kana kaayaan tempat ieu lauk hirup. Tapi sakapeung ogé ieu lauk ngahakan rupa-rupa [[serangga]], [[krustasea]], [[fitoplankton]], [[zooplankton]] jeung anu séjéna.<ref>{{aut|Ridwan.}} 1979. [http://repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/123456789/29193 ''Makanan ikan keprek, ''Mystacoleucus marginatus'' (C.V.) dan beberapa jenis ikan ''Puntius'' sp. di Waduk Lahor, Malang, Jawa Timur'']. Skripsi Fakultas Perikanan IPB (tidak diterbitkan).</ref><ref>{{aut|Susilawati, N.}} 2001. [http://repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/123456789/16107 ''Komposisi jenis-jenis ikan serta aspek biologi reproduksi dan kebiasaan makanan ikan genggehek (''Mystacoleucus marginatus'') di Sungai Cimanuk segmen Sumedang'']. Skripsi Fakultas Perikanan IPB (tidak diterbitkan).</ref> == Baranahan == * '''[[Usum]]''': Génggéhék baranahan sacara alami dina walungan nalika kaayaan cai optimal (biasana di awal usum hujan). * '''[[Endog]]''': Lauk ieu neundeun endogna dina sela-sela batu walungan supados aman tina palidna cai anu tarik.<ref name="KemenkeuGeng">Kementerian Kelautan dan Perikanan RI. ''Identifikasi Ikan Lokal Indonésia''. https://kkp.go.id/djpb/{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Riwayat Taksonomi == Mimitina dijéntrékeun ku [[Achille Valenciennes]] dina taun 1842 dumasar kana spésimén ti walungan di [[Jawa]]. * '''[[Sinonim]]''': ** ''Barbus marginatus'' <small>Valenciennes, 1842</small> ** ''Systomus (Barbodes) marginatus'' <small>Bleeker, 1860</small><ref name="BleekerGeng">Bleeker, P. (1860). ''De visschen van den Indischen Archipel''.</ref> ==Lauk barayana== Lauk [[bilis]] (''Mystacoleucus padangensis'') baraya deukeutna anu hirup [[endemik]] di [[Sumatra]] (di ''[[Danau Singkarak]], [[Danau Maninjau]], [[Sungai Kuantan'']]). Pangawakana leuwih leutik 116&nbsp;mm TL, tur gurat sisitna kurang leuwih 37-39 siki ogé kumisna ngan sapasang<ref name="kottelat93">{{aut|Kottelat, M., A.J. Whitten, S.N. Kartikasari, S. Wirjoatmodjo}}. 1993. ''Ikan Air Tawar Indonesia Bagian Barat dan Sulawesi''. Periplus Edition (HK) Ltd. dan Proyek EMDI KMNKLH Jakarta. hal 51.</ref>. ==Dicutat tina== [[file:Barb gonio 080525 9610 ltn Cf.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Buntutna]] {{reflist|2}} == Tutumbu kaluar == * {{en}} [http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/classify/180759/0 iucnredlist] * {{en}} [http://www.seriouslyfish.com/species/mystacoleucus-obtusirostris/ seriously fish] * [https://books.google.co.id/books?id=GnDlUJAgtsIC&pg=PA3&dq=ikan+adalah&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi8nOz-stfhAhXPTX0KHfCiCykQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=ikan%20adalah&f=false Mengenal & Mengendalikan Predator Ikan] {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Cobitidae]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Sunda]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Lauk]] [[Kategori:Lauk darat]] [[Kategori:Cyprinidae]] [[Kategori:Mystacoleucus]] [[Kategori:Lauk cai tawar]] [[Kategori:Lauk Indonésia]] kgati8jqfpuqdojek5vfayipkka64du 0 53356 708618 681326 2026-04-26T18:54:59Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708618 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox cat breed <!-- Put article text AFTER this infobox markup. See: --> <!-- Wikipedia:WikiProject Cats/Templates for more info. --> |name= Ucing Pérsia |image= Shaded silver Persian Cat Missionhill Cosmic Rainstorm.jpg |imagecaption= |altname= Bulu Panjang,<br />Pérsia Bulu Panjang ,<br />Shiraz, Shirazi |nickname= |country= [[Iran|Iran (Pérsia)]] <!-- international registries: --> |cfastd = http://www.cfainc.org/Portals/0/documents/breeds/standards/persian.pdf |fifestd = http://www1.fifeweb.org/dnld/std/EXO-PER.pdf |ticastd= http://www.tica.org/members/publications/standards/ps.pdf |wcfstd = http://www.wcf-online.de/WCF-EN/library/PER_en_2010-01-01.pdf <!-- regional multi-national registries: --> |ffestd = http://www.ffe-europe.de/standard/persian_e.htm <!-- national registries: --> |acfstd = http://www.acf.asn.au/notices/notices/standards/2015_Group%201_Persian.pdf |acfastd = http://www.acfacat.com/Breed%20Standards/PERSIAN.pdf |cccastd = |ccastd = http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/persian.pdf |cffstd = |gccfstd = http://www.gccfcats.org/Portals/0/Persian.SOP.pdf |loofstd = http://m.loof.asso.fr/standards/standard_en_41.php?z=1 |nzcfstd= |saccstd= <!-- any registry not listed above: --> |otherstd = |note=Ucing[[Éksotik bulu panjang]] jeung [[Ucing Himalaya]] mindeng digolongkeun kana jenis varian ieu. }} '''Ucing Pérsia''' ([[Persian language|Pérsia]]: گربه ایرانی ''Gorbe Irâni'') nyaéta [[ucing]] piaraan cirina bulu panjang, beungeut buleud sarta irung pondok. Sakapeung disebut '''Longhair''' atawa '''Pérsia Longhair'''. Ogé katelah ucing '''[[Shiraz]]i''' atawa '''Ucing Iran''', utamana di [[Timur Tengah]]. Karuhun ucing pérsia nu mimiti didokumétasikeun diimpor ti [[Iran]] (Pérsia) sakitar taun 1620 ka Éropa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.breedguide.net/tag/persian-cat/|title=persian cat Archives - Breed Guide|work=Breed Guide}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808050721/http://www.breedguide.net/tag/persian-cat/ |date=2014-08-08 }}</ref> Dipikawanoh minangka ucing inguan nu éndah saprak ahir abad ka-19, mimiti dimekarkeun ku Inggris, terus utamana ku paternak Amérika sanggeus [[Perang Dunya Kadua]]. Sababaraha organisasi ucing méwah ieu ngagolongkeun [[Ucing Himalaya]] jeung [[Éksotik Bulu pondok]] minangka varian ti turunan ieu, sedengkeun nu lianna nganggap maranéhna minangka katurunan nu misah. The [[selective breeding]] carried out by breeders has allowed the development of a wide variety of coat colors, but has also led to the création of incréasingly [[Cephalic index in cats and dogs|flat-faced]] Persians. Favored by fanciers, this héad structure can bring with it a number of héalth problems. As is the case with the [[Siamese (cat)|Siamese]] breed, there have been efforts by some breeders to preserve the older type of cat, the ''traditional breed'', having a more pronounced muzzle, which is more popular with the general public. Hereditary [[polycystic kidney disease]] is prevalent in the breed, affecting almost half the population in some countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://icatcare.org/advice/polycystic-kidney-disease|title=Polycystic kidney disease {{!}} International Cat Care|website=icatcare.org|access-date=2016-07-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vet.cornell.edu/fhc/Health_Information/PolycysticKidneyDisease.cfm|title=Polycystic Kidney Disease|website=www.vet.cornell.edu|access-date=2016-07-08}}</ref> In 2015 it was ranked as the 2nd most popular breed in the United States according to the [[Cat Fanciers' Association]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cfa.org/AboutCFA/News/PressReleases/PressRelease20160201Top10Breeds.aspx|title=Press Release February 1, 2016 - Top 10 Breeds for 2015|website=cfa.org|access-date=2016-07-08}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170430031445/http://cfa.org/AboutCFA/News/PressReleases/PressRelease20160201Top10Breeds.aspx |date=2017-04-30 }}</ref> The first is the [[Exotic Shorthair|Exotic]] breed. ==Asal== It is not cléar when longhaired cats first appéared, as there are no known long-haired specimens of the [[African wildcat]], the ancestor of the domestic subspecies. [[File:Persian aka Angora from 1894.JPG|thumb|left|An Angora/Persian from ''The Royal Natural History'' (1894).]] The first documented ancestors of the Persian were imported from [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]], Persia (now Iran), into Italy in 1620 by [[Pietro della Valle]], and from Angora (now [[Ankara]]), [[Turkey]], into France by [[Nicholas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc]] at around the same time. The Khorasan cats were grey coated while those from Angora were white. From France, they soon réached Britain.<ref name="messybeastLHC">{{cite web | url=http://www.messybeast.com/longhair-cats.htm | title=Longhaired Cats | publisher=Sarah Hartwell | work=Messybeast Cats | date=2013 | accessdate=July 9, 2015 | last=Hartwell | first=Sarah}}</ref>{{self-published inline|certain=y|date=July 2015|reason=This is Sarah Hartwell's personal cat blog, "not affiliated to any registry, breed society, veterinary association or welfare society", not professionally edited, and citing no sources.}} Recent genetic reséarch indicates that present day Persians are related not to cats from the [[Near East]] but to cats from Western Europe. The reséarchers stated, "Even though the early Persian cat may have in fact originated from ancient Persia, the modern Persian cat has lost its [[Phylogeography|phylogeographical]] signature."<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Monika J.|last1=Lipinski |first2=Lutz|last2=Froenicke |first3=Kathleen C.|last3=Baysac |first4=Nicholas C.|last4=Billings |first5=Christian M.|last5=Leutenegger |first6=Alon M.|last6=Levy |first7=Maria|last7=Longeri |first8=Tirri|last8=Niini |first9=Haydar|last9=Ozpinar |first10=Margaret R.|last10=Slater |first11=Niels C.|last11=Pedersen |first12=Leslie A.|last12=Lyons |title=The Ascent of Cat Breeds: Genetic Evaluations of Breeds and Worldwide Random Bred Populations |journal=Genomics |date=January 2008 |volume=91 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1016/j.ygeno.2007.10.009 |pmc=2267438 |pmid=18060738}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Pamekaran== ===Pérsia jeung Angora=== {{over-quotation|lengthy=y|section|date=December 2011}} {{Multiple image|direction=vertical|align=right|image1=Blue Persian "Gentian".jpg|image2=Fulmer Zaida - Silver Persian.JPG|width=220|caption2=Top: blue Persian. Prize-winner at Westminster in 1899. <br />Bottom: silver Persian. Winner of multiple leading cat shows in 1902.}} The first Persian cat was presented at the first organized [[cat show]], in 1871 in [[the Crystal Palace]] in London, England, organized by [[Harrison Weir]]. As specimens closer to the later established Persian conformation became the more popular types, attempts were made to differentiate it from the Angora.<ref name="Helgren">{{cite web |last=Helgren|first=J. Anne. |title=Cat Breed Detail: Persian Cats |date=2006 |work=Iams.com |publisher=Telemark Productions / Procter & Gamble |url=http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=persian.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081119191145/http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=persian.html |archivedate=November 19, 2008 |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}</ref> The first breed standard (then called a ''points of excellence'' list) was issued in 1889 by cat show promoter Weir. He stated that the Persian differed from the Angora in the tail being longer, hair more full and coarse at the end and héad larger, with less pointed éars.<ref>{{cite book |last=Weir|first=Harrison |title=Our Cats and All About Them |date=1889 |location=Tunbridge Wells, UK |publisher=R. Clements & Co. |lccn=2002554760 |ol=3664970M |url= https://archive.org/details/ourcatsallaboutt00weir |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}</ref> Not all cat fanciers agreed with the distinction of the two types, and in the 1903 work ''The Book of the Cat'', Francis Simpson states that "the distinctions, apparently with hardly any difference, between Angoras and Persians are of so fine a nature that I must be pardoned if I ignore the class of cat commonly called Angora".<ref>{{cite book |last=Simpson|first=Frances. |title=The Book of the Cat |date=1903 |page=98 |location=London/New York |publisher=Cassell and Company |lccn=03024964 |ol=7205700M |url= https://archive.org/details/bookofcatsimpson00simprich |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}</ref> Dorothy Bevill Champion lays out the difference between the two types in the 1909 ''Everybody's Cat Book'':<ref name="champion">{{cite book |last=Champion |first=Dorothy Bevill |year=1909 |title=Everybody's Cat Book |page=17 |publisher=Lent & Graff |location=New York |lccn=10002159 |oclc=8291178 |ol=7015748M |url= https://archive.org/details/everybodyscatboo00cham |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}</ref> <blockquote> Our pedigree imported long-hairs of to-day are undoubtedly a cross of the Angora and Persian ; the latter possesses a rounder head than the former, also the coat is of quite a different quality. </blockquote> Bell goes on to detail the differences. Persian coats consists of a woolly under coat and a long, hairy outer coat.The coat loses all the thick underwool in the summer, and only the long hair remains. Hair on the shoulders and upper part of the hind legs is somewhat shorter. Conversely, the Angora has a very different coat which consists of long, soft hair, hanging in locks, "inclining to a slight curl or wave on the under parts of the body." The Angora's hair is much longer on the shoulders and hind legs than the Persian, which Bell considered a gréat improvement. However, Bell says the Angora "fails to the Persian in head," Angoras having a more wedge-shaped héad and Persians having a more appéaling round héad. Bell notes that Angoras and Persians have been crossbred, resulting in a decided improvement to éach breed, but claimed the long-haired cat of 1909 had significantly more Persian influence than Angora. Champion lamented the lack of distinction among various long-haired types by English fanciers, who in 1887, decided to group them under the umbrella term "Long-haired Cats".<ref name="champion"/><ref name="Helgren2">{{cite web |last=Helgren|first=J. Anne |title=Cat Breed Detail: Turkish Angora |date=2006 |work=Iams.com |publisher=Telemark Productions / Procter & Gamble |url= http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=turkango.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100509130400/http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=turkango.html |archivedate=May 9, 2010 |accessdate=July 9, 2015}} {{Unreliable source?|reason=A cat food manufacturer is not a reliable source on cat breed history.|date=July 2015}}</ref><!-- This ref is only for the date. --> ===Pérsia Tradisional=== [[File:SnowyandHazy.jpg|thumb|Traditional Persian.]] {{Main article|Traditional Persian cat}} The '''traditional Persian''', or '''doll-face Persian''',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://buyfuffy.com|title=Cats and Kittens: Maine coon Kittens|accessdate=March 17, 2016}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313210531/http://buyfuffy.com/ |date=March 13, 2016 }}</ref> are somewhat recent names for what is essentially the original breed of Persian cat, without the development of extreme féatures. As many breeders in the [[United States]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], and other parts of the world started to interpret the Persian standard differently, they developed the flat-nosed "peke-face" or "ultra" type {{crossref|selfref=no|(see next section)}} over time, as the result of two genetic mutations, without changing the name of the breed from "Persian". Some organizations, including the [[Cat Fanciers' Association]] (CFA), today consider the peke-face type as their modérn standard for the Persian breed. Thus the [[retronym]] Traditional Persian was créated to refer to the original type, which is still bred today, mirroring the renaming of the original-style [[Siamese cat]] as the Traditional Siamese, to distinguish it from long-faced modérn development which has taken over as simply "the Siamese". Not all cat fancier groups recognize the Traditional Persian (at all, or as distinct), or give it that specific name. [[The International Cat Association|TICA]] has a very general standard, that does not specify a flattened face.<ref name="TICA std">{{cite web |title=Persian Breed Group |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=TICA.org |date=May 1, 2004 |location=Harlingen, Texas |publisher=[[The International Cat Association]] |url=http://www.tica.org/members/publications/standards/ps.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100802122540/http://www.tica.org/members/publications/standards/ps.pdf |date=August 2, 2010 }}</ref> ===Peke-face and ultra-typing=== In the late 1950s a spontanéous mutation in red and red tabby Persians gave rise to the "peke-faced" Persian, named after the flat-faced [[Pekingese]] dog. It was régistered as a distinct breed in the CFA, but fell out of favor by the mid-1990s due to serious héalth issues; only 98 were régistered between 1958 and 1995. Despite this, breeders took a liking to the look and started breeding towards the peke-face look. The over-accentuation of the breed's characteristics by selective breeding (called ''extreme-'' or ''ultra-typing'') produced results similar to the peke-faced Persians. The term peke-face has been used to refer to the ultra-typed Persian but it is properly used only to refer to red and red tabby Persians béaring the mutation. Many fanciers and CFA judges considered the shift in look "a contribution to the breed."<ref name="messybeastLHC" /><ref name="CFA Saunders">{{cite web |first=Lorraine |last=Saunders |title=Solid Color Persians Are...Solid As a Rock? |work=Cat Fanciers' Almanac |date=November 2002 |publisher=Cat Fanciers' Association |url=http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid02.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201041221/http://cfainc.org//breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid02.html |archivedate=December 1, 2010 |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201041221/http://cfainc.org//breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid02.html |date=December 1, 2010 }}</ref><ref name="CFA Brocato">{{cite web |first1=Judy |last1=Brocato |first2=Greg |last2=Brocato |title=Stargazing: A Historical View of Solid Color Persians |work=Cat Fanciers' Almanac |publisher=Cat Fanciers' Association |date=March 1995 |url=http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201043934/http://cfainc.org//breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid.html |archivedate=December 1, 2010 |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201043934/http://cfainc.org//breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid.html |date=December 1, 2010 }}</ref><ref name="ultracat">{{cite web |last=Hartwell |first=Sarah |title=Novelty Breeds and Ultra-Cats – A Breed Too Far? |work=Messybeast Cats |url= http://www.messybeast.com/ultracat.htm |date=2010 |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}{{self-published inline|certain=y|reason=See previous note about this source.|date=July 2015}}</ref> {{double image|left|Persian profile view moderate type.jpg|140|Cat Show - Ft. Lauderdale - October 2008.jpg|120|A Persian with a visible muzzle in contrast with a Persian with its forehead, nose and chin in vertical alignment, as called for by CFA's 2007 breed standard. The shorter the muzzle, the higher the nose tends to be. UK standards penalize Persians whose nose leather extends above the bottom edge of the eye.}} In 1958, breeder and author P. M. Soderberg wrote in ''Pedigree Cats, Their Varieties, breeding and Exhibition''<ref name="ultracat" /><!--This quotation appears to be cited to an intermediary source; should be verified.--> <blockquote style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;"><!--Have to compensate with padding, because blockquote's default indentation effect does not work when surrounded by images.--> "Perhaps in recent times there has been a tendency to over-accentuate this type of short face, with the result that a few of the cats seen at shows have faces which present a peke-like appearance. This is a type of face which is definitely recognized in the United States, and helps to form a special group within the show classification for the [Persian] breed. There are certainly disadvantages when the face has become too short, for this exaggeration of type is inclined to produce a deformity of the tear ducts, and running eyes may be the result. A cat with running eyes will never look at its best because in time the fur on each side of the nose becomes stained, and thus detracts from the general appearance [...] The nose should be short, but perhaps a plea may be made here that the nose is better if it is not too short and at the same time uptilted. A nose of this type creates an impression of grotesqueness which is not really attractive, and there is always a danger of running eyes." </blockquote> [[File:Stephanie 2.jpg|thumb|right|A smoke Persian with moderate features.]] While the looks of the Persian changed, the Persian Breed Council's standard for the Persian had remained basically the same. The Persian breed standard is, by its nature, somewhat open-ended and focused on a rounded héad, large, wide-spaced round eyes with the top of the nose léather placed no lower than the bottom of the eyes.{{clarify|date=December 2011|reason=Again, this article appears to contradict itself; the breed standard cannot call for the nose to be both above and below the eye at the same time. If necessary, create a section on conflicting breed standards and source their differences.}} The standard calls for a short, cobby body with short, well-boned legs, a broad chest, and a round appéarance, everything about the idéal Persian cat being "round". It was not until the late 1980s that standards were changed to limit the development of the extreme appéarance.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} In 2004, the statement that muzzles should not be overly pronounced was added to the breed standard.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.persianbc.org/bcpoll_2003.php|title=2003 Breed Council Ballot Proposals and Results|year=2004|publisher=CFA Persian Breed Council|accessdate=October 17, 2009}}</ref> The standards were altered yet again in 2007, this time to reflect the flat face, and it now states that the forehéad, nose, and chin should be in vertical alignment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.persianbc.org/bcpoll_2006.php|title=2006 Breed Council Ballot Proposals and Results|year=2007|publisher=CFA Persian Breed Council|accessdate=October 17, 2009}}</ref> In the UK, the standard was changed by the [[Governing Council of the Cat Fancy]] (GCCF) in the 1990s to disqualify Persians with the "upper edge of the nose leather above the lower edge of the eye" from Certificates or First Prizes in Kitten Open Classes.<ref>[http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-bicolor.html Bi-Color and Calico Persians: Past, Present and Future] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827102947/http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-bicolor.html |date=2009-08-27 }} Cat Fanciers' Almanac. May 1998</ref><ref name="GCCF std" /> While ultra-typed cats do better in the show ring, the public seems to prefer the less extreme, older "doll-face" types.<ref name="messybeastLHC"/> ==Varian== ===Himalaya=== {{Main article|Himalayan cat}} [[File:Chocolate Himlayan.jpg|thumb|right|The Himalayan or Colorpoint Longhair was created by crossing the Persian with the Siamese. This crossing also introduced the chocolate and lilac colors into solid colored Persians.]] In 1950, the [[Siamese (cat)|Siamese]] was crossed with the Persian to créate a breed with the body type of the Persian but colorpoint pattern of the Siamese. It was named [[Himalayan (cat)|Himalayan]], after other colorpoint animals such as the [[List of rabbit breeds#Himalayan|Himalayan rabbit]]. In the UK, the breed was recognized as the Colorpoint Longhair. The Himalayan stood as a separate breed in the US until 1984, when the CFA merged it with the Persian, to the objection of the breed councils of both breeds. Some Persian breeders were unhappy with the introduction of this [[crossbreed]] into their "pure" Persian lines.<ref name="Helgren3">{{Cite web |last=Helgren|first=J. Anne. |title=Cat Breed Detail: Himalayan |date=2006 |work=Iams.com |publisher=Telemark Productions / Procter & Gamble |url= http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=himalaya.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081119190910/http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=himalaya.html |archivedate=November 19, 2008 |accessdate=July 9, 2015}} {{Unreliable source?|reason=A cat food manufacturer is not a reliable source on cat breed history.|date=July 2015}}</ref><ref>[http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-himalayan.html Himalayan-Persian] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090913063731/http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-himalayan.html |date=2009-09-13 }} Cat Fanciers' Almanac May 1999</ref> The CFA set up the registration for Himalayans in a way that breeders would be able to discern a Persian with Himalayan ancestry just by looking at the pedigree registration number. This was to maké it éasy for breeders who do not want Himalayan blood in their breeding lines to avoid individuals who, while not necessarily exhibiting the colorpoint pattern, may be carrying the point coloration gene recessively. Persians with Himalayan ancestry has registration numbers starting with 3 and are commonly referred to by breeders as colorpoint carriers (CPC) or 3000-series cats, although not all will actually carry the recessive gene. The Siamese is also the source for the chocolate and lilac color in solid Persians.<ref>[http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/persian-solid.html Breed Profile: Persian – Solid Color Division] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090917091248/http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/persian-solid.html |date=2009-09-17 }} Cat Fanciers' Association</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfainc.org/org/minutes/Jun04.pdf|format=PDF|title=CFA ANNUAL AND EXECUTIVE BOARD MEETINGS JUNE 23–27, 2004|website=cfainc.org}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613043435/http://cfainc.org/org/minutes/Jun04.pdf |date=2010-06-13 }}</ref><!-- first ref for info on chocolate and lilac color, second for the 3000 series stuff. --> ===Éksotik Bulu Pondok=== {{Main article|Exotic Shorthair}} [[File:Brown Exotic Shorthair Kitten.jpg|thumb|right|The Exotic Shorthair is similar to the Persian in temperament and type, with the exception of its short, dense coat.]] The Persian was used as an outcross secretly by some [[American Shorthair]] (ASH) breeders in the late 1950s to "improve" their breed. The [[crossbreed]] look gained recognition in the show ring but other breeders unhappy with the changes successfully pushed for new breed standards that would disqualify ASH that showed signs of crossbreeding. One ASH breeder who saw the potential of the Persian/ASH cross proposed and eventually managed to get the CFA to recognize them as a new breed in 1966, under the name [[Exotic Shorthair]]. Regular outcrossing to the Persian has made present day Exotic Shorthair similar to the Persian in every way, including temperament and conformation, with the exception of the short dense coat. It has even inherited much of the Persian's héalth problems. The éasier to manage coat has made some label the Exotic Shorthair the lazy person's Persian. Because of the regular use of Persians as outcrosses, some Exotics may carry a copy of the recessive longhair gene. When two such cats mate, there is a one in four chance of éach offspring being longhaired. Ironically, longhaired Exotics are not considered Persians by CFA, although [[The International Cat Association]] accepts them as Persians. Other associations régister them as a separate Exotic Longhair breed.<ref name="Helgren4">{{cite web |last=Helgren|first=J. Anne. |title=Cat Breed Detail: Exotic Shorthair |date=2006 |work=Iams.com |publisher=Telemark Productions / Procter & Gamble |url=http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=exotshor.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081119193040/http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=exotshor.html |archivedate=November 19, 2008 |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}{{Unreliable source?|reason=A cat food manufacturer is not a reliable source on cat breed history.|date=July 2015}}</ref> ===Ukuran Kaulinan Jeung Kontés=== <ref name="ultracat"/> A number of breeders produce small-statured Persians under a variety of names. The generic terms are "toy" and "teacup" Persians (terms borrowed from the [[dog fancy]]), but the individual lines are often called "palm-sized", "pocket", "mini" and "pixie". Currently, they are not recognized as a separate breed by major registries and éach breeder sets their own standards for size.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hartwell|first=Sarah |title=Dwarf, Midget and Miniature Cats – Purebreds (Including 'Teacup Cats') |date=2013 |work=Messybeast Cats |url= http://www.messybeast.com/dwarfcats-purebred.htm |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}{{self-published inline|certain=y|reason=See previous note about this source.|date=July 2015}}</ref> ===Chinchilla bulu jabrig jeung Sterling=== [[File:Doll face silver Persian.jpg|thumb|left|A doll-face silver Persian.]] In the US, there was an attempt to establish the silver Persian as a separate breed called the Sterling, but it was not accepted. Silver and golden Persians are recognized, as such, by CFA. In [[South Africa]], the attempt to separate the breed was more successful; the [[Southern Africa Cat Council]] (SACC) régisters cats with five generations of purebred Chinchilla as a Chinchilla Longhair. The Chinchilla Longhair has a slightly longer nose than the Persian, resulting in héalthy bréathing and less eye téaring. Its hair is translucent with only the tips carrying black pigment, a féature that gets lost when out-crossed to other colored Persians. Out-crossing also may result in losing nose and lip liner, which is a fault in the Chinchilla Longhair breed standard. One of the distinctions of this breed is the blue-green or green eye color only with kittens having blue or blue-purple eye color.<ref>[http://www.chinchillafactssite.com/chinchillas-as-pets/persian-longhair-cat/#appearance Difference Between Chinchilla Rodent and Chinchilla Cat] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703115557/http://www.chinchillafactssite.com/chinchillas-as-pets/persian-longhair-cat/#appearance |date=2017-07-03 }} Chinchillafactssite.com</ref> {{clear}} ==Popularitas== [[File:GCCF breed registration data - Top 5 breeds of 2008.jpg|thumb|right|The popularity of the Persian (blue line) in the UK has declined for the past two decades.]] The Persian is the most popular breed of pedigree cats in the United States.<ref name="CFAdata2008">[http://www.cfainc.org/press/2008-breed-popularity.pdf 2008 Top Pedigreed Breeds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401080256/http://www.cfainc.org/press/2008-breed-popularity.pdf |date=2010-04-01 }} CFA. March 2009.</ref> In the UK, registration numbers have dwindled since the éarly 1990s and the Persian lost its top spot to the [[British Shorthair]] in 2001. As of 2012, it was the 6th most popular breed, behind the British Shorthair, Ragdoll, Siamese, Maine Coon and Burmese.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gccfcats.org/pdf/breedanalysis/2012breeds_ranking.pdf|title=Analysis of Breeds Registered|year=2013|publisher=Governing Council of the Cat Fancy|accessdate=December 30, 2013}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233852/http://www.gccfcats.org/pdf/breedanalysis/2012breeds_ranking.pdf |date=December 30, 2013 }}</ref> In France, the Persian is the only breed whose registration declined between 2003 and 2007, dropping by more than a quarter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wikiwix.com/cache/?url=http://www.aniwa.com/fr/chat/document/fr/chat/magazine/tendances/statistiques-race-chat-loof-fff/index.htm|title=Palmarés du chat de race en France: Les données 2008 du LOOF|last=Javerzac|first=Anne-marie|year=2008|publisher=ANIWA|language=French}}</ref> The most color popular varieties according to CFA registration data are séal point, blue point, flame point and tortie point Himalayan, followed by black-white, shadéd silvers and calico.<ref name="CFAdata2008"/> {{clear}} ==Klasifikasi Registrasi== [[File:Chocolate Persian.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Cat show#Description of CFA cat shows and titles|Grand Champion]] chocolate Persian.]] The [[breed standard]]s of various cat fancier organizations may tréat the Himalayan and Exotic Shorthair (or simply Exotic) as variants of the Persian, or as separate breeds. The Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA) tréats the Himalayan as a color-pattern class of both the Persian and the Exotic, which have separate but néarly identical standards (differing in coat length).<ref name="CFA std" /> The [[Fédération Internationale Féline]] (FIFe) entirely subsumes what other registries call the Himalayan as simply among the allowed coloration patterns for the Persian and the Exotic, tréated as separate breeds.<ref name="FIFe std">{{cite web |title=Category I: Exotic/Persian |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=January 1, 2015 |format=PDF |work=FIFeweb.org |publisher=[[Fédération Internationale Féline]] |location=Jevišovkou, Czech Republic |url=http://www1.fifeweb.org/dnld/std/EXO-PER.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121044945/http://www1.fifeweb.org/dnld/std/EXO-PER.pdf |date=January 21, 2016 }}</ref> The International Cat Association (TICA) tréats them both as variants of the Persian.<ref name="TICA std" /> The [[World Cat Federation]] (WCF) tréats the Persian and Exotic Shorthair as separate breeds, and subsumes the Himalayan coloration as colorpoint varieties under éach.<ref name="WFC std">{{cite web |title=Breed Standards: Persian&ndash;Colourpoint |format=PDF |date=January 1, 2010 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=WCF-Online.de |publisher=World Cat Federation |location=Essen, Germany |url=http://www.wcf-online.de/WCF-EN/library/PER_en_2010-01-01.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129100702/http://www.wcf-online.de/WCF-EN/library/PER_en_2010-01-01.pdf |date=November 29, 2020 }}</ref> Among regional and national organizations, [[Feline Federation Europe]] tréats all three as separate breeds.<ref name="FFE std">{{cite web |title=British Shorthair and Highlander |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line--> |date=September 25, 2004 |work=Bavarian-CFA.de |publisher=Feline Federation Europe |url=http://www.ffe-europe.de/standard/persian_e.htm |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711050216/http://www.ffe-europe.de/standard/persian_e.htm |date=July 11, 2015 }} Note: Due to poor coding at this site, this link goes directly to the standard's content. To see it loaded in the site's navigation frame, go to http://www.ffe.europe.de{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, and manually navigate to the breed's entry under the "Races Standard" menu item.</ref> The [[American Cat Fanciers Association]] (ACFA) has the three as separate breeds (also with a Non-pointed Himalayan that is similar to the Persian).<ref name="ACFA std">{{cite web |title=Persian |format=PDF |date=May 2015 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=ACFACat.com |publisher=American Cat Fanciers' Association |location=Nixa, Missouri |url= http://www.acfacat.com/Breed%20Standards/PERSIAN.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}</ref> The [[Australian Cat Federation]] (AFC) follows the FIFe practice.<ref name="ACF std">{{cite web |title=ACF Standards: Persian [PER] |format=PDF |date=January 1, 2015 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |publisher=Australian Cat Federation |location=Canning Vale, Western Au. |url=http://www.acf.asn.au/notices/notices/standards/2015_Group%201_Persian.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150301054912/http://www.acf.asn.au/notices/notices/standards/2015_Group%201_Persian.pdf |date=March 1, 2015 }}</ref> The [[Canadian Cat Federation]] (CCA-AFC) tréats the three separately, and even has an Exotic Longhair subbreed of the Exotic, and Non-pointed Himalayan subbreed of Himalayan, which differ from the Persian only in having some mixed ancestry.<ref name="CCA-AFC std">{{cite web |title=Persian |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |format=PDF |date=August 6, 2005 |work=CCA-AFC.com |publisher=Canadian Cat Federation |url=http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/persian.pdf |location=Mississauga, Ontario |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030090206/http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/persian.pdf |date=October 30, 2012 }} Also referred to corresponding [http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/exotic%202010.pdf Exotic] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916192949/http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/exotic%202010.pdf |date=2012-09-16 }} and [http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/himalayan.pdf Himalayan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030090200/http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/himalayan.pdf |date=2012-10-30 }} standards.</ref> The (UK) [[Governing Council of the Cat Fancy]] (GCCF) does likewise.<ref name="GCCF std">{{cite web |title=Persian Section |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |format=PDF |date=2015 |work=GCCFCats.org |publisher=Governing Council of the Cat Fancy |location= |url=http://www.gccfcats.org/Portals/0/Persian.SOP.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924021037/http://www.gccfcats.org/Portals/0/Persian.SOP.pdf |date=September 24, 2015 }}</ref> tréats the Persian and Exotic Shorthair as separate breeds covered by a single standard with a coat length distinction, and has the pattern of the Himalayan as simply a division within that standard.<ref name="LOOF std">{{cite web |title=Breed's Standard: Persian & Exotic Shorthair |date=2015 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=LOOF.asso.fr |publisher=Livre Officiel des Origines Félines |location=Pantin, France |url= http://m.loof.asso.fr/standards/standard_en_41.php?z=1 |accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> ==Ciri== A show-quality Persian has an extremely long and thick coat, short legs, a wide héad with the éars set far apart, large eyes, and an extremely shortened muzzle. The breed was originally established with a short muzzle, but over time, this characteristic has become extremely exaggerated, particularly in North America. Persian cats can have virtually any color or markings. The Persian is generally described as a quiet cat. Typically placid in nature, it adapts quite well to apartment life. Himalayans tend to be more active due to the influence of Siamese traits. In a study comparing cat owner perceptions of their cats, Persians rated higher than non-pedigree cats on closeness and affection to owners, friendliness towards strangers, cléanliness, predictability, vocalization, and fussiness over food.<ref>{{cite book |last=Turner |first=D. C. |year=2000 |chapter=Human-cat interactions: relationships with, and breed differences between, non-pedigree, Persian and Siamese cats |editor1-last=Podberscek |editor1-first=A. L. |editor2-last=Paul |editor2-first=E. S. |editor3-last=Serpell |editor3-first=J. A. |title=Companion Animals & Us: Exploring the Relationships Between People & Pets |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |pages=257–271 |isbn=0-521-63113-0 }}</ref> ===Kelir=== <!--Do not capitalize coloration terms; those are not breed names, and this is not Capitalipedia.--> The permissible colors in the breed, in most organizations' breed standards, encompass the entire range of [[Cat coat genetics|cat coat-pattern variations]]. [[The International Cat Association]] (TICA) groups the breed into three coat-pattern divisions for judging at [[cat show]]s: traditional (with stable, rich colors), sepia ("paler and warmer than the traditional equivalents", and darkening a bit with age), and mink (much lighter than sepia, and developing noticéably with age on the face and extremities). If classified as the Himalayan sub-breed, full [[point coloration]] is required, the fourth TICA color division, with a "pale and creamy colored" body even lighter than mink, with intense coloration on the face an extremities. The four TICA categories are essentially a graduated scale of color distribution from evenly colored to mostly colored only at the points. Within éach, the coloration may be further classified as solid, [[Tortoiseshell cat|tortoiseshell]] (or "tortie"), [[Tabby cat|tabby]], silver or smoke, solid-and-white, tortoiseshell-and-white, tabby-and-white, or silver/smoke-and-white, with various specific colors and modifiers (e.g. chocolate tortoishell point, or fawn shadéd mink marbled tabby-torbie). TICA-recognized tabby patterns include classic, mackerel, marbled, spotted, and ticked (in two genetic forms), while other patterns include shadéd, chinchilla, and two tabbie-tortie variations, golden, and grizzled. Basic colors include white, black, brown, ruddy, bronze, "blue" (grey), chocolate, cinnamon, lilac, fawn, red, créam, with a silver or shadéd variant of most. Not counting bi-color (piebald) or parti-color coats, nor combinations that are genetically impossible, there are néarly 1,000 named coat pattern variations in the TICA system for which the Persian/Himalayan qualifies. The Exotic Shorthair sub-breed qualifies for every cat coat variation TICA recognizes.<ref name="TICA std" /> <!-- FIFe here --> <!-- Australian Cat Federation here.-->[[File:Grand Champion Topknot James Bond of Lions & Owls.jpg|thumb|Grand Champion Topknot James Bond of Lions & Owls. A solid black, 1 year old Persian cat with brilliant copper eyes. This cat is in kitten coat and the color of the coat will darken as the kitten coat is shed and the adult coat grows in. Note the immense ruff, small round ears, heavy-boned, cobby body, and nose that is short, snub, and broad, with “break” centered between the eyes.]] The [[Cat Fanciers' Association]] (CFA), of the United States, also groups the breed into four coat-pattern divisions, but differently: solid, silver and golden (including chinchilla and shadéd variants, and blued subvariants), shadéd and smoke (with several variations of éach, and a third subcategorization called shell), tabby (only classic, mackerel, and patched [spotted], in various colors), parti-color (in four classes, tortoiseshell, blue-créam, chocolaet tortie, and lilac-créam, mixed with other colors), [[Calico cat|calico]] and bi-color (in around 40 variations, broadly classified as calico, dilute calico, and bi-color), and Himalayan (white-to-fawn body with [[point coloration]] on the héad, tail and limbs, in various tints). CFA base colors are white, black, blue, red, créam, chocolate, and lilac. There are around 140 named CFA coat patterns for which the Himalayan qualifies, and 20 for the Himalayan subbreed.<ref name="CFA std">{{cite web |title=Persian Show Standard |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=CFAInc.com |publisher=Cat Fanciers' Association |location=Alliance, Ohio |date=2015 |format=PDF |url=http://www.cfainc.org/Portals/0/documents/breeds/standards/persian.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710164617/http://www.cfainc.org/Portals/0/documents/breeds/standards/persian.pdf |date=July 10, 2015 }}</ref> These coat patterns encompass virtually all of those recognized by CFA for cats generally. Any Persian permissible in TICA's more detailed system would probably be accepted in CFA's, simply with a more general name, though the organizations do not mix breed registries. Eye colors range widely, and may include blue, copper, [[Odd-eyed cat|odd-eyed]] blue and copper, green, blue-green, and hazel. Various TICA and CFA coat categorizations come with specific eye-color requirements.<ref name="TICA std" /><ref name="CFA std" /> <ref name="TICA UCD">{{cite web |title=Uniform Color Descriptions and Glossary of Terms |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |format=PDF |date=January 1, 2015 |publisher=The International Cat Association |url=http://www.tica.org/members/publications/ucd.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610171542/http://www.tica.org/members/publications/ucd.pdf |date=June 10, 2015 }}</ref> ==Kaséhatan== Pet insurance data from Sweden puts the median lifespan of cats from the Persian group (Persians, Chinchilla, Himalayan and Exotic) at just above 12.5 yéars. 76% of this group lived to 10 yéars or more and 52% lived to 12.5 yéars or more.<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal | last1 = Egenvall | first1 = A. | last2 = Nødtvedt | first2 = A. | last3 = Häggström | first3 = J. | last4 = Ström Holst | first4 = B. | last5 = Möller | first5 = L. | last6 = Bonnett | first6 = B. N. | title = Mortality of Life-Insured Swedish Cats during 1999—2006: Age, Breed, Sex, and Diagnosis | journal = Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine | volume = 23 | issue = 6 | pages = 1175–1183 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19780926 | doi = 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2009.0396.x}}</ref> Veterinary clinic data from England shows an average lifespan of 12–17 yéars, with a median of 14.1.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1177/1098612X14536176 | pmid=24925771 | title=Longevity and mortality of cats attending primary care veterinary practices in England | journal=Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery | volume=17 | issue=2 | pages=125–33 | date=2014 | first=D. G. | last=O'Neill}} "n=70, median=14.1, IQR 12.0-17.0, range 0.0-21.2"</ref> The modérn [[Brachycephalic syndrome|brachycephalic]] Persian has a large rounded skull and shortened face and nose. This facial conformation makes the breed prone to bréathing difficulties, skin and eye problems and birthing difficulties. Anatomical abnormalities associated with brachycephalic breeds can cause [[shortness of breath]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Morphometric Investigations of Breed-Specific Features in Feline Skulls and Considerations on their Functional Implications |first=W. |last=Künzel |first2=S. |last2=Breit |first3=M. |last3=Oppel |doi=10.1046/j.1439-0264.2003.00448.x |journal=Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=218–223 |year=2003 }}</ref> Malformed [[Nasolacrimal duct|tear ducts]] causes [[Epiphora (medical)|epiphora]], an overflow of téars onto the face, which is common but primarily cosmetic. It can be caused by other more serious conditions though. [[Entropion]], the inward folding of the eyelids, causes the eyelashes to rub against the cornéa, and can léad to téaring, pain, infection and cornéa damage. Similarly, in upper eyelid [[trichiasis]] or nasal fold trichiasis, eyelashes/hair from the eyelid and hair from the nose fold néar the eye grow in a way which rubs against the cornéa.<ref>{{cite book |first=Frans Cornelis |last=Stades |title=Ophthalmology for the Veterinary Practitioner |location=Hannover |publisher=Schlütersche |year=2007 |edition=2nd rev. and expanded |isbn=978-3-89993-011-5 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> [[Dystocia]], an abnormal or difficult labor, is relatively common in Persians.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=7610538 |title=Feline dystocia: prevalence, and association with cranial conformation and breed |journal=Vet Rec |year=1995 |volume=136 |issue=14 |pages=350–353 |last=Gunn-Moore |first=D. A. |last2=Thrusfield |first2=M. V. |doi=10.1136/vr.136.14.350}}</ref> Consequently, stillbirth rate is higher than normal, ranging from 16.1% to 22.1%, and one 1973 study puts kitten mortality rate (including stillborns) at 29.2%.<ref>Susan Little [http://catvet.homestead.com/Devon_Rex_Project_Report_1st_Year.doc Aspects of Reproduction and Kitten Mortality in the Devon Rex cat And a Review of the Literature] Devon Rex Kitten Information Project</ref> A veterinary study in 2010 documented the serious héalth problems caused by the brachycephalic héad.<ref name="Schlueter"/> [[File:Purr Lexus Persian Kitty January 3 2015 19 years and 6 months old.jpg|left|thumb|An 19.5 year old pure bred Calico Persian. Such longevity is rare in this breed.<ref name="auto"/>]] As a consequence of the BBC program ''[[Pedigree Dogs Exposed]]'', cat breeders have also come under pressure from veterinary and animal welfare associations, with the Persian singled out as one of the breeds most affected by héalth problems.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/petshealth/4990966/Inbred-pedigree-cats-suffering-from-life-threatening-diseases-and-deformities.html|title=Inbred pedigree cats suffering from life-threatening diseases and deformities |work=The Daily Telegraph|accessdate=November 8, 2009 | location=London | first=Jasper | last=Copping | date=March 14, 2009}}</ref> Animal welfare proponents have suggested changes to breed standards to prevent diséases caused by over or ultra-typing, and prohibiting the breeding of animals outside the set limits.<ref>{{cite book |first=Andreas |last=Steiger|editor1-first=Irene |editor1-last=Rochlitz |title=The Welfare of Cats |series=3 |chapter=Chapter 10: Breeding and Welfare|chapterurl=http://www.springerlink.com/content/w2421766j16ln803/?p=e886e2e0eec64cb489fa933f7e88f339&pi=9|publisher=Springer |year=2005 |pages= |isbn=1-4020-6143-9}}</ref> Apart from the GCCF standard that limits high noses, TICA<ref name="TICA std" /> and FIFe standards require nostrils to be open, with FIFe stating that nostrils should allow "free and easy passage of air." Germany's Animal Welfare Act too prohibits the breeding of brachycephalic cats in which the tip of the nose is higher than the lower eyelids.<ref name="Schlueter">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jfms.2009.09.010 | title = Brachycephalic feline noses: CT and anatomical study of the relationship between head conformation and the nasolacrimal drainage system | year = 2009 | last1 = Schlueter | first1 = C. | last2 = Budras | first2 = K. D. | last3 = Ludewig | first3 = E. | last4 = Mayrhofer | first4 = E. | last5 = Koenig | first5 = H. E. | last6 = Walter | first6 = A. | last7 = Oechtering | first7 = G. U. | journal = Journal of Feline Medicine & Surgery | volume = 11 | pages = 891–900 | url = http://www.fabcats.org/news/breeding/JFMS%20artice.pdf | pmid = 19857852 | issue = 11 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Polycystic kidney disease]] (PKD) which causes kidney failure in affected adult cats has an incidence rate of 36–49% in the Persian breed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Polycystic Kidney Disease|url=http://www.ufaw.org.uk/POLYCYSTICKIDNEYDISEASEPERSIAN.php|work=Genetic welfare problems of companion animals|publisher=Universities Federation for Animal Welfare|accessdate=August 4, 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403162407/http://www.ufaw.org.uk/POLYCYSTICKIDNEYDISEASEPERSIAN.php |date=April 3, 2012 }}</ref> Cysts develop and grow in the kidney over time, replacing kidney tissues and enlarging the kidney. Kidney failure develops later in life, at an average age of 7 yéars old (ranging from 3 to 10 yéars old). Symptoms include excessive drinking and urination, reduced appetite, weight loss and depression.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/s00580-008-0744-0| title = Polycystic kidney in an adult Persian cat: Clinical, diagnostic imaging, pathologic, and clinical pathologic evaluations| journal = Comparative Clinical Pathology| volume = 18| pages = 95–97| year = 2008| last1 = Hosseininejad | first1 = M.| last2 = Vajhi | first2 = A.| last3 = Marjanmehr | first3 = H.| last4 = Hosseini | first4 = F.}}</ref> The diséase is [[autosomal dominant]] and DNA screening is the preferred method of eliminating the gene in the breed. Because of DNA testing, most responsible Persian breeders now have cats that no longer carry the PKD gene, hence their offspring also do not have the gene. Before DNA screening was available, ultrasound was done. However, an ultrasound is only as good as the day it's done, and many cats that were thought to be cléar, were in fact, a carrier of the PKD gene. Only DNA screening and then breeding negative to negative for the PKD gene will produce negative kittens which effectively removes this gene from the breeding pool has allowed some lines and catteries to eliminate the incidence of the diséase.<ref>Lyons, Leslie. [http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/PHR/LyonsDen/pkd.htm Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091105080443/http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/PHR/LyonsDen/pkd.htm |date=2009-11-05 }} Feline Genome Project</ref> [[Feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy|Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy]] (HCM) is a common héart diséase in all cats. It is hereditary in the [[Maine Coon]] and [[American Shorthair]], and likely the Persian. The diséase causes thickening of the [[left ventricle|left heart chamber]], which can in some instances léad to sudden déath. It tends to affect males and mid to old-aged individuals. Reported incidence rate in Persians is 6.5%.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_aSMmFN4TQYC&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q=&f=false The Feline Patient] Wiley-Blackwell, 2007</ref> Unlike PKD which can be detected even in very young cats, héart tests for HCM have to be done regularly in order to effective track and/or remove affected individuals and their offspring from the breeding pool.<ref>[http://www.cfa.org/articles/health/hypertrophic-cardiomyopathy.html Feline Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: Advice for Breeders] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513083815/http://www.cfa.org/articles/health/hypertrophic-cardiomyopathy.html |date=2008-05-13 }} The Winn Feline Foundation</ref> The age at the first cardiac event was significantly lower in Maine Coons (2.5 yéars) versus other breeds (7 yéars). In Sphynx, the age at the time of diagnosis was 3.5 yéars. Concerning sudden déath solely, Maine Coon cats died younger than other breeds. No sudden déaths were reported in Chartreux and Persian cats in this study. Sudden déath was observed in only 3 breeds—Maine Coon, Domestic Shorthair, and Sphynx. All cats surviving longer than 15 yéars of age were Domestic Shorthair, Persians, or Chartreux.<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 22443341 | year = 2012 | author1 = Trehiou-Sechi | first1 = E | title = Comparative echocardiographic and clinical features of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in 5 breeds of cats: A retrospective analysis of 344 cases (2001-2011) | journal = Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 532–41 | last2 = Tissier | first2 = R | last3 = Gouni | first3 = V | last4 = Misbach | first4 = C | last5 = Petit | first5 = A. M. | last6 = Balouka | first6 = D | last7 = Sampedrano | first7 = C. C. | last8 = Castaignet | first8 = M | last9 = Pouchelon | first9 = J. L. | last10 = Chetboul | first10 = V | doi = 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2012.00906.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://winnfelinehealth.blogspot.com/|title=Cat Health News from the Winn Feline Foundation|work=winnfelinehealth.blogspot.com}}</ref> éarly onset [[Progressive retinal atrophy]] is a degenerative eye diséase with an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance in the Persian.<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 15851577 | year = 2005 | author1 = Rah | first1 = H | title = Early-onset, autosomal recessive, progressive retinal atrophy in Persian cats | journal = Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science | volume = 46 | issue = 5 | pages = 1742–7 | last2 = Maggs | first2 = D. J. | last3 = Blankenship | first3 = T. N. | last4 = Narfstrom | first4 = K | last5 = Lyons | first5 = L. A. | doi = 10.1167/iovs.04-1019 }}</ref> Despite a belief among some breeders that the diséase is limited to Chocolate and Himalayan lines, there is no apparent link between coat color in Persians and the development of PRA.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Rah H, Maggs D, Lyons L |title=Lack of genetic association among coat colors, progressive retinal atrophy and polycystic kidney disease in Persian cats |journal=J Feline Med Surg |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=357–60 |year=2006 |pmid=16777456 |doi=10.1016/j.jfms.2006.04.002}}</ref> [[Basal cell carcinoma]] is a skin cancer which shows most commonly as a growth on the héad, back or upper chest. While often benign, rare cases of malignancy tends to occur in Persians.<ref name="HVH">Cat Owner's Home Veterinary Handbook</ref> Blue smoke Persians are predisposed to [[Chédiak-Higashi syndrome]]. [[Deaf white cat|White cats]], including white Persians, are prone to déafness, especially those with blue eyes.<ref>Strain, George M. [http://www.lsu.edu/deafness/catbreeds.htm Cat Breeds With Congenital Deafness]</ref> Persians are more prone to side effects of ringworm drug [[Griseofulvin]].<ref>[http://www.veterinarypartner.com/Content.plx?P=A&C=31&A=543&S=0 Griseofulvin (Fulvicin)] VeterinaryPartner.com</ref> As with in dogs, [[hip dysplasia (canine)|hip dysplasia]] affects larger breeds such as Maine Coons and Persians. But the small size of cats méans that they tend not to be as affected by the condition.<ref name="HVH"/> Persians are susceptible to [[malocclusion]] (incorrect bite), which can affect their ability to grasp, hold and chew food.<ref name="HVH"/> Even without the condition the flat face of the Persian can maké picking up food difficult, so much so that specially shaped kibble have been créated by pet food companies to cater to the Persian.<ref>[http://www.royalcanin.co.uk/my_pet/cat_products/feline_breed_nutrition/persian.aspx Persian 30] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728072447/http://www.royalcanin.co.uk/my_pet/cat_products/feline_breed_nutrition/persian.aspx |date=2011-07-28 }} Royal Canin</ref> Other conditions which the Persian is predisposed to are listed below:<ref name=Pred>{{cite book|last=Gould|first=Alex|author2=Thomas, Alison|title=Breed Predispositions to Diseases in Dogs and Cats|publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]]|year=2004|location=[[Ames, Iowa]]|isbn=1-4051-0748-0}}</ref> * Dermatological – primary [[seborrhoea]], idiopathic periocular crusting, [[dermatophytosis]] (ringworm),<ref>{{cite web|title=Dermatophytosis|url=http://www.ufaw.org.uk/DERMATOPHYTOSISINPERSIAN.php|work=Genetic welfare problems of companion animals|publisher=Universities Federation for Animal Welfare|accessdate=August 4, 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311141834/http://www.ufaw.org.uk/DERMATOPHYTOSISINPERSIAN.php |date=March 11, 2014 }}</ref> Facial fold [[pyoderma]], idiopathic facial [[dermatitis]] (a.k.a. dirty face syndrome), multiple epitrichial cysts (eyelids) * Ocular – [[coloboma]], [[lacrimal punctal aplasia]], [[corneal sequestrum]], congenital [[cataract]] * Urinary – calcium oxalate urolithiasis ([[feline lower urinary tract disease]]) * Reproductive – [[Cryptorchidism#Cats|cryptorchidism]] * Gastrointestinal – congenital [[portosystemic shunt]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Portosystemic Shunt|url=http://www.ufaw.org.uk/PORTOSYSTEMICSHUNTPERSIAN.php|work=Genetic welfare problems of companion animals|publisher=Universities Federation for Animal Welfare|accessdate=August 4, 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328011905/http://www.ufaw.org.uk/PORTOSYSTEMICSHUNTPERSIAN.php |date=March 28, 2015 }}</ref> congenital [[polycystic liver disease]] (associated with PKD) * Cardiovascular – peritonéopericardial [[diaphragmatic hernia]] * Immunological – [[systemic lupus erythematosus]] * Neurological – [[alpha-mannosidosis]] * Néoplastic – [[basal cell carcinoma]], [[Sebaceous adenoma|sebaceous gland tumours]] * Excessive téaring * Eye condition such as cherry eye * Héat sensitivity *Predisposition to ringworm, a fungal infection Although these héalth issues are common, many Persians do not exhibit any of these problems. ==Dangdan== [[File:Lion cut tortoiseshell Persian.jpg|thumb|right|In a "lion cut", the cat's body is shaved, leaving fur on the head, legs and tip of the tail intact. It may be done to remove matted fur, reduce the need for grooming, keep the cat cool in warm weather or for aesthetic reasons.]] Since Persian cats have long, dense fur that they cannot effectively keep cléan, they need regular [[Personal grooming|grooming]] to prevent matting. To keep their fur in its best condition, they must be bathed regularly, dried carefully afterwards, and brushed thoroughly every day. An alternative is to shave the coat. Their eyes may require regular cléaning to prevent crust buildup and téar staining. ==Référési== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{Commons category|Persian (cat)}} * {{dmoz|Recreation/Pets/Cats/Breeds/Persian}} * [http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/persian.html Breed Profile: Persian] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040605123253/http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/persian.html |date=2004-06-05 }} {{Cat nav}} {{Portalbar|Cats|Iran|}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Persian (Cat)}} [[Kategori:Cat breeds]] [[Kategori:Persian mythology]] [[Kategori:Cat breeds originating in Iran]] [[Kategori:Inbred animals]] 6ld4uffiz8qxyo5sdxy6xc6jugij643 0 54684 708603 659602 2026-04-26T15:06:25Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708603 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Grand Prix motorcycle team | Short_name = Tim Repsol Honda | Logo = [[File:Repsol Honda Team.png|150px]] | Last_season = 2016 | Long_name = [[Repsol]] [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] Team | Base = [[Aalst, Belgium]] | Principal = [[Shuhei Nakamoto]] | Riders ={{nowrap|26. {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Dani Pedrosa]] <br />93. {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Marc Márquez]]}} | Motorcycle = [[Honda RC213V]] | Tyres = [[Michelin]] | Riders_champ= {{nowrap|13<br />{{MGP|1995}}, {{MGP|1996}}, {{MGP|1997}}, {{MGP|1998}} [[Mick Doohan]]<br/>{{MGP|1999}} [[Àlex Crivillé]]<br />{{MGP|2001}}, {{MGP|2002}}, {{MGP|2003}} [[Valentino Rossi]]<br />{{MGP|2006}} [[Nicky Hayden]]<br />{{MGP|2011}} [[Casey Stoner]]<br />{{MGP|2013}}, {{MGP|2014}}, {{MGP|2016}} [[Marc Márquez]]}} }} '''Repsol Honda''' nyéta tim pabrik resmi [[Repsol|Repsol S.A.]] sarta [[Honda Racing Corporation]] dina Kajuaraan Dunya [[Balap motor Grand Prix|MotoGP]].<ref name = "motorsport">{{cite news |title=Repsol Honda Team history |publisher=motorsport.com |url=https://www.motorsport.com/team/honda-motogp/history/ |accessdate=12 Juni 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151213221756/http://www.motorsport.com/team/honda-motogp/history/ |date=2015-12-13 }}</ref> ==Sajarah== ===1990an=== Dina taun 1992, Honda mekarkeun mesin "''Big Bang''", kalayan henteu konvénsional sarta has.<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> [[Michael Doohan|Mick Doohan]] mintonkeun kaparigelan nu luar biasa kalayan [[Honda]] [[NSR500]] anyar nepikeun ka tatu parna dina usum balap harita.<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> Vérsi pangayarna motor ieu pohara nyugemakeun nepikeun ka mampuh mapakan di kelas utama.<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> Éta mangrupa kaajaiban téknologi nu ninggalkeun kesan abadi di dunya balap.<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> [[Michael Doohan|Doohan]] ngahontal gelar juara dunya 500cc kalayan [[Honda]] lima kali noron ti taun 1994.<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> Usum balap taun 1997 mangrupa taun pangalusna pikeun modél ieu, kalayan 15 kameunangan, sababaraha di antarana ngahontal 22 kameunangan noron.<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> [[NSR500]] jadi sajarah minangka motor legendaris taun 1990-an.<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation">{{cite news |title=History |publisher=motogp.hondaracingcorporation.com |url=http://motogp.hondaracingcorporation.com/history/ |accessdate=12 Juni 2017 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Dina taun 1995 tim nurunkeun 3 purah balap nyaéta [[Michael Doohan|Mick Doohan]], [[Alex Criville]] sarta [[Shinichi Ito]] maké [[Honda NSR500]].<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Michael Doohan|Doohan]] ngahontal Kajuaraan Dunya pikeun kadua kalina sakaligus di [[1995 Argentine motorcycle Grand Prix|Argentina]], [[Alex Criville|Criville]] anggeus di posisi kaopat kalayan sakali meunang balapan sedengkeun [[Shinichi Ito|Ito]] anggeus di posisi kalima.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Tim dimekarkeun jadi opat urang dina taun 1996; [[Michael Doohan|Doohan]] jeung [[Alex Criville|Criville]] maké [[Honda NSR500]] sedengkeun [[Tadayuki Okada]] jeung Ito maké [[Honda NSR500V]].<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Michael Doohan|Doohan]] ngahontal Kajuaraan Dunya katilu kalayan dalapan kali meunang lomba sarta [[Alex Criville|Criville]] di posisi ''runner-up''. [[Tadayuki Okada|Okada]] anggeus di posisi katujuh sarta Ito di posisi kaduabelas.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Kaopat purah balap diteruskeun taun 1997 nyaéta [[Michael Doohan|Doohan]], [[Alex Crivillé|Crivillé]] sarta [[Tadayuki Okada|Okada]] maké NSR500 sarta [[Takuma Aoki]] maké NSR500V.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Repsol Honda meunang sakabéh 15 balapan usum ieu kalayan [[Michael Doohan|Doohan]] meunang 12 balapan, sarta meupeuskeun rékor [[Giacomo Agostini]] pikeun ngahontal kameunangan dina hiji usum, dina Kajuaraan Dunya kaopatna.<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Tadayuki Okada|Okada]] jadi ''runner-up'', [[Alex Crivillé|Crivillé]] di posisi kaopat kalayan dua kameunangan tapi teu milu lima balapan sanggeus ngalaman kacilakaan parna di [[1997 Dutch TT|Assen]] sedengkeun [[Takuma Aoki|Aoki]] di posisi kalima.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Purah balap Repsol Honda meunang sakabéh posisi podium di opat balapan, di [[Jepang]], [[Spanyol]], [[Jérman]] jeung [[Indonésia]].<ref name = "motorsport"/> Pikeun taun {{MGP|1998}}, [[Michael Doohan|Doohan]], [[Alex Crivillé|Crivillé]] sarta [[Tadayuki Okada|Okada]] neruskeun di tim Repsol Honda kalayan motor [[Honda NSR500|NSR500]] sarta [[Sete Gibernau]] ngagabung jeung maranéhna maké motor [[Honda NSR500V|NSR500V]].<ref name = "motorsport"/> Doohan terus mingpin kajuaraan kalayan dalapan kameunangan sarta dileler Juara Dunya pikeun kalima kalina di [[1998 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|Australia]].<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Alex Crivillé|Crivillé]] anggeus di posisi katilu kalayan dua kameunangan, sedengkeun [[Tadayuki Okada|Okada]] kudu absén tilu balapan sabab pigeulang leungeunna potong nalika latihan di [[1998 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|Grand Prix Itali]] sarta anggeus di posisi ka dalapan. [[Sete Gibernau|Gibernau]] anggeus di posisi kasabelas.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Réngréngan tim tetep sarua pikeun taun {{MGP|1999}}, nyaéta [[Michael Doohan|Doohan]], [[Alex Crivillé|Crivillé]], [[Tadayuki Okada|Okada]] jeung [[Sete Gibernau|Gibernau]].<ref name = "motorsport"/> Mangsa kualifikasi di [[1999 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|Grand Prix Spanyol]], [[Michael Doohan|Doohan]] kungsi kacilakaan parna sarta pamustunganana ngabalukarkeun pangsiun ti olahraga balap.<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Alex Crivillé|Crivillé]] neruskeun genep balapan sarta pikeun ngahontal Kéajuaraan Dunya di [[1999 Rio de Janeiro motorcycle Grand Prix|Rio de Janeiro]] kalayan sésa sakali balapan deui di usum ieu.<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Tadayuki Okada|Okada]] anggeus di posisi katilu kalayan tilu kali balapan.<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Sete Gibernau|Gibernau]]&nbsp;– nu dimimiti usum maké [[Honda NSR500V|NSR500V]] saancan ngaganti Doohan maké [[Honda NSR500|NSR500]]&nbsp;– anggeus di posisi kalima.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Tim purah balap ieu meunang balap di sakabéh podium di [[1999 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|Katalunya]] kalayan [[Alex Crivillé|Crivillé]] kahiji, [[Tadayuki Okada|Okada]] kadua sarta [[Sete Gibernau|Gibernau]] katilu.<ref name = "motorsport"/> ===2000an=== [[Alex Crivillé|Crivillé]], [[Tadayuki Okada|Okada]] jeung [[Sete Gibernau|Gibernau]] angger babarengan satim dina taun {{MGP|2000}} maké motor [[Honda NSR500]].<ref name = "motorsport"/> Usum taun {{MGP|2000}} nyaéta taun nu werit pikeun Tim Repsol Honda, [[Alex Criville|Criville]] ngan meunang sakali sarta anggeus di posisi kasalapan, [[Tadayuki Okada|Okada]] anggeus di posisi kasabelas sarta [[Sete Gibernau|Gibernau]] posisi kalimabelas.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Taun {{MGP|2001}}, [[Alex Criville|Criville]] digabungkeun jeung [[Tohru Ukawa]].<ref name = "motorsport"/> Usum ieu teu jauh leuwih alus batan taun {{MGP|2000}} [[Alex Crivillé|Crivillé]] ngan bisa meunang dua podium jeung nganggeuskeun usum dina posisi kadalapan, sedengkeun [[Tohru Ukawa|Ukawa]] anggeus di posisi kasapuluh kalayan ngan hiji podium.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Usum taun 2001 dimimitian kalayan babak bubuka nu luar biasa di Suzuka, di mana [[Masao Azuma]], [[Daijiro Kato]] sarta [[Valentino Rossi]] maranéhna meunang kelas 125, 250 dan 500cc, nu ngalantarankeun [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] ngahontal kameunangan ke-500 di [[Balap motor Grand Prix|Kajuaraan Dunya Balap motor Grand Prix]].<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> Pikeun taun 2002, Honda nurunkeun [[Honda RC211V]] kapasitas 990cc, opat léngkah, ngagunakeun RC ngingetkeun deui kenangan taun-taun emas [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] di seri [[Balap motor Grand Prix|GP Dunya]] dina taun 1960an.<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> Satiap produsén geus ngaronjatkeun mesinna pikeun tarung panungtung di taun panungtungan balap [[Balap motor Grand Prix|MotoGP]] 990cc, kalayan [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] nurunkeun dua vérsi [[Honda RC211V|RC211V]].<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> [[File:Motogp rossi 300.jpg|thumb|left|[[Valentino Rossi]] Valentino Rossi meunang tilu kali gelar dunya kalayan tim, dina {{MGP|2001}}, {{MGP|2002}} jeung {{MGP|2003}}.]] Dina taun {{MGP|2002}}, taun munggaran kelas [[Grand Prix motorcycle racing|MotoGP]] anyar, [[Valentino Rossi]] ngagabung tim bareng jeung [[Tohru Ukawa|Ukawa]] numpak [[Honda RC211V]] anyar, ngan ukur dua purah balap nu maké motor anyar nepi ka ampir ahir usum, antukna [[Alex Barros]] jeung [[Daijiro Kato]] dibéré ogé [[Honda RC211V]].<ref name = "motorsport"/> Rossi mingpin usum balap ieu kalayan sabelas kameunangan balapan jadi Juara Dunya kalayan sésa balapan opat deui pikeun ahir usum.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Taun 2002 [[Nicky Hayden]] juara [[AMA Superbike Championship#AMA Superbike Champions|AMA Superbike]] ngagabung jeung Rossi taun {{MGP|2003}}.<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Valentino Rossi|Rossi]] kalayan salapan kameunangan sarta meunang podium di sakabéh balapan, jadi Juara Dunya nu katilu kalina noron kalayan sésa dua balapan deu di usum ieu.<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Nicky Hayden|Hayden]] anggeus kalima kalayan dua kali naék podium.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Sanggeus kaluarna [[Valentino Rossi|Rossi]], veteran [[Grand Prix motorcycle racing|Grand Prix]] [[Alex Barros]] ngagabung jeung [[Nicky Hayden|Hayden]] taun {{MGP|2004}}.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Barros nganggeuskeun usum di posisi kaopat sarta Hayden kalima.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Purah balap duanana naék podium tapi teu kungsi meunang balapan kahiji.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Taun {{MGP|2005}} [[Max Biaggi]] ngagabung jeung Hayden ka tim Repsol Honda.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Hayden ngahontal kameunangan [[Grand Prix motorcycle racing|MotoGP]] munggaranna di [[2005 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|Grand Prix Amérika]], manéhna juara katilu.<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Max Biaggi|Biaggi]] juara kalima kalayan lima podium.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Usum taun 2006 ieu kasohor lantaran aya sababaraha purah balap ngora dina taun nu pinuh tangtangan.<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> Taun {{MGP|2006}}, [[Nicky Hayden|Hayden]] ngagabung jeung [[Dani Pedrosa]] [[List of Grand Prix motorcycle racing World champions|Juara Dunya 250cc]] .<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Nicky Hayden|Hayden]] mingpin kajuaraan pikeun sebagéan badag usum ieu tapi di [[2006 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|Grand Prix Portugis]], [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] kacilakaan nabrak [[Nicky Hayden|Hayden]].<ref name = "motorsport"/> Purah balap duanana kaluar balapan sarta [[Valentino Rossi|Rossi]] mingpin kajuaraan kalayan sésa balapan sakali deui.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Dina usum balap panungtungan, [[Valentino Rossi|Rossi]] labuh di ''lap'' ka 5.<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Nicky Hayden|Hayden]] nganggeuskeun balapan posisi ka 3 nu aman sarta jadi Juara Dunya.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Manéhna meunang dua kali balapan sarta dalapan kali podium lainna.<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] anggeus di posisi kalima kalayan dua kali meunang balapan sarta lima kali podium lainna.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Pikeun taun 2007, Honda nyieun mesin V4 pikeun mesin [[Honda RC212V|RC212V]] anyar nu siap tarung di seri [[Balap motor Grand Prix|MotoGP]] 800cc. Kacepatan di trék lempeng ngurangan 15kpj.<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> Téknologi gilinding ogé ngaronjat, sarta sistim kontrol traksi ti jaman 990c beuki disampurnakeun.<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> Hasilna, sacara kasaluruhan kalayan motor 800cc teu béda jauh jeung 990cc.<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> Pikeun taun {{MGP|2007}} réngréngan tim angger.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Tim ngagunakeun motor [[Honda RC212V]] anyar 800cc.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Motor anyar ieu teu ngalantarankeun kasuksésan nu dipikaharep tapi antukna dina usumna kamapuh motor ngaronjat. [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] meunang dua kali balapan sarta di posisi kadua usum balap ieu, [[Nicky Hayden|Hayden]] ngan bisa ngatur podium sarta anggeus di posisi kadalapan sagemblengna di usum balap ieu.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Pikeun taun {{MGP|2008}}, purah balapna angger [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] jeung [[Nicky Hayden|Hayden]], kalayan [[Mike Leitner]] jeung [[Pete Benson]] minangka lulugu mékanik [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] jeung [[Nicky Hayden|Hayden]], sarta [[Kazuhiko Yamano]] salaku manajer tim.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Dina mangsa usum éta [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] ngaganti gilinding ku [[Bridgestone]] sarta hiji dingding ditempatkeun di antara garasi [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] jeung [[Nicky Hayden|Hayden]] pikeun nyingkahan panalungtikan data gilinding.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Dingding di antara garasi tim nu sarua mimiti dilambagakeun ku [[Valentino Rossi|Rossi]] di awal usum antara manéhna jeung [[Jorge Lorenzo]] batur satimna di [[Michelin]].<ref name="wall">{{cite news |title=Brivio: Fiat Yamaha wall stays, but the competitiveness is normal |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2008-11-27 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2008/Brivio+Fiat+Yamaha+wall+stays+but+the+competitiveness+is+normal |accessdate=13 Juni 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329064602/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2008/Brivio+Fiat+Yamaha+wall+stays+but+the+competitiveness+is+normal |date=2012-03-29 }}</ref> Pikeun taun {{MGP|2009}}, [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] jeung [[Andrea Dovizioso]] nyaéta tim purah balapna.<ref name = "motorsport"/> ===2010an=== Pikeun taun {{MGP|2010}}, diréktur Tim [[Honda Racing Corporation|HRC]] nyaéta [[Kazuhiko Yamano]], nalingakeun sakabéh operasi kaasup tim pabrik jeung tim satelit.<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Toshiyuki Yamaji]] ngagantikeun [[Yamano]] salaku Tim Manajer sarta diarahkeun sakabéh tim Repsol Honda. [[Alberto Puig]] minangka Manajer Tim [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] sarta [[Gianni Berti]] minangka Manajer Tim [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]].<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Shinichi Kokubu]] minangka Direktur Téhnik Grand Prix, nalingakeun genep mesin [[Honda RC212V|RC212V]] di [[Balap motor Grand Prix|MotoGP]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Honda 2010 Motorsports Overview |publisher=Honda Motor Co., Ltd. |date= 13 Juni 2017 |url=http://world.honda.com/news/2010/c100219Motorsports-Overview/ |accessdate=13 Juni 2017}}</ref> Dina taun [[2011]], tim pabrik Repsol Honda nurunkeun tilu motor kalayan [[Dani Pedrosa]], [[Andrea Dovizioso]] sarta Juara Dunia 2007, [[Casey Stoner]].<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> [[Honda RC212V]] kabukti pohara kuat pikeun kompetisi taun ieu sarta [[Casey Stoner]] [[Australia]] ngahontal kajuaraan kalayan sésa dua balapan deui, sarta Honda ogé ngahontal gelar Tim sarta gelar ke-60 Konstruktor.<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> [[File:Casey Stoner - Repsol Honda Team (5480226329).jpg|thumb|[[Casey Stoner]] balap pikeun Repsol Honda di [[2011 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|Grand Prix Malaysia 2011]].]] Pikeun taun {{MGP|2011}}, [[Shuhei Nakamoto]] minangka Wawakil Présidén [[Honda Racing Corporation|HRC]] sarta mingpin tim Honda [[Balap motor Grand Prix|MotoGP]].<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Shinichi Kokubu]] minangka Direktur Téhnik, sarta [[Livio Suppo]] minangka Komunikasi [[Honda Racing Corporation|HRC]] sarta Diréktur Marketing.<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]], [[Andrea Dovizioso|Dovizioso]] jeung [[Casey Stoner]] minangka tim purah balapna.<ref>{{cite news |title=Repsol Honda Team |publisher=Honda Motor Co., Ltd. |year=2011 |url=http://world.honda.com/HRC/repsolhondateam/ |accessdate= 13 Juni 2017}}</ref> Tim ogé disponsoran ku [[PT Astra Honda Motor]], ngaliwatan mérek ''One Heart'' jeung ''Satu Hati'' (SaHaté).<ref name = "motorsport"/> Pikeun taun {{MGP|2012}}, [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] jeung [[Casey Stoner|Stoner]] minangka tim puarah balap.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Pikeun taun {{MGP|2013}}, [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] neruskeun purah balap tim dibarengan ku [[Marc Márquez]], kalayan [[Suppo]] minangka Pupuhu Tim.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Tim leungiteun sponsor ''One Heart'' jeung ''Satu Hati.''<ref name = "motorsport"/> Dina taun {{MGP|2014}}, Márquez jadi purah balap nu pangngorana nu meunang sapuluh kali balapan noron di [[Grand Prix motorcycle racing|MotoGP]].<ref name = "motorsport"/> Tim disponsoran deui ku ''One Heart'' jeung ''Satu Hati.''<ref name = "motorsport"/> (SaHaté) Pikeun taun {{MGP|2015}}, [[Dani Pedrosa|Pedrosa]] jeung [[Marc Márquez|Márquez]] angger jadi tim purah balap.<ref name = "motorsport"/> [[Red Bull]], sponsor jangka panjang nu katempo dina hélm purah balap, jadi sponsor utama tim.<ref name = "motorsport"/> Kajuaraan Dunya [[Balap motor Grand Prix|MotoGP]] taun 2016 mangrupa usum nu ngesankeun pikeun [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] sarta [[Marc Márquez|Marc Marquez]] mantan juara mintonkeun 22 Kajuaraan Dunya Konstruktor di kelas utama sarta nu panungtung dileler minangka purah balap pangngorana nu meunang tilu Kajuaraan Dunia kelas utama, nu ngalantarankeun nghontal lima gelar di sakabéh kelas dina karir [[Balap motor Grand Prix|Grand Prix]]-na.<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> Dina umur 23 taun sarta 242 poé, pembalap Repsol Honda meupeuskeun rékor ti purah balap legendaris [[Mike Hailwood]], nu umurna 24 taun nalika manéhna meunang mahkota 500cc katilu kalina taun 1964.<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> Parobahan téknis penting dilakukeun dina tetekon Kejuaraan MotoGP 2016 kalayan diwanohkeun éléktronik terpadu sarta pindahna gilinding ti [[Bridgestone]] ka [[Michelin]] sarta perelu waktu pikeun insinyur sarta tim [[Honda Racing Corporation|HRC]] pikeun sagemblengna nitenan kumaha ngamangpaatkeun poténsi [[Honda RC213V|RC213V]].<ref name = "hondaracingcorporation"/> ''[[Honda Racing Corporation]]'' ([[Honda Racing Corporation|HRC]]) poé Rabu (7/12/2016) ngabéwarakeun geus resmi manjangkeun kontrak sponsor kalayan pausahaan énérgi Spanyol, Repsol, di MotoGP nepi ka 2018.<ref name = "bola">{{cite news |title=Repsol Tetap Jadi Sponsor Honda di MotoGP Hingga 2018 |publisher=bola.com |date=2017-06-13 |url=http://www.bola.com/moto-gp/read/2672904/repsol-tetap-jadi-sponsor-honda-di-motogp-hingga-2018 |accessdate=13 Juni 2017}}</ref> Kontrak Repsol jeung Honda kuduna baris béak dina panungtungan taun 2017.<ref name = "bola"/> "''Taun ieu kami ngahontal titel MotoGP ka-12 salila 22 taun gawé bareng, hiji pencapaian nu luar biasa dina sajarah Kajuaraan Dunya Balap motor Grand Prix''," ceuk Manajer umum ''Race Operations Management Division'' [[Honda RC211V|HRC]], [[Tetsuhiro Kuwata]], di ramatloka resmi [[Honda Racing Corporation|HRC]].<ref name = "bola"/> ''"Rekor kasebut mintonkeun hébatna gawé bareng antara Honda jeung Repsol. Salian kontrak sponsor nu hadé, kami ogé meunang kauntungan ti pamekaran teknologi nu krusial,"'' ceuk [[Kuwata]].<ref name = "bola"/> Aya genep purah balap nu kungsi jadi juara dunya kalayan Repsol Honda nyaéta [[Michael Doohan|Mick Doohan]] ([[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 1994|1994]]-[[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 1998|1998]]), [[Alex Criville]] ([[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 1999|1999]]), [[Valentino Rossi]] ([[Balap motor Grrand Prix usum 2001|2001]]-[[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2003|2003]]), [[Nicky Hayden]] ([[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2006|2006]]), [[Casey Stoner]] ([[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2011|2011]]), sarta [[Marc Márquez|Marc Marquez]] ([[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2013|2013]]-[[Balap motor Grand prix usum 2014|2014]], [[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2016|2016]]).<ref name = "bola"/> Juara Dunya [[Marc Márquez|Marc Marquez]] jeung batur satimna [[Dani Pedrosa]] neruskeun pangujian tilu poé maranémhna di Sirkuit Internasional Sepang kalayan ngalakonan lalampahan ka Indonésia pikeun medalkeun kelir Tim Repsol Honda [[2017]] di [[Jakarta]] International Expo (JIExpo) di ibukota nagara.<ref name = "motogpjkt">{{cite news |title=Repsol Honda Launch The Season in Indonesia |publisher=motogp.com |date=03 Pebruari 2017 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2017/02/03/repsol-honda-launch-the-season-in-indonesia/218891/ |accessdate=13 Juni 2017}}</ref> ==Hasil MotoGP== ([[Template:Motorsport driver results legend|konci]]) (Balap nu '''kandel''' nandakeun posisi ''pole'', balap nu ''déngdék'' nandakeun ''lap'' panggancangna) {| class="wikitable" border="1" style="text-align:center; font-size:95%" |- !scope="col"| Taun !scope="col"| Motor !scope="col"| Gilinding !scope="col"| Purah balap !scope="col"| 1 !scope="col"| 2 !scope="col"| 3 !scope="col"| 4 !scope="col"| 5 !scope="col"| 6 !scope="col"| 7 !scope="col"| 8 !scope="col"| 9 !scope="col"| 10 !scope="col"| 11 !scope="col"| 12 !scope="col"| 13 !scope="col"| 14 !scope="col"| 15 !scope="col"| 16 !scope="col"| 17 !scope="col"| 18 !scope="col"| Peunteun !scope="col"| Pos. |- !scope="row" rowspan="3"| {{MGP|2002}} |rowspan="3"| [[Honda RC211V]] |rowspan="3"| {{Michelin}} | | [[2002 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] | [[2002 South African motorcycle Grand Prix|SAF]] | [[2002 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] | [[2002 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] | [[2002 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] | [[2002 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] | [[2002 Dutch TT|NED]] | [[2002 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] | [[2002 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] | [[2002 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] | [[2002 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|POR]] | [[2002 Rio de Janeiro motorcycle Grand Prix|RIO]] | [[2002 Pacific motorcycle Grand Prix|PAC]] | [[2002 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] | [[2002 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] | [[2002 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] | | |rowspan="3" style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''564''' |rowspan="3" style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''ka 1''' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Valentino Rossi]] |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''2''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| 1 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 | | |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|JPN}} [[Tohru Ukawa]] |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| ''3'' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 | |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 | | |- !scope="row" rowspan="3"| {{MGP|2003}} |rowspan="3"| [[Honda RC211V]] |rowspan="3"| {{Michelin}} | | [[2003 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] | [[2003 South African motorcycle Grand Prix|SAF]] | [[2003 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] | [[2003 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] | [[2003 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] | [[2003 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] | [[2003 Dutch TT|NED]] | [[2003 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] | [[2003 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] | [[2003 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] | [[2003 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|POR]] | [[2003 Rio de Janeiro motorcycle Grand Prix|RIO]] | [[2003 Pacific motorcycle Grand Prix|PAC]] | [[2003 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] | [[2003 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] | [[2003 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] | | |rowspan="3" style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''487''' |rowspan="3" style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''ka 1''' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Valentino Rossi]] |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| ''2'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''2''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''''2''''' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| ''3'' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| ''2'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' | | |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Nicky Hayden]] |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 7 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 7 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 12 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 12 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 9 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 11 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 8 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 9 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#CFCFFF;"| 16 | | |- !scope="row" rowspan="3"| {{MGP|2004}} |rowspan="3"| [[Honda RC211V]] |rowspan="3"| {{Michelin}} | | [[2004 South African motorcycle Grand Prix|SAF]] | [[2004 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] | [[2004 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] | [[2004 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] | [[2004 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] | [[2004 Dutch TT|NED]] | [[2004 Rio de Janeiro motorcycle Grand Prix|RIO]] | [[2004 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] | [[2004 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] | [[2004 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] | [[2004 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|POR]] | [[2004 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] | [[2004 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] | [[2004 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] | [[2004 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] | [[2004 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] | | !rowspan="3"| 282 !rowspan="3"| ka 4 |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Alex Barros]] |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 7 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| ''2'' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 9 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| ''Ret'' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 | | |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Nicky Hayden]] |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 11 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret | |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret | | |- !scope="row" rowspan="3"| {{MGP|2005}} |rowspan="3"| [[Honda RC211V]] |rowspan="3"| {{Michelin}} | | [[2005 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] | [[2005 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|POR]] | [[2005 Chinese motorcycle Grand Prix|CHN]] | [[2005 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] | [[2005 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] | [[2005 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] | [[2005 Dutch TT|NED]] | [[2005 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|USA]] | [[2005 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] | [[2005 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] | [[2005 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] | [[2005 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] | [[2005 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] | [[2005 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] | [[2005 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] | [[2005 Turkish motorcycle Grand Prix|TUR]] | [[2005 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] | |rowspan="3" style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''379''' |rowspan="3" style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''ka 2''' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Max Biaggi]] |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 7 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| ''2'' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 12 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 | |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Nicky Hayden]] |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 7 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 9 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1''' |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| '''3''' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 7 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| ''4'' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| ''3'' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''2''' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 | |- !scope="row" rowspan="3"| {{MGP|2006}} |rowspan="3"| [[Honda RC211V]] |rowspan="3"| {{Michelin}} | | [[2006 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] | [[2006 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] | [[2006 Turkish motorcycle Grand Prix|TUR]] | [[2006 Chinese motorcycle Grand Prix|CHN]] | [[2006 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] | [[2006 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] | [[2006 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] | [[2006 Dutch TT|NED]] | [[2006 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] | [[2006 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] | [[2006 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|USA]] | [[2006 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] | [[2006 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] | [[2006 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] | [[2006 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] | [[2006 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|POR]] | [[2006 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] | |rowspan="3" style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''467''' |rowspan="3" style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''ka 1''' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Dani Pedrosa]] |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 14 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| '''3''' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| '''''4''''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| ''2'' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 15 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 7 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 | |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Nicky Hayden]] |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| ''2'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 7 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| 1 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 9 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| '''5''' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 | |- !scope="row" rowspan="3"| {{MGP|2007}} |rowspan="3"| [[Honda RC212V]] |rowspan="3"| {{Michelin}} | | [[2007 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] | [[2007 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] | [[2007 Turkish motorcycle Grand Prix|TUR]] | [[2007 Chinese motorcycle Grand Prix|CHN]] | [[2007 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] | [[2007 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] | [[2007 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] | [[2007 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] | [[2007 Dutch motorcycle TT|NED]] | [[2007 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] | [[2007 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|USA]] | [[2007 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] | [[2007 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|SMR]] | [[2007 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|POR]] | [[2007 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] | [[2007 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] | [[2007 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] | [[2007 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] |rowspan="3" style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''369''' |rowspan="3" style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''ka 2''' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Dani Pedrosa]] |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''2''' |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| ''2'' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 8 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| '''Ret''' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| '''4''' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| '''3''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Nicky Hayden]] |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 8 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 7 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 7 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 12 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 10 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 11 |style="background:#CFCFFF;"| 17 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 13 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| '''''4''''' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 9 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 9 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 8 |- !scope="row" rowspan="5"| {{MGP|2008}} |rowspan="5"| [[Honda RC212V]] | | | [[2008 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] | [[2008 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] | [[2008 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|POR]] | [[2008 Chinese motorcycle Grand Prix|CHN]] | [[2008 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] | [[2008 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] | [[2008 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] | [[2008 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] | [[2008 Dutch TT|NED]] | [[2008 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] | [[2008 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|USA]] | [[2008 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] | [[2008 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|SMR]] | [[2008 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]] | [[2008 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] | [[2008 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] | [[2008 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] | [[2008 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] |rowspan="5" style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''404''' |rowspan="5" style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''ka 2''' |- | {{Bridgestone}} |rowspan="2" align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Dani Pedrosa]] | | | | | | | | | | | | | |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 8 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''2''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |- |rowspan="3"| {{Michelin}} |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| '''4''' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret | |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 15 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 | | | | | |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Nicky Hayden]] |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 10 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 8 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 13 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 8 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 7 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 13 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 | |style="background:#FFFFFF;"| DNS |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| ''3'' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|JPN}} [[Tadayuki Okada]] | | | | | |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 14 | | | | | | | | | | | | |- !scope="row" rowspan="3"| {{MGP|2009}} |rowspan="3"| [[Honda RC212V]] |rowspan="3"| {{Bridgestone}} | | [[2009 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] | [[2009 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] | [[2009 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] | [[2009 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] | [[2009 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] | [[2009 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] | [[2009 Dutch TT|NED]] | [[2009 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|USA]] | [[2009 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] | [[2009 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] | [[2009 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] | [[2009 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]] | [[2009 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|SMR]] | [[2009 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|POR]] | [[2009 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] | [[2009 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] | [[2009 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] | |rowspan="3" style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''394''' |rowspan="3" style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''ka 2''' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Dani Pedrosa]] |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 11 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| '''''3''''' |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| ''3'' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 9 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| '''10''' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| ''3'' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' | |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Andrea Dovizioso]] |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 8 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| 1 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 7 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 8 | |- !scope="row" rowspan="3"| {{MGP|2010}} |rowspan="3"| [[Honda RC212V]] |rowspan="3"| {{Bridgestone}} | | [[2010 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] | [[2010 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] | [[2010 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] | [[2010 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] | [[2010 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] | [[2010 Dutch TT|NED]] | [[2010 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] | [[2010 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] | [[2010 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|USA]] | [[2010 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] | [[2010 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]] | [[2010 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|SMR]] | [[2010 Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix|ARA]] | [[2010 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] | [[2010 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] | [[2010 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] | [[2010 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|POR]] | [[2010 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] |rowspan="3" style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''451''' |rowspan="3" style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''ka 2''' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Dani Pedrosa]] |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 7 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''''2''''' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 8 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| ''2'' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''2''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| ''2'' |style="background:#FFFFFF;"| DNS | |style="background:#FFFFFF;"| DNS |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 8 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| ''7'' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Andrea Dovizioso]] |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| ''14'' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''2''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |- !scope="row" rowspan="6"| {{MGP|2011}} |rowspan="6"| [[Honda RC212V]] |rowspan="6"| {{Bridgestone}} | | [[2011 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] | [[2011 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] | [[2011 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|POR]] | [[2011 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] | [[2011 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] | [[2011 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] | [[2011 Dutch TT|NED]] | [[2011 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] | [[2011 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] | [[2011 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|USA]] | [[2011 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] | [[2011 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]] | [[2011 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|SMR]] | [[2011 Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix|ARA]] | [[2011 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] | [[2011 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] | [[2011 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] | [[2011 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] |rowspan="6" style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''682''' |rowspan="6" style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''ka 1''' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|AUS}} [[Casey Stoner]] |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| '''Ret''' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| '''3''' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| '''3''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| '''3''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| '''3''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFFF;"| C |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1''' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Dani Pedrosa]] |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| ''Ret'' | | | |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 8 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| '''Ret''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#FFFFFF;"| '''C''' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Andrea Dovizioso]] |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 12 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFFFFF;"| C |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|JPN}} [[Hiroshi Aoyama]] | | | | | | |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 8 | | | | | | | | | | | |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|JPN}} [[Shinichi Ito]] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 13 | | | |- !scope="row" rowspan="4"| {{MGP|2012}} |rowspan="4"| [[Honda RC213V]] |rowspan="4"| {{Bridgestone}} | | [[2012 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] | [[2012 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] | [[2012 Portuguese motorcycle Grand Prix|POR]] | [[2012 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] | [[2012 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] | [[2012 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] | [[2012 Dutch TT|NED]] | [[2012 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] | [[2012 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] | [[2012 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|USA]] | [[2012 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]] | [[2012 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] | [[2012 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|SMR]] | [[2012 Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix|ARA]] | [[2012 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] | [[2012 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] | [[2012 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] | [[2012 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] |rowspan="4" style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''603''' |rowspan="4" style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''ka 1''' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|AUS}} [[Casey Stoner]] |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| ''3'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| 1 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1''' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| '''4''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1''' |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| '''Ret''' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 8 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| 1 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 | | | |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Dani Pedrosa]] |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| '''4''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| ''2'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''''2''''' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| ''3'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| 1 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| '''Ret''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|GBR}} [[Jonathan Rea]] | | | | | | | | | | | | |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 8 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 7 | | | | |- !scope="row" rowspan="3"| {{MGP|2013}} |rowspan="3"| [[Honda RC213V]] |rowspan="3"| {{Bridgestone}} | | [[2013 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] | [[2013 Motorcycle Grand Prix of the Americas|AME]] | [[2013 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] | [[2013 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] | [[2013 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] | [[2013 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] | [[2013 Dutch TT|NED]] | [[2013 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] | [[2013 United States motorcycle Grand Prix|USA]] | [[2013 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]] | [[2013 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] | [[2013 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] | [[2013 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|SMR]] | [[2013 Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix|ARA]] | [[2013 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] | [[2013 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] | [[2013 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] | [[2013 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] |rowspan="3" style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''634''' |rowspan="3" style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''ka 1''' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Marc Márquez]] |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| ''3'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| '''3''' |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| ''Ret'' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| ''3'' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''2''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''''2''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''''2''''' |style="background:black; color:white;"| DSQ |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| '''3''' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Dani Pedrosa]] |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| 1 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''2''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''2''' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#FFFFFF;"| DNS |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| ''3'' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| ''Ret'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| 1 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |- !scope="row" rowspan="3"| {{MGP|2014}} |rowspan="3"| [[Honda RC213V]] |rowspan="3"| {{Bridgestone}} | | [[2014 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] | [[2014 Motorcycle Grand Prix of the Americas|AME]] | [[2014 Argentine motorcycle Grand Prix|ARG]] | [[2014 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] | [[2014 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] | [[2014 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] | [[2014 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] | [[2014 Dutch TT|NED]] | [[2014 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] | [[2014 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]] | [[2014 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] | [[2014 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] | [[2014 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|SMR]] | [[2014 Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix|ARA]] | [[2014 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] | [[2014 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] | [[2014 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] | [[2014 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] |rowspan="3" style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''608''' |rowspan="3" style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''ka 1''' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Marc Márquez]] |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| '''4''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| ''15'' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| '''13''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| '''Ret''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Dani Pedrosa]] |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| ''2'' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| '''3''' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 14 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |- !scope="row" rowspan="4"| {{MGP|2015}} |rowspan="4"| [[Honda RC213V]] |rowspan="4"| {{Bridgestone}} | | [[2015 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] | [[2015 Motorcycle Grand Prix of the Americas|AME]] | [[2015 Argentine motorcycle Grand Prix|ARG]] | [[2015 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] | [[2015 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] | [[2015 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] | [[2015 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] | [[2015 Dutch TT|NED]] | [[2015 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] | [[2015 Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix|IND]] | [[2015 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] | [[2015 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] | [[2015 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|SMR]] | [[2015 Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix|ARA]] | [[2015 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] | [[2015 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] | [[2015 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] | [[2015 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] |rowspan="4" style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''453''' |rowspan="4" style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''ka 2''' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Marc Márquez]] |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1''' |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| '''Ret''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| '''4''' |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| ''Ret'' |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| ''Ret'' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| ''2'' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| ''2'' |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| '''Ret''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| 1 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Dani Pedrosa]] |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 | | | |style="background:#CFCFFF;"| 16 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 8 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 9 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| 1 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1''' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|JPN}} [[Hiroshi Aoyama]] | |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 11 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |- !scope="row" rowspan="5"| {{MGP|2016}} |rowspan="5"| [[Honda RC213V]] |rowspan="5"| {{Michelin}} | | [[2016 Qatar motorcycle Grand Prix|QAT]] | [[2016 Argentine motorcycle Grand Prix|ARG]] | [[2016 Motorcycle Grand Prix of the Americas|AME]] | [[2016 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix|ESP]] | [[2016 French motorcycle Grand Prix|FRA]] | [[2016 Italian motorcycle Grand Prix|ITA]] | [[2016 Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix|CAT]] | [[2016 Dutch TT|NED]] | [[2016 German motorcycle Grand Prix|GER]] | [[2016 Austrian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUT]] | [[2016 Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix|CZE]] | [[2016 British motorcycle Grand Prix|GBR]] | [[2016 San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix|SMR]] | [[2016 Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix|ARA]] | [[2016 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix|JPN]] | [[2016 Australian motorcycle Grand Prix|AUS]] | [[2016 Malaysian motorcycle Grand Prix|MAL]] | [[2016 Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix|VAL]] |rowspan="5" style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''454''' |rowspan="5" style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''ka 2''' |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Marc Márquez]] |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 13 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| '''2''' |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''1''' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| '''3''' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| '''''1''''' |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 11 |style="background:#DFDFDF;"| 2 |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Dani Pedrosa]] |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 4 |style="background:#FFDF9F;"| 3 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 12 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 7 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 12 |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 5 |style="background:#FFFFBF;"| ''1'' |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 6 |style="background:#FFFFFF;"| DNS | | |style="background:#EFCFFF;"| Ret |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|JPN}} [[Hiroshi Aoyama]] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |style="background:#DFFFDF;"| 15 | |style="background:#CFCFFF;"| 16 | |- |align="left"| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Nicky Hayden]] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |style="background:#CFCFFF;"| 17 | | |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Usum balap keur lumangsung. ==Dicutat tina== {{Reflist}} ==Tumbu kaluar== * http://world.honda.com/MotoGP Official Honda website for motorcycle grand prix téams * http://world.honda.com/HRC/repsolhondateam/index.html {{MotoGP teams}} {{Repsol Honda}} [[Kategori:Tim MotoGP]] hn4f2cs8o2ots2pircjsk45p3druqj4 0 72767 708637 652196 2026-04-27T09:48:13Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 708637 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sunnah''' ([[Basa Arab|Arab]]: سنة ''sunnah'', hartina "arus nu lancar jeung gampang" atawa "jalur aliran langsung") dina [[Islam]] nyoko kana sikep, tindakan, kekedalan, jeung cara [[Muhammad|rasulullah]] ngalaksanakeun kahirupan atawa garis-garis bajoang (tradisi) anu dilaksanakeun ku rasulullah. Sunnah mangrupa sumber hukum kadua dina [[Islam]], sanggeus [[Qur'an|Al-Quran]]. Narasi atawa informasi anu ditepikeun ku para sahabat ngeunaan sikep, tindakan, kekedalan, jeung cara [[Muhammad|rasulullah]] disebut [[hadis]]. Sunnah anu diparéntahkeun ku Allah disebut sunnatullah (hukum alam). == Étimologi == Sunnah (سنة ˈsunnah, plural سنن sunan) nyaéta kecap basa Arab anu hartina "kabiasaan" atawa "biasa dilaksanakeun".<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/reference/glossary/term.SUNNAH.html Sunnah] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205042656/http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/reference/glossary/term.SUNNAH.html |date=2010-12-05 }}</ref> Sacara istilah sunnah nyaéta jalan anu dipilih ku rasulullah jeung para sahabatna, boh patali jeung élmu, kayakinan, kekedalan, paripolah, atawa kaputusan. Kaum nu yakin kana Sunni ogé disebut ''Ahl as-Sunnah wa'l-Jamā'ah'' ("jalma-jalma tina tradisi jeung kaum (Muhammad)") atawa ''Ahlussunnah'' keur singgetanana. == Jinis-jinis Sunnah == Dumasar kana asal-muasalna tina diri [[Rasulullah SAW]], para ulama ahli ushul fikih ngabagi sunnah kana tilu jinis utama:<ref>Al-Ghazali, ''Al-Mustasfa fi 'Ilm al-Ushul'', Jilid 1, kc. 212.</ref> * '''Sunnah Qauliyah''' nyaéta sakur anu diucapkeun ku Rasulullah SAW, mangrupa paréntah, larangan, atanapi piwuruk ka para sahabatna.<ref>As-Suyuthi, ''Tadrib ar-Rawi fi Syarh Taqrib an-Nawawi'', Jilid 1, kc. 42.</ref> Contona nyaéta hadits-hadits anu nerangkeun ngeunaan niat sarta paréntah pikeun kurban.<ref>''Shahih Bukhari'', Kitab al-Iman, No. 1.</ref> * '''Sunnah Fi'liyah''' nyaéta sakur anu dipilampah atanapi dicontoan ku Rasulullah SAW anu katingal langsung ku para sahabat, saperti tata cara [[wudu]] sarta [[sholat]].<ref>Al-Amidi, ''Al-Ihkam fi Ushul al-Ahkam'', Jilid 1, kc. 169.</ref> Dina bab kurban, ieu ngawengku conto ti Rasulullah nalika anjeunna meuncit sato kurbanna ku panangan nyalira.<ref>''Shahih Muslim'', Kitab al-Adhahi, No. 1966.</ref> * '''Sunnah Taqririyah''' nyaéta ketak atanapi ucapan sahabat anu katingal atanapi kadangu ku Rasulullah SAW, nanging Rasulullah SAW médép (cicing) sarta henteu nyaram, anu nandakeun yén hal éta dimeunangkeun.<ref>Ibnu Amir al-Hajj, ''At-Taqrir wa at-Tahbir'', Jilid 2, kc. 231.</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu luar == * '''(id)''' [http://ensiklopedisunnah.com Ensiklopedi Sunnah 9 Kitab Imam Hadis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226124308/https://www.ensiklopedisunnah.com/ |date=2021-02-26 }} * '''Al-Amidi, Saifuddin'''. ''Al-Ihkam fi Ushul al-Ahkam''. Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-Arabi. * '''Al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid'''. ''Al-Mustasfa fi 'Ilm al-Ushul''. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyah. * '''As-Suyuthi, Jalaluddin'''. ''Tadrib ar-Rawi fi Syarh Taqrib an-Nawawi''. Kairo: Dar al-Hadits. * '''Ibnu Amir al-Hajj'''. ''At-Taqrir wa at-Tahbir fi 'Ilm al-Ushul''. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr. [[Kategori:Hukum Islam]] [[Kategori:Terminologi Islam]] 1zubktzwzk29qz4u1nkaq3uhxfjyg0c 0 74347 708604 658780 2026-04-26T15:09:45Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 Nambihkeun gambar 708604 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width: 22em; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; background-color: #f8f9fa; font-size: 88%; line-height: 1.5em; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; padding: 0.2em;" |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold; background-color: #cedff2; padding: 0.4em;" | Dadap Blendung |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 0.2em;" | [[File:Bark & leaves I IMG 8228.jpg|250px|center|Struktur kulit tangkal sarta dangdaunan.]]<br/><small>Struktur kulit tangkal sarta dangdaunan (IMG 8228)</small> |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #f2f2f2; width: 40%;" | Kategori | Tutuwuhan Leuweung |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #f2f2f2;" | Bagian Gambar | Kulit kai (bark) & Daun |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #f2f2f2;" | Sumber Gambar | [[Wikimedia Commons]] |- ! style="text-align: left; background-color: #f2f2f2;" | Lisénsi | CC BY-SA |} '''Dadap Blendung''' nyaéta tatangkalan anu ngaran ilmiahna ''Erythrina variegata L. Fabaceae.''<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Plant resources of south-east Asia|last=van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. and Bunyapraphatsara, N.|first=|publisher=Medicinal and poisonous plants 2|year=2001|isbn=|location=Backhuys, Leiden, the Netherlands|pages=}}</ref> Ngaran séjén ieu tatangkalan dina bahasa [[Inggris]] nyaéta variegated coral tree, di Indonesia nyaéta dadap ayam atawa galala itam, di Malaysia nyaéta chengkering, di Pilipina nyaéta andorogat atawa bagbag, di Thailand nyaéta ''thong lang lai'' atawa ''thong phueak''.<ref name=":0" /> == Tempat Sumebar == Tatangkalan ieu sumebar di [[Afrika|Afrika Wétan]] , Madagaskar, kapuloan Samudra Hindia, Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, [[Daratan Asia Kidul Wétan|Indochina]], China, Thailand, jeung Malaysia.<ref name=":0" /> == Kagunaan == Kagunaan ieu tangkal nyaéta jeur Jaring lauk,Papan ''surfing'', sapatu kai, ''paking case'' atawa peti ogé sok dipaké [[ubar]] tradisional.<ref name=":0" /> == Rujukan == <br /> [[Kategori:Tatangkalan Sunda]] [[Kategori:Artikel Peserta WSSA]] sceynoojjsckws98sg68sjbjzw52lcj 0 98864 708605 703783 2026-04-26T15:13:11Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708605 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotak info Jalma|name=Ria Irawan|death_place=Jakarta, Indonesia|years_active=1973–2017|occupation={{flatlist| *artis *panyanyi *présénter *sutradara }}|children=|spouse={{ubl|{{marriage|Yuma Wiranatakusumah|1997|1999}}|{{marriage|Mayky Wongkar|2016}}}}|parents=Bambang Irawan<br />Ade Irawan|nationality=[[Indonésia|Indonésia]]|death_date={{death date and age|2020|1|17|1969|07|24|df=yes}}|image=|alias=|origin=|birth_place=[[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]]|birth_date={{birth date|1969|07|24|df=no}}|birth_name=Chandra Ariati Dewi Irawan|caption=|image_size=|website=}} '''Chandra Ariati Dewi Irawan''',  atawa leuwih kawentar ku ngaran '''Ria Irawan''', lahir di [[Jakarta]], tanggal 24 Juli 1969,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm1266058/#director|title=Ria Irawan (1969–2020)|last=|first=|website=IMDB|publisher=Amazon Company|accessdate=27/01/2020}}</ref> nyaéta saurang artis, béntang sinétron, sutradara ogé panyanyi nu geus ancrub kana dunia hiburan média ti saprak taun tujuh puluhan. Pilem Ria nu kasohor di antarana ''Biola Tak Berdawai'' (2003), ''Lupus'' (1987), ''Arisan!'' (2006) jrrd. Dina dunia perpileman Ria hasil meunangkeun sababaraha pangajén, boh di tingkat nasional, ogé di tingkat internasional. Ria tilar dunya dina tanggal 6 Januari taun 2020. == Karir == Ria Irawan nyaéta saurang artis turunan [[Minang]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://showbiz.nusantaratv.com/selebriti/artis-ria-irawan-wanita-tangguh-itu-kini-kembali-terkulai-lemah|title=Artis Ria Irawan, Wanita Tangguh Itu, Kini Kembali Terkulai Lemah|last=Supriyanto|first=|year=2019|website=Artis Ria Irawan, Wanita Tangguh Itu, Kini Kembali Terkulai Lemah|publisher=nusantaratv|accessdate=22/01/2020}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129191232/https://showbiz.nusantaratv.com/selebriti/artis-ria-irawan-wanita-tangguh-itu-kini-kembali-terkulai-lemah |date=2020-01-29 }}</ref> Lahir minangka anak bungsu tina lima sadulur ti kulawarga artis, bapana [[Bambang Irawan]], saurang aktor, indungna, [[Ade Irawan]], ogé saurang artis. Ria mimiti biluk kana dunia pilem ti umur opat taun, maén dina pilem ''Sopir Taxi'' dina peran figuran. Tuluy maén deui di taun 1975 dina pilem ''Fajar Menyingsing'' bareng jeung [[Erwin Gautawa]] sarta dina pilem ''Chicha'' bareng jeung [[Chicha Kuswoyo]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://beritaradar.com/2020/01/06/ria-irawan-dan-perjuangan-mengatasi-kanker-getah-bening/|title=Ria Irawan dan Perjuangan Mengatasi Kanker Getah Bening|last=|first=|website=beritaradar.com|publisher=|publication-date=06 Januari 2020|accessdate=17 Januari 2020}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129172055/https://beritaradar.com/2020/01/06/ria-irawan-dan-perjuangan-mengatasi-kanker-getah-bening/ |date=2020-01-29 }}</ref> Ngaran Ria mimiti onjoy di taun 80-an. Peranna dina pilem ''Kembang Kertas'' (1984) meunangkeun nominasi artis panghadéna di [[Piala Citra]] taun 1985. Taun hareupna Ria dinominasikeun deui pikeun katégori nu sarua pikeun peranna dina pilem ''Bila Saatnya Tiba'' (1985). Dina taun 1988, antukna Ria hasil meunangkeun Panghargaan Piala Citra dina katégori pameran pangrojong dina pilem ''Selamat Tinggal Jeanette'' (1987), nu dibéntangan ogé ku [[Mathias Muchus]] jeung [[Meriem Bellina]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.asumsi.co/post/ria-irawan-aktris-film-lintas-generasi|title=Ria Irawan, Aktor Film Lintas Generasi|last=Adinda|first=Permata|website=Asumsi|publisher=|publication-date=06/01/2020|accessdate=17/01/2020}}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Ria ngunggulan artis-artis petingan dina meunangkeun panghargaan ieu, sainganna teu kurang ti: [[Nani Wijaya]], [[Rina Hassim]], [[Ira Wibowo]] jeung [[Rita Zahara]]. Taun 90-an Ria mimiti asup kana dunia sinetron, dimimitian ku sinetron ''Pelangi di Hatiku'' (1992-1993) nu dipintonkeun ku [[RCTI]]. Taun 1994 Ria meunangkeun [[Panghargaan FFI]] pikeun peranna dina sinetron ''Lika Liku Laki-Laki'' (1994) minangka Artis Komédi Panghadéna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/tren/read/2020/01/06/085843065/ria-irawan-dan-perjalanan-panjangnya-di-dunia-seni?page=all|title=Ria Irawan dan Perjalanan Panjangnya di Dunia Seni...|last=Mukaromah|first=Vina Fadhrotul|website=|publisher=Kompas.com|publication-date=06/01/2020|accessdate=17/01/2020}}</ref> Taun 2003 Ria meunangkeun panghargaan [[Féstival Pilem Asia Pasifik]] minangka Artis Utama Pangpunjulna dina pilem ''Biola Tak Berdawai'' (2003).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000045/2003/1/|title=Asia-Pacific Film Festival (2003)|last=|first=|website=IMDB.com|publisher=IMDB.com.Inc|accessdate=20 Januari 2020}}</ref> Dina taun 2006 Ria dinominasikeun dina FFI pikeun katégori Artis Pangrojong Pangpunjulna dina pilem ''Berbagi Suami'' (2006), ogé di taun 2015 dina katégori nu sarua pikeun peranna dina pilem ''Bulan di Atas Kuburan'' (2015).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm1266058/awards?ref_=nm_awd|title=Ria Irawan-Awards|last=|first=|website=|publisher=IMDb.com Inc.|accessdate=20 Januari 20}}</ref> Ku pilem éta kénéh dina taun nu sarua Ria dileler ku panghargaan [[Piala Maya]] minangka Artis Pangrojong Kapilih.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://seleb.tempo.co/read/729222/ini-daftar-pemenang-piala-maya-2015/full&view=ok|title=Ini Daftar Pemenang Piala Maya 2015|last=|first=|date=20 Désémber 2015|work=|access-date=20 Januari 2020|via=|publisher=Tempo.co}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Ria ogé kungsi jadi sutradara jeung panulis skenario. Pilemna dijieun di taun 2016 maké judul ''Gila Jawa: Illogically Sane''.<ref name=":0" /> Sajaba di dunia perpileman, Ria ogé ancrub kana dunia ngawih. Kungsi nyanyi réréongan dina grup Japras bareng jeung panyanyi-panyanyi [[Ully Artha]], [[Debby Cintia Dewi]], [[Wieke Widowati]], [[Rini S. Bono]], [[Nurul Arifin]], [[Ita Mustafa]]. Tuluy nyieun rékaman dangdut duét jeung [[Rano Karno]] medalkeun album ''Hiasan Mimpi'' jeung ''Sorga Dunia''. Ria ogé nyieun album solo ''Setangkai Anggrek Bulan'' jeung ''Di Antara Hatiku Hatimu''. Tuluy Ria nyieun deui duét album bareng jeung Melissa, tukang ngawih ti Malaysia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.finansialku.com/ria-irawan/|title=Menginggal Karena Kanker, Ini Perjalanan Karier Ria Irawan|last=|first=|year=2020|website=Finansialku.com|publisher=|accessdate=20 Januari 2020}}</ref> == Kahirupan pribadi == Ria ngadahup ka saurang duda anak dua, Yuma Wiranatakusumah dina tanggal 5 April 1997. Rumah tangga jeung Yuma teu lana, maranéhna ceréy dina bulan Désémber 1999.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://today.line.me/id/pc/article/Mengenang+Perjalanan+Hidup+Ria+Irawan+Bagian+4+Pernikahan+yang+Sensasional-1NgLXm|title=Mengenang Perjalanan Hidup Ria Irawan (Bagian 4): Pernikahan yang Sensasional|last=tabloidbintang.com|first=|website=Line Today|publisher=Line Corporation|publication-date=06/01/2020|accessdate=20/01/2020}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216175544/https://today.line.me/id/pc/article/Mengenang%2BPerjalanan%2BHidup%2BRia%2BIrawan%2BBagian%2B4%2BPernikahan%2Byang%2BSensasional-1NgLXm |date=2020-02-16 }}</ref> Méméh kawin ka Yuma, Ria kabéjakeun kungsi deuheus jeung sutradara kakoncara, [[Rizal Mantovani]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://majalah.tempo.co/read/1282/ria-irawan-kehilangan-mata-rantai|title=Ria Irawan Kehilangan Mata Rantai|last=|first=|website=Tempo|publisher=PT Tempo Inti Media, Tbk.|publication-date=29/01/1994|accessdate=20/01/2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://parenting.orami.co.id/magazine/begini-perjalanan-cinta-ria-irawan/|title=Begini Perjalanan Cinta Ria Irawan Hingga Menemukan Cinta Sejati|last=|first=|website=Orami Parenting|publisher=|publication-date=8 Januari 2020|accessdate=20/01/2020}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216175548/https://parenting.orami.co.id/magazine/begini-perjalanan-cinta-ria-irawan/ |date=2020-02-16 }}</ref> Ria kungsi ogé bobogohan jeung Aga Setya dina taun 2002, tapi teu lila, ngan sapuluh bulanan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.liputan6.com/showbiz/read/218041/kepergok-selingkuh-aga-idiputusini-ria-irawan|title=Kepergok Selingkuh, Aga Diputusin Ria Irawan|last=|first=|website=Liputan 6|publisher=liputan6.com KLY KapanLagi Youniverse|publication-date=6 Nopémber 2002|accessdate=21/02/2020}}</ref> Cenah, Ria ogé kungsi deukeut jeung sutradara sohor lianna, [[Jay Subiakto]].<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.biodata-artis.net/biodata-ria-irawan-profil-foto-dan.html|title=Biodata Ria Irawan Profil Foto dan Agama Lengkap|last=|first=|website=biodata.artis.net|publisher=Bidoata Profil Artis|accessdate=21/01/2020}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216175543/https://www.biodata-artis.net/biodata-ria-irawan-profil-foto-dan.html |date=2020-02-16 }}</ref> Taun 1994 Ria nandangan cocoba nalika babaturanna Rifardi Soekarno alias Aldi maot di imahna, alatan ''overdosis''.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.viva.co.id/siapa/read/454-ria-irawan|title=Ria Irawan|last=|first=|website=Viva.co.id|publisher=|accessdate=21/01/2020}}</ref> Alatan kasus ieu Ria mutuskeun pikeun ngungsi heula ka imah lanceukna,  Dewi,  di Milan, salila dua taunan, bari sakalian nuluykeun kuliahna.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tabloidbintang.com/berita/sosok/read/141358/mengenang-perjalanan-hidup-ria-irawan-bagian-3-karier-terpuruk-pindah-ke-milan|title=Mengenang Perjalanan Hidup Ria Irawan (Bagian 3): Karier Terpuruk, Pindah ke Milan|last=|first=|website=tabloidbintang.com|publisher=|page=|publication-date=06/01/2020|accessdate=21/01/2020}}</ref> Taun 2005 Ria kabaud deui ku perkara narkoba sarta kudu urusan jeung pulisi, untungna perkarana teu kapapanjangan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/106174/ria-irawan-tidak-ditahan|title=Ria Irawan Tidak Ditahan|last=|first=|website=Liputan6.com|publisher=liputan6.com KLY KapanLagi Youniverse|publication-date=28 Juli 2005|accessdate=21/01/2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-411598/ternyata-ria-irawan-bebas-pukul-0700-wib--tidak-ditahan|title=Ternyata Ria Irawan Bebas Pukul 07.00 WIB & Tidak Ditahan|last=|first=|website=detiknews|publisher=detikcom|publication-date=28 Juli 2005|accessdate=21/01/2020}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216175544/https://news.detik.com/berita/d-411598/ternyata-ria-irawan-bebas-pukul-0700-wib--tidak-ditahan |date=2020-02-16 }}</ref> Taun 2009 Ria nandangan cocoba deui, gangguan dina rahimna ka dieunakeun katohian alatan kanker. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://health.detik.com/berita-detikhealth/d-2818603/ria-irawan-posting-foto-rahim-untuk-memotivasi-pengidap-kanker|title=Ria Irawan Posting Foto Rahim untuk Memotivasi Pengidap Kanker|last=|first=|website=detikhealth|publisher=detikcom|publication-date=30 Januari 2015|accessdate=21/01/2020}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216175546/https://health.detik.com/berita-detikhealth/d-2818603/ria-irawan-posting-foto-rahim-untuk-memotivasi-pengidap-kanker |date=2020-02-16 }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.dream.co.id/showbiz/kena-kanker-mematikan-ria-irawan-siapkan-kain-kafan-141127m.html|title=Kena Kanker Mematikan, Ria Irawan Siapkan Kain Kafan|last=Mahaputra|first=Sandy|website=Dream.com Muslim Lifestyle|publisher=Dream.co.id KLY KapanLagi Youniverse|publication-date=27 Nopémber 2014|accessdate=21/01/2020}}</ref>Ria méakkeun waragad gedé pikeun tatamba, nepi ka leuwih ti samiliarna.<ref name=":4" /> Kajaba ti éta manéhna kapaksa reureuh heula tina dunia peran. Taun 2017 Ria dinyatakeun cageur tina panyakitna sarta mimiti ancrub deui kana dunia pilem.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.suara.com/entertainment/2019/03/14/090518/sembuh-dari-kanker-ria-irawan-kembali-akting-di-film-kuambil-lagi-hatiku|title=Sembuh dari Kanker, Ria Irawan Kembali Akting di Film Kuambil Lagi Hatiku|last=Farouk|first=Yazir|last2=Laksono|first2=Wahyu Tri|website=Suara.com|publisher=|page=|publication-date=14 Maret 2019|accessdate=21/01/2020}}</ref> Taun 2016, pernahna tanggal 23 Désémber, Ria rarabi ka Mayky Wungkar. Mayky téh asistén pribadi Ria nu geus digawé bareng Ria salila 11 taun. Umur Myaky 12 taun leuwih ngora batan Ria.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://makassar.tribunnews.com/2016/12/25/ini-5-fakta-tentang-mayky-wongkar-suami-baru-ria-irawan-yang-tak-banyak-diketahui|title=Ini 5 Fakta Tentang Mayky Wongkar, Suami Baru Ria Irawan yang Tak Banyak Diketahui|last=Arsyam|first=Ilham|website=Tribun-Timur.com|publisher=TRIBUNnews.com|page=|publication-date=25 Désémber 2016|accessdate=21/01/2020}}</ref> == Tilar dunya == Bulan Séptémber 2019, Ria asup ka [[Rumah Sakit Cipto Mangunkusumo]] (RSCM) alatan panyakit kanker kelenjar geutah weningna kambuh deui.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.liputan6.com/showbiz/read/4063831/curahan-hati-suami-merawat-ria-irawan-yang-sakit-kanker|title=Curahan Hati Suami Merawat Ria Irawan yang Sakit Kanker|last=Nurul|first=Meiristica|website=Liputan6|publisher=liputan6.com KLY KapanLagi Youniverse|publication-date=16 Séptémber 2019|accessdate=21/01/2020}}</ref> Bulan Nopémber Ria dirawat deui di RSCM.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/hiburan/20191119090857-234-449545/kembali-masuk-ke-rumah-sakit-ria-irawan-ungkap-kondisi|title=Kembali Masuk ke Rumah Sakit, Ria Irawan Ungkap Kondisi|last=|first=|website=CNN Indonesia|publisher=Transmedia dan Cable News Network, Inc. A Time Warner Company|publication-date=19 Nopémber 2019|accessdate=21/01/2020}}</ref> Antukna dina tanggal 6 Januari 2020 Ria mulih kajati mulang ka asal, masih di RSCM,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kumparan.com/kumparanhits/aktris-ria-irawan-meninggal-dunia-1saT6BKcyt0|title=Aktris Ria Irawan Meninggal Dunia|last=|first=|website=Kumparan|publisher=PT Dynamo Media Network|page=|pages=|publication-date=06 Januari 2020|accessdate=21/01/2020}}</ref> dina umur 50 taun. Ria dikurebkeun di TPU Tanah Kusir, Jakarta Kidul dina poé éta kénéh.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.liputan6.com/showbiz/read/4149178/antar-jenazah-ria-irawan-ke-liang-lahad-tangis-mayky-wongkar-pecah|title=Antar Jenazah Ria Irawan ke Liang Lahad, Tangis Mayky Wongkar Pecah|last=Sundari|first=Zulfa Ayu|website=Liputan6|publisher=liputan6.com KLY KapanLagi Youniverse|publication-date=6 Januari 2020|accessdate=20/01/2020}}</ref> Sabelas poé sadikantunna ku Ria, dina tanggal 17 Januari 2020, ibuna Ria, [[Adé Irawan]], nyusul Ria mulih kajati dina umur 82 taun.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kumparan.com/kumparanhits/aktris-senior-ade-irawan-meninggal-dunia-1seyhae78eN|title=Aktris Senior Ade Irawan Meninggal Dunia|last=|first=|website=Kumparan|publisher=PT Dynamo Media Network|publication-date=17 Januari 2020|accessdate=21/01/2020}}</ref> == Filmographi == === Film === * ''Sopir Taksi'' (1973) / Figuran * ''Fajar Menyingsing'' (1975) / Ria * ''Chicha'' (1976) * ''Cinta Abadi'' (1976) / Leila * ''Istriku Sayang Istriku Malang'' (1977) * ''Siulan Rahasia'' (1977) / Tini * ''Dari Mata Turun ke Hati'' (1979) * ''Ira Maya dan Kakek Ateng'' (1979) * ''Ira Maya Si Anak Tiri'' (1979) * ''Darna Ajaib'' (1980) / Maria keur leutik * ''Nakalnya Anak-Anak'' (1980) * ''Jangan Ambil Nyawaku'' (1981) * ''Kembang Kertas'' (1984) / Ani * ''Bila Saatnya Tiba'' (1985) * ''Gejolak Kawula Muda'' (1985) * ''Ibunda'' (1986) / Fitri * ''Lupus'' (1987) / Lulu * ''Lupus II'' (1987) / Lulu * ''Selamat Tinggal Jeanette'' (1987) / Trimah * ''Anak-Anak Gass...'' (1988) / Nana * ''Suami'' (1988) * ''Adikku Kekasihku'' (1989) / Shella * ''Mutiara di Khatulistiwa'' (1990) / Deilira * ''Peluk Daku dan Lepaskan'' (1991) / Denok * ''Sekretaris'' (1991) / Tin * ''Tabir Biru'' (1993) / Maya * ''Biola Tak Berdawai'' (2003) / Renjani * ''Arisan!'' (2003) / Yayuk Asmara * ''Impian Kemarau'' (2004) * ''Belahan Jiwa'' (2005) / Halimah * ''Janji Joni'' (2005) / kaméo * ''Berbagi Suami'' (2006) / Sri * ''Hotel Vladivostok'' (2006) (pilem pondok) / Saurang Awéwé * ''Quickie Express'' (2007) / Tante Guru * ''Sang Dewi'' (2007) * ''May'' (2008) * ''Cinlok'' (2008) / Tika * ''Cinta Setaman'' (2008) / Lastri * ''Ai Lop Yu Pul'' (2009) / kaméo * ''Jamila dan Sang Presiden'' (2009) / Susi * ''Madame X'' (2010) / Bibi Yance * ''Arisan! 2'' (2011) / Yayuk Asmara * ''Romantini'' (2013) * ''Soekarno: Indonesia Merdeka'' (2013) / PSK * ''9 Summers 10 Autumns'' / Bu Agus * ''Bulan di Atas Kuburan'' (2015) / Minar * ''Kuambil Lagi Hatiku'' (2019) / Dewi * ''Mantan Manten'' (2019) / Imelda * ''Bumi Itu Bulat'' (2019) / Farah * ''Koboy Kampus'' / Indungna Nia * ''Wedding Agreement'' (2019) / Bude * ''Mecca, I'm Coming'' (2020) / Bu Ramah === Sutradara jeung panulis skenario === * ''Gila Jiwa: Illogically Sane'' (2016) === Sinétron === * ''Pelangi di Hatiku'' (1992) * ''Lika Liku Laki Laki'' (1994) * ''Bidadari yang Terluka'' (1997) * ''Rahasia Ilahi'' (2004) * ''Khayalan Tingkat Tinggi'' (2005) * ''Iman'' (2005) * ''Tante Tuti'' (2005) * ''Bunga Malam'' (2006) * ''Segalanya Cinta'' (2012) * ''Jagoan Silat'' (2012) * ''Juna Cinta Juni'' (2013) == Kawih == * ''Hatiku Hatimu'' (Duét jeung [[Rano Karno]]) * ''Setangkai Bunga Anggrek'' (Duét jeung Rano Karno) * ''Hatiku Bagai Tertusuk Duri'' * ''Cahaya Ilahi'' (Duet jeung [[Opick]]) Billboard Indonesia/Purnama Record format VCD (Januari 2015) == Pangajén == * Nominasi Artis Pangrojong [[Festival Film Indonesia]] (1985 & 1986 /''Kembang Kertas'' & ''Bila Saatnya Tiba'') * Pinunjul Artis Pangrojong FFI (1988 / ''Selamat Tinggal Jeanette)'' * Pinunjul Artis Télévisi  Utama Komédi FFI (1994 / ''Lika Liku Laki Laki'') * Pinunjul Artis Féstival Film Asia Pasifik (2003 / ''Biola tak Berdawai'') * Nominasi Artis Paling Favorit MTV Indonesia Movie Awards (2004 / ''Biola tak Berdawai'') * Pinunjul Artis Pangrojong Paling Favorit MTV Indonesia Movie Awards (2006 / ''Berbagi Suami'') * Pinunjul Artis Pangrojong FFI (2006 / ''Berbagi Suami'') * Nominasi Artis Pangrojong Indonesia Movie Award (IMA) (2007 / ''Berbagi Suami'') * Nominasi Artis Pangrojong Favorit IMA (2007 / ''Berbagi Suami'') * Pinunjul Artis Peran Pangrojong Maya Awards (2015 / ''Bulan di Atas Kuburan'') * Pinunjul Artis Pangrojong IMA (2016 / ''Bulan di Atas Kuburan'') * Pinunjul Artis Televisi Utama FFI / Piala Vidia (2004 / ''Rahasia Ilahi'') == Réferénsi == g6ajvlsnh59l32v5jrxe9fu924ai6rd 0 100312 708619 702983 2026-04-26T18:56:37Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708619 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person |name = Udo Z. Karzi |image = |alt = |caption = |birth_name = |birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1970|6|12}} |birth_place = {{negara|Indonesia}} [[Liwa, Indonesia|Liwa]], [[Lampung]] |death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (tanggal meninggal diikuti tanggal lahir) --> |death_place = |nationality = {{negara|Indonesia}} [[Indonesia]] |other_names = |alma_mater = [[Universitas Lampung]], [[Lampung]] |occupation = |known_for = |religion = |spouse = |children = |parents = }} '''Udo Z. Karzi''' ({{lahirmati|[[Liwa, Indonesia|Liwa]], [[Lampung]]|12|6|1970|}}) nyaéta saurang panulis [[Indonesia]]. == Pendidikan == Anjeunna réngsé kuliah ti Jurusan Ilmu Pamaréntahan, Fakultas Élmu Élmu Pulitik, Universitas Lampung (1996). == Pengalaman organisasi == Pernah janten Pemimpin Redaksi Surat Kabar Mahasiswa '' [[Teknokra]] '' ([[1993]] - [[1994]]), Pemimpin Umum Majalah '' Republica '' ([[1994]] - [[1996]] ), dan Pembimbing Majalah '' Ijtihad '' ([[1995]] - [[1998]]). Seueur pangalaman menimba tina sababaraha kelompok / kagiatan diskusi: Kelompok Studi Merah Putih, Forum kanggo Informasi sareng Studi Pangembangan Daerah (FIRDES), sareng [[Gerakan Mahasiswa Islam Indonesia]] (PMII). Sareng pengurus [[Aliansi Jurnalis Independen]] (AJI) Lampung saprak berdirinya dina [[31 Maret]] [[2001]]. == Gawe jurnalistik == Terjun ka jurnalistik dunya salaku wartawan lepas Harian Umum '' Lampung Post '', Bandar Lampung ([[1995]] - [[1996]]) sareng wartawan Majalah Berita Mingguan '' Sinar '', Jakarta ([[1997]] - [[1998]]). Sempat mengabdikan diri salaku tenaga pengajar Ekonomi-Akuntansi SMA Negeri sareng MAN di kota kelahirannya ([[1998]]) sateuacan janten jurnalis Surat Kabar Umum '' Sumatra Post '', Bandar Lampung ([[1998]] - [[2000]] ), harian '' [[Lampung Post]] '', Bandar Lampung ([[2000]] - [[2006]]), harian '' Borneonews '', Pangkalan Bun ([[2006]] - 2008), balik deui ke '' Lampung Post '' ([[2009]] - [[2015]]), sareng ayeuna damel di '' Fajar Sumatra '', Bandar Lampung (saprak 2015). == Gawé Budaya == Sastrawan bernama asli Zulkarnain Zubairi ieu nyerat [[puisi]], [[cerpen]], sareng [[esai]] di sababaraha média lokal sareng nasional saprak [[1987]]. Sempat janten Ketua Penelitian sareng Pengembangan Dewan Kesenian Lampung (Litbang DKL) (2005-2006). Taun [[2010]], bareng [[Y. Wibowo]] dan [[Nugroho Este]] mendirikan Penerbit Pustaka Labrak, selain janten redaktur Penerbit BE Press, Bandar Lampung ti saprak [[2007]]. Dinilai mawa pembaruan dina tradisi perpuisian berbahasa Lampung sebutan anu katingali dina buku sajak dwibahasa Lampung-Indonesiaianya: '' [[Momentum]] '' ([[2002]]), anjeunna nyebat "bapak puisi modéren (berbahasa) Lampung". == Penghargaan == * Buku puisinya, '' Mak Dawah Mak Dibingi '' ([[2007]]) meraih [[Hadiah Sastra Rancagé]] [[2008]] pikeun kategori [[Sastra Lampung]]. * Penghargaan Kamaroeddin [[2014]] ti [[Aliansi Jurnalis Independen]] (AJI) Bandar Lampung * Novelnya, '' Negarabatin '' ([[2016]]) meraih [[Hadiah Sastra Rancagé]] [[2017]] * Menerima Anugerah Tokoh Pilihan Duajurai 2018 Kategori Bahasa & Sastra. * Kumpulan cerponnya, ''Minan Lela Sebambangan'' ([[2024]]) meraih [[Hadiah Sastra Rancagé]] ([[2025]]) == Karyanya yang lain == * '' Etos Kita, Moralitas Kaum Intelektual '' (editor, [[2002]]) * '' Teknokra, Jejak Léngkah Mah Mahasiswa '' (editor babarengan [[Budisantoso Budiman]], [[2010]]) * '' Mamak Kenut, Orang Lampung Punya Celoteh '' ([[2012]]) * '' Feodalisme Modern, Wacana Kritis ngeunaan Lampung sareng Kelampungan '' ([[2013]]) * '' Tumi Mit Kota '' (kumpulan cerpen bahasa Lampung babarengan Elly Dharmawanti, 2013) * '' Dari Oedin ke Ridho: Kado 100 Hari Pemerintah M Ridho Ficardo-Bachtiar Basri '' (editor, [[2014]]) * '' Menulis Asyik '' (2014) * '' Rumah Berwarna Kunyit '' (editor, 2015) * '' Ke Negarabatin Mamak Kenut Kembali '' ([[2016]]) * '' Ngupi Pai: Sesobek Kecil Ulun Lampung '' ([[2019]]) * '' Lunik-Lunik Cabi Lunik '' (kumpulan cerpen, [[2019]]) * '' Setiwang '' (kumpulan puisi, [[2020]]) * '' Jejak-jejak Literer: Bibliograifi Sastra Lampung (1960-2020)'' ([[2021]]) * ''Negarabatin, Negeri di Balik Bukit'' (novel, [[2022]]) * ''Yang (A)gak Serius dan yang Lucu-lucu tentang Jurnalisme, Sastra, Jurnalisme'' ([[2023]]) * ''Pepatah-Petitih Orang Lampung'' (disusun bersama Iwan Nurdaya-Djafar, 2023) * ''Surat Cinta untuk Pithagiras yang Lupa Ditulis'' (novel, [[2024]]) * ''Kesibukan Membuat Sejarah'' (kumpulan sajak, [[2025]]) == Studi ngeunaan karya Udo Z. Karzi == * Kuswinarto. '' Udo Z. Karzi dina Peta Puisi (Berbahasa) Lampung ''. (2003) * Ritanti Aji Cahyaningrum. '' Zulkarnain Zubairi sareng Kelampungannya ''. (2006) * Melsa Hendralia. '' Analisis Nilai-Nilai Budaya Lampung dina Kumpulan Sajak Mak Dawah Mak Dibingi karya Udo Z. Karzi sareng Implikasinya dina Pembelajaran di Sekolah Menengah Atas ''. (skripsi STKIP Muhammadiyah Kotabumi Lampung, [[2010]]) * Arman AZ, Ed. ''Mencari Lampung dalam Senyapnya Jalan Budaya: Kado 50 Tahun Udo Z Karzi''. Bandar Lampung: Pustaka LaBRAK, [[2020]]. == Pranala luar == * {{id}} [http://www.antaranews.com/berita/452304/zulkarnain-zubairi-raih-kamaroeddin-award-2014 Zulkarnain Zubairi Raih Kamaroeddin Award 2014] * {{id}} [http://lampung.antaranews.com/berita/263820/udo-z-karzi-penyelamat-tradisi-berbahasa-lampung Udo Z Karzi Penyelamat Tradisi Berbahasa Lampung] * {{id}} [http://horisononline.or.id/rampai-rampai/udo-z-karsi-memuliakan-bahasa-lampung-dengan-puisi Udo Z Karzi Memuliakan Bahasa Lampung dengan Puisi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121211112709/http://horisononline.or.id/rampai-rampai/udo-z-karsi-memuliakan-bahasa-lampung-dengan-puisi |date=2012-12-11 }} * {{id}} [http://puitika.net/?p=474/ Biografi Penyair Indonesia: Udo Z. Karzi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003031744/http://puitika.net/?p=474%2F |date=2011-10-03 }} * {{id}} [http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2008/02/11/udo-z-karsi-rebellious-writer-lampung.html Udo Z. Karzi: Panulis memberontak ti Lampung] * {{id}} [http://arahlautlepas.blogspot.com/2008/11/zulkarnain-zubairi.html Ensiklopedia Sastra Lampung] * {{id}} [http://duajurai.co/2018/08/28/udo-z-karzi-tokoh-pilihan-duajurai-2018-kategori-bahasa-sastra Udo Z Karzi, Tokoh Pilihan Duajurai 2018 Kategori Bahasa & Sastra] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725054121/http://duajurai.co/2018/08/28/udo-z-karzi-tokoh-pilihan-duajurai-2018-kategori-bahasa-sastra/ |date=2020-07-25 }} 17987pb21vnotq4bi32fpstlnbbtba4 0 101163 708623 698165 2026-04-26T19:46:04Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708623 wikitext text/x-wiki {{taxobox |name = Waru Laut |image = Indian Tulip tree (Thespesia populnea) flowers W IMG 6871.jpg |image_width = 250px |regnum = [[Plantae]] |unranked_divisio = [[Flowering plant|Angiospermae]] Ko|unranked_classis = [[Eudikotil]] |unranked_ordo = [[Rosidae]] |ordo = [[Malvales]] |familia = [[Malvaceae]] |genus = ''[[Thespesia]]'' |species = '''''T. populnea''''' |binomial = ''Thespesia populnea'' |binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Daniel Solander|Sol.]] ex [[José Francisco Corrêa|Corrêa]], 1807<ref>{{aut|[[José Francisco Corrêa|Corrêa de Serra, J.F.]]}}. 1807. "Vues Carpologiques". ''Annales du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle. Paris''. [http://biodiversitylibrary.org/item/23267#page/346/mode/1up Tome '''IX''': 290;] [http://biodiversitylibrary.org/item/23267#page/347/mode/1up Pl. 25 fig. 1.] Paris :chez Tourneisen fils, libr.</ref> |synonyms = * ''Azanza acuminata'' {{small|Alef.}} * ''Hibiscus bacciferus'' {{small|Blume}} * ''Hibiscus blumei'' {{small|Kuntze}} * ''Hibiscus litoreus'' {{small|J.Presl}} * ''Hibiscus populifolius'' {{small|Salisb.}} <small>(''nom.illeg.'')</small> * ''Hibiscus populneoides'' {{small|Roxb.}} * ''Hibiscus populneus'' {{small|L.}} <small>(''basionym'')</small><ref>{{aut|[[Carolus Linnaeus|Linne, C. von]].}} 1753. ''Caroli Linnaei ... Species plantarum :exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas...'' [http://biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/136/mode/1up Tome '''2''': 694.] Holmiae :Impensis Laurentii Salvii [1 May 1753]</ref> * ''Thespesia macrophylla'' {{small|Blume}} <small><u>Sinonim selengkapnya</u>: ''The Plant List''</small> <ref>The Plant List: [http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-2515863?ref=tpl1 ''Thespesia populnea'' (L.) Sol. ex Corrêa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705140804/http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-2515863?ref=tpl1 |date=2023-07-05 }}</ref> |}} '''Waru laut''' atawa '''baru laut''' ; ('''''Thespesia populnea'''''), nyaéta hiji tutuwuhan anu asalna tina kulawargga kapas-kapasan ''([[Malvaceae]])'' . Loba kapanggih hirup di basisir-basisir tropis, tangkalna leutik bisa disebut rungkun, ieu tangkal pituin ti [[India]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Wzmo7cHvhZkC|title=The Trees of Florida: a Reference and Field Guide|first=Gil|last=Nelson|publisher=Pineapple Press Inc|year=1994|isbn=9781561640553|page=45}}</ref> <ref name="RNGR" /> ==Ngaran séjén== Waru laut dina basa Inggris disebut ''Portia Tree''; ''baru laut'' ''([[Simeulue]])'', ''waru laut, waru lot'' ([[basa Jawa|Jw.]], [[basa Sunda|Sd.]]), ''baru lot, beru lot'' ([[basa Madura|Md.]]), Jeung sajabana .<ref name="heyne">{{aut|Heyne, K. 1987.}} ''Tumbuhan Berguna Indonesia'', jil. '''3''':1317. Terj. Yayasan Sarana Wana Jaya, Jakarta</ref> == Ciri mandiri== [[File:Starr 030530-0022 Thespesia populnea.jpg|jmpl|kiri|200px|Tangkal waru laut]] [[Tangkal]] leutik, jangkungna 2–10 [[méter |m]]. Hirup di wewengkon basisir aya ogé di tukangeun [[leuweung]] [[babakoan]] ''([[mangrove]])'' anu henteu aya rawana. [[Daun]] cupatna panjang, buleud [[endog]] aya ogé kawas [[jantung]] sisi [[daun]] rata, 7–24 × 5–16 [[sentimeter|cm]]; kawas kulit; tulangna ngaramo, mibanda kelenjar kulit laleutik di palebah puhu tulang daun utama di sisi handap daun. Daun ngorana mibanda bulu coklat rapet.<ref name="steenis1981">{{aut|[[Cornelis Gijsbert Gerrit Jan van Steenis|Steenis, CGGJ van]]. 1981.}} ''Flora, untuk sekolah di Indonesia''. PT Pradnya Paramita, Jakarta. Hal. 288-289</ref> [[Kembang]] nunggal, bijil dina handapeun cupat daun, mimiti bijil jocong lila kalilaan jadi tungkul, cupatna panjang kalawan mibanda sisit. Daun kelopak daun tambahan aya 3, leutik pisan kalawan gancang lésot, panjang 12–14 [[milimeter|mm]]. Mahkota wujudna kawas [[locéng]], 6–7&nbsp;cm, konéng ngora anu engkéna robah jadi beureum, kalayan aya titik (bercak) wungu dina puhuna. [[Geutah]] na konéng. [[Buah#Buah kotak|Buah kotak]] aya anu gepéng aya ogé anu buleud endog, diaméter 2,5–4,5&nbsp;cm, henteu muka atawa mukana lila. [[Siki]]na baruluan.<ref name="steenis1981"/> === Jinis anu sarupa === * ''[[Hibiscus tiliaceus]]'' L. Ogé dingaranan '''waru laut''' lantaran habitat alamina memang di basisir. Sakapeung ''H. tiliaceus'' kapanggih bareng ''Thespesia populnea''. ''[[Hibiscus similis]]'' Bl. ('''[[waru gunung]]''' atawa '''waru gombong'''), anu leuwih remen dipelak, mibanda wujud tangkal, daun, kembang jeunh buah anu sarupa jeung ''H. tiliaceus'', kalayan mung saeutik parbedaan. Kadua jinis ''Hibiscus'' dibédakeun tina ''T populnea'' alatan mibanda daun anu baruluan lemes, kalawan kelenjar minyak di sisi handap di puhu tulang daun. Wujud jeung kelir kembangna sarupa, pedah cupat [[putik]]na kabagi di tungtungna.<ref>{{aut|Steenis, CGGJ van.}} ''op. cit.''. Hal. 287 dan 291</ref> == Kagunaan== [[File:Starr 010203-0205 Thespesia populnea.jpg|jmpl|kiri|200px|Buah waru laut]] [[Kai]]na ''(Kayu teras)'' kelirna coklat guguratan hideung, éndah katempona, hampang, tur teu pati teuas. Kaina alusna dimangpaatkeun pikeun bahan nyieun délman atawa padati dina mangsa baheula, gagang (pohpor) bedil, peti, jeung sajabana. Kai teras ieu bisa ogé dimangpaatkun pikeun ubar; kayaning ubar galingging, ''radang selaput dada (pleuritis)'', [[koléra]], jeung mules alatan [[kolik]]. Tina kulit tangkal ogé diarah harambay pikeun bahan nyieun tali, meski jarang digunakan.<ref name="heyne"/> Daun-dauna dimangpaatkeun pikeun campuran masakan pikeun nambahan rasa haseum. Buahna anu asak, dibebek/tutu tuluy diasakan maké minyak, dimangpaatkeun pikeun ngurangan kutu dina sirah.<ref name="heyne"/> [[file:Thespesia populnea MHNT.BOT.2009.13.12.jpg|jmpl|Sikina ''Thespesia populnea'']] Di [[India]] kidul, kayu terasna dimangpaatkun pikeun nyieun alat musik anu disebut ''thavil''. Dipikaresep alatan kelirna anu semu [[coklat]], semu konéng aya ogé anu semu beureum, [[kai]] ieu ogé di [[Hawaii]] dimangpaatkun pikeun nyieun rupa-rupa karajinan. Kai ''teras'' waru laut mibanda [[beurat jinis|BJ]] anu rupa-rupa ti mimiti 0,55 – 0,89<ref name="RNGR">{{cite web |url=http://www.rngr.net/Publications/ttsm/Folder.2003-07-11.4726/PDF.2004-03-16.0354/file |format=[[PDF]] |first=John K. |last=Francis |title=''Thespesia populnea'' (L.) Sol. ex Corrêa |work=Tropical Tree Seed Manual |publisher=Reforestation, Nurseries & Genetics Resources |date=2003-01-01 |accessdate=2009-02-20 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116110038/http://www.rngr.net/Publications/ttsm/Folder.2003-07-11.4726/PDF.2004-03-16.0354/file |date=2009-01-16 }}</ref>. == Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} == Tutumbu ka luar == {{commonscat-inline|Thespesia populnea}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.canoeplants.com/milo.html |title=Milo |work=Canoe Plants of Ancient Hawai{{okina}}i |publisher=Ka {{okina}}Imi Na{{okina}}auao O Hawai{{okina}}i Nei}} * {{ cite web |url=http://iu.ff.cuni.cz/pandanus/database/details.php?id=1165&enc=utf&sort=ka&display=50&reswind=this&lat=on&skt=&pkt=&hin=&ben=&tam=&mal=&eng=&start=600 |title=''Thespesia populnea'' (L.) Sol. Ex Corr. |work=Database of Indian Plants |publisher=Pandanus Project}} * ''[http://www.hibiscus.org/species/tpopulnea.php Thespesia populnea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013093140/http://hibiscus.org/species/tpopulnea.php |date=2007-10-13 }}'' at website: Australian native hibiscus and hibiscus-like species. {{tumbuhan-stub}} [[Kategori:Malvaceae]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan tropis ]] [[Kategori:Tumbuhan ubar]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] lynoa36r5gdgi85aaco1v56y70av598 0 104192 708624 676110 2026-04-26T19:57:11Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708624 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotak info organisasi |name = {{nowrap|World Trade Organization <small>{{en icon}}</small><br />Organisation mondiale du commerce <small>{{fr icon}}</small><br />Organización Mundial del Comercio <small>{{es icon}}<br/>Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia <small>{{id icon}}</small>}} |image = World Trade Organization (logo and wordmark).svg |caption = Logo resmi WTO |map = WTO members and observers.svg |mcaption = <div style="text-align:left;">{{legend|#008000|Anggota}} {{legend|#0174DF|Anggota WTO sekaligus anggota Uni Eropa}} {{legend|#eeee00|Pengamat}} {{legend|#ff1111|Bukan anggota}}</div> ---- |type = [[Organisasi internasional]] |abbreviation = WTO, OMC |purpose = Ngurangan ''tarif'' jeung hambatan dagangan lianna |headquarters = [[Centre William Rappard]], [[Jenewa]], [[Swiss]] |membership = 164 anggota (2016){{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=113}} |language = [[Bahasa Inggris|Inggris]], [[Bahasa Prancis|Prancis]], [[Bahasa Spanyol|Spanyol]]{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Prévost|2016|pp=281}} |leader_title = [[Direktur Jenderal Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia|Direktur Jenderal]] |leader_name = [[Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala]] |formation = {{start date and age|1995|01|01|df=y}} |budget = 197 juta [[franc Swiss]] (2016){{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=157}} |website = {{url|http://www.wto.org/}} }} '''Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia''' ({{lang-en|World Trade Organization}}, disingkét '''WTO''') nyaéta hiji [[organisasi internasional]] anu mayungan usaha pikeun ngaliberalisasi usaha dagang. Organisasi ieu nyadiakeun aturan-aturan dasar dina enggoning ngalaksanakeun hubungan [[dagang]] internasional, jadi wadah padungdengan konsési jeung ''komitmen'' dagang pikeun anggotana, ogé méré bantuan ka anggota-anggotana dina ngaréngsékeun pacéngkadan dagang ngaliwatan hiji mékanisme anu ngabeungkeut sacara hukum. Organisasi ieu diadegkeun kaping [[1 Januari]] [[1995]] kalawan mibanda tujuan pikeun nurunkeun ''tarif'' jeung halangan dagangan séjén, anu dipiharep baris majukeun ékonomi jeung ngaronjatkeun kahirupan masarakat. Saméméh ngadegna ''Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia'' ieu aya hiji anu disebut ''Perjanjian Umum Tarif dan Perdagangan'' anu ditetepkeun dina taun 1947. Saméméhna usaha pikeun ngadegkeun hiji ''[[Organisasi Perdagangan Internasional]] '' teu tulus ku ayana panampik ti [[Kongres Amérika Serikat]] pikeun ngaratifikasi [[Piagam Havana]], kasaluyuan éta jadi mangrupa hiji lembaga ''[[ad hoc]]'' kalayan dipaké "saheulaanan" salila 47 taun. ''Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia'' ngaganti ieu kasaluyuan sabada dilarapkeunna ''[[Persetujuan Marrakesh]]'' anu ogé nambahkeun kasaluyuan-kasaluyuan utama anu ngatur hubungan dagangan internasional, kaasup kasaluyuan umum ''tarif'' jeung hubungan dagang 1994 anu ngagantikeun kasaluyuan tahun 1947. Kitu. WTO markasna di [[Jenéwa]], [[Swiss]]. Dina taun 2016, organisasi ieu mibanda 164 nagara anggota jeung [[wilayah kapabéanan]] anu ngaréksa 99,5% populasi dunya ogé 98% dagangan di dunya. Sakabéh anggota WTO diwajibkeun milu kana aturan-aturan dasar anu geus ditetepkeun dina kasaluyuan ''Persetujuan Marrakesh''. Salah sahiji aturan éta tayalian "[[hiji perlakuan anu sami pikeun sadaya anggota]]", anu hartosna dimana aya kaistiméwaan anu dibikeun ku hiji anggota WTO ka anggota WTO séjén ieu téh kudu dibikeun ogé ka sakabéh anggota WTO. Selian ti kitu, dumasar aturan "''perlakuan nasional''", anggota WTO kudu méré aturan anu sarua ka produk asing anu geus aya dina pasar doméstikna sakumahakana barang anu sarua hasil produksi nagarana diperlakukeun di nagarana. Samentawis kitu, dua badan anu boga wewenang ngaluarkeun putusan utama di WTO tayalian Konférénsi ''Tingkat Menteri'' jeung Déwan Umum. Sakur anggota WTO nyokot kaputusan dumasar kana konsénsus, tapi umpama konsénsus henteu kapanggih, kaputusan baris dicokot ngaliwatan Mékanisme pangumpulan sora. Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia ogé mibanda ''sistem'' dina ngaréngsékeun hiji perkara atawa pacéngkadan anu ngabeungkeut sacara hukum. Perkara dagang anu dirandapan ku hiji anggota jeung anggota liangna mimitina dibawa heula ka ''panel'' anu dijieun husus pikeun ngaréngsékeun éta perkara. Pihak anu henteu sapagodos jeung kaputusan Panél bisa mawa perkarana ka [[Badan Banding]]. Ku ayana ieu WTO geus hasil ngurangan tarif jeung halangan dina hubungan dagang séjénna, jeung ieu kaberhasilan disebutkeun tos ngaronjatkeun kamekaran ékonomi, nurunkeun angka kamiskinan, katut nurunkeun harga. Ngan, ieu organisasi ogé menang kiritikan alatan dianggap kurang maliré kapentingan-kapentingan masyarakat lianna, ieu ogé dicap henteu démokratis, utamana balukar kurangna ngalibetkeun ''[[lembaga swadaya masyarakat]]'' jeung katimpangan kakuatan antawis nagara maju sareng nagara berkembang. == Sajarah == Diadegkeunna sistem dagang modérn ieu didadasaran ku pangalaman mangsa [[perang]], nalika nagara-nagara néangan cara geusan ngoméan kaayaan ékonomi maranéhna kujalan ngalarapkeun hiji kawijakan anu engkéna baris ngabalukarkeun goréng pikeun nagara séjén, saperti [[protéktionisme]], [[dévaluasi]] ''mata uang'', jeung kadali modal. Contona saperti [[Undang-Undang Smoot-Hawley]] taun 1930 di [[Amérika Sérikat]] anu naékuen tarif ti 38% ngajadi 52%. Balukar tina ditetepkeun undang-undang ini, mitra-mitra dagang Amérika Serikat ogé nyokot tindakan balesan. Saterusna nimbulkeun [[éfék domino]] sabada widang dagang ieu mimiti ngagésér ka pasar lian, antukna nagara anu jadi pasar anyar ieu ogé tuluy nyokot tindakan proteksionisme, anu tungtungna mah kalahka silih bales. Sabada réngséna [[Perang Dunia II]], loba nagara-nagara miharep sangkan kejadian seperti ieu henteu ka sorang deui, nya ku hal ieu maranéhna ngupayakeun ngadegkeun organisasi-organisasi internasional anu bisa jadi pameuntasan tur jalan kaluar tina masalah tadi.{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=7}} Kukituna digelar waé [[Konférénsi Bretton Woods]] dina [[Juli]] 1944 anu jadi dadasar diadegkeun [[Dana Monétér Internasional]] jeung [[Bank Dunya]], [[Konférénsi Dumbarton Oaks]] dina [[Agustus]] -[[Oktober]] 1944 anu akhirna diadegkeun ''[[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]]'', sarta [[Konférénsi Havana]] ngeunaan widang dagang jeung Kesempetan ''Kerja'' dina [[Novémber]] 1947-[[Maret]] 1948 anu ngahasilkeun [[Piagam Havana]].{{sfn|VanGrasstek|2013|pp=43}} Ieu Piagam mangrupakeun rarancang hukum pikeun hiji lembaga internasional anu bisa ngurus widang dagang unggal nagara, tayalian ''[[Organisasi Perdagangan Internasional]]'' ({{lang-en|International Trade Organization}}, disingkét ITO).{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=7}}Ieu Piagam ngatur rupa-rupa hal, saperti netepkeun asas ''[[perlakuan yang sama untuk semua anggota]]'' ({{lang-en|most favoured nation}}, disingket MFN) teu aya syarat ka sakabéh nagara anggota sarta nyieun prosedur pikeun ngaréngsékeun pacéngkadan.{{sfn|VanGrasstek|2013|pp=44}} Kalayan ieu, para pangadegna miharep bisa ngurangan halangan kana widang dagang baris ngaronjatkeun hasil jeung beubeunangan ogé ngaleupaskeun ''konflik'' pulitik atawa pacéngkadan dagang anu dipikasieun bisa ngabalukarkeun nyeungeut deui ''konflik'' anyar anu leuwih gedé.{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=7}} Sawatara éta , di ''[[Lake Success, New York|Lake Success]]'', [[New York]], dina awal taun 1947, ditetepkeun ''[[Perjanjian Umum Tarif dan Perdagangan]]'' ({{lang-en|General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade}}, disingket GATT) anu mangrupikeun hasil tina babalagempagan ti 23 nagara (12 nagara maju jeung 11 nagara ''berkembang'').{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=7}} Kasapukan ieu mimiti lumaku dina tanggal 1 [[Januari]] 1948 pikeun sawatara waktu bari nungguan diresmikeunna Piagam Havana.{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=8}} Ngan, [[Kongrés Amérika Serikat]] nolak ngaratifikasi Piagam Havana alatan maranéhna ngarasa ITO baris ngawatesan kadaulatan Amérika Serikat.{{sfn|De Schutter|2015|pp=9}} salaku hasilna, dina kaping 6 Désémber 1950, Presidén [[Harry Truman]] nembrakeun yén pamaréntah Amérika Serikat moal ngaratifikasi Piagam Havana,{{sfn|De Schutter|2015|pp=9}} padahalmah aubna Amérika Serikat dijero pibakaleun organisasi ieu diréken kacida perlukeunna pikeun kalumangsungan organisasi ieu.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=2}} Kukituna upaya pikeun ngadegkeun ITO tinemu jalan buntu, jeung alhasil GATT mibanda sajarah anu unik alatan kasapukan dilakukeun "sawatara waktu" salila 47 tahun. Sanajan GATT tayalian janji anu sipatna paheut tur ''substansif'' katut henteu aya urusan jeung ngadegna hiji lambaga husus, lalaunan GATT mimiti mekar ngajadi hiji lembaga internasionaln anu mandiri. Nagara-nagara anu jadi anggotana satékah polah ngajawab sagala rupa-rupa masalah ''institusional'' anu aya kalawan ngaréngsékeun maké cara ''[[ad hoc]]'', kaasup nalika nyokot hiji putusan dumasar kana [[konsénsus]]. Alhasil, sanajan GATT sacara resmi henteu ngadegkeun hiji organisasi dagang internasional, nagara-nagara anu geus ngaratifikasi parjangjian ieu lumaku saperti maranéhna kabeungkeut kajero hiji lembaga internasional.{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=8}} GATT ogé jadi tatapakan pikeun ngayakeun dalapan kali padungdengan ngeunaan usaha dina widang dagang ''multilateral'' anu diayakeun dina waktu anu geus ditangtukeun pikeun ngurangan ''tarif'' jeung halangan dina usaha dagang lianna. Padungdengan/putaran ngalimpudan [[''Putaran'' Jenéwa 1947]], [[Putaran Annecy]] 1949, [[''Putaran'' Torquay]] 1950, [[Putaran Jenéwa 1956]], [[''Putaran'' Dillon]] 1960–61, [[Putaran Kennedy]] 1962–67, [[''Putaran'' Tokyo]] 1973–79, jeung [[Putaran Uruguay]] taun 1986–94.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=9}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! Putaran GATT !! Tahun !! Jumlah nagara anu milu |- | [[Jenéwa]] | 1947 | 19 |- | [[Annecy]] | 1949 | 27 |- | [[Torquay]] | 1950 | 33 |- | [[Jenéwa]] | 1956 | 36 |- | [[Dillon]] | 1960–61 | 43 |- | [[Kennedy]] | 1962–67 | 74 |- | [[Tokyo]] | 1973–79 | 85 |- | [[Uruguay]] | 1986–94 | 128 |- | colspan = "3" | Sumber: {{harvnb|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007}}{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=9}} |} [[File:Marrakesh Agreement April 1994 (9305978663).jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Panandatanganan Parsatujuan Marrakesh dina kaping 15 April 1994.]] [[File :20110418sgd03-51 (11201047646).jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri ka salapan di Bali, Indonesia, dina taun 2013.]] Sateuacan Putaran Kennedy, Nagara-nagara museurkeun perhatianna kana upaya ngurangan halangan dina widang dagang salah sahijna ''tarif''. Ngan, tisaprak ''putaran'' ieu, maranéhna ogé mitembeyan dipagunemkeun ngeunaan ngurangan halangan séjén/''[[hambatan non-tarif]]'', contona tayalian parundingan pasatujuan dina ngurangan halangan Téknis dina dagang dina Putaran Tokyo jeung paguneman ngeunaan kasapukan ieu jeung parundingan [[Perjanjian tentang Penerapan Tindakan Sanitari dan Fitosanitari]] dina Putaran Uruguay. Sagigireun éta, dina ''Putaran Uruguay'', ''isu'' ngeunaan [[kekayaan intelektual]] jeung [[jasa|dagangan jasa]] ogé jadi bahan paguneman.{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=12}} Ti kawit dikawitanna Putaran Uruguay, sakumna anu ngayakeun padungdengan téh geus nepi kana hiji kasadaran yén maranéhna mikabutuh hiji mékanisme kalembagaan jeung sistem pikeun ngaréngsékeun pacéngkadan anu lewih hadé. Salah sahiji pokok anu dipadungdengkeun salila Putaran ieu tayalian "berfungsinya sistem GATT" ({{lang-en|functioning of the GATT system}}, disingkat FOGS). Loba nagara anu hayang nyingkahan masalah anu tumiba salila Putaran Tokyo, kayaning bijilna "kasapukan - kasapukan anu teu di agéndakeun"{{efn|Contona adalah Perjanjian tentang Hambatan Teknis Perdagangan hasil perundingan Putaran Tokyo. Awalnya perjanjian ini bersifat "plurilateral", atau dalam kata lain, negara dapat memilih untuk ikut dengan perjanjian ini atau tidak. Ngan, tisaprak kaberhasilan Putaran Uruguay, kasapukan ieu kiwari geus jadi hiji kasapukan multilateral. Untuk keterangan lebih lanjut, lihat {{harvnb|Macrory, Appleton & Plummer|2005|pp=376}}.}} anu ngan ngawengku pikeun nagara anggota GATT anu sadia milu kana kasapukan éta ''(permasalahan ini disebut "''GATT [[à la carte]]''").'' Ku alatan éta pisan, sakumna anu babalagempagan di GATT sadia ngajadikeun aguneman FOGS dina Putaran Uruguay salaku kasempatan pikeun ngadegkeun hiji organisasi dagang di tingkat global.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=9-10}} Salajengna, dina enggoning rarancang katetepan akhir Putaran Uruguay anu dikaluarkeun dina taun 1991, mibanda hiji usulan pikeun ngadegkeun "Organisasi Dagang Multilateral". Ngaran anu diusulkeun satuluyna dirobah jadi "''Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia''". Kasapukan-kasapukan tina hasil Putaran Uruguay lajeng dihijikeun ka jero hiji kasapukan anu ngajadi rangkai pibakaleun ieu lembaga, tayalian [[Persetujuan Marrakesh]] (ogé disebut "''Perjanjian WTO''"), kaasup di jerona téh Perjanjian GATT 1994 anu ngagantikeun GATT 1947 sarta Kasapukan-kasapukan tambahan anu geus dipadungdengkeun saméméhna. Parjangjian WTO geus bisa ditandatangani dina kaping 15 April 1994. Kasapukan ieu sorangan mimiti lumaku dina kaping 1 Januari 1995, antukna ieu tanggal disebut tanggal resmi ngadegna Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=10-11}} Dina Novémber 2001, anggota-anggota WTO anu gempungan salila Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri Kaompat di [[Doha]], [[Qatar]], mutuskeun pikeun ngamimitian puteran paguneman anyar anu disebut ''[[Putaran Pembangunan Doha]].'' Pokok bahasan tina ieu paguneman aya rupa-rupa, saperti tatanén, aksés pasar pikeun produk anu lain ti tatanén, ''fasilitasi perdagangan'', ''revisi'' aturan WTO, jeung ngaréngsékeun pacéngkadan. Sagigireun éta, putaran pembangunan ieu ogé kacida gedé tinimbangna kana pangabutuh nagara-nagara sumedeng mekar jeung kauntungan anu bisa kapibanda ku maranéhna tina ieu usaha dagang.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=26}} Ngan baé, sakumna anggota henteu bisa manggihan hiji kasapukan ngeunaan dina rupa-rupa hal ieu. Salila Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri Kalima di [[Cancún]], [[Meksiko]], dina taun 2003, ngaliwatan babalagempagan nagara-nagara berkembang nolak ngeunaan "''isu-isu'' Singapura", tayalian ''isu-isu'' anu aya patalina jeung kawijakan ''kompetisi'', ''invéstasi'', ''transparansi'' sajeroeun proyék ''pengadaan pamarentah'', jeung ''fasilitasi'' dagang.{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=5}}{{sfn|Deutsche Welle|2003}} Dina waktu nu sarua, nagara-nagara maju ogé nampik kana pamotongan subsidi tatanén, padahal nagara-nagara ''berkembang'' ngarasa kacida dirugikeun ku ayana subsidi ieu alatan ngaruksak ''daya saing'' produk maranéhna. Pacéngkadan ieu ngabalukarkeun Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri Cancún teuaya kasapukan jeung pinanggih jalan buntu.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=94-95}}{{sfn|Deutsche Welle|2003}} Ieu jalan buntu lumangsung saheulaanan nepika pertengahan taun 2004 sabada Program Kerja Doha anu anyar ditetepkeun ku Déwan Umum WTO dina kaping 1 Agustus 2004, tur salah, sahiji kaputusan pangpentingna anu geus dicokot ku dewan ieu tayalian kaputusan pikeun henteu nyoba mitembeyan parundingan ngeunaan ''isu-isu'' Singapura. Salajengna, dina Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri kagenep di [[Hong Kong]] dina Désémber 2005, anggota WTO sapuk pikeun mupus subsidi ékspor tatanén saméméh taun 2013. Ngan, anggota WTO sama sakali henteu bisa ngaréngsékeun rupi-rupi masalah séjén, saperti aksés pasar pikeun produk tatanén, aksés pasar pikeun produk non-tatanén, jeung liberalisasi widang dagang jasa. Antukna, dina akhir [[Juli]] 2006, [[Direktur Jenderal Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia|Direktur Jenderal]] WTO mangsa éta, [[Pascal Lamy]], mutuskeun pikeun nunda saheulaanan Putaran Perundingan Doha.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=95}} Sabada éta, loba padungdengan anu dilakukepikeun rupa-rupa masalah anu leuwih leutik ogé henteu ngabuahkeun hasil,{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=97}} antukna Pascal Lamy ngabiantarakeun dina tanggal 31 Méi 2011 yen Putaran Pembangunan Doha geus "pareum".{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=26}} Samajan kitu, salila Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri Kasalapan di [[Bali]], [[Indonésia]], dina Désémber 2013, anggota-anggota WTO hasil meunang kasapukan anu katélah "[[Paket Bali]]", jeung parjanjian anu paling penting anun ngajadi bagéan tuna "paket" ieu tayalian [[Perjanjian Fasilitasi Perdagangan]] anu dimaksudkeun pikeun nyederhanakeun prosedur pabéan, ngaronjatkeun kaéfisiénan jeung prosedur anu leuwih gancang, sarta ngurangan biaya ikeun ''prosedur'' kapabéanan.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=27}} Rupa-rupa, saperti tatanén, aksés pasar pikeun produk anu lain ti tatanén, ''fasilitasi perdagangan'', ''revisi'' aturan WTO, jeung ngaréngsékeun pacéngkadan. Sagigireun éta, putaran pembangunan ieu ogé kacida gedé tinimbangna kana pangabutuh nagara-nagara sumedeng mekar jeung kauntungan anu bisa kapibanda ku maranéhna tina ieu usaha dagang.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=26}} Ngan baé, sakumna anggota henteu bisa manggihan hiji kasapukan ngeunaan dina rupa-rupa hal ieu. Salila Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri Kalima di [[Cancún]], [[Meksiko]], dina taun 2003, ngaliwatan babalagempagan nagara-nagara berkembang nolak ngeunaan "''isu-isu'' Singapura", tayalian ''isu-isu'' anu aya patalina jeung kawijakan ''kompetisi'', ''invéstasi'', ''transparansi'' sajeroeun proyék ''pengadaan pamarentah'', jeung ''fasilitasi'' dagang.{{sfn|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007|pp=5}}{{sfn|Deutsche Welle|2003}} Dina waktu nu sarua, nagara-nagara maju ogé nampik kana pamotongan subsidi tatanén, padahal nagara-nagara ''berkembang'' ngarasa kacida dirugikeun ku ayana subsidi ieu alatan ngaruksak ''daya saing'' produk maranéhna. Pacéngkadan ieu ngabalukarkeun Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri Cancún teuaya kasapukan jeung pinanggih jalan buntu.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=94-95}}{{sfn|Deutsche Welle|2003}} Ieu jalan buntu lumangsung saheulaanan nepika pertengahan taun 2004 sabada Program Kerja Doha anu anyar ditetepkeun ku Déwan Umum WTO dina kaping 1 Agustus 2004, tur salah, sahiji kaputusan pangpentingna anu geus dicokot ku dewan ieu tayalian kaputusan pikeun henteu nyoba mitembeyan parundingan ngeunaan ''isu-isu'' Singapura. Salajengna, dina Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri kagenep di [[Hong Kong]] dina Désémber 2005, anggota WTO sapuk pikeun mupus subsidi ékspor tatanén saméméh taun 2013. Ngan, anggota WTO sama sakali henteu bisa ngaréngsékeun rupi-rupi masalah séjén, saperti aksés pasar pikeun produk tatanén, aksés pasar pikeun produk non-tatanén, jeung liberalisasi widang dagang jasa. Antukna, dina akhir [[Juli]] 2006, [[Direktur Jenderal Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia|Direktur Jenderal]] WTO mangsa éta, [[Pascal Lamy]], mutuskeun pikeun nunda saheulaanan Putaran Perundingan Doha.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=95}} Sabada éta, loba padungdengan anu dilakukepikeun rupa-rupa masalah anu leuwih leutik ogé henteu ngabuahkeun hasil,{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=97}} antukna Pascal Lamy ngabiantarakeun dina tanggal 31 Méi 2011 yen Putaran Pembangunan Doha geus "pareum".{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=26}} Samajan kitu, salila Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri Kasalapan di [[Bali]], [[Indonésia]], dina Désémber 2013, anggota-anggota WTO hasil meunang kasapukan anu katélah "[[Paket Bali]]", jeung parjanjian anu paling penting anun ngajadi bagéan tuna "paket" ieu tayalian [[Perjanjian Fasilitasi Perdagangan]] anu dimaksudkeun pikeun nyederhanakeun prosedur pabéan, ngaronjatkeun kaéfisiénan jeung prosedur anu leuwih gancang, sarta ngurangan biaya ikeun ''prosedur'' kapabéanan.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=27}} == Logika ékonomi ==<!-- [[File:Ricardo example of comparative advantage.svg|jmpl|kiri|250px|Grafik anu ngagambarkan konsép kaunggulan komparatif. Dina skénario I (wajik), unggal nagara méakeun 3.600 jam pikeun nyieun pakéan jeung anggur. Dina skénario I (persegi), setiap negara berfokus pada keunggulan komparatifnya, sehingga jumlah barang yang dihasilkan lebih besar.]]--> {{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote="Tukang ngaput henteu nyieun sapatuna sorangan, tapi meuli ti tukang nyieun sapatu. Tukang nyieun sapatu ogé henteu nyoba nyieun bajuna sorangan, sabalikna ngandelkeun tukang ngaput. Kitu deui patani henteu nyieun duanana, tapi ngamangpaatkeun hasil gawé kaduanana."|salign=right |source=— Ekonom [[Skotlandia]] [[Adam Smith]].{{sfn|Lowenfeld|2008|p=4}}{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=19-20}}}} WTO dina pada dasarna diadegkeun kalawan logika ékonomi yén ''[[perdagangan bebas]]'' baris nguatkeun ékonomi tur nguntungkeun masyarakat kujalan ngamangpaatkeun kaunggulan ''komparatif'' ti nagara séwang-séwangan. Inohong anu paling kawéntar salaku anu miboga téori kaunggulan komparatif ieu tayalian [[David Ricardo]]. Salaku conto, umpama nagara A téh ngahasilkeun béas panghadéna kitu deui nagara B salaku produsén laptop anu pang alusna, jelas didieu duana baris leuwih untung umpama A ngahususkeun manéh kana béas, B ngahususkeun manéh nyieun laptop, anu salajengna duanana tiasa silih jual beuli, tinimbang A ngaluarkeun sumber dayana kanggo ngaproduksi laptop sakalian béas secara mandiri, padahal éta nagara henteu bisaeun nyieun laptop sacara éfisién. Ngan, masalahna baris kapanggih dimana ieu nagara A leuewih hébat dina nyieun sagala rupana tibatan nagara B. Sanajan kitu, Ricardo maké conto anu sederhana pikeun némbongkeun yén dina kaayaan kawas kitu, usaha dagang bébas masih angger bisa ngadatangkeun kauntungan ka kadua pihak. Bayangkeun [[Karajaan Britania Raya]] téh nagara anu bisa ngaproduksi botol [[wine|anggur]] anu dipigawé ku 120 orang, sawatara éta [[Kerajaan Portugal]] bisa ngaproduksi jumlah anu sarua kalayan dipigawé ngan ku 80 urang pagawé. Dina waktu anu sarua, Britania Raya bisa ngahasilkeun pakaian dina jumlah anu tangtu ku 100 urang pagawé, sawatara éta dina jumlah anu sarua, Portugal mikabutuh 90 pagawé.{{sfn|Trebilcock, Howse & Eliason|2012|p=3}} {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="3" | Pagawé anu dipikabutuh|- ! {{diagonal split header|Negara|Barang}} ! scope="col" | Pakaian ! scope="col" | Anggur |- ! scope="row" | Britania Raya |100 |120 |- ! scope="row" | Portugal |90 |80 |} Sanajan Portugal mibanda kaunggulan mutlak Ti Britania Raya dina nyieun pakéan jeung botol anggur, numutkeun Ricardo, usaha dagang baris tetep nguntungkeun pikeun duanana. Lamun téa Britania Raya mutuskeun pikeun nyieun pakéan kalawan ngagunakeun pagawé 100 sarta nga ékspor ka Portugal pikeun meunang botol anggur anu dihasilkeun ku 80 patani Portugal, Britania Raya baris diuntungkeun alatan pikeun nyieun botol anggur sorangan, maranéhna mikabutuh 120 pagawé. Portugal ogé diuntungkeun, alatan lamun seug ngerahkeun 90 pagawé pikeun nyieun pakéan, maranehna bisa meuli ti Britania Raya anu ngan ngagawékeun 80 urang pikeun ngaproduksi botol anggur.{{sfn|Trebilcock, Howse & Eliason|2012|p=3}} Modél Ricardo ieu mangrupakeun hasil Ringkesan tina hiji ''asumsi'' yén biaya jeung harga lumaku tetep, tapi najan kitu sakumna ékonom modérn geus ngamutakhirkeu téori Ricardo jeung nyaluyukeun jeung kanyataan dina ékonomi modérn. Contona waé [[model Heckscher–Ohlin]] anu geus manggihan yén hiji nagara baris ngékspor barang anu mibanda ''faktor'' ''produksi'' murah jeung loba di nagarana tur ngimpor barang kalawan ''faktor produksi'' anu langka di nagarana.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=20-21}}{{sfn|Lowenfeld|2008|pp=6-7}} Kukituna, dina enggoning dagang bébas dianggap penting pikeun kamajuan ékonomi, lantaran dimana nagara ngahususkeun manéh dina kaunggulan ''komparatif'', modal jeung tanaga pagawé bisa leuwih éfisién, jeung ''produktivitas'' ogé baris ngaronjat tur bisa ngarojong kana ngaronjatna [[pertumbuhan ekonomi]] .{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=20-24}} Halangan dina widang usaha dagang kawas ''tarif'' jeung ''kuota'' bisa ngorotan kauntungan malahan bisa nepika teu kabagéan bati, kulantaran ieu anggota-anggota WTO ngayakeun usaha pikeun ngamajukeun ékonomi kujalan ngurangan panghalang-panghalang éta.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=23}} Salaku contoh, numutkeun laporan anu disusun ku Kantor Éksekutif Présidén Amérika Serikat, ngurangan tarif di Amérika Serikat tisaprak Perang Dunia II geus nambahan [[produk domestik bruto]] ka nagara 7,3% atawa kurang leuwih $1,3 triliun dina taun 2014.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=21}} Sagigireun éta, usaha dagang bébas dipercaya ogé baris ngurangan kamiskinan ogé nambahan lapangan pagawéan, utamana jeung dibukana pasar anyar pikeun ngajual barang jeung jasa ka luar negeri, jeung kauntungan lian tina paraturan dagang bebas tayalian harga anu leuwih murah jeung pilihan anu leuwih banyak pikeun konsumen alatan geus henteu aya deui tarip atawa halangan anu ngagokan barang anapon jasa ti luar negeri.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=22-23}} == Tujuan jeung kagunaan== Tujuan diadegkeunana WTO dijabarkeun dina mukadimah Kasapukan WTO, tayalian pikeun ngaronjatkeun taraf hirup, ngawujudkeun [[lapangan pagawéan]], nambahan [[pendapatan nyata]] jeung [[permintaan dan penawaran|permintaan]], katut ngaronjatkeun produksi jeung pardagangan barang jeung jasa. Mukadimah kasapukan ieu ogé nambahkeun yén sagala upaya pikeun ngawujudkeun harepan ieu kudu merhatikeun kana kalestarian lingkungan jeung kabutuhan nagara-nagara sumedeng mekar.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=88}} Sagigireun éta, mukadimah ieu milu negeskeun pentingna [[pembangunan berkelanjutan]] (pangwangunan anu ogé mempertimbangkan aspék sosial jeung lingkungan hirup) sarta integrasi nagara-nagara sumedeng mekar utamana (terutama [[negara terbelakang|nagara-nagara anu katinggaleun]]) kalawan sistem dagang sadunya.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=88-89}} Numutkeun pakar hukum dagang asal [[Belgia]], [[Peter Van den Bossche]], mukadimah ieu membantah kayakinan yén WTO ngan ngutamakeun kana ''liberalisasi'' widang dagang sarta henteu maliré kana isu kamiskinan, karusakan lingkungan, jeung pangwangunan anu ''berkelanjutan''.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=89}} Dijero mukadimah anu sarua, disebutkeun yén tujuan-tujuan ieu bisa kahontal kujalan nurunkeun tarif jeung halangan dina widang dagang lianna sarta kujalan ngaleungitkeun sagala tindakan ''diskriminatif'' enggoning hubungan dagang internasional. Sawatara éta, sahubungan jeung résiko hukum tina prakna ngalaksanakeun tujuan WTO dijero mukadimah kasapukan WTO, ''[[Badan Banding]]'' dijero perkara ''US–Shrimp'' mertélakeun yén bahasa anu dipaké dina mukadimah ieu ngébréhkeun iktikad ti anu milu gempungan kasapukan WTO, matakna eusi mukadimah ieu milu "méré wanda" dina napsirkeum ieu si-eusi kasapukan WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=89}} Sacara umum, WTO scara umum mibanda kagunaan kawas anu dijabarkeun dina Pasal II:1 Kasapukan WTO tayalian pikeun nyadiakeun "rarancang ''lembaga'' Babarengan " anu ngawadahan hubungan dagang unggal anggota WTO. Pasal III Kasapukan WTO satuluyna mertélakeun kagunaan-kagunaan husus, tayalian pikeun ngarojong prakna ngajalankeun kasapukan-kasapukan anu di lampirkeun jeroeun kasapukan WTO, pikeun nyadiakeun wadah parundingan kasapukan dagang anu anyar, pikeun ngalaksanakeun [[kasaluyuan ngaréngsékeun pacéngkadan]] anu eusina ngeunaan ''prosedur'' cara ngaréngsékeun pacéngkadan, pikeun ngalaksanakeun Mékanisme ''Peninjauan Kebijakan Perdagangan'', sarta pikeun gawé bareng jeung ''[[Dana Moneter Internasional]]'' katut [[Bank Dunia]] sangkan kawijakan ékonomi global bisa ngajadi leuwih ''kohéren''.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=90}}{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=11-12}} == Parjangjian-parjangjian WTO == Parjangjian utama anu ngadadasaran lembaga WTO tayalian ''[[Persetujuan Marrakesh]]'' atawa ''"Perjanjian WTO"''. Parjangjian ieu sorangan sabenarna mangrupa parjangjian singket anu ngan dieusi ku 16 pasal, ngan waé mibanda kasapukan-kasapukan lian anu jéntré dilampirkeun jeroeun kasapukanieu. Dumasar Pasal II Kasapukan WTO, kasapukan-kasapukan jeung instrumén -instrumén hukum anu disebutkeun di jero Lampiran 1, 2, jeung 3 (disebut "Perjanjian Dagang Multilateral") mangrupakeun bagian anu teu bisa di pisahkeun tina Kasapukan WTO jeung meungkeut ka sakabéh anggota.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=43}} Samentara éta, kasapukan-kasapukan jeung instrumén -instrumén hukum anu disebutkeun sajeroeun Lampiran 4 (disebut ''"Perjanjian Dagang Plurilateral"'') ogé mangrupakeun bagéan tina Parjangjian WTO jeung ngan lumaku pikeun anggota anu geus narima kasapukan éta.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=44}} Lampiran 1A mibanda ''perjanjian-perjanjian multilateral'' anu ngatur widang dagang barang, tayalian:{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=45-48}} # [[Parjangjian Umum ''Tarif'' jeung Perdagangan]] 1994, kaasup dijerona tayalian GATT 1947 jeung instrumén-instrumén hukum anu lumaku luyu jeung GATT 1947 Saméméh lumaku na Parjanjian WTO (contona sértifikasi konsési ''tarif'') # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan tatanén]] # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan prakna Tindakan ''Sanitari'' jeung ''Fitosanitari'']] # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan Tékstil jeung Pakéan ]] (geus lumaku ti kawit 1 Januari 2005){{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=47}} # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan halangan Téknis widang dagang]] # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan Tindakan-Tindakan Invéstasi anu aya patalina jeung dagang]] # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan katetepan Pasal VI Parjangjian Umum Tarif jeung Pardagangan 1994]] ''(Perjanjian Anti-[[Dumping]])'' # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan katetepan Pasal VII Parjangjian Umum Tarif jeung Pardagangan 1994]] (Perjanjian Penilaian Pabean) # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan pamariksaan saméméh dikapalkeun Pra-Pengapalan]] # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan katangtuan Asal Barang]] # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan ''Prosedur'' Izin Impor]] # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan Subsidi jeung Tindakan Imbalan]] # [[Parjangjian ngeunaan Tindakan ngajaga kaamanan]] # [[Parjangjian ''Fasilitas'' widang dagang]] anu dilebetkeun ka jero lampiran ieu ngaliwatan ''Protokol'' Amandemén anu ditetepkeun ku anggota WTO dina 27 Novémber 2014{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=48}} Lampiran 1B eusina [[Parjanjian Umum ngeunaan widang dagang Jasa]] ({{lang-en|General Agreement on Trade in Services}}, disingket GATS), jeung jero Lampiran 1C mibanda [[Perjanjian TRIPS|Parjanjian ngeunaan Aspék-Aspék Hak Kakayaan Inteléktual anu patalina sareng widang dagang]] ''("Perjanjian TRIPS")''.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=44}} Sawatara kitu, Lampiran 2 eusina [[Kasapukan Ngaréngsékeun Pacéngkadan}}, disingket DSU) anu ngatur prosedur ngaréngsékeun pacengkadan dina widang dagang,{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=44, 51-52}} jeung Lampiran 3 mibanda [[Mekanisme Peninjauan Kawijakan widang dagang]] anu ngajabarkeun ''prosedur'' ''peninjauan'' kawijakan dagang anggota-anggota WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=44, 52}} Di Lampiran 4 sorangan mibanda dua [[parjanjian plurilateral]], nyaéta [[Parjanjian ngeunaan widang dagang ''Pesawat Sipil'']] (anu kasapukanna dina Puteran Tokyo taun 1979) jeung [[Parjanjian ngeunaan balanja Pamaréntah]] (luyu jeung hasil révisi taun 2014).{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=53}} Saméméhna aya ogé parjanjian ''plurilateral'' anu disebut Parjanjian ''Peternakan Susu'' Internasional jeung ''Perjanjian'' Daging Sapi Internasional, tapi ieu kasapukan-kasapukan ''plurilateral'' geus teu lumaku deui tisaprak taun 1997.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=11}} Sagigireun ieu, dina kaping 13 Désémber 1996, ''[[Perjanjian Teknologi Informasi]]'' ({{lang-en|Information Technology Agreement}}, disingkat ITA) geus disaluyuan ku 29 anggota WTO ngaliwatan "Déklarasi Tingkat Menteri ngeunaan Pardagangan Produk Téknologi Informasi" anu dipedalkeun di [[Singapura]]. Kasapukan anu ogé sipatna ''plurilateral'' ieu ngaleungitkeun béa ''masuk'' pikeun rupa-rupa produk dina widang ''[[téknologi informasi]]'', saperti komputer, pakakas télékomunikasi, jeung [[semikonduktor]],{{sfn|Wunsch-Vincent|2005|pp=33-34}} ogé ngalimpudan aya kana 222 jinis barang. Saprak harita, jumlah anggota anu aub dina jero kasapukan ieu terus nambahan nepika lobana 67 nagara dina taun 2015. Satuluyna, dina tanggal 28 Juli 2015, sabada saméméhna rada kaganggu sababaraha taun, jumlah barang anu asup ka jero cakupan kasapukan ieu nambahan deui 201 jinis produk. Kasapukan anu geus dirobah ieu disebut "ITA II".{{sfn|Marx|2015|pp=346-347}} Dina kasapukan WTO, aya protokol-protokol aksési ti anggota-anggota WTO anu mimiti ngagabung sabada ditetepkeun ieu kasapukan, jeung protokol-protokol ieu dianggap salaku bagén anu henteu bisa dipisahkeun tina ieu kasapukan. Contona tayalian ''Protokol'' Aksési Tiongkok.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=53}} Salian éta, aya ogé "daftar komitmen" ({{lang-en|schedules of commitments}}) anu eusina komitmen sahiji anggota WTO kana produk atawa jasa anu tangtu, jeung daftar ieu ogé dianggap salaku bagéan anu teu papisah tina Parjanjian WTO.{{sfn|WTO, Legal Texts}} == Struktur == [[File :Cwr aerial 2001.jpg|jmpl|ka|200px|Markas gedé WTO di [[Centre William Rappard]] di Jenewa, Swiss.]] Organisasi widang dagang sa dunya tayalian hiji organisasi internasional anu mibanda kapasitas hukum jeung ogé dianggap salaku subjek [[hukum internasional]].{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=12}} Struktur ngeunaan kalembagaanna diatur ku Pasal IV Kasapukan WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=128}} Mibanda dua badan anu nyokot kaputusan di WTO, tayalian Konférénsi ''Tingkat Menteri'' jeung Déwan Umum. Kakuasaan pangluhurna dicepeng ku Konférénsi ''Tingkat Menteri'' anu diwangun ku sakumna wawakil ti sakabéh anggota WTO. Wawakil-wawakil ieu ngayakeun rapat sahenteuna dua kali dina sataun.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=12}} Sahandapeunna, Déwan Umum nyokot hiji kaputusan penting sakaligus ngarumuskeun kawijakan di antara waktu unggal Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri. Dewan Umum ieu diwangun ku sajumlah diplomat satingkat duta besar ti sakabéh anggota WTO anu ngayakeun kumpulan di [[Jenéwa]] sahenteun dua bulan sekali. Déwan ini dipimpin ku saurang ketua anu dipilih ku dewan sorangan.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=132}} Dewan Umum boga ''peran'' dina netepkeun ''anggaran'' taunan jeung kawijakan kauangan organisasi,{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=133}} sarta dina ngatur gawé bareng jeung organisasi internasional lianna atawa jeung ''[[lembaga swadaya masyarakat]]''.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=12}} Dina enggoning ngalaksanakeun pagawéan Dewan Umum dilengkepan ku dua badan lianna, tayalian ''[[Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa]]'' jeung ''[[Badan Peninjauan Kebijakan Perdagangan]].''{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=12}} Sahandapeun Déwan Umum, aya déwan jeung komite husus anu diadegkeun dumasar Pasal IV:5 Kasapukan WTO, tayalian Déwan ''Perdagangan'' Barang, Dewan ''Perdagangan'' Jasa, jeung Dewan TRIPS. Déwan-déwan ieu ngalapor ka Déwan Umum WTO, jeung wewenang maranéhna kawates pisan tur teu meunang ngaleuwihan naon anu geus ditetepkeun dijero Parjanjian WTO, dina parjanjian dagang séwang-séwangan (contona GATS pikeun Déwan widang dagang Jasa), jeung ku kaputusan ti Déwan Umum.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=134}} Déwan-déwan ieu diwenangkeun ngadegkeun komite-komite atawa badan ''subsider'' luyu jeung kabutuhan.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=12}} Sagigireun éta, ogé mibanda rupa-rupa komite jeung tim gawé anu mantuan gawé Konférénsi ''Tingkat Menteri'' jeung Déwan Umum, saperti Komite ngeunaan widang dagang jeung Lingkungan anu diadegkeun di Marrakesh dina kaping 14 April 1994 dumasar kana kaputusan Tingkat Menteri ngeunaan widang dagang jeung Lingkungan, Komite ngeunaan widang dagang jeung Pangwangunan anu ditetepkeun ku Pasal IV:7 Parjanjian WTO jeung dijieun ku Dewan Umum dina taun 1995, atawa Komite ngeunaan kasapukan Dagang Régional anu ogé diadegkeun ku Dewan Umum dina taun salajengna.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=135}} ''Organisasi'' ''Perdagangan Dunia'' ogé dilengkepan ku ''Sekretariat'' anu tugasna nyadiakeun bantuan téknis, profésional, jeung kapagawéan ka badan-badan WTO, nyadiakeun bantuan téknis ka anggota anu masih kénéh kagolongkeun nagara ''berkembang'', ngaroris tur ngimeutan widang dagang sadunya, méré naséhat ka nagara anu hayang aub jeung WTO, sarta nyadiakeun informasi ka masyarakat.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=142-143}} ''Sekretariat'' WTO dipupuhuan ku saurang [[Diréktur Jénderal Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia|Diréktur Jénderal]]. Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri bisa milih Diréktur Jénderal sarta netepkeun wewenang tur ''masa'' jabatanna. Diréktur Jénderal kudu lumaku indepénden ti pamerintahan.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=12}} Diréktur Jénderal anu boga wewenang ngangkat pagawé-pagawé, jeung maranéhna digawé salaku pagawé nageri internasional.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=12}}{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=144}} Pagawé-pagawé ieu kalolobaan boga kasang tukang ahli hukum jeung ékonom .{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=144}} === Anggaran === Aturan ngeunaan anggaran WTO dijabarkeun dina Pasal VII kasapukan WTO. ''Anggaran'' taunan diusulkeun ku Diréktur Jénderal WTO ka Komite anu ngurus ''Anggaran'', ''Keuangan'', jeung Tata Usaha. Nya ieu Komite anu salajengna mariksa ieu usulan sarta méré rékomendasi.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=157}} Anggaran ieu teras disahkeun ku Déwan Umum sabada meunang kasaluyuan ti sakurangna 2/3 anggota, sanajan dina kanyataana ieu kaputusan dipibanda ku ngaliwatan konsénsus. Patali sareng sumber dana, Régulasi ''Keuangan'' WTO mertélakeun ''kontribusi pendanaan'' ti unggal anggota. Jumlah kontribusi unggal anggota disaluyukeun jeung gedéna perséntase dagang ieu anggota (impor ditambah ekspor) umpama dibandingkeun jeung sakabéh anggota WTO. Salaku contoh, dina taun 2016, Amérika Serikat nyumbang 11,2% anggaran, Tiongkok 9,1%, Singapura 2,4%, [[Malaysia]] 1,1%, Indonesia 0,9%, jeung [[Norwegia]] 0,8%. Uni Eropa teu mayar iuran anggaran, tapi nagara-nagara anggotanamah tetep kudu mayar. Pikeun anggota anu mibanda perséntase dagangan sahandapeun 0,015%, kontribusi anggarannya mah tetep kudu dibayar 0,015%. Salian anggaran, WTO ogé mibanda sababaraha [[dana perwalian]] anu pendanaanna ogé sarua sumberna ti anggota. Tujuan tina ieu dana perwalian tayalian pikeun méré bantuan kagiatan anu méré bantuan téknis sarta palatihan pikeun nagara-nagara ''berkembang'' jeung ''terbelakang''. Contohna téh Dana Perwalian Global Agenda Pembangunan Doha ({{lang-en|Doha Development Agenda Global Trust Fund}}).{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=158}} == Anggota == {{main|Daftar anggota Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia}} [[File :Accession of the Republic of Seychelles to the WTO (15850067969).jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Upacara panandatanganan aksési [[Seychelles|Republik Seychelles]] ka jero WTO dina kaping 10 Désémber 2014.]] Dina taun 2016, WTO mibanda 164 anggota anu ngawakilan 99,5% ''populasi'' dunya jeung 98% dagangan dunya.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=113}} Sakumna anggota henteu wungkul ti nagara-nagara mibanda kadaulatan, tapi ogé ngalimpudan [[wilayah kapabéanan]], tayalian daérah anu bébas ngatur hubungan dagang maranéhna sorangan. Conto wilayah kapabéanan anu jadi anggota WTO teh "[[Hong Kong|Hong Kong, Tiongkok]]", "[[Makau|Makau, Tiongkok]]", jeung "[[Tionghoa Taipei]]" (dina basa sapopoé "Taiwan").{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=114}} Sagigireun ieu, WTO ogé mibanda kahususan sorangan ku narima [[Uni Éropa]] salaku anggota. Dina waktu anu sarua, nagara anggota Uni Eropa ogé jadi angota WTO, Kukituna unggal nagara ieu kawas mibanda kaanggotaan ganda. Sanajan kitu, dina kanyataanna nya [[Komisi Éropa]] anu jadi salaku cukang lantaran Uni Éropa skaligus sakabéh nagara anggotanna dina rapat jeung babalagempagan anu diayakeun ku WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=115-116}} Aya dua cara pikeun hiji nagara anu hayang aub jeung jadi anggota WTO. Cara ka hiji anu disebut ''"keanggotaan awal"'' ({{lang-en|original membership}}) ngan bisa digunakeun ku nagara anu kungsi ngagabung jeung GATT 1947 jeung [[Komunitas Éropa]]. Dumasar kana Pasal XI:1 Parjanjian WTO, nagara-nagara ieu bisa ditarima salaku anggota WTO lamun maranéhna narima sakabéh katangtuan kasapukan WTO jeung parjanjian-parjanjian ''multilateral'' anu aya sahandapeunna, jeung dimana méré konsési jeung nyieun komitmen dina widang dagangan barang jeung jasa anu satuluyna dicatet dina daptar séwang-séwangan.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=118}} Cara kadua nyaéta ngaliwatan ''prosedur'' aksési saperti anu ditetepkeun jeroeun Pasal XII Parjanjian WTO. Nagara atawa wilayah kapabéanan anu hayang ngagabung kudu narima sakabéh katangtuan Parjangjian WTO jeung parjangjian-parjangjian multilateral anu aya di sahandapeunna, ogé tuluy maranéhna kudu ngalakukeun babadamian aksési anu nyoba nangtukeun kasaluyuan undang-undang jeung prakték dagang pianggotaeun jeung aturan WTO jeung léngkah anu bisa dicokot pikeun nyaluyukeunna, sarta konsési aksés pasar pikeun widang dagang barang jeung komitmen widang dagangan jasa anu baris dicokot ku ieu pianggotaeun.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=118-119}} Tahapanna sacara umum bisa dibagi jadi opat, tayalian: # Tahap "wawanohan": calon anggota ngalaporkeun sakabéh kawijakan dagang jeung ékonomi anu aya patalina jeung kawajiban-kawajiban anggota WTO sarta ngirim mémorandum anu patali jeung ieu hal. Mémorandum ieu baris dipariksa ku ''kelompok kerja'' WTO anu ngahaja diadegkeun pikeun kaperluan ieu, pikeun niténan naha undang-undang jeung prakték calon anggota sajalan jeung aturan WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=119}} # Tahap sawala ''bilateral'' ngeunaan konsési aksés pasar jeung ''komitmen'' anu baris dicokot, najan kitu pamustungann hasil sawala ''bilateral'' ieu kudu lumaku sacara ''multilateral'' ka sakabéh anggota WTO luyu jeung asas MFN.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=119}} # Tahap ngarumuskeun katangtuan kaanggotaan: ''kelompok kerja'' WTO baris ngarumuskeun katangtuan aksési anu dijabarkeun jeroeun laporan kelompok kerja, rarancang ''protokol'' aksési, jeung rarancang "daptar barang" jeung "daptar jasa" anu eusina sakabéh konsési aksés pasar jeung ''komitmen'' calon anggota. Sakabéh dokumén ieu baris dikirimkeun ka Konférénsi ''Tingkat Menteri'' atawa Dewan Umum.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=119-120}} # Tahap nyokot kaputusan: Konférénsi ''Tingkat Menteri'' atawa Dewan Umum baris mutuskeun dumasar kana konsénsus naha maranéhna baris narima ieu calon anggota atawa henteu. Dimana lamaran pikeun ngagabung ditarima, pianggotaeun anggota sacara resmi baris ngagabung jeung WTO dina jero waktu tilu puluh poé sabada maranéhna ngirimkeun instrumén ''ratifikasi protokol'' aksési.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=120}} Jeroeun sajarahna, prosés aksési ka jero WTO ilaharna méakeun waktu anu lila; sanajan [[Kirgizstan]] mangrupakeun nagara panggancangna anu ngagabung jeung WTO (ngan mikabutuh waktu 2 tahun 10 bulan), parundingan aksési jeung [[Aljazair]] masih tacan réngsé ti taun 1987.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=120}} [[Republik Rakyat Tiongkok]] sorangan ngabutuhkeun leuwih ti opat belas taun pikeun ngaréngsékeun prosés aksési, jeung maranéhna sacara resmi ngagabung dina Novémber 2001.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=13}} Salian anggota, WTO ogé mibanda sajumlah "panilik". Nagara-nagara anu anyar kénéh meunang ''status'' penilik kudu ngamimitian badami pikeun ngagabung jeung WTO dina jero waktu lima taun. Ieu kawijakan henteu lumaku pikeun [[Vatikan]] anu mibanda kadudukan panilik di WTO. Sagigireun éta, sajumlah organisasi internasional ogé mibanda status panilik permanén, saperti ''[[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]], [[Dana Monétér Internasional]], [[Bank Dunia]], [[Organisasi Pangan jeung Pertanian]], [[Konferensie PBB ngeunaan dagangan jeung Pangwangunan]], [[Organisasi Hak pikeun Kakayaan Intelektual Dunya]],'' jeung ''[[Organisasi pikeun gawé bareng jeung Pangwangunan Ékonomi]]''. Aya ogé organisasi-organisasi internasional anu ngan mibanda status panilik dijero badan WTO anu tangtu luyu jeunh mandat maranéhna, contona téh [[Codex Alimentarius|Komisi Codex Alimentarius]] (lembaga gabungan Organisasi Pangan jeung Partanian jeung [[Organisasi Kaséhatan Dunya]]) anu mibanda status panilik di Komite Tindakan ''Sanitari'' jeung ''Fitosanitari'' WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=118}} == Nyandak kaputusan == [[File:Doha Ministerial Conference 9-13 November 2001 (9308714762).jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri di [[Doha]], [[Qatar]], dina kaping 9-13 Novémber 2001.]] [[File :Singapore Ministerial Conference 9-13 December 1996 (9306028171).jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri di [[Singapura]] dina kaping 9-13 Désémber 1996.]] Dumasar Pasal IX:1 Parjanjian WTO, Organisasi widang dagangan Dunya nuluykeun praktek nyandak kaputusan jeroeun GATT 1947 anu nganggo ''sistem'' konsénsus. ''Prosedur standar'' ieu baris dijalankeun dimana teu aya anggota anu terang-terangan nolak katangtuan hiji putusan. Dimana konsénsus teu pinanggih jeung kasapukan, kaputusan baris dicokot ngaliwatan pangumpulan soara kalawan maké ''sistem'' [[Mayoritas|''mayoritas'' sederhana]]. Unggal anggota mibanda hiji sora; anu dibedakeun téh ngan Uni Éropa anu jumlah sorana sarua jeung jumlah anggotana.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=146-147}} Sagigireun éta, WTO ogé mibanda ''prosedur-prosedur'' husus. Salaku conto, Konférénsi Tingkat Menteri jeung Déwan Umum boga wewenang napsirkeun anu sipatna ''otoritatif'' kana parjanjian-parjanjian WTO, jeung kaputusan pikeun netepkeun tapsiran saperti ieu kudu meunang kasaluyuan ti sakurangna 3/4 anggota. Contoh lain anu pakait jeung panarimaan anggota anyar. Pasal XII:2 Parjanjian WTO ngatur yén kaputusan anu ngeunaan ieu hal dicokot ku Konférénsi ''Tingkat Menteri'' kalawan dukungan ti sakurangnya 2/3 anggota. Ngan baé, Déwan Umum boga kasapukan dina tanggal 15 Novémber 1995 pikeun nyoba nyokot kaputusan ngaliwatan heula konsensus, kukituna ngumpulkeun sora pikeun narima anggota anyar baris dilaksanakeun saupama konsénsus henteu ngabuahkeun hasil.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=148-149}} Dina prakna, konsénsus sok diheulakeun jeung kaputusan kacida arangna ngaliwatan pangumpulan soara. Sanajan sistem konsénsus dianggap lewih ngalégitimasi kaputusan anu geus ditetepkeun, [[Laporan Sutherland]] taun 2004 nepikeun kahariwang ngeunaan jumlah anggota WTO anu sakitu lobana baris ngahalangan upaya pikeun netepkeun kawijakan anyar. Panampik ti hiji anggota waé bisa ngagagalkeun upaya pikeun konsénsus sanajan kawijakan anu diusulkeun didukung ku loba anggota, kukituna sistem konsénsus dianggap bisa ngalumpuhkeun prosés nyokot kaputusan di WTO. Laporan Sutherland sorangan menyarankan sangkan anggota anu hayang ngavéto hiji kaputusan kudu bisa nembrakkeun dina hiji tulisan kalawan nambahkeun alesan anu diajengkeun ngébréhkeun yén ieu hal aya patalina jeung kapentingan nasional anu kacida pentingna pikeun éta anggota.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=151-152}} Dina palebah partisipasi, WTO mikahayang ngalibatkeun sakabéh anggotana, tapi dina prakna pikeun ngalibatkeun 164 anggota WTO ieu lain pagawéan énténg. Ku alatan kitu, muncul hiji mékanisme anu dimaksudkeun pikeun ngagancangkeun lumangsungna babadamian tur nyokot hiji kaputusan, contona tayalian mékanisme "pertemuan ruang hijau" anu ngumpulkeun anggota-anggota gedé di WTO (saperti Uni Éropa, Amérika Serikat, jeung Tiongkok) sarta hiji anggota Lian anu jadi salaku koordinator atawa wawakil kelompok anggota lianna (conto salaku wawakil nagara tinggaleun) atawa anu mibanda kapentingan kana babadamian anu baris dilaksanakeun. Dina kumpulan kawas kieu, unggal pajabat atawa wawakil ti kurang leuwih dua puluh anggota diulem pikeun ngabadamikeun rupa-rupa masalah anu utama. Kumpulan ieu dipupuhuan ku saurang Diréktur Jénderal WTO atawa ku katua salah sahiji déwan atawa komite WTO. Tina ieu rapat baris dihasilkeun draf parjangjian anu saterusna baris ditempokeun ka anggota WTO lianna pikeun saterusna ditetepkeun.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=153}} Usaha pikeun nyaluyukeun prosés-nyieun kaputusan di WTO sorangan ieu henteu gampang, sabab organisasi ieu kudu ngajaga kasaimbangan antara inklusivitas, transparansi, jeung efisiensi. Dina waktos ayeuna, kalawan ngaronjatna ka guyuban nagara berkembang dina mékanisme ruang héjo, prosés nyieun kaputusan jadi beuki hésé sabab nagara ieu ogé boga kapentingan anu rupa-rupa.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=155-156}} == Aturan-aturan dasar == WTO ngabogaan loba aturan anu kompléks ngeunaan perdagangan barang jeung jasa sarta perlindungan pikeun hak cipta inteléktual.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=38}} Aspék-aspék dagang anu aya dina lingkup hukum WTO sorangan rupa-rupa, contona, tarif, kuota, peraturan di tingkat nasional, ukuran dicokot pikeun kaamanan nasional, syarat adat.,{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=38}} subsidi,{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=769}} jeung [[dumping]] (prakték nurunkeun harga barang ékspor handappeun harga normal di nagara ékspor).{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=696}} Sacara umum, aya opat rupa aturan dasar anu substantif dina hukum WTO, nyaéta aturan anu ngalarang diskriminasi, aturan ngagunakeun aksés pasar, aturan ngeunaan prakték dagang teu adil, jeung aturan ngeunaan pangecualian..{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=38}} === Non-diskriminasi === Dina jeroeun hukum WTO, aya dua aturan utama anu ngalarang tindakan diskriminasi/ngawilah-wilah, tayalian "[[perlakuan yang sama untuk semua anggota]]" (MFN) jeung "[[perlakuan nasional]]". Dumasar aturan MFN, umpama hiji anggota WTO mutuskeun pikeun masihan hiji perlakuan anu nguntungkeun atawa hak husus ka salah sahiji anggota, kauntungan atawa hak husus éta ogé kudu dibikeun ka sadayana anggota WTO tanpa iwal atawa pengecualian. Tah ku kituna, anggota WTO teu bisa milih-milih dina méré konsési dagang ka salah sahiji anggota lianna. Salaku contoh, dimana salah sahiji anggota WTO mutuskan pikeun ngurangan tarif impor béas ti salah saurang anggotana, Panguragan ieu tarif béas téh ogé 1|pp=39}}{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Prévost|2016|pp=13}} Samentara éta, aturan "perlakuan nasional" nitahkan yén anggota WTO kudu lumakukeun produk impor sakumaha anggota éta ngalumakukeun [[barang sejenis|produk sarupa]] di nagarana. Istilah sanésna, anggota WTO teu bisa ngabentenkeun produk asing sanggeus produk masuk kana pasar doméstik. Salaku conto, lamun aya anggota WTO mutuskeun pikeun mupus pajeg roko buatan doméstik, mupus ieu pajeg ogé kudu lumaku pikeun udud-udud impor anu geus asup ka pasar jero negeri. Upami aranjeunna ngan ngumpulkeun pajeg pikeun roko impor, maranéhna geus ngalanggar aturan nasional anu lumaku.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=39}}{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Prévost|2016|pp=13-14}} Kadua aturan ieu dipibanda jeroeun GATS anu aya patalina kana barang jeung jasa. Sanajan kitu, dua pasatujuan aya bédana utama dina watesan wengkuan dina prakna ngalaksanakeun. Aturan MFN dina GATS lumaku pikeun sakabéh jasa sacara umum, sanajan anggota bisa nyieun sababaraha iwal nu diwatesan dina wengkuan. Sanajan kitu, aturan ngeunaan perlakuan nasional ngan lumaku pikeun anggota anu geus nyieun komitmen husus ka séktor jasa anu tangtu atawa ka salah sahiji (kiriman meuntas wates, konsumsi luar negeri, ayana komérsial, Jeung kahadiran manusia alamiah atawa ''natural person''). Komitmen-komitmen ieu diasupkeun kana kana daptar komitmen jasa pikeun tiap anggota. Ku kituna, enggoning dina maca aturan di jero GATS, daptar komitmen jasa ti salah sahiji anggotana keur ditalungtik ogé kudu diperhatikeun, sareng aranjeunna henteu kedah nerapkeun aturan perlakuan nasional pikeun séktor jasa atawa kumaha suplai nu teu acan liberalisasikeun. Samentara éta, aturan perlakuan nasional dina GATT lumaku sacara umum.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=39}}{{sfn|Trebilcock & Howse|2005|pp=390}} === Aturan ngeunaan aksés pasar === [[File :MSC Home Terminal.jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Terminal peti kemas di [[Pelabuhan Antwerpen]]. Ngumpulkeun bea impor tina barang impor dasarnamah teu dilarang ku WTO, tapi nagara anggota dirojong pikeun saeutik demi saeutik ngurangan tarif nu ditagihkeun.]] Nagara-nagara mikabutuh aksés pasar sangkan ieu widang dagang barang jeung jasa bisa lumangsung lancar, tapi aksés pasar ka hiji nagara mindeng dihalangan ku rupa-rupa cara, naha ku tarif atawa non-tarif.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Prévost|2016|pp=49}} Sacara umum, aya opat jinis aturan WTO anu pakait sareng aksés pasar, nyaéta aturan ngeunaan béa impor, paraturan ngeunaan béa jeung pungutan-pungutan biaya séjén, paraturan ngeunaan watesan sacara kuantitatif, sarta paraturan ngeunaan [[halangan non-tarif]] lianna.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=39}} Dina dasarna, ngumpulkeun béa téh impor teu dilarang, kumaha ogé, tarif nu ditagihkeun ku nagara ieu teu bisa ngaleuwihan wates pangluhurna tina anu geus diatur dina daptar konsési masing-masing.{{efn|Menurut Pasal II:7 GATT 1994, daptar konsési anggota mangrupakeun bagian anu teu bisa dipisahkeun tina Parjangjian WTO}}. Daptar konsési kudu sajalan jeung aturan dasar GATT jeung henteu bisa ngurangan kana kawajiban anggota. Sabagian gedé daptar konsési dijieun kujalan nurutkeun ''[[Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System]]''(disingkét "Harmonized System"). Strukturna sorangan sacara umum diwangun ku Bab I anu eusina konsési konsési tarif pikeun produk pertanian jeung salian ti pertanian, Bagian II ngeunaan konsési préferensial, Bagian III ngeunaan konsési ngeunaan tindakan lian ti tarif, sarta Bagian IV ngeunaan komitmen husus ngeunaan bantuan doméstik jeung subsidi ékspor pikeun produk pertanian. Pikeun katerangan leuwih lengkep, tempo {{harvnb|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=437-440}}. Sawatara kitu, anggota anu hayang ngarobah atawa narik daptar konsésina kudu ngaliwatan hiji prosedur dina Pasal XXVIII:1 GATT. Dina dasarnya, ieu anggota kudu ngalaksanakeun babadamian jeung anggota lian anu dianggap mibanda kapentingan anu gedé ku ayana parobahan anu baris dilakukeun. Ganti rugi dina wujud konsési anyar biasana perlu dibikeun. Ngan, umpamana babadamian henteu tinemu jalan kaluar, anggota anu hayang robah atawa nyabut daptar konsési aranjeunna bébas ngalakukeun éta luyu jeung Pasal XXVIII:3(a) GATT. Pikeun leuwih jéntré, tempo {{harvnb|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=447-449}}.}} unggal anggota WTO gaduh daptar konsésina nyalira iwal pikeun anggota nu jadi bagian tina hiji [[sarikat pabéan]] (contona nyaéta nagara anggota [[Uni Éropa]] anu teu boga daptar konsési sorangan, tapi maranéhna nuturkeun daptar konsési nu disusun ku Uni Éropa). daptar ieu mibanda "konsési dagang", nyaéta komitmen anu geus dicandak ku hiji anggota Pikeun henteu ngangkat tarif aranjeunna di luhur angka anu geus sapuk, atawa dina basa séjén, aranjeunna geus "meungkeut" tarif aranjeunna dina angka éta.{{efn|Komitmen tarif unggal nagara Nyaliara béda-béda jeung gumantung kana hasil rundingan jeung anggota-anggota lian; dina taun 2017, [[Indonésia]] jeung [[Amérika Serikat]] geus sapuk leuwih ti 95% tarif aranjeunna, samentara [[Kamerun]] ngan 13,3%. Tempo {{harvnb|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=436}}.}} Hukum WTO Nyaliara mengajak anggotana Pikeun terus ngarempugkeun geusan ngurangan tarif anu nguntungkeun sadaya pihak, jeung hasil tina rundingan ieu ogé bakal diasupkeun kana daptar konsési anggota anu aya patalina.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=40}} Sanajan daptar konsési netepkeun tarif maksimal, batas tarif Pikeun rupa-rupa produk mindeng pisan leuwih luhur tibatan béa masuk anu saleresna ditetepkeun; dina hal ieu, Badan Banding dina perkara ''Argéntina –Textiles jeung pakéan (1998)'' ngécéskeun yén anggota diidinan maké béa anu leuwih handap tibatan tarif maksimum.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=446-447}} Patali jeung "bea Jeung pungutan-pungutan séjén", Badan Banding dina perkara ''India–Additional Import Duties'' geus ngartikeun istilah ieu salaku "bea Jeung pungutan anu sanés béa impor biasa".{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=462}} Salaku conto, Panél dina perkara ''Dominican Republic–Safeguard Measures'' manggihan éta "tindakan kaamanan" anu dilaksanakeun ku pajabat béa cukai [[Republik Dominika]] merupakeun "béa jeung pungutan séjén", Sabab kawijakan ieu henteu kaasup "bea masuk biasa".{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=463}} "Tindakan ngamankeun" (dumasarkeun kana Pasal XIX GATT) mangrupa gantungan konsési dagang pikeun waktu nu tangtu lamun aya kanaékan impor anu teu ka duga tianggalna malah nepi ka ngancam bakal ngakibatkeun karugian parna ka produsén jero negeri,{{sfn|Bown & Wu|2014|pp=180-181}} Jeung tindakan ngamankeun nu dibadamikeun dina perkara éta nyaéta netepkeun béa masuk samentara anu gedéna 38% pikeun impor kantong [[palastik]] [[polipropilena]].{{sfn|Bown & Wu|2014|pp=186}} Conto lian nu bisa kapanggih dina perkara-perkara di Panel jeung Badan Banding nyaéta béa tambahan pikeun hiji barang anu geus kaancikan béa masuk, deposit anu geus dibayar pikeun kaamanan ngimpor barang, atawa biaya pabéan euweuh wates maksimum.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=464}} Pasal II:1(b) GATT sorangan maréntahkeun yén jinis béa ieu teu meunang ngaleuwihan béa nu geus dilarapkeun ka "tanggal parjangjian ieu" atawa béa anu dikuatkeun dijero undang-undang nu lumaku pikeun tanggal éta. Kusabab istilah anu teu jelas "tanggal parjangjian Ieu", sakumna anggota WTO geus sapuk di sapamahaman ngeunaan tapsiran tina Pasal II:1(b) GATT 1994 ({{lang-en|Understanding on the Interpretation of Article II:1(b) of the GATT 1994}}) yén unggal anggota dina hal ieu wajib pikeun nyatet tarif anu meungkeut pangluhurna nu bakal tumiba kana unggal béa atawa pungutan lianna dina daptar konsési aranjeunna.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=465}} Hukum WTO sorangan teu ngijinan ngawatesan kana kuantitatif barang. Kusabab ieu, sacara umum anggota WTO teu dimeunangkeun ngalarang ngimpor atawa ngékspor barang anu geus tangtu, jeung maranéhna ogé teu bisa nerapkeun kuota kana barang. Pikeun dagangan jasa, aturan Ieu ngan lumaku pikeun séktor jasa anu geus diliberalisasi ku ieu anggota.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=40}} Samentara éta, aturan nu kaopat mangrupa hiji kategori kalawan cakupan anu lega, contona nyaéta kirang transparansina hukum dagang, prakték dagang éta teu adil, prosedur pabéan, panyalindungan hak kakayaan intelektual goréng, tindakan sanitari jeung fitosanitari, atawa ayana halangan teknis.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=39-40}} Aturan ngeunaan panyalindungan hak cipta intelektual, tindakan sanitari Jeung fitosanitari, Jeung hambatan teknis diatur ku parjangjian Nyaliara.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=883, 935, 993}} Salaku conto, régulasi téknis anu dilarapkeun ku hiji nagara kudu saluyu jeung prinsip MFN, Jeung anggota anu ngalarapkeun régulasi Ieu kudu mastikeun supados henteu nimbulkeun halangan dagang anu teu perlu.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=899, 912}} === Aturan ngeunaan prakték dagangan anu teu adil === Hukum WTO mibanda aturan-aturan husus ngeunaan prakték-prakték dagangan anu tangtu anu dianggap teu adil, tayalian subsidi jeung dumping. Subsidi diatur ku Pasal XVI GATT jeung ogé [[Parjangjian ngeunaan subsidi jeung tindakan imbalan]] ({{lang-en|Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures}}, disingket Parjangjian SCM).{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=41}} Numutkeun Parjangjian SCM, subsidi tayalian kontribusi keuangan ti pamaréntah atawa [[Badan Publik|badan publik]], atawa bantuan beubeunangan atawa harga dina wujud naon waé luyu jeung Pasal XVI GATT, anu méré kauntungan.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=775}} Hukum WTO ngalarang sababaraha jinis subsidi, tayalian subsidi ékspor jeung [[substitusi impor]].{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=802-811}} Sabagéan gedé ti jinis subsidi lianna henteu dilarang, tapi subsidi-subsidi ieu kagolong salaku "subsidi nu bisa ditindak" (''actionable''), kayaning subsidi anu bisa ditolak ku anggota WTO dimana subsidi ieu bisa nimbulkan "akibat-akibat ngarugikeun" (''adverse effects'') kana kapentingan éta anggota. Subsidi-subsidi ieu ngalimpudan subsidi anu ngabalukarkeun karugian pikeun industri doméstik nagara lian anu ngahasilkeun produk sarupa, subsidi anu bisa ngabalukarkeun mupus atawa ngurangan kana kauntungan anu katarima sacara langsung anapon henteu langsung tina GATT 1994, sarta subsidi anu ngabalukarkeun karugian parna.{{efn|Menurut Pasal 6.3 Perjanjian SCM, "kerugian serius" bisa mangrupa: "subsidi anu ngagantian atawa ngahalangan impor produk sajinis ti anggota lian ka pasar anggota anu méré subsidi", "subsidi anu ngaganti atawa ngahalangan ékspor produk sarupa ti anggota séjén ka pasar nagara katilu", "subsidi anu ngabalukarkeun pamotongan harga anu jauh leuwih handap tina produk anu disubsidi dibandingkeun jeung harga produk sarupa ti anggota séjén dijero pasar anu sarua atawa neken hargga, nurunna harga atawa kaleungitan kamampuan ngajual anu cukup gedé dina pasar anu sarua", atawa "subsidi anu ngabalukarkeun ngaronjatna pangsa pasar nagara anu méré subsidi produk atawa barang dagangan primer umpama dibandingkeun jeung pangsa pasar rata-rata yang anu dipibandana tilu taun saméméhna ". Tempo {{harvnb|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=818}}.}}{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=811-818}} Lamun anggota anu masihan subsidi samodél ieu nampik pikeun nyabut atawa teu daék nyokot léngkah pikeun ngaleungitkeun balukarna anu ngarugikeun, anggota séjén anu ngarasa dirugikeun bisa nyokot tindakan balasan anu sarua jeung akibat tina éta subsidi.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=41}} Di Parjangjian SCM sorangan sabenerna masih aya jinis subsidi katilu, tayalian subsidi anu henteu bisa ditindak. Numutkeun pasal 8.2 Parjangjian SCM, subsidi-subsidi ieu ngalimpudan subsidi lingkungan hidup, subsidi panalungtikan, jeung subsidi pikeun pangwangunan daérah anu tinggaleun. Ngan, luyu jeung Pasal 31 Parjangjian SCM, subsidi ieu ngan lumaku lima tahun sabada parjangjian WTO sakabéhna mimiti dilarapkeun. Balukarna,aturan ngeunaan subsidi anu teu bisa ditindak ngan lumaku nepika tanggal 31 Désémber 1999, nya tisaprak harita subsidi-subsidi ieu kagolongkeun salaku subsidi anu bisa ditindak.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=846}} Samentawis éta, dumping tayalian prakték ngajual produk di pasar nagara séjén kalawan harga leuwih handap tibatan harga anu lumaku di jero negeri. Saracara umum , dumping heteu dilarang u hukum WTO, tapi Pasal VI GATT jeung parjangjian Anti-Dumping méré izin anggota WTO pikeun nyokot béa anti-dumping lamun seug prakték dumping ieu ngabalukarkeun atau ngancam baris ngadatangkeun karugain material kana produk anu diproduksi ku éta anggota .{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=699-701}} === Pengecualian === Upaya ngaliberalisasikeun dagangan bisa ngabalukarkeun pacéngkadan jeung kapentingan masarakat, contohna tayalian pelestarian lingkungan hidup atawa kapentingan ékonomi linna. Tah ku kituna, hukum WTO mibanda pasal-pasal "mahiwal" nu ngabenerkeun simpangan ti aturan-aturan dasar WTO dina kaayaan nu tangtu pikeun kapentingan masyarakat. Kajaba dina Pasal XX GATT jeung XIV GATS, contona panyalindungan moral masyarakat atawa panyalindungan kahirupan manusa, sasatoan, atawa tatangkalan. Kapentingan pikeun ngajaga kaamanan nasional ogé bisa kapanggih di Pasal XXI GATT Jeung Pasal XIV ''bis'' GATS. Samentara éta, Pasal XII Jeung XIX GATT sakumaha ogé Pasal X Jeung XII GATS ngawengku kapentingan-kapentingan ékonomi, salaku conto panyalindungan industri doméstik tina karugian parna disababkeun ku ngaronjatna impor pohara gancang tur ngadadak henteu dinyana.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=42}} Dina hubungan kalawan iwal (pangacualian) anu umum dikandung dina GATT Jeung GATS, anggota WTO biasana tiasa ngaliwat Léngkah munggaran pikeun menerkeun ieu kawijakan, nyaéta bukti kawijakan éta bener dimaksudkeun pikeun jadi pangjaga kapentingan anu patali. Salaku conto, patalina jeung Pasal XIV GATS, Panél dina perkara ''US–Gambling'' narima argumén ti Amérika Serikat kawijakan éta ngawatesan [[judi]] bisa dibenerkeun pikeun ngajaga moral masyarakat, jeung "moral masyarakat" ieu didéfinisikeun ku Panel salaku "standar tindakan bener jeung salah anu dipiara ku atawa dina perantara hiji komunitas atawa bangsa." Badan Banding sapuk jeung ieu kaputusan .{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=108}}{{sfn|Gaines & Olsen|2012|pp=216-217}} Ngan, upaya pikeun ngagunakeun Pasal XX GATT jeung Pasal XIV GATS mindeng teu buleud/ gembleng alatan ayana ''chapeau'' (mukadimah) dijero kadua pasal éta. ''Chapeau'' ieu mertélakeun yén tindakan dilaksanakeun ku anggota WTO pikeun ngajaga kapentingan anu tangtu teu diwenangkeun nalika tindakan éta kaasup salaku diskriminasi anu samarangan atawa henteu bisa dibenerkeun, atawa umpama tindakan ieu mung sakadar kedok pikeun ngawatesan dagangan internasional. Kagunaan tina ''chapeau'' ieu tayalian pikeun nyingkahan panyalahgunaan, dina kanyataana ''chapeau'' ieu malah ngahalangan tur ngabatalkeun loba upaya pikeun ngabenerkeun tindakan panyalindungan.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=115}}{{sfn|De Schutter|2015|pp=55, 76}} Contona, dina perkara ''US–Gambling'', pamustunganana Amérika Serikat dipeunteun geus ngalanggar hukum WTO sabab maranéhna ngidinan jasa [[taruhan olahraga|tarohan balap kuda]] Anu disadiakeun ku sababaraha pausahaan Amérika Serikat, jadina Amérika Serikat dianggap geus lumaku tindakan diskriminatif. Sawatara éta, dina perkara ''US–Shrimp'', tindakan panyalindungan ka [[penyu]] salaku sumber daya alam nu bisa béak (saluyu sareng Pasal XX(g) GATT){{efn|saméméhna, Amérika Serikat nyoba ngalebetkeun argumén yén "sumber daya alam nu bisa béak" ukur ngarujuk ka sumber daya Anu teu hirup kawas [[emas]] atawa [[pérak]]. Sanajan kitu, Badan Banding Nyaéta éta sumber daya hirup ogé bisa béak atawa malah punah/tumpur, jeung numutkeun kana aranjeunna gagasan modern jeung "evolusioner" ngeunaan ngalestarikeun lingkungan bisa méré ilham pikeun upaya nafsirkeun kana GATT anu lumaku dina taun 1998. Pikeun katerangan saterasna, tempo {{harvnb|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=573-578}}.}} ogé ditolak alatan dipeunteun mibanda sikep diskriminatif.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=115}} Hukum WTO ogé nyayagikeun iwal (pangacualian) dina wujud parjangjian dagang régional, tayalian parjangjian anu diatur ku nagara-nagara nutangtu pikeun leuwih nguatkeun usaha integrasi ékonomi. Contona saperti [[Kawasan Perdagangan Bébas Perbara]], [[Parjangjian Perdagangan Bébas Éropa Tengah]], jeung [[Mercosur]] di [[Amérika Kidul]]. Dina ranah WTO, "parjangjian dagang régional" ogé bisa mibanda sipat bilateral, contona tayalian [[Parjangian Pardagangan Bébas Amérika Serikat-Kolombia]] atawa [[Parjangjian Pardagangan Bébas Uni Éropa Koréa Kalér ) ]].{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=671-673}} Dina dasarna parjangjian-parjanjian sarupa ieu ngajadi pengecualian/ngiwalkeun pikeun asas MFN, alatan nagara anu kagabung dina parjangjian pardagangan bébas kawas Kieu méré sababaraha kauntungan anu katarima ku mitra dagangna, ngan henteu ka anggota WTO anu lian.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=507}} Pasal XXIV GATT jeung Pasal V GATS sarua ogé mengizinkan netepkeun parjangjian dagang régional anu ngadegkeun [[sarikat pabéan]] atawa [[kawasan prrdagangan bébas]].{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=674, 679, 688}} Salian kitu, dina tanggal 28 Novémber 1979, nagara anggota GATT ngaluarkeun hiji kaputusan ngeunaan ''[[Enabling Clause]]'' anu ngidinan Parlakuan husus jeung béda (''Special and Differential Treatment'') pikeun nagara sumedeng mekar. ''Enabling Clause'' ieu ayeuna bagian tina GATT 1994.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=687-688}} Salah sahiji contona tayalian perlakuan anu leuwih nguntungkeun pikeun nagara berkembang sajan hal ieu papalingpang tina asas MFN, nyadiakeun dasar hukum ka nagara berkembang pikeun ngabentuk "parjangjian dagang preferensial" nyaliara, sarta méré preferensi dagang tambahan ka [[nagara anu tinggaleun]].{{efn|Dina hukum WTO, euweuh harti "negara berkembang" atawa "nagara maju". Dina prakna, nagara bébas pikeun nyatakeun dirina nagara "maju" atawa "berkembang", tapi anggota lianna bisa ngalawan usaha anggota pikeun ngagunakeun pasal-pasal nu ngan lumaku pikeun nagara berkembang. Samentara éta, pikeun konsep "nagara tinggaleun", WTO ngagunakeun daptar dikaluarkeun ku [[Parsarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]]. Pikeun leuwih jéntré, tempo {{harvnb|WTO, Least-developed Countries}} jeung {{harvnb|WTO, Who are the Developing Countries in the WTO?}}.}}{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=701}} Dina kanyataanana, ayeuna aya seueur parjangjian dagang di tingkat régional, Dugi ka [[Laporan Sutherland]] dina taun 2004 nyebatkeun: {{cquote2|[H]ampir lima dasawarsa sanggeus ngadegna GATT, MFN teu deui jadi aturan, tapi ampir ngan jadi pangiwal/pangacualian . Tentu saja sebagian besar perdagangan antara ekonomi-ekonomis besar saat ini masih dilakukan berdasarkan MFN. Namun, [keberadaan] suatu hal yang telah disebut "[[Efek mangkuk spageti|mangkuk spageti]]" [yang terdiri] dari serikat pabean, pasar bersama, kawasan perdagangan regional dane bilateral, preferensi, dan sekumpulan kesepakatan dagang lain-lain yang tiada hentinya ini telah hampir mencapai titik ketika perlakuan MFN merupakan pengecualian.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=308}}}} Walaupun begitu, MFN masih Z qawa'id sdg tetap menjadi kewajiban yang harus dijalankan oleh semua anggota WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=308}} == Penyelesaiand sengketa == {{Quotewbox|🐮width=25em|align=right|quote="Sistem penyelesaian sengketa WTO merupakan unsur utama yang memberikan keamanan dan prediktabilitas bagi sistem perdagangan multilateral. Para anggota mengakui bahwa fungsinya adalah untuk memelihara hak dan kewajiban anggota menurut perjanjian-perjanjian yang masuk cakupan, dan untuk memperjelas ketentuan-ketentuan yang terkandung dalam perjanjian-perjanjian tersebut sesuai dengan aturan hukum kebiasaan internasional mengenai penafsiran. Rekomendasi dan putusan Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa tidak boleh menambah ataupun mengurangi hak dan kewajiban yang tercantum dalam perjanjian-perjanjian yang masuk cakupan."|salign=right |source=— Pasal 3 .2 Kesepahaman Penyelesaian Sengketa.{{sfn|Trebilcock & Howse|2005|p=139}}}} WTO memiliki sistem penyelesaian sengketa yang bertindak layaknya pengadilan dagang internasional.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=83}} Sistem penyelesaian sengketa ini memiliki yurisdiksi wajib (''compulsory jurisdiction''), atau dalam kata lain anggota WTO harus menerima yurisdiksi sistem tersebut.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=168}} Yurisdiksinya juga bersifat eksklusif dalam artian anggota yang ingin menuntut pelanggaran kewajiban hukum WTO yang dilakukan anggota lain harus membawa perkara ini ke sistem penyelesaian sengketa di WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=169}} Selain itu, putusan yang dikeluarkan oleh sistem penyelesaian sengketa ini mengikat secara hukum.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=83}} Tujuan dari sistem ini sendiri ditetapkan oleh Pasal 3.2 DSU, yaitu untuk "memberikan kepastian dan prediktabilitas" terhadap sistem perdagangan multilateral, sehingga badan yang menyelesaikan sengketa akan mengeluarkan putusan yang sama untuk isu hukum yang sama kecuali jika ada alasan yang kuat.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=185}} Selain itu, sistem ini juga didirikan untuk mempertahankan hak dan kewajiban anggota sesuai dengan yang ditetapkan oleh perjanjian-perjanjian WTO. Maka dari itu, seperti yang tertulis secara gamblang dalam Pasal 3.2 DSU, badan yang menyelesaikan sengketa tidak boleh mengeluarkan putusan yang menambah ataupun mengurangi hak dan kewajiban anggota. Salah satu dampaknya adalah penolakan penggunaan perjanjian di luar WTO sebagai landasan hukum, karena tindakan seperti itu akan "menambah atau mengurangi" hak dan kewajiban anggota.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=68}} Sistem ini sendiri memiliki dua macam lembaga, yaitu lembaga politik berupa [[Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa]] dan lembaga kehakiman seperti Panel dan [[Badan Banding]] ({{lang-en|Appellate Body}}). Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa pada dasarnya adalah sesi khusus di Dewan Umum WTO. Badan ini terdiri dari para diplomat yang mewakili semua anggota WTO, dan Pasal 2.1 DSU menyatakan bahwa fungsi dari badan ini adalah untuk menjalankan sistem penyelesaian sengketa, termasuk dengan mendirikan panel, mengesahkan laporan panel dan Badan Banding, mengawasi pemberlakuan isi putusan, serta mengizinkan pengambilan tindakan balasan terhadap anggota yang terbukti melanggar hukum WTO.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=209}} Badan ini juga dapat mengangkat anggota Badan Banding dan menetapkan aturan perilaku dalam sistem penyelesaian sengketa. Dalam mengambil beberapa keputusan penting (seperti pembentukan Panel, penetapan laporan Panel dan Badan Banding, dan pemberian izin untuk menangguhkan konsesi dagang), Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa memiliki sistem "konsensus terbalik": keputusan akan diambil kecuali jika para anggota WTO telah mencapai konsensus untuk tidak mengambil keputusan tersebut.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=210}} Untuk lembaga kehakimannya, Panel berperan seperti pengadilan tingkat pertama. Namun, lembaga ini bukanlah sebuah pengadilan permanen, tetapi merupakan sebuah lembaga ''[[ad hoc]]'' yang dibentuk oleh Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa untuk sengketa tertentu. Panel akan dibubarkan setelah sengketanya selesai.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=212}} Untuk memulai perkara di sistem penyelesaian sengketa WTO, anggota yang menuntut harus meminta konsultasi dengan anggota lain terlebih dahulu. Anggota terkait harus membalas permintaan ini dalam waktu sepuluh hari dan juga harus berunding dengan iktikad baik dalam waktu tiga puluh hari setelah permintaan tersebut resmi dilayangkan. Setelah itu, pihak yang menuntut baru dapat melayangkan permintaan resmi untuk mendirikan sebuah Panel kepada Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=90}} Permintaan ini berfungsi untuk menentukan cakupan sengketa dan yurisdiksi panel, serta untuk memberitahu anggota yang dipermasalahkan dan anggota lain mengenai perkara tersebut. Permintaan ini harus disampaikan dalam bentuk tulisan.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=212}} Panel biasanya terdiri dari tiga orang, tetapi pihak yang bersengketa dapat memutuskan dalam waktu sepuluh hari setelah pembentukan Panel agar jumlah anggotanya ditambah menjadi lima.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=217}} Sekretariat WTO mengajukan nama-nama orang yang akan menjadi anggota Panel, dan pihak yang bertikai tidak dapat menentang pencalonan mereka kecuali jika ada "alasan yang mendesak" (sesuai dengan Pasal 8.6 DSU).{{sfn|Trebilcock & Howse|2005|p=136}} Pada praktiknya, proses pengangkatan anggota Panel merupakan proses yang panjang dan sulit, dan jika tidak tercapai kesepakatan dalam dua puluh hari, salah satu pihak dapat meminta kepada Direktur Jenderal WTO untuk menentukan anggota Panel. Dalam kenyataanya, Panel yang anggotanya ditunjuk oleh Direktur Jenderal WTO mencapai 92% dari seluruh Panel pada 2014, dan 62,5% pada 2015.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=218, catatan kaki #305}} Berdasarkan Pasal 11 DSU, tugas Panel adalah untuk meninjau perkara secara objektif.{{sfn|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015|pp=98}} Setelah Panel mengeluarkan putusan, laporannya akan disahkan oleh Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa dalam waktu 60 hari setelah laporan tersebut dibagikan kepada semua anggota. Keputusan untuk mengesahkan laporan diambil berdasarkan sistem konsensus terbalik.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=278}} Apabila salah satu pihak dalam suatu perkara merasa tidak puas dengan putusan Panel, mereka dapat memohon peninjauan dari Badan Banding. Tidak seperti Panel, Badan Banding merupakan sebuah lembaga yang terus berdiri, dan lembaga ini sendiri dibentuk pada Februari 1995.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=233}} Lembaga ini terdiri dari tujuh anggota yang merupakan pakar hukum, perdagangan internasional, dan subjek yang dibahas dalam perjanjian-perjanjian WTO. Mereka bertindak secara independen dari pemerintah negaranya masing-masing, dan Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa dapat mengangkat anggota Badan Banding untuk masa jabatan selama empat tahun. Masing-masing boleh diangkat satu kali lagi.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=234-235}} Menurut Pasal 17.12 DSU, tugas Badan Banding adalah untuk mempertimbangkan permasalahan yang dibawakan selama prosedur banding, dan Pasal 17.13 DSU juga menegaskan bahwa Badan Banding berwenang mengubah, menegakkan, atau membatalkan putusan Panel.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=243}} Setelah Badan Banding mengeluarkan putusannya, laporannya juga harus disahkan oleh Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa dalam waktu 30 hari setelah laporan tersebut dibagikan kepada anggota WTO. Pengambilan keputusan ini juga memakai sistem konsensus terbalik.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=284}} Setelah itu, sengketa terkait akan memasuki tahap implementasi dan penegakan. Dalam waktu 30 hari setelah laporan Panel atau Badan Banding disahkan, pihak yang didapati telah melanggar hukum WTO harus memberitahukan kepada Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa bagaimana mereka akan mengimplementasikan putusan badan tersebut.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=285}} Jika anggota terkait tidak dapat langsung mematuhi putusan Panel atau Badan Banding, mereka diberi tenggat waktu yang "masuk akal" untuk mengimplementasikan putusan tersebut. Menurut Pasal 21.3 DSU, "tenggat waktu yang masuk akal" adalah tenggat waktu yang diusulkan oleh anggota terkait yang disetujui oleh Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa, atau tenggat waktu yang disepakati oleh kedua belah pihak dalam sengketa dalam waktu 45 hari setelah putusan Panel atau Badan Banding disahkan, atau tenggat waktu yang ditentukan melalui prosedur [[arbitrase]] dalam waktu 90 hari setelah penetapan putusan Panel atau Badan Banding.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=285-286}} Sebelum tenggat waktu ini habis, pihak yang bersengketa mungkin saja akan berselisih pandang mengenai tindakan implementasi yang patut diambil atau yang sejalan dengan hukum WTO, sehingga Pasal 21.5 DSU menyediakan prosedur khusus untuk menyelesaikan perselisihan ini dengan meminta peninjauan dari Panel yang dibentuk pada permulaan sengketa.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=287}} Jika pihak yang telah melanggar hukum WTO menolak untuk mengimplementasikan putusan Panel atau Badan Banding atau tidak mengimplementasikannya dengan benar dalam tenggat waktu yang dianggap masuk akal, pihak yang dirugikan dapat berunding dengan pihak yang melanggar untuk mendapatkan kompensasi. Jika kompensasi tidak dapat diperoleh, pihak yang dirugikan dapat meminta izin dari Badan Penyelesaian Sengketa untuk mengambil tindakan balasan, contohnya dengan menangguhkan konsesi dari pihak yang dirugikan kepada pihak yang merugikan.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=289}} == Kritik == [[File :Women at farmers rally against WTO, Bhopal, M.P., India, Nov 2005.jpg|jmpl|ka|200px|Para patani wanita di [[Bhopal]], [[India]], anu ngadon demo nolak WTO pada November 2005.]] [[File :WTO protesters on 7th Avenue, 1999 (37326739756).jpg|jmpl|ka|200px|Demonstrasi yang menolak WTO di [[Seattle]], [[Amerika Serikat]], pada tahun 1999.]] Berkat GATT dan WTO, tarif dan hambatan-hambatan perdagangan lainnya telah dikurangi secara signifikan. Namun, janji bahwa perdagangan bébas akan melejitkan pertumbuhan ekonomi, mengurangi kemiskinan, dan meningkatkan pendapatan rakyat telah dipertanyakan.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=164}} Sebagai contoh, [[El Salvador]] pada awal dasawarsa 1990-an menghapuskan semua hambatan kuantitatif terhadap impor dan juga memotong tarifnya. Namun, pertumbuhan ekonomi negara ini masih tetap lemah. Sementara itu, Vietnam baru mulai mereformasi ekonominya pada akhir dasawarsa 1980-an dan negara ini tidak terburu-buru untuk bergabung dengan WTO, tetapi malah memutuskan untuk mengikuti model [[reformasi ekonomi Tiongkok]] dengan melakukan liberalisasi secara perlahan. Walaupun ada faktor lain yang memengaruhi performa ekonomi kedua negara ini, Vietnam malah berhasil melejitkan pertumbuhan ekonominya dan menekan angka kemiskinan tanpa langsung menghapuskan hambatan perdagangan secara substansial.{{sfn|Rodrik|2007|pp=14}}{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=164-165}} Ekonom [[Ha-Joon Chang]] sendiri berpendapat bahwa terdapat sebuah "paradoks" dalam keyakinan [[neoliberalisme|neoliberal]] mengenai perdagangan bebas, karena pertumbuhan ekonomi negara berkembang lebih tinggi pada periode 1960-1980 dibandingkan dengan periode 1980-2000 meskipun kebijakan dagangnya jauh lebih liberal daripada sebelumnya. Selain itu, terdapat pula hasil penelitian yang menunjukkan bahwa negara baru akan aktif mengurangi hambatan perdagangan setelah menjadi negara kaya. Dari hasil penelitian ini, para pengkritik WTO berpendapat bahwa liberalisasi perdagangan tidak menjamin pertumbuhan ekonomi dan pengentasan kemiskinan.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=165}} Para pengkritik WTO juga mengemukakan pandangan bahwa keuntungan yang diperoleh dari perdagangan bebas tidak terbagi secara merata. Kritik ini biasanya ditopang dengan data yang menunjukkan bahwa jurang antara yang kaya dan miskin terus melebar, terutama di [[Republik Rakyat Tiongkok]] dan [[India]] yang semakin bertambah ketimpangan ekonominya meskipun pertumbuhan ekonominya sangat tinggi.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=166-167}} Selain itu, pendekatan WTO yang ingin mengurangi hambatan perdagangan dapat merugikan negara berkembang. Dengan dihapuskannya tarif, suatu negara akan kehilangan salah satu sumber pendapatannya.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=170}} Liberalisasi perdagangan yang terlalu dini juga ditakutkan akan memerangkap negara berkembang di sektor primer yang tidak membutuhkan tenaga kerja yang terampil.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=171}} Saat negara berkembang ingin memajukan ekonominya dengan cara [[industrialisasi]], industri yang baru lahir tidak bisa serta merta langsung meroket begitu saja, sehingga sulit bersaing dengan negara lain yang industrinya lebih maju. Konon ekonom terkemuka [[Adam Smith]] pernah memberikan nasihat kepada pemerintah Amerika Serikat yang baru merdeka saat itu agar mereka fokus pada sektor pertanian daripada mencoba menyaingi Eropa yang industrinya lebih maju, tetapi Amerika Serikat tidak menggubrisnya dan malah memasang tarif yang tinggi untuk melindungi produsen Amerika. Setelah itu barulah Amerika Serikat menjadi salah satu negara dengan industri terkuat di dunia.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=173}} Hal yang sama juga berlaku untuk [[Macan Asia Timur]], dan bahkan muncul dugaan bahwa jika [[Korea Selatan]] menghapuskan tarifnya sebelum ekonomi mereka tumbuh pesat, kemungkinan besar saat ini negara tersebut hanya akan menjadi negara miskin penghasil beras.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=174}} WTO turut digempur kritikan bahwa lembaga tersebut tidak demokratis. Pertama-tama, aturan WTO membatasi kemampuan negara untuk mengatur ekonominya, dan hal ini menyulitkan upaya negara untuk menegakkan keinginan rakyat. Selain itu, proses pengambilan keputusan di lembaga WTO dianggap kurang melibatkan lembaga swadaya masyarakat, padahal keputusan yang diambil di lembaga tersebut akan berdampak terhadap penghidupan banyak orang.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=56-57}} Ditambah lagi proses perundingan di WTO sering kali dilakukan secara rahasia oleh kelompok-kelompok dengan kepentingan ekonomi tertentu, dan rakyat sendiri kurang diinformasikan soal kesepakatan-kesepakatan tersebut.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=58}} Akibatnya, aturan-aturan WTO pun didominasi oleh kepentingan dagang, dan kepentingan lainnya (seperti [[hak asasi manusia]], [[hak-hak buruh|hak buruh]], dan pelestarian lingkungan hidup) cenderung dikesampingkan dan juga tidak terwakilkan dalam proses pengambilan keputusannya.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=58-59}} Selain itu, negara-negara maju memiliki kekuatan untuk mendominasi proses perundingan di WTO. Walaupun keputusan diambil lewat konsensus, negara-negara kecil sulit dalam menantang negara-negara maju apabila terdapat ketidaksetujuan. Oleh sebab itu, negara-negara kecil pun sulit untuk mendapatkan perjanjian yang adil untuk kepentingan mereka.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=62-63}} Hal ini semakin diperparah dengan kebiasaan perundingan di GATT yang tidak selalu melibatkan semuanya, contohnya keberadaan "ruang hijau" yang hanya melibatkan anggota-anggota yang diundang,{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=63}} walaupun pakar hukum WTO Peter Van den Bossche membantah kritikan bahwa WTO adalah "klub orang-orang kaya" karena saat ini negara-negara berkembang menjadi semakin terlibat dalam proses pengambilan keputusan dan persetujuan dari mereka sangat diperlukan demi kemulusan prosesnya.{{sfn|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017|pp=155}} Selain itu, dalam proses penyelesaian sengketa, negara maju lebih unggul daripada negara miskin dalam memulai sengketa dan juga dalam menegakkan putusan Panel atau Badan Banding. Sengketa di WTO memakan biaya yang besar dan membutuhkan tenaga-tenaga ahli. Kalaupun ada negara kecil yang berhasil memenangkan sengketa, tindakan balasan yang dapat mereka ambil tidak akan terlalu berdampak terhadap negara maju yang ekonominya jauh lebih besar, dan kadang negara maju bahkan dapat mengabaikan putusan yang tidak mereka sukai.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=67}} Katimpangan antara nagara maju jeung nagara berkembang katempo pisan dina daptar séktor tatanén. Hukum WTO metik kritik kasar sabab [[Parjangjian ngeunaan Tatanén]] diwenangkeun nagara maju pikeun tetep ngajaga subsidi tatanénna sok padahal ieu téh kalintang ngarugikeun nagara-nagara berkembang (contona téh [[Kawijakan Tatanén Bareng]] di Uni Éropa). Balukar tina subsidi éta, nagara-nagara ieu bisa ngajual hasil anu leuwih ka pasar dunya kalawan harga anu jauh leuwih handap, jeung dina waktos anu sami aranjeunna boga paménta éta nagara-nagara berkembang muka pasar keur maranéhanana. Balukarna para patani di nagara berkembang teu bisa bersaing jeung produk tatanén ti nagara maju.{{sfn|Gonzalez|2002|pp=438}} Sanajan anggota WTO geus sapuk pikeun mupuskeun subsidi ékspor tatanén, nagara maju masih mertahankeun ngasubsidi sarta ngajaga sektor tatanén maranéhanana jeung halangan-halangan dagang, jeung prakték ieu ngahalangan pangwangunan industri tatanén di nagara berkembang. Dina waktos anu sasarengan, lamun sagala subsidi tatanén langsung dileungitkeun, harga dahareun bisa ngaronjat sarta ieu ogé bakal ngarugikeun rakyat jeung ngancem kasadiaan pangan. Tah ku kituna, ahli hukum kritis ka WTO ti sudut pandang HAM, Sarah Joseph, ngusulkeun yén subsidi ieu dileungitkeun lalaunan ku kituna pasar bisa nyaluyukeun jeung parobahan anu lumangsung.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|pp=211-213}} == Tempo ogé == * [[Legalisme agresif]] == Catetan tambihan == <references group="lower-alpha"/> == Cutatan == {{reflist|20em}} == Daptar pustaka == === Buku === * {{cite book|last1=De Schutter|first1=Olivier|authorlink=Olivier De Schutter|title= Trade in the Service of Sustainable Development: Linking Trade to Labour Rights and Environmental Standards|publisher=Bloomsbury|location=[[Oxford]] & [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]]|year=2015|isbn=9781782257134|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=z_5kCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=6+december+1950+ITO+ratification&source=bl&ots=fMUrW2QhGz&sig=ACfU3U0beG8HT5SdxkXr8vqSK0KbcP5uhA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj7icPc_5zhAhVC63MBHX8NB8IQ6AEwDnoECAYQAQ#v=onepage&q=6%20december%201950%20ITO%20ratification&f=false|ref={{sfnref|De Schutter|2015}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Gaines|first1=Sanford E.|last2=Olsen|first2=Birgitte Egelund|editor-last1=Gaines|editor-first1=Sanford E.|editor-last2=Olsen|editor-first2=Birgitte Egelund|editor-last3=Sørensen|editor-first3=Karsten Engsig |title=Liberalising Trade in the EU and the WTO|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2012|chapter=Trade and Social Objectives|isbn=9781107012752|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=tepCnmk-_isC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref={{sfnref|Gaines & Olsen|2012}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Hoekman|first1=Bernard M.|last2=Mavroidis|first2=Petros C.|title=The World Organization: Law, Economics, and Politics|publisher=Routledge|location=[[London]] & [[New York City|New York]]|year=2007|isbn=9780415414586|url=https://books.google.at/books/about/The_World_Trade_Organization.html?id=3yIke0Yp4EoC&redir_esc=y|ref={{sfnref|Hoekman & Mavroidis|2007}}}} * {{cite book|last=Joseph|first=Sarah|title=Blame it on the WTO?: A Human Rights Critique|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2011|isbn=9780199565894|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=-U_1KMg6GkgC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref={{sfnref|Joseph|2011}}}} * {{cite book|last=Lowenfeld|first=Andreas F.|title=International Economic Law|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|edition=2|year=2008|isbn=9780199226931|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=kz9M4JKgm78C&printsec=frontcover&hl=de&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref={{sfnref|Lowenfeld|2008}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Macrory|first1=Patrick F.J.|last2=Appleton|first2=Arthur E.|last3=Plummer|first3=Michael G.|title=The World Trade Organization: Legal, Economic and Political Analysis Volume I|publisher=Springer|location=New York City|year=2005|isbn=9780387226880|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=96x7IwWDJUQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref={{sfnref|Macrory, Appleton & Plummer|2005}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Matsushita|first1=Mitsuo|last2=Schoenbaum|first2=Thomas J.|last3=Mavroidis|first3=Petros C.|last4=Hahn|first4=Michael|title=The World Trade Organization: Law, Practice, and Policy|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|edition=3|year=2015|isbn=9780199571857|url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-world-trade-organization-9780199571857?cc=at&lang=en&|ref={{sfnref|Matsushita, Schoenbaum, Mavroidis & Hahn|2015}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Trebilcock|first1=Michael J.|last2=Howse|first2=Robert|title=The Regulation of International Trade|publisher=Routledge|location=London & New York|year=2005|edition=3|isbn=9780415700337|url=https://books.google.at/books/about/The_Regulation_of_International_Trade.html?id=Imhr2fprSTQC&redir_esc=y|ref={{sfnref|Trebilcock & Howse|2005}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Trebilcock|first1=Michael J.|last2=Howse|first2=Robert|last3=Eliason|first3=Antonia |title=The Regulation of International Trade|publisher=Routledge|location=London & New York|year=2012|edition=4|isbn=9780415610896|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=mOz2UDO1W3oC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref={{sfnref|Trebilcock, Howse & Eliason|2012}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Van den Bossche|first1=Peter|authorlink1=Peter Van den Bossche|last2=Zdouc|first2=Werner|title=The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=[[Cambridge]]|year=2017|edition=4|isbn=9781316662496|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=ARkuDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref={{sfnref|Van den Bossche & Zdouc|2017}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Van den Bossche|first1=Peter|last2=Prévost|first2=Denise|title=Essentials of WTO Law|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=[[Cambridge]]|year=2016|isbn=9781316571545|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=FXQ_jgEACAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref={{sfnref|Van den Bossche & Prévost|2016}}}} * {{cite book|last=VanGrasstek|first=Craig|title=The History and Future of the World Trade Organization|publisher=World Trade Organization|location=[[Jenewa]]|year=2013|isbn=9789287038715|url=https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/historywto_e.pdf|ref={{sfnref|VanGrasstek|2013}}}} * {{cite book|last=Wunsch-Vincent|first=Sacha|title=WTO, E-commerce and Information Technologies: From the Uruguay Round through the Doha Development Agenda |publisher=The United Nations Information and Communication Technologies Task Force|location=[[New York City]]|year=2005|ref={{sfnref|Wunsch-Vincent|2005}}}} === Jurnal === * {{Cite journal|last=Bown|first=Chad P.|last2=Wu|first2=Mark|year=2014|title=Safeguards and the Perils of Preferential Trade Agreements: ''Dominican Republic–Safeguard Measures''|url=http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S1474745614000111|journal=World Trade Review|volume=13|pages=179–227|ref={{sfnref|Bown & Wu|2014}}}}{{Dead link|date=July 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite journal |last=Gonzalez|first=Carmen G.|title=Institutionalizing Inequality: The WTO Agreement on Agriculture, Food Security, and Developing Countries|journal=Columbia Journal of Environmental Law|volume=27|year=2002|page=433-490|url=https://digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1415&context=faculty|ref={{sfnref|Gonzalez|2002}}}} * {{cite journal|last=Marx|first=Aaron|title=The ITA II: Successful Trade Liberalization|journal=Global Trade and Customs Journal|volume=10|year=2015|page=346-354|url=https://www.kluwerlawonline.com/abstract.php?area=Journals&id=GTCJ2015042|ref={{sfnref|Marx|2015}}}}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite journal|last=Rodrik|first=Dani|title=How to Save Globalization from its Cheerleaders|journal=The Journal of International Trade and Diplomacy|volume=1|year=2007|page=1-33|url=http://dev.wcfia.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/Rodrick_HowToSave.pdf|ref={{sfnref|Rodrik|2007}}|access-date=2019-03-26|archive-date=2016-02-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208100820/http://dev.wcfia.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/Rodrick_HowToSave.pdf|dead-url=unfit}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208100820/http://dev.wcfia.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/Rodrick_HowToSave.pdf |date=2016-02-08 }} === Sumber onlén === * {{cite web|url=https://www.wto.org/English/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org7_e.htm|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/77ACJRBlF?url=https://www.wto.org/English/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org7_e.htm|archivedate=2019-03-26|title=Least-developed Countries|publisher=Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia|accessdate=26 Maret 2019|ref={{sfnref|WTO, Least-developed Countries}}|dead-url=no}} * {{cite web|url=https://www.wto.org/English/Tratop_E/devel_e/d1who_e.htm|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/77ACGaMwp?url=https://www.wto.org/English/Tratop_E/devel_e/d1who_e.htm|archivedate=2019-03-26|title=Who are the Developing Countries in the WTO?|publisher=Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia|accessdate=26 Maret 2019|ref={{sfnref|WTO, Who are the Developing Countries in the WTO?}}|dead-url=no}} * {{cite web|url=https://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/legal_e.htm|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/75lVbgUkY?url=https://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/legal_e.htm|archivedate=2019-01-28|title=WTO Legal Texts|publisher=Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia|accessdate=28 Januari 2019|ref={{sfnref|WTO, Legal Texts}}|dead-url=no}} * {{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/wto-talks-collapse-in-cancun/a-970989|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/75lFDUDzv?url=https://www.dw.com/en/wto-talks-collapse-in-cancun/a-970989|archivedate=2019-01-28|title=WTO Talks Collapse in Cancun|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]|date=15 September 2003|accessdate=28 Januari 2019|ref={{sfnref|Deutsche Welle|2003}}|dead-url=no}} == Tutumbu ka luar == {{Commons category|World Trade Organization}} * {{en}} {{resmi|http://www.wto.int/}} {{WTO}} [[Kategori:Organisasi Perdagangan Dunia| ]] [[Kategori:Organisasi internasional]] 0h62l294xic160yskj43sogwsszqzqp 0 106097 708611 705017 2026-04-26T16:47:58Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708611 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotak info Pausahaan|name=Sir Robert McAlpine Ltd|type=[[Private company|Private]]|foundation=1869|location={{nowrap|[[Hemel Hempstead]], Hertfordshire, England}}|key_people=Edward McAlpine (chairman)<br>Neil Martin (chief executive)|industry=[[Engineering]] / [[Construction]]|products=|revenue=[[Pound sterling|£]]881 million (2023)<ref name=results/>|operating_income=[[Pound sterling|£]](110) million (2023)<ref name=results/>|net_income=|num_employees=|homepage={{URL|https://www.srm.com}}}}'''Sir Robert McAlpine Limited''' mangrupikeun gedong milik kulawarga sareng perusahaan rékayasa sipil dumasar di Hemel Hempstead, Inggris. Éta ngalaksanakeun rékayasa jeung konstruksi dina infrastruktur, warisan, komérsial, arena jeung stadion, kasehatan, atikan jeung séktor nuklir. == Sajarah == Robert McAlpine lahir di 1847 di désa Skotlandia of Newarthill deukeut Motherwell. Ti umur tujuh anjeunna digawé di tambang batubara caket dieu, ninggalkeun di 16 pikeun jadi magang tukang bata. Teras, damel kanggo insinyur, anjeunna maju janten mandor sateuacan ngamimitian damel nyalira dina yuswa 22 taun. Anjeunna teu boga modal lian ti éta manéhna bisa earn dirina jeung kontrak kahijina ngalibetkeun pagawean lalaki séjén kudu financed ku injeuman £ 11 ti jagal. Ti dinya, McAlpine ngarasakeun kasuksésan gancang; kontrak mimiti dipuseurkeun kana dagang sorangan tina bricklaying sarta ku 1874 anjeunna boga dua brickyards jeung dunungan 1.000 lalaki. Di salah sahiji perumahan anu anjeunna ngawangun anjeunna mimiti ékspérimén nganggo blok beton ogé bata (ti mana anjeunna nampi julukan 'Beton Bob'). Kalayan ibukota anu anjeunna kaala, McAlpine nekad ngawangun kota taman di Hamilton, South Lanarkshire. Ngandelkeun ayeuna kana panghasilan tina estate-Na, perhatian McAlpine urang dipindahkeun jauh ti bisnis kaserang na nuju atikan diri. Tapi, panik finansial sanggeus runtuhna Kota Glasgow Bank di 1878 ampir musnah kaluar McAlpine finansial: mortgages na disebut di tapi debtors na teu mayar anjeunna. [[Gambar:"The_Jacobite"_on_Glenfinnan_Viaduct_-_geograph.org.uk_-_263142.jpg|jmpl|240x240px| Jembatan Glenfinnan]] Liabilities ti estate Hamilton anu ngancam bisnis konstruksi sarta ngajaga eta, Robert nyandak juru tulis na kana partnership, dagang di handapeun ngaran McAlpine & Co; juru tulis dibeuli kaluar teu lila sanggeus. Kontrak gedé munggaran McAlpine nyaéta gedong pikeun Singer Manufacturing Company di 1883 sareng kauntungan tina éta ngamungkinkeun anjeunna mayar hutang sésa-sésa. Ampir langsung anjeunna nyanghareupan kasusah finansial salajengna. Meunang kontrak pikeun Lanarkshire na Ayrshire Railway tanpa pangaweruh teknis diperlukeun, karya rebuilding saterusna sarta litigation hartina mimiti anyar anyar. [[Gambar:Gentrification_-_geograph.org.uk_-_794117.jpg|jmpl|240x240px| Pangwangunan deui Butler's Wharf, London (1987)]] Dina 1887, Robert nyandak dua putra cikalna, Robert SMP jeung William, kaluar ti sakola pikeun mantuan manéhna, jeung Malcolm jeung Alfred nuturkeun teu lila sanggeus, jeung maranehna ngalakukeun loba rationalize administrasi jeung keuangan pausahaan. Teu sieun ku pangalaman baheula, McAlpine nyandak kontrak karéta api salajengna, waktos ieu suksés, kalebet Mallaig Extension Railway sareng Glasgow Subway. Aya rupa-rupa kontrak wangunan jeung rékayasa sipil beuki lega tapi sungut ieu ampir dibawa ka tuur na deui kalayan pangwangunan Methil Docks antara 1909 jeung 1913. Ieu ieu pamadegan yén ieu ngarah ka pendekatan leuwih cautious kana resiko di pihak putra, lamun teu bapana. Mangsa antar-perang ningali firma éta ngan ukur fokus kana konstruksi. Gray nyerat yén Sir Robert McAlpine "sigana aub dina unggal gedong utama sareng proyék rékayasa sipil anu kantos janten headline dinten éta." Éta kalebet darmaga, palabuhan, pembangkit listrik, pabrik; Stadion Wembley sareng Hotel Dorchester mangrupikeun conto anu kasohor. Dina kasus Dorchester, nalika klien éta teu bisa mayar karya konstruksi, pausahaan nyandak ngilikan wangunan réngsé sarta dioperasikeun dina akun sorangan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.railwaypeople.com/rail-news-articles/sir-william-mcalpine-talks-to-andy-milne-1087.html|title=Sir William McAlpine talks to Andy Milne|publisher=Railway People|accessdate=16 May 2009|date=30 June 2006}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016133222/http://www.railwaypeople.com/rail-news-articles/sir-william-mcalpine-talks-to-andy-milne-1087.html |date=16 October 2006 }}</ref> [[Gambar:Civic_Centre,_Newcastle_Upon_Tyne_-_geograph.org.uk_-_738840.jpg|jmpl|240x240px| Newcastle Civic Center]] Dina Nopémber 1934, Sir Robert maot dina yuswa 87 taun. Dua minggu ti harita putra cikalna, Sir Robert anyar, ogé maot. William diangkat Pupuhu bari Alfred tetep jawab operasi di cabangna kalér-kuloneun, dimana anjeunna geus saprak 1918. Dua mitra London ngabantah yén resesi langkung seueur mangaruhan kalér tibatan kidul sareng ngusulkeun nutup perusahaan Alfred. Alfred, kumaha oge, teu hayang balik ka London jeung, dina dasar informal mimitina, dua usaha anu ngajalankeun misah. Pemisahan ieu diresmikeun dina 1940 sareng bisnis kalér diganti namina Sir Alfred McAlpine . Salila [[Perang Dunya II|Perang Dunya Kadua]] Sir Robert McAlpine éta salah sahiji kontraktor kalibet dina ngawangun unit palabuhan Mulberry. Dua firma McAlpine ngagaduhan pangaturan anu henteu bersaing sareng situs ngagaduhan papan "McAlpine" anu umum henteu paduli perusahaan mana éta. Nalika duanana perusahaan mimiti go public, aranjeunna ngalakukeunana dina nami Newarthill pikeun Robert sareng Marchwiel pikeun Alfred. arrangements ieu dituluykeun nepi ka 1983. Dina taun 2003, Sir Robert McAlpine Ltd ngagugat Alfred McAlpine plc ngeunaan panggunaan nami kulawarga sareng meunang.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://business.guardian.co.uk/story/0,3604,1183294,00.html|title=Court verdict finds for Sir Robert|work=[[The Guardian]]|last=Mark Milner|date=1 April 2004|access-date=11 July 2008}}</ref> Sengketa dipuseurkeun kana niat Alfred McAlpine pikeun dagang dina ngaran "McAlpine". Saméméhna aya kasapukan lila-ngadeg dina kulawarga McAlpine teu nyieun parobahan misalna tapi, sanggeus pupusna Alfred McAlpine jeung putrana, dewan Alfred McAlpine narékahan pikeun nyieun parobahan dina acara naon. Pangaruh tina judgment éta pikeun nyegah dagang Alfred McAlpine dina ngaran "McAlpine". Taun 2008, Alfred McAlpine plc diaku ku Carillion sareng dibongkar, sahingga "perang nami" henteu relevan.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7135893.stm|title=Carillion agrees to buy McAlpine|work=BBC News|date=10 December 2007|access-date=13 July 2008}}</ref> Dina bulan Nopémber 2017, perusahaan ngumumkeun 90 karugian padamelan dina pamotong biaya saatos énergi anu kaleungitan tina proyék runtah. Genep pusat régional dipotong jadi opat.<ref name="Morby-09Nov2017">{{Cite news|last=Morby|first=Aaron|title=McAlpine to axe 90 jobs as divisions streamlined|url=http://www.constructionenquirer.com/2017/11/09/mcalpine-to-axe-90-jobs-as-divisions-streamlined/|access-date=9 November 2017|work=Construction Enquirer|date=9 November 2017}}</ref> Pausahaan lajeng ngumumkeun dewan anyar jeung struktur kapamimpinan, kalawan henteu anggota kulawarga McAlpine kaasup dina tim kapamimpinan handapeun CEO Paul Hamer.<ref name="Morby-13Nov2017">{{Cite news|last=Morby|first=Aaron|title=McAlpine unveils senior management shake-up|url=http://www.constructionenquirer.com/2017/11/13/mcalpine-unveils-senior-management-shake-up/|access-date=13 November 2017|work=Construction Enquirer|date=13 November 2017}}</ref> Edward McAlpine ngambil alih ti Gavin McAlpine salaku pupuhu dina Januari 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.building.co.uk/news/new-chairman-at-mcalpine/5096398.article|title=New chairman at McAlpine|publisher=Building|accessdate=3 April 2019|date=5 November 2018}}</ref> Dina taun ka Oktober 2022, perusahaan ngagaduhan omzet £ 1.1bn kalayan kauntungan pra-pajeg £ 9.3m. Dina 2023, Hamer marios struktur perusahaan sareng ngalihkeun fokusna kana séktor tinimbang daérah; restrukturisasi ieu diperkirakeun ngarugikeun £ 8.4m sarta bakal ngahasilkeun tabungan taunan leuwih £ 20m. Sanajan kitu, Hamer teu ningali tabungan ieu direalisasikeun - ku Pébruari 2024, anjeunna cuti berkebun jeung urut bos Lendlease Neil Martin nyokot alih salaku CEO on 19 Pébruari 2024.<ref name="Rogers-16Feb2024">{{Cite news|last=Rogers|first=Dave|title=McAlpine rings changes as chief executive Paul Hamer replaced by former Lendlease boss|url=https://www.building.co.uk/news/mcalpine-rings-changes-as-chief-executive-paul-hamer-replaced-by-former-lendlease-boss/5127781.article|access-date=16 February 2024|work=Building|date=16 February 2024}}</ref> Dina Juli 2024, Sir Robert McAlpine ngalaporkeun rugi operasi £ 110m dina taun ka Oktober 2023, kalayan pendapatan turun 19% dugi ka £ 881m.<ref name="results">{{Cite news|last=Morby|first=Aaron|title=Sir Robert McAlpine plunges to £110m trading loss|url=https://www.constructionenquirer.com/2024/07/31/sir-robert-mcalpine-plunges-to-110m-loss/|access-date=31 July 2024|work=Construction Enquirer|date=31 July 2024}}</ref> Ti taun 1930-an saterusna, pausahaan padamelan sajumlah ageung imigran Irlandia anu sumping ka Inggris milarian padamelan. Kaayaan kerja anu parah dimana manajemén McAlpine ngarawat para buruhna parantos turun dina folklor imigran Irlandia. Lagu " McAlpine's Fusiliers " (ditulis ku Dominic Behan sareng kasohor ku The Dubliners ) ngajelaskeun kanyataan kahirupan di situs wangunan pikeun seueur ekspatriat Irlandia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.free-lyrics.org/The-Dubliners/274864-McAlpines-Fusiliers.html|title=McAlpines Fusiliers|publisher=Free Lyrics|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090526085838/http://www.free-lyrics.org/The-Dubliners/274864-McAlpines-Fusiliers.html|archivedate=26 May 2009|accessdate=16 May 2009}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090526085838/http://www.free-lyrics.org/The-Dubliners/274864-McAlpines-Fusiliers.html |date=26 May 2009 }}</ref> Pausahaan ieu ogé disebutkeun dina lagu séjén, kayaning "Gedong Up na Tearing Inggris Turun," ogé ditulis ku Behan,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kinglaoghaire.com/lyrics/870-building-up-and-tearing-england-down|title=Building Up and Tearing England Down|website=KingLaoghaire|accessdate=12 November 2019}}</ref> sanajan sejarawan Ultan Cowley geus ngusulkeun yén hubungan antara kuli Irlandia jeung manajemén senior di Sir Robert McAlpine éta leuwih kolaborasi. ti naon patalina dina lagu ieu.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cowley|first=Ultan|title=The Men Who Built Britain: a celebration of the Irish Navvy|publisher=Wolfhound Press|year=2001|page=59|isbn=978-0863278297}}</ref> == Struktur == Dugi ka 2023, perusahaan dikelompokeun sacara régional;<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.contractjournal.com/Articles/2007/12/14/57134/sir+robert+mcalpine+boss+benny+kelly+to+step+down.html|title=Sir Robert McAlpine boss Benny Kelly to step down|last=Will Mann|publisher=Contract Journal|accessdate=11 July 2007|date=14 December 2007}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217100144/http://www.contractjournal.com/Articles/2007/12/14/57134/sir+robert+mcalpine+boss+benny+kelly+to+step+down.html |date=17 December 2007 }}</ref> di handap restructuring di ahir 2017, dijieun opat puseur régional: Skotlandia-Kaler, Tengah-Wales-Kulon, Kidul jeung London.<ref name="Morby-09Nov2017"/> Dina 2020, bisnis Wales dihijikeun kana daérah Kidul anu dimekarkeun.<ref name="Rogers-03Aug2020">{{Cite news|last=Rogers|first=Dave|title=McAlpine’s Welsh business merged into expanded South division|url=https://www.building.co.uk/news/mcalpines-welsh-business-merged-into-expanded-south-division/5107314.article|access-date=7 April 2021|work=Building|date=3 August 2020}}</ref> Dina 2023, perusahaan direstrukturisasi pikeun museurkeun séktor tinimbang daérah. Target pasar kalebet kasehatan, kantor komersial, industri, warisan sareng skéma kompleks anu dikirimkeun ku tim Proyék Utama & Husus, sareng séktor karéta api, angkutan sareng nuklir anu dikirimkeun ku bisnis infrastruktur na.<ref name="Morby-04Apr2023">{{Cite news|last=Morby|first=Aaron|title=McAlpine planned job cuts set to hit London office hardest|url=https://www.constructionenquirer.com/2023/04/04/mcalpine-planned-job-cuts-set-to-hit-london-office-hardest/|access-date=16 February 2024|work=Construction Enquirer|date=4 April 2023}}</ref> [[Gambar:Emirates_Stadium_-_East_side_-_Composite.jpg|ka|jmpl|240x240px| Stadion Émirat]] Proyék anu dilakukeun ku perusahaan kalebet:   * [[Glenfinnan Viaduct]] completed in 1901<ref name="archive">{{cite web|url=http://www.sir-robert-mcalpine.com/projects/|title=Sir Robert McAlpine Project Archive|publisher=Sir Robert McAlpine|access-date=11 July 2008}}</ref> * [[Lanarkshire and Ayrshire Railway]] completed in 1904<ref>John Thomas, ''Forgotten Railways: Scotland'', David and Charles, Newton Abbot, 1976, {{ISBN|0 7153 7185 1}}, pages 91 to 92</ref> * [[Maine Road]] Stadium completed in 1923<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/index.cfm?ID=s0028759|title=Maine Road|publisher=Structurae|access-date=11 July 2008}}</ref> * [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley Stadium]] completed in 1924<ref name="archive" /> * The port of [[Heraklion]] in [[Greece]] completed in 1930<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gracesguide.co.uk/Robert_McAlpine|title=Sir Robert McAlpine|publisher=Grace's Guide|access-date=16 December 2019}}</ref><ref>Tzikas, Polykarpos; Konstantinos, Mamalakis; Tertipis, Dimitrios; Charitopoulos, Evangelos. «Μέσα σταθερής τροχιάς στην Κρήτη: Δίκτυα βιομηχανικών σιδηροδρόμων κατά το πρώτο μισό του 20ου αιώνα». Proceedings of the 12th International Congress of Cretan Studies.</ref> * [[The Dorchester|Dorchester Hotel]] in [[London]] completed in 1931<ref name="archive" /> * [[Odeon Leicester Square]] completed in 1937<ref name="portrait">{{cite web|url=http://www.sir-robert-mcalpine.com/files/page/200/SRMBrochure2010_web1.pdf|title=A portrait of achievement|publisher=Sir Robert McAlpine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508151434/http://www.sir-robert-mcalpine.com/files/page/200/SRMBrochure2010_web1.pdf|archive-date=8 May 2016|access-date=24 April 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508151434/http://www.sir-robert-mcalpine.com/files/page/200/SRMBrochure2010_web1.pdf |date=8 May 2016 }}</ref> * The [[Shell Centre]] completed in 1962<ref name="portrait" /> * [[Newcastle Civic Centre]] completed in 1968<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/newcastlelibraries/4080634833|title=Civic Centre Barras Bridge Newcastle upon Tyne Unknown c.1960|publisher=Newcastle Libraries|access-date=24 April 2016}}</ref> * [[Hyde Park Barracks, London]] completed in 1970<ref name="portrait" /> * [[Royal National Theatre]] completed in 1977<ref name="portrait" /> * [[Nissan Motor Manufacturing UK|Nissan Motor Manufacturing Plant]] completed in 1985<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/history/30-years-ago-japanese-car-11663509|title=30 years ago: Japanese car giant Nissan arrives in the North East|date=26 July 2016|newspaper=Chronicle Live|access-date=14 October 2022}}</ref> * [[St. Enoch Centre]] completed in 1989<ref name="archive" /> * Refurbishment of the Clove Building at [[Butler's Wharf]] completed in 1990<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dev.alliesandmorrison.com/project/clove-building/|title=Clove Building|publisher=Allies and Morrison|access-date=30 November 2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721112813/http://dev.alliesandmorrison.com/project/clove-building/ |date=21 July 2020 }}</ref> * [[One Canada Square]] completed in 1991,<ref name="archive" /> which stood as the tallest building in London until surpassed in 2012 by [[The Shard]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.skyscrapercenter.com/building/one-canada-square/1040|title=One Canada Square|publisher=Sky Scraper Centre|access-date=28 April 2019}}</ref> * [[Millennium Dome]] completed in 1999,<ref name="archive" /> which the company also redeveloped as [[The O2]]<ref name="archive" /> * [[Millennium Bridge, London|Millennium Bridge]] completed in 2000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/index.cfm?ID=s0000603|title=Millennium Bridge|publisher=Structurae|access-date=11 July 2008}}</ref> * [[ExCeL London|ExCeL Exhibition Centre]] completed in 2000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wes-group.com/news.html|title=News from Worldwide|publisher=Worldwide Exhibition Specialists Ltd.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080315144211/http://www.wes-group.com/news.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive -->|archive-date=15 March 2008|access-date=11 July 2008}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080315144211/http://www.wes-group.com/news.html |date=15 March 2008 }}</ref> * [[Eden Project]] completed in 2001<ref>{{cite web|url=http://living-places.org.uk/living-places-in-action/case-study-subject/landmark-examples/the-eden-project.html|title=The Eden Project|publisher=Living Places|access-date=9 November 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505111032/http://living-places.org.uk/living-places-in-action/case-study-subject/landmark-examples/the-eden-project.html |date=5 May 2016 }}</ref> * [[University Hospital Wishaw|Wishaw General Hospital]] completed in 2001<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.labournet.net/ukunion/0010/dudsum1.html|title=Who are Summit Healthcare?|publisher=Labour Party|date=6 October 2000|access-date=1 August 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530215644/http://www.labournet.net/ukunion/0010/dudsum1.html |date=30 May 2016 }}</ref> * [[Imperial War Museum North]] completed in 2002<ref name="AJ">{{cite magazine|last=Williams|first=Austin|date=19 October 2000|magazine=[[Architects' Journal]]|url=http://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/home/conflict-resolution/193675.article|title=Conflict Resolution|access-date=6 October 2009}}</ref> * [[Bull Ring, Birmingham]] completed in 2003<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/Media/Building%20The%20BullRing.pdf?MEDIA_ID=193690&FILENAME=Building%20The%20BullRing.pdf|title=Building the BullRing|publisher=Birmingham City Council|format=pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529143249/http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/Media/Building%20The%20BullRing.pdf?MEDIA_ID=193690&FILENAME=Building+The+BullRing.pdf <!-- Bot retrieved archive -->|archive-date=29 May 2008|access-date=11 July 2008}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529143249/http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/Media/Building%20The%20BullRing.pdf?MEDIA_ID=193690&FILENAME=Building+The+BullRing.pdf |date=29 May 2008 }}</ref> * [[Exeter Law Courts]] completed in 2004<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hicl.com/portfolio/project/exeter-crown-county-court-uk/|title=Exeter Crown & County Court, UK|publisher=HICL Infrastructure|access-date=1 February 2023}}</ref> * Expansion of the [[Russells Hall Hospital]] in [[Dudley]] completed in 2006<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constructionnews.co.uk/home/sir-robert-chases-health-job-losses/381986.article|title=Sir Robert chases health job losses|publisher=Construction News|date=20 April 2006|access-date=15 April 2018}}</ref> * [[Emirates Stadium]] completed in 2006<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arsenal.com/emiratesstadium/article.asp?article=301327&Title=First+ball+kicked+at+Emirates+Stadium&lid=the+stadium+-+Latest+News|title=First ball kicked at Emirates Stadium|publisher=Arsenal F.C.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424173638/http://www.arsenal.com/emiratesstadium/article.asp?article=301327&Title=First+ball+kicked+at+Emirates+Stadium&lid=the+stadium+-+Latest+News <!-- Bot retrieved archive -->|archive-date=24 April 2008|date=25 August 2005|access-date=11 July 2008}}</ref> * Redevelopment of [[Colchester Garrison]] completed in 2008<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/8280054/Public-Finance-Initiative-the-deals.html|title=Public Finance Initiative: the deals|date=25 January 2011|newspaper=The Telegraph|access-date=7 May 2018}}</ref> * White River Place development in [[St Austell]] town centre completed in 2009<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.contractjournal.com/Articles/2006/10/02/52373/sir-robert-mcalpine-wins-60m-st-austell-redevelopment.html|title=Sir Robert McAlpine wins St Austell redevelopment|publisher=Contract Journal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071112120400/http://www.contractjournal.com/Articles/2006/10/02/52373/sir-robert-mcalpine-wins-60m-st-austell-redevelopment.html|archive-date=12 November 2007|date=2 October 2006|author=Rebecca Froley|access-date=11 July 2008|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071112120400/http://www.contractjournal.com/Articles/2006/10/02/52373/sir-robert-mcalpine-wins-60m-st-austell-redevelopment.html |date=12 November 2007 }}</ref> * [[Olympic Stadium (London)|Olympic Stadium]] for [[2012 Summer Olympics|London 2012]] completed in 2011<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.contractjournal.com/Articles/2007/07/24/55680/oda-signs-olympic-stadium-deal-with-sir-robert-mcalpine.html|title=ODA signs Olympic Stadium deal with Sir Robert McAlpine|publisher=Contract Journal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926141548/http://www.contractjournal.com/Articles/2007/07/24/55680/oda-signs-olympic-stadium-deal-with-sir-robert-mcalpine.html|archive-date=26 September 2008|author=Tom Bill|date=24 July 2007|access-date=11 July 2008|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926141548/http://www.contractjournal.com/Articles/2007/07/24/55680/oda-signs-olympic-stadium-deal-with-sir-robert-mcalpine.html |date=26 September 2008 }}</ref> * [[Hereford]]'s Old Market shopping centre was completed in 2014<ref>{{cite web|url=http://shopping-centre.co.uk/news/fullstory.php/aid/7195/Old_Market_shopping_centre,_Hereford,_opens.html|title=Old Market shopping centre, Hereford, opens|publisher=Shopping Centre|date=1 May 2014|access-date=30 December 2016}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231074624/http://shopping-centre.co.uk/news/fullstory.php/aid/7195/Old_Market_shopping_centre,_Hereford,_opens.html |date=31 December 2016 }}</ref> * [[One Kensington Gardens]] completed in 2015<ref name="DCA">{{cite web|url=http://www.davidchipperfield.co.uk/project/one_kensington_gardens|title=One Kensington Gardens, London, 2010-2015|website=David Chipperfield Architects|access-date=19 September 2016}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124042843/http://davidchipperfield.co.uk/project/one_kensington_gardens |date=24 November 2016 }}</ref><ref name="DaleSauna">{{cite web|url=http://www.dalesauna.co.uk/latest-news/one-kensington-gardens/|title=One Kensington Gardens|website=DaleSauna|access-date=19 September 2016}}</ref> * [[City of Glasgow College]] completed in 2016<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constructionnews.co.uk/projects/contracts/sir-robert-mcalpine-consortium-wins-228m-glasgow-campus/8641840.article|title=Sir Robert McAlpine consortium wins £228m Glasgow campus|publisher=Construction News|access-date=5 September 2017}}</ref> Sir Robert McAlpine ogé kalibet dina HS2 lot C1, digawé salaku bagian tina joint venture, alatan réngsé dina 2031.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2017/jul/17/hs2-high-speed-rail-contracts-worth-66bn-awarded-uk-chris-grayling|title=HS2 contracts worth £6.6bn awarded by UK government|website=the Guardian|language=en-gb|accessdate=2017-10-13|date=17 July 2017}}</ref> == Kontrovérsi blacklisting == Sir Robert McAlpine ngabiayaan pendirian awal Asosiasi Konsultan di 1993, nyayogikeun £ 20,000, sakitar satengahna dianggo pikeun mésér database daptar hideung tina Liga Ékonomi sareng nyéwa salah sahiji tilas karyawanna, Ian Kerr, salaku manajer.<ref name="McAlpine-20130117">{{Cite web|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmselect/cmscotaf/156/156we14.htm|title=Written evidence submitted by Cullum McAlpine, Director of Sir Robert McAlpine Ltd.|publisher=Scottish Affairs Committee|accessdate=14 October 2013|date=17 January 2013}}</ref> Diréktur perusahaan Cullum McAlpine dilayanan salaku pupuhu Asosiasi Konsultan pikeun sababaraha taun sateuacan janten implicated masarakat awam dina skandal blacklisting industri konstruksi di 2009 sarta ieu tatu nepi. Salajengna, Sir Robert McAlpine éta salah sahiji dalapan usaha aub dina peluncuran 2014 tina Skéma Kompensasi Pagawe Konstruksi,<ref name="BBC-2014Jul4">{{Cite news|title=Construction blacklist compensation scheme opens|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-28155936|access-date=7 September 2015|work=BBC News: Business|agency=BBC|date=4 July 2014}}</ref> sanajan ieu dikutuk salaku "PR stunt" ku serikat GMB, sarta digambarkeun ku Skotlandia Urusan Pilih Panitia salaku " hiji kalakuan iman goréng".<ref name="SAC2015">{{Cite web|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201415/cmselect/cmscotaf/272/27202.htm|title=Scottish Affairs - Seventh Report Blacklisting in Employment: Final Report|website=www.parliament.uk|publisher=Scottish Affairs Committee|accessdate=7 September 2015}}</ref> Dina 11 Méi 2016, pausahaan utama, kaasup Sir Robert McAlpine, ngaluarkeun "unreserved tur ikhlas" apology di pangadilan luhur ka ratusan pagawe pikeun nempatkeun aranjeunna dina blacklist ilegal jeung denying aranjeunna gawé leuwih dua puluh. Perusahaan-perusahaan sapuk pikeun mayar jumlah tina £ 25,000 dugi ka £ 200,000 dugi ka 771 jalma dina kaayaan padumukan di luar pengadilan pikeun ngahindarkeun sidang, bari nampi yén "operasi vetting rusiah aranjeunna henteu kedah kajantenan". Nanging, bukti anu diungkabkeun sateuacan padumukan nyababkeun seueur korban ngaku yén aya usaha ilegal ku eksekutif McAlpine pikeun ngancurkeun bukti sareng nutupan keterlibatan jalma-jalma konci nalika daptar hideung kapanggih dina 2009. Sasaran tina keluhan kriminal anu dimaksudkeun para korban kalebet diréktur Cullum McAlpine, sareng kapala SDM, David Cochrane, anu janten pupuhu Asosiasi. Duanana nampik kalibet dina ngancurkeun file anu relevan sareng nyobian ngarobih jalan kaadilan.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/may/14/blacklist-construction-workers-mcalpine|title=Construction bosses ‘tried to hide evidence of their blacklist’|last=Daniel Boffey|work=The Guardian|location=Reference}}</ref> Dina Séptémber 2017, lulugu eksekutif McAlpine Paul Hamer nyoba ngabatalkeun perusahaan tina neraskeun tuduhan daptar hideung dina industri konstruksi, nyatakeun "Sir Robert McAlpine matuh sapinuhna kana sagala panerapan pikeun nyegah daptar hideung sareng komitmen kana rekrutmen anu adil sareng transparan. ... Kami gaduh kabijakan kasabaran nol nuju daptar hideung, prakték rekrutmen ilegal atanapi teu adil." <ref name="TCI-11Sep2017">{{Cite news|title=New McAlpine chief goes public in reputational campaign|url=http://www.theconstructionindex.co.uk/news/view/new-mcalpine-chief-goes-public-in-reputational-campaign|access-date=11 September 2017|work=The Construction Index|date=11 September 2017}}</ref> Pausahaan ngabela diri deui dina bulan Désémber 2017 nalika Unite ngumumkeun yén éta parantos ngaluarkeun cara ngagawe Pangadilan Tinggi ngalawan opat tilas ketua Asosiasi Konsultan, kalebet Cullum McAlpine sareng David Cochrane,<ref name="TCI-04Dec2017">{{Cite news|title=Union sues blacklist ringleaders|url=http://www.theconstructionindex.co.uk/news/view/union-sues-blacklist-ringleaders|access-date=4 December 2017|work=The Construction Index|date=4 December 2017}}</ref> sareng ngalawan 12 kontraktor utama kalebet Sir Robert McAlpine.<ref name="Prior-04Dec2017">{{Cite news|last=Prior|first=Grant|title=Unite launches new round of blacklisting legal action|url=http://www.constructionenquirer.com/2017/12/04/unite-launches-new-round-of-blacklisting-legal-action/|access-date=4 December 2017|work=Construction Enquirer|date=4 December 2017}}</ref> Dina Méi 2019, union Unite ngamankeun santunan £ 1.9 juta pikeun 53 pagawé anu didaptarkeun hideung. Tujuh usaha konstruksi, kalebet Sir Robert McAlpine, ogé sapuk mayar £230,000 pikeun dana pelatihan Unite pikeun ngabantosan anu kapangaruhan ku sistem vetting, sareng mayar biaya hukum Unite. Sanajan kitu, Unite asisten sekretaris jenderal Howard Beckett ceuk "panolakan Cullum McAlpine méré bukti bitterly nguciwakeun".<ref name="TCI-14May2019">{{Cite news|title=Blacklisters agree a further £1.9m compensation|url=https://www.theconstructionindex.co.uk/news/view/blacklisters-agree-a-further-19m-compensation|access-date=14 May 2019|work=The Construction Index|date=14 May 2019}}</ref><ref name="guardian-20190514">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/may/14/50-blacklisted-trade-unionists-win-19m-from-building-firms|title=50 blacklisted trade unionists win £1.9m from building firms|last=Evans|first=Rob|work=The Guardian|date=14 May 2019|access-date=14 May 2019}}</ref> [[Kategori:Halaman dengan terjemahan tak tertinjau]] tso2v0c08zt7t2xjba46htdeibm503m 0 106721 708615 698161 2026-04-26T17:57:53Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708615 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Taman Wisata Goa Sunyaragi''' nyaéta salah sahiji cagar budaya di Cirebon mangrupa taman anu aya wangunan goa anu dijieun tina batu-batuan karang nu miboga luas 15 héktar, dina sabudeureun goa jeung taman aya [[Talaga Jati]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://nativeindonesia.com/gua-sunyaragi/|title=Gua Sunyaragi, Gua Bersejarah di Cirebon Yang Unik Dengan Mitos Perjodohannya|last=Ma'arif|first=Samsul|website=NativeIndonesia.com|language=id|accessdate=2025-08-10}}</ref> [[Gambar:Taman Gua Sunyaragi 15.jpg|jmpl]] Dina zaman baheula, goa ieu sok dipaké ku sultan jeung pejabat kerajaan anu rék ngaso jeung sok dipaké ogé pikeun tempat mencilkeun diri.<ref name=":0" /> == Sajarah == Goa Sunyaragi diwangun dina taun 1703 Maséhi dumasar kana paréntah [[Pangeran Kararangen|Pangéran Kararangen]] salaku cicit ti [[Sunan Gunung Jati|Sunan Gunung Jat]]<nowiki/>i. Goa éta diwangun pikeun tempat diajar elmu kanuragan keur masarakat umum jeung pikeun prajurit kerajaan diajar élmu perang. Ku sabab éta, tempat éta dibéré ngaran Sunyaragi ti basa [[Basa Sangsekerta|Sansekerta]] nyaéta sunya jeung ragi, sunya anu hartina sepi jeung ragi nu hartina raga. Wangunan goa miboga konsép akulturasi ti [[Islam]], [[Hindu]] jeung budaya [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Tiongkok]].<ref name=":0" /> Dina taun 1852, goa ieu dioméan ku arsitek ti Cina dina waktos pamaréntahan [[Sultan Adiwijaya]]. Nepi ka ayeuna, goa éta tuluy dioméan ku pamaréntah, nu terakhir dina taun 1984.<ref name=":0" /> Dina taun 1937, Goa Sunyaragi dihadéan dumasar kana paréntah kolonial [[Walanda]] pikeun nguatkeun konstruksi aslina.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.kompas.com/stori/read/2025/01/01/190000179/sejarah-gua-sunyaragi-di-cirebon|title=Sejarah Gua Sunyaragi di Cirebon|last=Ningsih|first=Widya Lestari|date=1 Januari 2025|access-date=9 Agustus 2025}}</ref> == Arsitéktur == Arsitéktur Goa Sunyaragi nayéta Pangeran Kararangen anu kasohor disebat Arya Carbon salaku putra kadua [[Pangeran Mertawijaya|Pangéran Mertawijaya]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.historyofcirebon.id/2021/03/sejarah-gua-sunyaragi-cirebon.html|title=Sejarah Gua Sunyaragi Cirebon|language=id|accessdate=2025-08-10}}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Aya 12 wangunan dina jero Goa Sunyaragi anu miboga fungsi husus.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://jabarland.id/wisata-gua-sunyaragi-pesona-sejarah-dan-keindahan-alam/|title=Wisata Gua Sunyaragi, Pesona Sejarah dan Keindahan Alam|last=Deo|website=ALL ABOUT JAWA BARAT|language=en-US|accessdate=2025-08-10}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250908191838/https://jabarland.id/wisata-gua-sunyaragi-pesona-sejarah-dan-keindahan-alam/ |date=2025-09-08 }}</ref> === Bangsal Jinem === Bangsal Jinem pikeun tempat pikeun sultan méré paréntah jeung prajurit latihan perang.<ref name=":1" /> === Goa Pengawal === Goa pengawal pikeun tempat ngumpulna punggawa-punggawa sultan.<ref name=":1" /> === Kompleks Mande Kamasan === === Goa Pandékamasan === Goa pandé kemasan fungsina pikeun tempat ngajieun jeung neundeun pakarang.<ref name=":2" /> === Goa Langsé === Goa Langsé anu dimangpaatkeun pikeun mencilkeun diri.<ref name=":1" /> === Goa Simanyang === Goa simanyang anu miboga fungsi pikeun pos jaga.<ref name=":1" /> === Goa Peteng === Goa peteng mangrupa goa induk nu aya di goa sunyaragi, tempat ieu dimangpaatkeun pikeun diajar élmu kanuragan jeung tempatna tapa.<ref name=":2" /> === Goa Arga Jumud === Goa Arga Jumud sok dimangpaatkeun ku pejabat keraton.<ref name=":1" /> === Goa Padang Ati === Goa padang ati anu biasa dipaké ku sultan ngarah miboga kawijaksanaan jeung pikeun ngasah élmu batin.<ref name=":2" /> === Goa Kelanggengan === Goa Kelanggengan sok dimangpaatkeun ku pejabat supados panjang kalungguhan.<ref name=":1" /> === Goa Lawa === Goa lawa nyaéta tempat husus lalay.<ref name=":1" /> === Goa Pawon === Goa pawon dimangpaatkeun pikeun neundeun kadaharan.<ref name=":1" /> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Cagar Budaya 2.0]] 4qu8x0wr4mwuw8344sr1ovo311o7lqs 0 108059 708638 708528 2026-04-27T10:49:56Z Raflinoer32 26400 Nambahkeun inpormasi 708638 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''The Life of a Showgirl''''' nyaéta album studio ka-12 [[penyanyi]] jeung penulis lagu asal [[Amérika Sarikat|Amérika]], [[Taylor Swift]]. Album ieu dirilis tanggal 3 [[Oktober]] 2025 ngaliwatan [[Republic Records]]. Manéhna ngarékam album ieu di [[Swédia]] babarengan jeung produser Max Martin jeung Shellback, nalika leg [[Éropa]] tina [[The Eras Tour]] dina pertengahan 2024. Diinspirasi ku tur éta jeung hubungan romantisna jeung pamaén bal [[Travis Kelce]], Swift ngawangun album ieu jadi karya anu hirup, warna-warni, sarta ngagambarkeun kaayaan dirina anu keur jaya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tempo.co/teroka/taylor-swift-akan-rilis-album-baru-the-life-of-a-showgirl-2058094|title=Taylor Swift akan Rilis Album Baru: The Life of a Showgirl|website=Tempo|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vogue.sg/taylor-swift-the-life-of-a-showgirl-hidden-meanings/|title=All the hidden meanings in Taylor Swift's 'The Life of a Showgirl'|last=Jamal|first=Shyra|website=Vogue Singapore|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-03-24}}</ref> Sacara musikal, ''The Life of a Showgirl'' mangrupa album ''soft pop'' jeung ''soft rock'' anu nyaritakeun ngeunaan kasohoran Swift jeung kabagjaan dina cinta. Lagu judulna nampilkeun vokal tamu ti panyanyi [[Sabrina Carpenter]]. Dina arah visualna, Swift ngagunakeun gaya flamboyan anu diinspirasi ku ''showgirl'', sarta gawé bareng jeung fotografer mode Mert Alas jeung Marcus Piggott. Para [[jurnalis]] nyebut ieu minangka estetika [[visual]] anu paling [[provokatif]] jeung [[glamor]] dina karirna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stanforddaily.com/2025/10/06/showgirl-fatigue-a-swifties-honest-take-on-the-life-of-a-showgirl/|title=A Swiftie’s honest take on ‘The Life of a Showgirl’|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-03-24}}</ref> Swift ngumumkeun album ieu dina [[Podcast|''podcast'']] New Heights tanggal 13 Agustus 2025. Anjeunna ngamajukeun album ieu ngaliwatan wawancara dina acara talk show jeung program radio, sarta ngarilis pilem promosi The Official Release Party of a Showgirl, anu ngahasilkeun leuwih ti $50 juta sacara global. Tilu ''single'' dirilis, nyaéta lagu nomer hiji dina [[Billboard Hot 100]], “''The Fate of Ophelia''” jeung “''Opalite''”, sarta lagu anu asup tilu besar, “''Elizabeth Taylor''”. Album ieu nampa réaksi anu campuran ti [[kritikus]] musik; aya nu muji sora anu énténg jeung lirik anu santai, tapi aya ogé anu nyebut éta minangka léngkah mundur dibandingkeun karya-karya Swift saméméhna.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cn4wpe5z52qo|title=Taylor Swift: The Life of a Showgirl is a loved-up pop victory lap|website=www.bbc.com|language=en-GB|accessdate=2026-03-24}}</ref> == Kasang tukang == ''The Life of a Showgirl'' dijieun di tengah-tengah rilisna album studio ka-11 Swift, ''The Tortured Poets Department'', anu ngarebut posisi puncak tangga lagu ''Billboard 200'' salila 17 minggu, jadi pembukaan panggedéna dina karirna, sareng ogé ngagambarkeun ngaronjatna kawentar Swift jeung kahirupan pribadina anu loba dipublikasikeun salila ''[[Eras Tour]]'' taun 2023. Anjeunna ngalebetkeun lagu-lagu tina album éta kana daptar set anu diropéa pikeun tur [[Éropa]] jeung [[Amérika Kalér]] pamungkas tina ''Eras Tour'', anu lumangsung ti Méi nepi ka Désémber 2024.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Taylor Swift’s ‘Poets’ Arrives With a Promotional Blitz (and a Second LP)|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/19/arts/music/taylor-swift-tortured-poets-department.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=2024-04-19|access-date=2026-04-27|issn=0362-4331|language=en-US|first=Ben|last=Sisario}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cp0grg871dlo|title=Taylor Swift changes Eras tour setlist as European tour kicks off in Paris|website=www.bbc.com|language=en-GB|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref> Dina bulan April 2025, [[Universal Music Swédia]] ngalaporkeun dina hiji unggahan (anu ayeuna geus dihapus) yén pemain biola asal [[Swédia]], Erik Arvinder, aub dina produksi musik Swift anu bakal datang. Dina 15 Juli, majalah ''Hits'' ngalaporkeun “desas-desus gedé ngeunaan album anyar Taylor [Swift]” saméméh ahirna ngahapus klaim éta sababaraha jam ti harita. Swift ogé ngagoda ''The Life of a Showgirl'' ku rupa-rupa Easter egg, kalayan média nyatet pilihan pakean tangtu, unggahan média sosial, angka, visual, jeung pagelaran anu nyambung kana siklus promosi ''Midnights'' (2022), ''The Tortured Poets Department'', ogé ''Eras Tour''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/music/2025/08/12/taylor-swift-announces-12th-era-what-to-know-about-life-of-a-showgirl/71713227007/|title=Taylor Swift announces new album: What to know about 'The Life of a Showgirl'|last=West|first=Bryan|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref> == Panghargaan == Album ''The Life of a Showgirl'' ngahontal posisi puncak dina rupa-rupa tangga lagu sarta meunang sértifikasi multiplatinum di Amérika, [[Éropa]], jeung [[Asia-Pasifik]]. Di Amérika Sarikat, album ieu jadi album panggancangna laku dina sajarah, kalayan leuwih ti 4 juta unit dina minggu kahiji. Ieu ogé jadi album nomer hiji ka-15 Swift dina tangga lagu Billboard 200, rekor panglobana pikeun [[artis]] solo, sarta nangtung di puncak salila 12 minggu. Lagu-lagu dina album ieu ngeusian sakabéh 12 posisi luhur tangga lagu ''single'' di [[Australia]], [[Kanada]], jeung Amérika Sarikat. ''The Life of a Showgirl'' ogé jadi album panglarisna di dunya taun 2025.<ref name=":0" /> == Rujukan == <references /> rcxkerxljozeqpnjek3a9oyy9gdmtm4 708639 708638 2026-04-27T10:51:20Z Raflinoer32 26400 added [[Category:WikiSuarana]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 708639 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''The Life of a Showgirl''''' nyaéta album studio ka-12 [[penyanyi]] jeung penulis lagu asal [[Amérika Sarikat|Amérika]], [[Taylor Swift]]. Album ieu dirilis tanggal 3 [[Oktober]] 2025 ngaliwatan [[Republic Records]]. Manéhna ngarékam album ieu di [[Swédia]] babarengan jeung produser Max Martin jeung Shellback, nalika leg [[Éropa]] tina [[The Eras Tour]] dina pertengahan 2024. Diinspirasi ku tur éta jeung hubungan romantisna jeung pamaén bal [[Travis Kelce]], Swift ngawangun album ieu jadi karya anu hirup, warna-warni, sarta ngagambarkeun kaayaan dirina anu keur jaya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tempo.co/teroka/taylor-swift-akan-rilis-album-baru-the-life-of-a-showgirl-2058094|title=Taylor Swift akan Rilis Album Baru: The Life of a Showgirl|website=Tempo|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vogue.sg/taylor-swift-the-life-of-a-showgirl-hidden-meanings/|title=All the hidden meanings in Taylor Swift's 'The Life of a Showgirl'|last=Jamal|first=Shyra|website=Vogue Singapore|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-03-24}}</ref> Sacara musikal, ''The Life of a Showgirl'' mangrupa album ''soft pop'' jeung ''soft rock'' anu nyaritakeun ngeunaan kasohoran Swift jeung kabagjaan dina cinta. Lagu judulna nampilkeun vokal tamu ti panyanyi [[Sabrina Carpenter]]. Dina arah visualna, Swift ngagunakeun gaya flamboyan anu diinspirasi ku ''showgirl'', sarta gawé bareng jeung fotografer mode Mert Alas jeung Marcus Piggott. Para [[jurnalis]] nyebut ieu minangka estetika [[visual]] anu paling [[provokatif]] jeung [[glamor]] dina karirna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stanforddaily.com/2025/10/06/showgirl-fatigue-a-swifties-honest-take-on-the-life-of-a-showgirl/|title=A Swiftie’s honest take on ‘The Life of a Showgirl’|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-03-24}}</ref> Swift ngumumkeun album ieu dina [[Podcast|''podcast'']] New Heights tanggal 13 Agustus 2025. Anjeunna ngamajukeun album ieu ngaliwatan wawancara dina acara talk show jeung program radio, sarta ngarilis pilem promosi The Official Release Party of a Showgirl, anu ngahasilkeun leuwih ti $50 juta sacara global. Tilu ''single'' dirilis, nyaéta lagu nomer hiji dina [[Billboard Hot 100]], “''The Fate of Ophelia''” jeung “''Opalite''”, sarta lagu anu asup tilu besar, “''Elizabeth Taylor''”. Album ieu nampa réaksi anu campuran ti [[kritikus]] musik; aya nu muji sora anu énténg jeung lirik anu santai, tapi aya ogé anu nyebut éta minangka léngkah mundur dibandingkeun karya-karya Swift saméméhna.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cn4wpe5z52qo|title=Taylor Swift: The Life of a Showgirl is a loved-up pop victory lap|website=www.bbc.com|language=en-GB|accessdate=2026-03-24}}</ref> == Kasang tukang == ''The Life of a Showgirl'' dijieun di tengah-tengah rilisna album studio ka-11 Swift, ''The Tortured Poets Department'', anu ngarebut posisi puncak tangga lagu ''Billboard 200'' salila 17 minggu, jadi pembukaan panggedéna dina karirna, sareng ogé ngagambarkeun ngaronjatna kawentar Swift jeung kahirupan pribadina anu loba dipublikasikeun salila ''[[Eras Tour]]'' taun 2023. Anjeunna ngalebetkeun lagu-lagu tina album éta kana daptar set anu diropéa pikeun tur [[Éropa]] jeung [[Amérika Kalér]] pamungkas tina ''Eras Tour'', anu lumangsung ti Méi nepi ka Désémber 2024.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Taylor Swift’s ‘Poets’ Arrives With a Promotional Blitz (and a Second LP)|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/19/arts/music/taylor-swift-tortured-poets-department.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=2024-04-19|access-date=2026-04-27|issn=0362-4331|language=en-US|first=Ben|last=Sisario}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cp0grg871dlo|title=Taylor Swift changes Eras tour setlist as European tour kicks off in Paris|website=www.bbc.com|language=en-GB|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref> Dina bulan April 2025, [[Universal Music Swédia]] ngalaporkeun dina hiji unggahan (anu ayeuna geus dihapus) yén pemain biola asal [[Swédia]], Erik Arvinder, aub dina produksi musik Swift anu bakal datang. Dina 15 Juli, majalah ''Hits'' ngalaporkeun “desas-desus gedé ngeunaan album anyar Taylor [Swift]” saméméh ahirna ngahapus klaim éta sababaraha jam ti harita. Swift ogé ngagoda ''The Life of a Showgirl'' ku rupa-rupa Easter egg, kalayan média nyatet pilihan pakean tangtu, unggahan média sosial, angka, visual, jeung pagelaran anu nyambung kana siklus promosi ''Midnights'' (2022), ''The Tortured Poets Department'', ogé ''Eras Tour''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/music/2025/08/12/taylor-swift-announces-12th-era-what-to-know-about-life-of-a-showgirl/71713227007/|title=Taylor Swift announces new album: What to know about 'The Life of a Showgirl'|last=West|first=Bryan|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref> == Panghargaan == Album ''The Life of a Showgirl'' ngahontal posisi puncak dina rupa-rupa tangga lagu sarta meunang sértifikasi multiplatinum di Amérika, [[Éropa]], jeung [[Asia-Pasifik]]. Di Amérika Sarikat, album ieu jadi album panggancangna laku dina sajarah, kalayan leuwih ti 4 juta unit dina minggu kahiji. Ieu ogé jadi album nomer hiji ka-15 Swift dina tangga lagu Billboard 200, rekor panglobana pikeun [[artis]] solo, sarta nangtung di puncak salila 12 minggu. Lagu-lagu dina album ieu ngeusian sakabéh 12 posisi luhur tangga lagu ''single'' di [[Australia]], [[Kanada]], jeung Amérika Sarikat. ''The Life of a Showgirl'' ogé jadi album panglarisna di dunya taun 2025.<ref name=":0" /> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:WikiSuarana]] 0uydoy0vbpgu054e9xlfuh0bdx4y084 708640 708639 2026-04-27T10:51:40Z Raflinoer32 26400 added [[Category:WikiSuarana-Raflinoer32]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 708640 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''The Life of a Showgirl''''' nyaéta album studio ka-12 [[penyanyi]] jeung penulis lagu asal [[Amérika Sarikat|Amérika]], [[Taylor Swift]]. Album ieu dirilis tanggal 3 [[Oktober]] 2025 ngaliwatan [[Republic Records]]. Manéhna ngarékam album ieu di [[Swédia]] babarengan jeung produser Max Martin jeung Shellback, nalika leg [[Éropa]] tina [[The Eras Tour]] dina pertengahan 2024. Diinspirasi ku tur éta jeung hubungan romantisna jeung pamaén bal [[Travis Kelce]], Swift ngawangun album ieu jadi karya anu hirup, warna-warni, sarta ngagambarkeun kaayaan dirina anu keur jaya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tempo.co/teroka/taylor-swift-akan-rilis-album-baru-the-life-of-a-showgirl-2058094|title=Taylor Swift akan Rilis Album Baru: The Life of a Showgirl|website=Tempo|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vogue.sg/taylor-swift-the-life-of-a-showgirl-hidden-meanings/|title=All the hidden meanings in Taylor Swift's 'The Life of a Showgirl'|last=Jamal|first=Shyra|website=Vogue Singapore|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-03-24}}</ref> Sacara musikal, ''The Life of a Showgirl'' mangrupa album ''soft pop'' jeung ''soft rock'' anu nyaritakeun ngeunaan kasohoran Swift jeung kabagjaan dina cinta. Lagu judulna nampilkeun vokal tamu ti panyanyi [[Sabrina Carpenter]]. Dina arah visualna, Swift ngagunakeun gaya flamboyan anu diinspirasi ku ''showgirl'', sarta gawé bareng jeung fotografer mode Mert Alas jeung Marcus Piggott. Para [[jurnalis]] nyebut ieu minangka estetika [[visual]] anu paling [[provokatif]] jeung [[glamor]] dina karirna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stanforddaily.com/2025/10/06/showgirl-fatigue-a-swifties-honest-take-on-the-life-of-a-showgirl/|title=A Swiftie’s honest take on ‘The Life of a Showgirl’|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-03-24}}</ref> Swift ngumumkeun album ieu dina [[Podcast|''podcast'']] New Heights tanggal 13 Agustus 2025. Anjeunna ngamajukeun album ieu ngaliwatan wawancara dina acara talk show jeung program radio, sarta ngarilis pilem promosi The Official Release Party of a Showgirl, anu ngahasilkeun leuwih ti $50 juta sacara global. Tilu ''single'' dirilis, nyaéta lagu nomer hiji dina [[Billboard Hot 100]], “''The Fate of Ophelia''” jeung “''Opalite''”, sarta lagu anu asup tilu besar, “''Elizabeth Taylor''”. Album ieu nampa réaksi anu campuran ti [[kritikus]] musik; aya nu muji sora anu énténg jeung lirik anu santai, tapi aya ogé anu nyebut éta minangka léngkah mundur dibandingkeun karya-karya Swift saméméhna.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cn4wpe5z52qo|title=Taylor Swift: The Life of a Showgirl is a loved-up pop victory lap|website=www.bbc.com|language=en-GB|accessdate=2026-03-24}}</ref> == Kasang tukang == ''The Life of a Showgirl'' dijieun di tengah-tengah rilisna album studio ka-11 Swift, ''The Tortured Poets Department'', anu ngarebut posisi puncak tangga lagu ''Billboard 200'' salila 17 minggu, jadi pembukaan panggedéna dina karirna, sareng ogé ngagambarkeun ngaronjatna kawentar Swift jeung kahirupan pribadina anu loba dipublikasikeun salila ''[[Eras Tour]]'' taun 2023. Anjeunna ngalebetkeun lagu-lagu tina album éta kana daptar set anu diropéa pikeun tur [[Éropa]] jeung [[Amérika Kalér]] pamungkas tina ''Eras Tour'', anu lumangsung ti Méi nepi ka Désémber 2024.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Taylor Swift’s ‘Poets’ Arrives With a Promotional Blitz (and a Second LP)|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/19/arts/music/taylor-swift-tortured-poets-department.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=2024-04-19|access-date=2026-04-27|issn=0362-4331|language=en-US|first=Ben|last=Sisario}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cp0grg871dlo|title=Taylor Swift changes Eras tour setlist as European tour kicks off in Paris|website=www.bbc.com|language=en-GB|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref> Dina bulan April 2025, [[Universal Music Swédia]] ngalaporkeun dina hiji unggahan (anu ayeuna geus dihapus) yén pemain biola asal [[Swédia]], Erik Arvinder, aub dina produksi musik Swift anu bakal datang. Dina 15 Juli, majalah ''Hits'' ngalaporkeun “desas-desus gedé ngeunaan album anyar Taylor [Swift]” saméméh ahirna ngahapus klaim éta sababaraha jam ti harita. Swift ogé ngagoda ''The Life of a Showgirl'' ku rupa-rupa Easter egg, kalayan média nyatet pilihan pakean tangtu, unggahan média sosial, angka, visual, jeung pagelaran anu nyambung kana siklus promosi ''Midnights'' (2022), ''The Tortured Poets Department'', ogé ''Eras Tour''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/music/2025/08/12/taylor-swift-announces-12th-era-what-to-know-about-life-of-a-showgirl/71713227007/|title=Taylor Swift announces new album: What to know about 'The Life of a Showgirl'|last=West|first=Bryan|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref> == Panghargaan == Album ''The Life of a Showgirl'' ngahontal posisi puncak dina rupa-rupa tangga lagu sarta meunang sértifikasi multiplatinum di Amérika, [[Éropa]], jeung [[Asia-Pasifik]]. Di Amérika Sarikat, album ieu jadi album panggancangna laku dina sajarah, kalayan leuwih ti 4 juta unit dina minggu kahiji. Ieu ogé jadi album nomer hiji ka-15 Swift dina tangga lagu Billboard 200, rekor panglobana pikeun [[artis]] solo, sarta nangtung di puncak salila 12 minggu. Lagu-lagu dina album ieu ngeusian sakabéh 12 posisi luhur tangga lagu ''single'' di [[Australia]], [[Kanada]], jeung Amérika Sarikat. ''The Life of a Showgirl'' ogé jadi album panglarisna di dunya taun 2025.<ref name=":0" /> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:WikiSuarana]] [[Kategori:WikiSuarana-Raflinoer32]] 1lzu0fr5xc8sx7srzuw8ld42ryhxhy1 0 108073 708641 708554 2026-04-27T10:53:39Z Raflinoer32 26400 708641 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Rumah Tradisional Toraja (Tongkonan).jpg|jmpl|Rumah Adat Toraja (Tongkonan)]] '''Pambongkaran imah adat Toraja''' nyaéta hiji kajadian [[sengketa lahan]] anu lumangsung di [[Kacamatan Kurra]], [[Kabupatén Tana Toraja|Kabupaten Tana Toraja]], [[Sulawesi Kidul|Sulawesi]] [[Sulawesi Kidul|Kidul]]. Pambongkaran éta dilaksanakeun minangka tindak lanjut tina putusan Pangadilan Negeri Makale dina perkara perdata Nomor 184/Pd.tG/209/PN Mak Jo. 268/PDT/2020/PT MKS Jo. 1749 K/Pdt/2021 Jo. 613 PK/Pdt/2022.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dandapala.com/article|title=Sempat Ricuh, PN Makale Tuntaskan Eksekusi Tanah Tongkonan di Tana Toraja|website=www.dandapala.com|accessdate=2026-03-24}}</ref> Pambongkaran anu kajadian dina 5 Désémber 2025 ngancurkeun 11 wangunan, anu diwangun ku genep [[lumbung paré]] (alang), dua imah Toraja, dua imah semi permanén, sarta hiji imah adat Tongkonan Ka'pun anu umurna leuwih ti 300 taun.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ekuatorial.com/2025/12/rumah-adat-toraja-berusia-3-abad-runtuh-di-ujung-palu-pengadilan/|title=Rumah adat Toraja berusia 3 abad runtuh di ujung palu pengadilan|last=Kurniawan|first=Fikri|website=Ekuatorial|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-03-24}}</ref> Sengketa anu nyababkeun pembongkaran ieu dimimitian tina paselisihan kapamilikan lahan antara kulawarga Tongkonan Ka'pun jeung pihak Sarra cs. Dumasar kana putusan Pangadilan Negeri Makale anu ngaluarkeun surat éksekusi Nomor W22-U10/10180/HDPT/12/2025, lahan éta ditetepkeun jadi hak Sarra cs.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.kalderanews.com/2025/12/ironis-rumah-adat-toraja-berusia-300-tahun-dirobohkan-akibat-eksekusi-lahan-warga-dan-mahasiswa-tolak-pembongkaran/|title=Ironis, Rumah Adat Toraja Berusia 300 Tahun Dirobohkan Akibat Eksekusi Lahan! Warga dan Mahasiswa Tolak Pembongkaran|last=Apriyani|first=Tiara|website=https://www.kalderanews.com|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-03-24}}</ref> == Bentrokan antara aparat jeung warga == Usaha éksekusi lahan anu dilaksanakeun ku pihak aparat meunang perlawanan ti warga anu ngarojong Tongkonan Ka'pun sarta nolak putusan pangadilan. Maranéhna ngagunakeun bom molotov, busur panah, jeung petasan, ogé ngalakukeun blokade jalan ku batang kai, ranting, jeung ban urut sangkan alat beurat teu bisa nepi ka lokasi.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=https://regional.kompas.com/read/2025/12/09/085713378/rumah-adat-toraja-berusia-300-tahun-dirobohkan|title=Rumah Adat Toraja Berusia 300 Tahun Dirobohkan|last=Dennys|first=Ferril|date=9-12-2025|work=KOMPAS.com|access-date=24-03-2026}}</ref> Kaayaan beuki memanas ku datangna ratusan personil aparat gabungan ti pulisi, [[Brimob]] Parepare, [[Tentara Nasional Indonesia|TNI]], jeung [[Satpol PP]].<ref name=":1" /> Perlawanan ti warga nyababkeun aparat kaamanan nembakkeun [[gas cimata]] pikeun ngadalikeun kaayaan.<ref name=":2" /> Panitera PN Makale tuluy maca putusan, sarta ékskavator ngarobohkeun wangunan, kaasup Tongkonan Ka'pun. Akibat tina bentrokan dina prosés éksekusi éta, belasan warga luka sarta dibawa ka RSUD Dr. F. K. Kalimbo Toraja.<ref name=":1" /> == Tongkonan salaku simbol éksisténsi masarakat Toraja == [[Gambar:A funeral ceremony in Tana Toraja.jpg|jmpl|Upacara pupus di Tana Toraja]] [[Tongkonan]] miboga ciri husus nyaéta sok diwangun nyanghareup ka kalér, sabab masarakat Toraja boga kayakinan yén Puang Matua atawa Nu Maha Kawasa aya di beulah kalér dunya, sarta biasana salawasna nyanghareupan lumbung paré (alang). Tongkonan jadi pilar utama dina kahirupan masarakat Toraja pikeun ngalestarikeun tradisi komunal maranéhna ti generasi ka generasi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://balaibahasasulsel.kemendikdasmen.go.id/duta-bahasa/pindai-pandai-pin-pan/bahasa-toraja/rumah-adat-tongkonan/|title=Rumah Adat Tongkonan|website=Balai Bahasa Sulawesi Selatan|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-03-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Tongkonan {{!}} Dinas Kebudayaan dan Paribudaya Kabupaten Toraja Utara|url=https://disbudpar.torajautarakab.go.id/page/budaya/11/tongkonan|access-date=2026-03-24|language=en|last=DisBudPar Kabupaten Toraja Utara}}</ref> Tongkonan ngalangkungan harti imah biasa dina struktur sosial masarakat Toraja. Imah adat ieu miboga fungsi minangka wadah mémori koléktif anu nangtukeun jati diri [[Suku Toraja]]. Kaunikan utama Tongkonan aya dina hateupna anu melengkung siga haluan parahu, hiji gambaran historis anu jadi identitas visual anu ikonik. Pikeun masarakat Toraja, ngajaga Tongkonan sarua jeung miara puseur asal-usul jeung kahormatan kulawarga gedé anu geus diwariskeun sacara turun-temurun.<ref name=":0" /> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:WikiSuarana]] [[Kategori:WikiSuarana-Raflinoer32]] n6818dgngwdb5ykn30wgeo5wemz7tvv 0 108155 708642 708544 2026-04-27T11:00:44Z Raflinoer32 26400 Nambahan inpormasi 708642 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Tagar KaburAjaDulu.jpg|jmpl|''Hashtag K''aburAjaDulu]] '''#KaburAjaDulu''' nyaéta hiji tagar anu jadi fenomena sosial sarta viral di [[média sosial]] Indonesia dina bulan Pébruari 2025, utamana di platform [[X (média sosial)|X]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tren #KaburAjaDulu, Upaya Anak Muda Merefleksikan Kesenjangan Global|url=https://www.kompas.com/tren/read/2025/02/05/183000965/tren-kaburajadulu-upaya-anak-muda-merefleksikan-kesenjangan-global|newspaper=KOMPAS.com|date=2025-02-05|access-date=2026-03-31|language=id|first=Kompas Cyber|last=Media}}</ref> Tagar ieu dipaké ku warganét [[Indonésia]] pikeun ngébréhkeun kahayang ninggalkeun Indonésia demi néangan kasempetan pagawean, [[atikan]], atawa kahirupan anu leuwih hadé di luar nagri. Fenomena ieu ngagambarkeun kahariwang kana kaayaan sosial jeung [[ékonomi]] di jero nagri, saperti mahalna biaya atikan, kurangna lapangan pagawean, sarta gaji anu dianggap leutik. Ngaliwatan #KaburAjaDulu, loba pamaké ngabagi informasi ngeunaan lowongan pagawean, [[béasiswa]], jeung kasempetan karir di luar nagri.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Anies soal #Kaburajadulu: Tak Perlu Ragukan Nasionalisme Mereka|url=https://kumparan.com/kumparannews/anies-soal-kaburajadulu-tak-perlu-ragukan-nasionalisme-mereka-24Y7l1c2vy3|newspaper=kumparan|access-date=2026-03-31|language=id-ID}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Awal Mula #KaburAjaDulu Viral di Media Sosial hingga Direspons Istana|url=https://www.merdeka.com/peristiwa/awal-mula-kaburajadulu-viral-di-media-sosial-hingga-direspons-istana-316686-mvk.html|newspaper=merdeka.com|access-date=2026-03-31|language=en}}</ref> Salian ti éta, #KaburAjaDulu ogé jadi wadah diskusi ngeunaan tekanan sosial jeung ékonomi, kaasup lingkungan pagawean anu teu kondusif jeung hubungan pribadi anu teu séhat. Sababaraha warganet nganggap “kabur” minangka solusi pikeun néangan kahirupan anu leuwih hadé, sedengkeun nu séjén ngadebatkeun dampakna kana nasionalisme jeung kasatiaan ka nagara.<ref>{{Cite news|title=7 Fakta dan Respons Pengamat hingga Menlu Usai Viral Tagar #KaburAjaDulu|url=https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/5924495/7-fakta-dan-respons-pengamat-hingga-menlu-usai-viral-tagar-kaburajadulu|newspaper=liputan6.com|access-date=2026-03-31|language=id|last=Liputan6.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Viral dengan Tagar #KaburAjaDulu, Pahami dan Ketahui Fenomena Ini|url=https://www.fimela.com/lifestyle/read/5924738/viral-dengan-tagar-kaburajadulu-pahami-dan-ketahui-fenomena-ini|newspaper=fimela.com|access-date=2026-03-31|language=id|last=Fimela.com}}</ref> Tokoh publik saperti [[Anies Baswédan]] boga pamadegan yén néangan kasempetan di luar nagri lain hartina kaleungitan rasa nasionalisme, tapi malah bisa jadi cara pikeun ningkatkeun kualitas hirup sarta méré kontribusi anu leuwih hadé pikeun bangsa.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Ramai Netizen Suarakan #KaburAjaDulu, Kecewa dengan Indonesia?|url=https://inet.detik.com/cyberlife/d-7779355/ramai-netizen-suarakan-kaburajadulu-kecewa-dengan-indonesia|newspaper=detikinet|access-date=2026-03-31|language=id-ID|first=Adi Fida|last=Rahman}}</ref> == Kasang tukang == Munculna #KaburAjaDulu bisa ditelusurkeun deui ka taun 2023, nalika para pegiat [[téhnologi]] mimiti ngagunakeun ieu tagar minangka ajakan pikeun néangan kasempetan di [[luar nagri]]. Sanajan kitu, popularitasna ningkat pisan dina bulan Pébruari 2025, sasarengan jeung beuki ningkatna rasa teu puas masarakat kana kaayaan di jero nagri. Ieu tagar jadi viral minangka bentuk kritik kana rupa-rupa kawijakan pamaréntah anu dianggap ngarugikeun masarakat, sapertos pangurangan anggaran [[atikan]] jeung ningkatna angka [[PHK]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.merdeka.com/peristiwa/awal-mula-kaburajadulu-viral-di-media-sosial-hingga-direspons-istana-316686-mvk.html|title=Awal Mula #KaburAjaDulu Viral di Media Sosial hingga Direspons Istana|website=merdeka.com|language=id|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnbcindonesia.com/news/20250216162843-4-611054/lagi-tren-gerakan-kaburajadulu-di-ri-langsung-disorot-media-asing|title=Lagi Tren Gerakan #KaburAjaDulu di RI Langsung Disorot Media Asing|last=Puspadini|first=Mentari|website=CNBC Indonesia|language=id|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref> Salah sahiji tokoh anu dianggap boga pangaruh dina ngadorong gagasan damel di luar nagri nyaéta [[Irwan Prasetiyo]], saurang paniten ketenagakerjaan anu ti baheula geus nyuarakeun pentingna [[nonoman]] Indonésia néangan pangalaman damel di luar nagri. Irwan remen nekenkeun yén damel di luar nagri teu saukur méré gaji anu leuwih alus, tapi ogé kasempetan pikeun meunangkeun kamampuh global anu bakal mangpaat lamun hiji waktu balik deui ka Indonésia. Dina sababaraha [[wawancara]] jeung [[seminar]], manéhna ogé ngkritik henteu mampuna pamaréntah dina nyiptakeun lapangan gawé anu berkualitas, sarta ngadorong nonoman supaya teu ragu néangan kasempetan di luar nagri.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompasiana.com/hadiratimanputrandruru0410/67b0060cc925c45cd47db2b2/kaburajadulu-tren-di-media-sosial-fenomena-atau-sindiran|title=#KaburAjaDulu : Tren di Media Sosial, Fenomena atau Sindiran?|last=Kompasiana.com|website=KOMPASIANA|language=id|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/5924495/7-fakta-dan-respons-pengamat-hingga-menlu-usai-viral-tagar-kaburajadulu|title=7 Fakta dan Respons Pengamat hingga Menlu Usai Viral Tagar #KaburAjaDulu|last=Liputan6.com|website=liputan6.com|language=id|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:WikiSuarana-Raflinoer32]] tsgu1czwcpu9yrly0zgt61d89rltg5g 0 108157 708643 708547 2026-04-27T11:04:12Z Raflinoer32 26400 Raflinoer32 mindahkeun kaca [[Pembunuhan Affan Kurniawan]] ka [[Pupusna Affan Kurniawan]]: Judul anu salah éja, atawa typo. 708547 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Pembunuhan Affan Kurniawan''' lumangsung dina mangsa unjuk rasa di sakuriling Gedong [[Déwan Pangwakil Rahayat Républik Indonésia|DPR]]/MPR RI, Jakarta Pusat, dina 28 Agustus 2025, ku cara ditabrak jeung dilindes ku kendaraan taktis Rimueng<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metrotvnews.com/read/KZmCVDp2-spesifikasi-mobil-rantis-rimueng-yang-digunakan-dalam-kasus-affan-kurniawan|title=Spesifikasi Mobil Rantis Rimueng, yang Digunakan dalam Kasus Affan Kurniawan|last=TV|first=Metro|website=https://www.metrotvnews.com|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> milik [[Satuan Brigade Mobil (Brimob)]] Kepolisian Daerah Metro Jaya. Kajadian ieu micu [[unjuk rasa]] anu leuwih gedé di rupa-rupa tempat di Indonesia, sakaligus narik perhatian husus ti pamaréntah jeung masarakat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.suara.com/news/2025/08/28/224012/driver-ojol-yang-tewas-dilindas-rantis-brimob-bernama-affan-kurniawan|title=Driver Ojol yang Tewas Dilindas Rantis Brimob Bernama Affan Kurniawan|website=suara.com|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.id/artikel/kendaraan-taktis-brimob-melindas-pengemudi-ojek-daring-7-polisi-diperiksa|title=Kendaraan Taktis Brimob Melindas Pengemudi Ojek Daring hingga Tewas, 7 Polisi Diperiksa|last=harry.susilo@kompas.com|first=Harry Susilo-|website=Kompas.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> == Latar tukang == Ti saprak 25 Agustus 2025,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/articles/cr5rj1pv1ppo|title=Demo '25 Agustus' tolak tunjangan rumah anggota DPR ricuh, Dasco: Tunjangan Rp 50 juta dihentikan|website=BBC News Indonesia|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tempo.co/politik/kronologi-demo-memprotes-dpr-hingga-meluas-berubah-penjarahan-2065182|title=Kronologi Demo Memprotes DPR hingga Meluas Berubah Penjarahan|website=Tempo|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> unjuk rasa dibarengan ku karusuhan lumangsung di rupa-rupa wewengkon di Indonésia. Unjuk rasa ieu awalna dipicu ku protes kana ayana tunjangan anyar pikeun anggota Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia, nyaéta tunjangan perumahan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kumparan.com/kumparannews/isi-tuntutan-demo-25-agustus-di-dpr-hapus-tunjangan-stop-pemborosan-anggaran-25j0E3PRst6|title=Isi Tuntutan Demo 25 Agustus di DPR: Hapus Tunjangan-Stop Pemborosan Anggaran|website=kumparan|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> Sajaba ti éta, ogé didorong ku kanaékan pajeg bumi jeung bangunan anu kajadian di sababaraha daérah, sarta kakeuheul masarakat kana kinerja pamaréntah dina ngungkulan kasenjangan ékonomi jeung kanaékan biaya hirup.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/articles/cr5rj1pv1ppo|title=Demo '25 Agustus' tolak tunjangan rumah anggota DPR ricuh, Dasco: Tunjangan Rp 50 juta dihentikan|website=BBC News Indonesia|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> == Korban == Affan Kurniawan (18 Juli 2004 – 28 Agustus 2025) nyaéta saurang pangemudi ojek daring [[Gojek]] asal Indonésia. Affan cicing babarengan jeung kulawargana di imah kontrakan di Jalan Tayu, [[Ménténg, Jakarta Pusat|Ménténg]], [[Kota Jakarta Pusat|Jakarta Pusat]]. Di kontrakan éta, manéhna hirup jeung tujuh anggota kulawarga, kaasup kolotna, adina awéwé nu ngaranna Wulantika Ramadhanti, jeung lanceuk lalaki ngaranna Adam Al Rasyid anu ogé pangemudi ojek daring. Saméméh digawé jadi pangemudi ojek daring dina 2022, manéhna kungsi digawé jadi satpam di kawasan Menteng.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://katadata.co.id/lifestyle/varia/68b1515152ece/profil-affan-kurniawan-driver-ojol-yang-tewas-dilindas-rantis-brimob|title=Profil Affan Kurniawan, Driver Ojol yang Tewas Dilindas Rantis Brimob - Varia Katadata.co.id|last=Putri|first=Safrezi, Destiara Anggita|website=katadata.co.id|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> Affan ogé dipikanyaho geus digawé lepas ti saprak 2015 sanggeus henteu neruskeun atikan ka tingkat sakola menengah pertama. Anjeunna dipikanyaho masih ngalaksanakeun pagawéanana salaku pangojek daring dina poé unjuk rasa. Tina bukti pesenan anu ditarima dina poé éta, Affan henteu boga niat pikeun ilubiung langsung dina aksi demonstrasi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tempo.co/hukum/affan-kurniawan-ojol-demonstrasi-2064976|title=Cita-cita Kandas Affan Kurniawan|website=Tempo|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:WikiSuarana]] [[Kategori:WikiSuarana-Raflinoer32]] ee9c3k6xr27e39adl0tzpyu2yqi8b6o 708645 708643 2026-04-27T11:27:49Z Raflinoer32 26400 Nambahan inpormasi 708645 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Pembunuhan Affan Kurniawan''' lumangsung dina mangsa unjuk rasa di sakuriling Gedong [[Déwan Pangwakil Rahayat Républik Indonésia|DPR]]/MPR RI, Jakarta Pusat, dina 28 Agustus 2025, ku cara ditabrak jeung dilindes ku kendaraan taktis Rimueng<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metrotvnews.com/read/KZmCVDp2-spesifikasi-mobil-rantis-rimueng-yang-digunakan-dalam-kasus-affan-kurniawan|title=Spesifikasi Mobil Rantis Rimueng, yang Digunakan dalam Kasus Affan Kurniawan|last=TV|first=Metro|website=https://www.metrotvnews.com|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> milik [[Satuan Brigade Mobil (Brimob)]] Kepolisian Daerah Metro Jaya. Kajadian ieu micu [[unjuk rasa]] anu leuwih gedé di rupa-rupa tempat di Indonesia, sakaligus narik perhatian husus ti pamaréntah jeung masarakat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.suara.com/news/2025/08/28/224012/driver-ojol-yang-tewas-dilindas-rantis-brimob-bernama-affan-kurniawan|title=Driver Ojol yang Tewas Dilindas Rantis Brimob Bernama Affan Kurniawan|website=suara.com|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.id/artikel/kendaraan-taktis-brimob-melindas-pengemudi-ojek-daring-7-polisi-diperiksa|title=Kendaraan Taktis Brimob Melindas Pengemudi Ojek Daring hingga Tewas, 7 Polisi Diperiksa|last=harry.susilo@kompas.com|first=Harry Susilo-|website=Kompas.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> == Latar tukang == Ti saprak 25 Agustus 2025,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/articles/cr5rj1pv1ppo|title=Demo '25 Agustus' tolak tunjangan rumah anggota DPR ricuh, Dasco: Tunjangan Rp 50 juta dihentikan|website=BBC News Indonesia|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tempo.co/politik/kronologi-demo-memprotes-dpr-hingga-meluas-berubah-penjarahan-2065182|title=Kronologi Demo Memprotes DPR hingga Meluas Berubah Penjarahan|website=Tempo|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> unjuk rasa dibarengan ku karusuhan lumangsung di rupa-rupa wewengkon di Indonésia. Unjuk rasa ieu awalna dipicu ku protes kana ayana tunjangan anyar pikeun anggota Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia, nyaéta tunjangan perumahan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kumparan.com/kumparannews/isi-tuntutan-demo-25-agustus-di-dpr-hapus-tunjangan-stop-pemborosan-anggaran-25j0E3PRst6|title=Isi Tuntutan Demo 25 Agustus di DPR: Hapus Tunjangan-Stop Pemborosan Anggaran|website=kumparan|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> Sajaba ti éta, ogé didorong ku kanaékan pajeg bumi jeung bangunan anu kajadian di sababaraha daérah, sarta kakeuheul masarakat kana kinerja pamaréntah dina ngungkulan kasenjangan ékonomi jeung kanaékan biaya hirup.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/articles/cr5rj1pv1ppo|title=Demo '25 Agustus' tolak tunjangan rumah anggota DPR ricuh, Dasco: Tunjangan Rp 50 juta dihentikan|website=BBC News Indonesia|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> == Korban == Affan Kurniawan (18 Juli 2004 – 28 Agustus 2025) nyaéta saurang pangemudi ojek daring [[Gojek]] asal Indonésia. Affan cicing babarengan jeung kulawargana di imah kontrakan di Jalan Tayu, [[Ménténg, Jakarta Pusat|Ménténg]], [[Kota Jakarta Pusat|Jakarta Pusat]]. Di kontrakan éta, manéhna hirup jeung tujuh anggota kulawarga, kaasup kolotna, adina awéwé nu ngaranna Wulantika Ramadhanti, jeung lanceuk lalaki ngaranna Adam Al Rasyid anu ogé pangemudi ojek daring. Saméméh digawé jadi pangemudi ojek daring dina 2022, manéhna kungsi digawé jadi satpam di kawasan Menteng.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://katadata.co.id/lifestyle/varia/68b1515152ece/profil-affan-kurniawan-driver-ojol-yang-tewas-dilindas-rantis-brimob|title=Profil Affan Kurniawan, Driver Ojol yang Tewas Dilindas Rantis Brimob - Varia Katadata.co.id|last=Putri|first=Safrezi, Destiara Anggita|website=katadata.co.id|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> Affan ogé dipikanyaho geus digawé lepas ti saprak 2015 sanggeus henteu neruskeun atikan ka tingkat sakola menengah pertama. Anjeunna dipikanyaho masih ngalaksanakeun pagawéanana salaku pangojek daring dina poé unjuk rasa. Tina bukti pesenan anu ditarima dina poé éta, Affan henteu boga niat pikeun ilubiung langsung dina aksi demonstrasi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tempo.co/hukum/affan-kurniawan-ojol-demonstrasi-2064976|title=Cita-cita Kandas Affan Kurniawan|website=Tempo|language=id|accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> == Kajadian == Dina peuting tanggal 28 Agustus 2025, sanggeus wates waktu pikeun nyampeurkeun pamadegan di kompleks Gedong MPR/DPR RI geus béak, massa masih ngalakukeun perlawanan di Jalan Penjernihan I, Bendungan Hilir, Jakarta Pusat, tepatna di hareupeun [[Geréja Kristen Protéstan Angkola]] Penjernihan di kawasan Pejompongan. Ku kituna, maranéhna kapaksa dipukul mundur ku Brimob.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tempo.co/hukum/affan-kurniawan-ojol-demonstrasi-2064976|title=Cita-cita Kandas Affan Kurniawan|website=Tempo|language=id|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref> Dina waktu éta, Affan keur ngaliwatan lokasi unjuk rasa pikeun nganter pesenan. Sababaraha saksi mata nyebutkeun yén Affan katabrak jeung kalindes sanggeus ragrag lantaran kaselepet waktu nyobian nyebrang jalan pikeun nyingkahan kaayaan ricuh nalika hiji kendaraan taktis milik Brimob jenis Rimueng ngaliwat di jalan anu sarua.[15] Tina video anu sumebar di [[média sosial]], kendaraan taktis lapis baja éta katingali sempet eureun sanggeus nabrak Affan, tapi sanggeus dikurilingan ku massa anu nyobian mukul jeung ngalempar mobil éta, kendaraan tetep maju sarta nyéréd Affan sababaraha meter jeung ngalindes awakna. Anjeunna langsung dibawa ka [[Rumah Sakit Cipto Mangunkusumo]] (RSCM) kalayan luka parna, tapi usaha [[médis]] pikeun nyalametkeun anjeunna henteu hasil. Anjeunna pupus sababaraha waktu sanggeusna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tangerang.tribunnews.com/news/50829/sosok-affan-kurniawan-driver-ojol-meninggal-usai-ditabrak-barracuda-brimob-di-pejompongan|title=Sosok Affan Kurniawan, Driver Ojol Meninggal usai Ditabrak Barracuda Brimob di Pejompongan|website=Tribuntangerang.com|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jakarta.tribunnews.com/jakarta/422302/affan-affan-tangis-keluarga-driver-ojol-yang-tewas-dilindas-mobil-rantis-polisi-pecah-di-rscm|title='Affan! Affan!' Tangis Keluarga Driver Ojol yang Tewas Dilindas Mobil Rantis Polisi Pecah di RSCM|website=Tribunjakarta.com|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref> Affan dimakamkeun dina Jumaah beurang, 29 Agustus 2025, kira-kira jam 10.20 WIB, di [[Tempat Pemakaman Umum Karet Bivak]], Jakarta Pusat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/articles/cn475k3gwk3o|title=Sopir kendaraan taktis yang melindas Affan Kurniawan dihukum demosi tujuh tahun – 'Kami mohon dibukakan maaf'|website=BBC News Indonesia|language=id|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref> Salain Affan Kurniawan, dilaporkeun yén aya korban séjén ngaranna Moh Umar Amirudin, anu ogé mangrupa supir ojek daring. Umar ngalaman luka parna akibat kajadian sarupa. Nepi ka Jumaah isuk kénéh, 29 Agustus 2025, kaayaan Umar geus sadar sanajan masih karasa nyeri sarta keur dirawat sacara intensif di [[Rumah Sakit Pelni]], [[Palmérah, Jakarta Kulon|Palmérah]], [[Kota Jakarta Kulon|Jakarta]] [[Kota Jakarta Kulon|Kulon]]. Sababaraha média nyebutkeun yén duanana aya di lokasi lantaran kabeneran ngaliwat, lain minangka bagian tina peserta unjuk rasa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://makassar.tribunnews.com/opini/1811047/sosok-pria-driver-ojol-tewas-terlindas-mobil-taktis-moh-umar-amirudin-dan-affan-kurniawan|title=Sosok Pria Driver Ojol Tewas Terlindas Mobil Taktis: Moh Umar Amirudin dan Affan Kurniawan|website=Tribun-timur.com|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref> == Rujukan == <references /> [[Kategori:WikiSuarana]] [[Kategori:WikiSuarana-Raflinoer32]] 4f7lojkuwq8ht1isi1kgq9o7ngxnvvh 0 108159 708621 707621 2026-04-26T19:41:09Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708621 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Walét Keléng | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="IUCN">{{cite web |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22712319/155449001 |title=Cecropis daurica |publisher=IUCN Red List |accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> | image = The Red Rumped Swallow.jpg | image_caption = Cecropis daurica, némbongkeun ciri khas warna beureum dina bagian tunggirna. | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Manuk|Aves]] | ordo = [[Passeriformes]] | familia = [[Hirundinidae]] | genus = ''[[Cecropis]]'' | species = '''''C. daurica''''' | binomial = ''Cecropis daurica'' | binomial_authority = ([[Laxmann]], 1769) }} '''Walét ageung; Walét Keléng'''; ''Cecropis daurica''; (ᮝᮜᮦᮒ᮪ ᮊᮨᮜᮦᮀ) atanapi dina basa Inggris dipikawanoh ku nami '''Red-rumped Swallow''' nyaéta spésiés manuk tina kulawarga [[Hirundinidae]] anu miboga ciri khas mangrupa warna semu beureum dina bagian tonggong handapna.<ref name="Ebira">{{cite web |url=https://ebird.org/species/reruma1 |title=Red-rumped Swallow |publisher=eBird |accessdate=2026-03-31 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Nami Lokal (Vernakular) == Ieu manuk miboga sababaraha nami: * '''Basa Sunda:''' [[Walét keléng]], [[walét tunggir beureum]]. * '''Basa Indonésia:''' [[Layang-layang loreng]], [[layang-layang goa]]. * '''Basa Inggris:''' [[Red-rumped Swallow]].<ref name="IOC">{{cite web |url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/swallows/ |title=Swallows |publisher=IOC World Bird List |accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> == Status Konservasi == Dumasar kana daptar beureum [[IUCN]], ''Cecropis daurica'' asup kana kategori '''Least Concern (LC)''' atanapi "Resiko Handap". Populasina sumebar lega sarta kawilang stabil di sakuliah dunya.<ref name="IUCN" /> == Panyebaran == Walét keléng miboga wewengkon panyebaran anu lega pisan, ti mimiti kidul [[Éropa]], [[Afrika]], [[Asia Tengah]], dugi ka [[Asia Tenggara]]. Di [[Indonésia]], ieu manuk mindeng kapanggih di pulo [[Sumatera]], [[Jawa]], [[Bali]], sarta [[Nusa Tenggara]]. Sabagian populasi di wilayah kalér mangrupakeun manuk [[migrasi]] anu pindah ka wilayah tropis nalika usum tiis.<ref name="Ebira" /> == Ciri Fisik == * '''Warna:''' Bagian luhur awakna (mahkota jeung tonggong) warnana biru poék métalik. Bagian tukang beuheung sarta tunggir (rump) warnana coklat semu beureum (''rufous''). * '''Bagian Handap:''' Dada sarta beuteungna warnana bodas semu coklat kalayan garis-garis hideung leutik (''streaking''). * '''Buntut:''' Panjang sarta nyagak pisan kawas gunting, mirip jeung Walét Sawah tapi leuwih kaku.<ref name="IOC" /> == Baranahan == Walét keléng dipikawanoh ku kapinteranana nyieun sayang tina leutak anu wangunna unik pisan. * '''Sayang:''' Bentukna kawas kendi atanapi torowongan anu miboga liang panto asup panjang (''tunnel entrance''). Sayangna napel dina lalangit guha, handapeun sasak, atanapi dina bagian wangunan anu haneut. * '''Endog:''' Biasana neundeun 3 nepi ka 6 endog warna bodas bersih. * '''Sipat:''' Ieu manuk mindeng sayangna dipaké deui dina taun-taun saterusna sarta hirup dina kelompok leutik.<ref name="Ebira" /> == Sipat jeung Kadaharan == Kadaharan utamana nyaéta [[gegeremet]] hiber (''aerial insects'') saperti [[laleur]], [[simeut]] leutik, sarta rupa-rupa gegeremet sawah séjénna. Cara hiberna leuwih antaré sarta leuwih loba ngalayang (''gliding'') batan Walét Sawah.<ref name="IOC" /> == Référénsi == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Hirundinidae]] [[Kategori:Manuk]] [[Kategori:Sato di Indonésia]] i7bri7e3uvwyzaa1r11hvzap6pxw0oc 0 108160 708617 707622 2026-04-26T18:39:08Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708617 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Tohtor | status = NT | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="IUCN">{{cite web |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22681809/92921074 |title=Psilopogon javensis |publisher=IUCN Red List |accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> | image = Black-banded Barbet.jpg | image_caption = Psilopogon javensis, némbongkeun garis hideung (band) dina dadana sarta kelir konéng dina sirahna. | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Manuk|Aves]] | ordo = [[Piciformes]] | familia = [[Megalaimidae]] | genus = ''[[Psilopogon]]'' | species = '''''P. javensis''''' | binomial = ''Psilopogon javensis'' | binomial_authority = ([[Horsfield]], 1821) | synonyms = * ''Megalaima javensis'' <small>Horsfield, 1821</small> }} '''Tulung tumpuk; Tohtor'''; ''Psilopogon javensis'' (ᮒᮧᮂᮒᮧᮁ) atanapi dina basa Inggris dipikawanoh ku nami '''Black-banded Barbet''' nyaéta salah sahiji spésiés manuk éndemik (asli) ti Pulo [[Jawa]], [[Indonésia]]. Ieu manuk kaasup kana kulawarga [[Megalaimidae]] sarta dipikawanoh ku sora "tohtor-tohtor" anu ritmis sarta tarik.<ref name="Ebira">{{cite web |url=https://ebird.org/species/bkbarb1 |title=Black-banded Barbet |publisher=eBird |accessdate=2026-03-31 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Nami Lokal (Vernakular) == Ieu manuk miboga sababaraha nami: * '''Basa Sunda:''' [[Tohtor]], [[ulung-ulung]]. * '''Basa Indonésia:''' [[Takur tulung-tumpuk]]. * '''Basa Inggris:''' [[Black-banded Barbet]], [[Javan Barbet]].<ref name="IOC">{{cite web |url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/jacamars/ |title=Jacamars, puffbirds, barbets, toucans, honeyguides |publisher=IOC World Bird List |accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> == Status Konservasi == Dumasar kana daptar beureum [[IUCN]], ''Psilopogon javensis'' asup kana kategori '''Near Threatened (NT)''' atanapi "Hampir Terancam". Hal ieu lantaran habitat leuweung di dataran handap Jawa beuki loba anu ruksak sarta leungit.<ref name="IUCN" /> == Panyebaran == Tohtor mangrupakeun manuk éndemik anu ngan saukur kapanggih di Pulo [[Jawa]]. Habitat aslina nyaéta leuweung tropis dataran handap nepi ka wewengkon pasir (sub-montane), ti luhurna 0 nepi ka 1.500 méter di luhur permukaan laut (mdpl).<ref name="Ebira" /> == Ciri Fisik == * '''Warna:''' Awakna didominasi ku warna héjo caang. * '''Sirah:''' Sirahna miboga kombinasi warna anu éndah; tarang sarta pipina warnana konéng, sedengkeun bagian beuheungna miboga garis hideung anu kandel (band) anu janten ciri utama spésiés ieu. * '''Pamatuk:''' Miboga paruh anu badag sarta kuat kalayan rupa-rupa rambut (''bristles'') dina sabudeureun pangkal paruhna.<ref name="IOC" /> == Baranahan == Manuk tohtor dipikawanoh ku kamampuhna nyieun liang dina tatangkalan pikeun sayangna. * '''Sayang:''' Maranéhna nyieun liang dina dahan tangkal anu parantos paéh atanapi hipu. Liangna dijieun buleud sampurna ngagunakeun paruhna anu kuat. * '''Endog:''' Biasana neundeun 2 nepi ka 3 endog warna bodas bersih. * '''Sipat:''' Ieu manuk téh sato anu ''soliter'' (nyalira) atanapi hirup bareng jeung pasanganna. Maranéhna kacida jaga wewengkonna (''territorial'').<ref name="Ebira" /> == Sipat jeung Kadaharan == Kadaharan utamana nyaéta rupa-rupa bungbuahan leutik, hususna buah kiara (''Ficus''). Sajaba ti éta, tohtor ogé sok ngadahar [[gegeremet]] leutik sarta hileud pikeun nambihan protéinna.<ref name="IOC" /> == Référénsi == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Megalaimidae]] [[Kategori:Manuk]] [[Kategori:Sato éndemik Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Aves]] qxjgk2ziai9vmm35ni6j5x5fwnikzd4 0 108162 708612 707624 2026-04-26T17:11:22Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708612 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Saéran Kulawu | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="IUCN">{{cite web |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22706964/131945532 |title=Dicrurus leucophaeus |publisher=IUCN Red List |accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> | image = Ashy drongo in Latpanchar April 2024 by Tisha Mukherjee 03.jpg | image_caption = Dicrurus leucophaeus, némbongkeun kelir kulawu sarta buntut nyagak anu jadi ciri khasna. | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Manuk|Aves]] | ordo = [[Passeriformes]] | familia = [[Dicruridae]] | genus = ''[[Dicrurus]]'' | species = '''''D. leucophaeus''''' | binomial = ''Dicrurus leucophaeus'' | binomial_authority = [[Vieillot]], 1817 }} '''Srigunting abu-abu; Saéran Kulawu'''; ''Dicrurus leucophaeus''; (ᮞᮦᮛᮔ᮪ ᮊᮥᮜᮝᮥ) atanapi dina basa Inggris dipikawanoh ku nami '''Ashy Drongo''' nyaéta salah sahiji spésiés manuk tina kulawarga [[Dicruridae]]. Ieu manuk dipikawanoh ku warna awakna anu kulawu poék sarta sipatna anu agrésif nalika ngajaga wilayahna.<ref name="Ebira">{{cite web |url=https://ebird.org/species/ashdro1 |title=Ashy Drongo |publisher=eBird |accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> == Nami Lokal (Vernakular) == Ieu manuk miboga sababaraha nami: * '''Basa Sunda:''' [[Saéran kulawu]], [[saéran awu]]. * '''Basa Indonésia:''' [[Srigunting kelabu]]. * '''Basa Inggris:''' [[Ashy Drongo]].<ref name="IOC">{{cite web |url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/crow-birds/ |title=Crows, mudlarks, birds-of-paradise |publisher=IOC World Bird List |accessdate=2026-03-31 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Status Konservasi == Dumasar kana daptar beureum [[IUCN]], ''Dicrurus leucophaeus'' asup kana kategori '''Least Concern (LC)''' atanapi "Resiko Handap". Populasina kacida lobana sarta panyebaranna lega pisan di sakuliah [[Asia]].<ref name="IUCN" /> == Panyebaran == Saéran kulawu sumebar lega ti mimiti [[India]] bagian wétan, [[Tiongkok]], dugi ka [[Asia Tenggara]] kaasup [[Indonésia]]. Di Indonésia, ieu manuk kapanggih di pulo [[Sumatera]], [[Jawa]], [[Bali]], [[Kalimantan]], sarta [[Lombok]]. Sabagian populasi ti wilayah kalér mangrupakeun manuk [[migrasi]] anu pindah ka wilayah kidul nalika usum tiis.<ref name="Ebira" /> == Ciri Fisik == * '''Warna:''' Sakujur awakna didominasi ku warna kulawu poék (ashy gray). Bagian handapna sakapeung leuwih caang. * '''Panon:''' Iris panonna warnana beureum caang, némbongkeun kontras anu jelas jeung warna bulu sirahna. * '''Buntut:''' Panjang sarta nyagak pisan (''forked tail'') kawas gunting, mangrupakeun ciri khas kulawarga saéran.<ref name="IOC" /> == Baranahan == Ieu manuk nyieun sayang dina dahan tatangkalan anu luhur sarta rada jauh tina batang utama. * '''Sayang:''' Bentukna kawas cangkir anu deet sarta ramping, dijieun tina serat tatangkalan sarta jaring lancah supados kuat napel dina dahan. * '''Endog:''' Biasana neundeun 2 nepi ka 4 endog warna bodas semu jambon kalayan bintik-bintik coklat. * '''Sipat:''' Saéran kulawu kacida wanianna; maranéhna moal asa-asa narjang manuk anu leuwih badag saperti Heulang upami ngadeukeutan sayangna.<ref name="Ebira" /> == Sipat jeung Kadaharan == Kadaharan utamana nyaéta rupa-rupa [[gegeremet]] saperti [[simeut]], [[papanting]], sarta [[laleur]]. Maranéhna pinter néwak mangsa bari hiber (''hawking''). Sajaba ti éta, manuk ieu ogé dipikawanoh pinter niron-niron sora manuk sanés (''mimicry'') pikeun ngabobodo mangsa atanapi musuhna.<ref name="IOC" /> == Référénsi == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Dicruridae]] [[Kategori:Manuk]] [[Kategori:Sato di Indonésia]] 5as69usi88byyoufwizlcjeqifpdlp3 0 108164 708608 707627 2026-04-26T16:30:00Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708608 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Sepah Leutik | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="IUCN">{{cite web |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22706741/130419266 |title=Pericrocotus cinnamomeus |publisher=IUCN Red List |accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> | image = Small Minivet (Pericrocotus cinnamomeus) male - Flickr - Lip Kee.jpg | image_caption = Pericrocotus cinnamomeus (jantan), némbongkeun kombinasi warna oranyeu hurung sarta kulawu poék. | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Manuk|Aves]] | ordo = [[Passeriformes]] | familia = [[Campephagidae]] | genus = ''[[Pericrocotus]]'' | species = '''''P. cinnamomeus''''' | binomial = ''Pericrocotus cinnamomeus'' | binomial_authority = ([[Linnaeus]], 1766) }} '''Sepah gunung; Sepah Leutik'''; ''Pericrocotus cinnamomeus''; (ᮞᮨᮕᮂ ᮜᮩᮒᮤᮊ᮪) atanapi dina basa Inggris dipikawanoh ku nami '''Small Minivet''' nyaéta salah sahiji spésiés manuk leutik tina kulawarga [[Campephagidae]]. Ieu manuk dipikawanoh ku warna awakna anu hurung sarta kabiasaanana anu sok hirup ngabubuhan dina pucuk tatangkalan.<ref name="Ebira">{{cite web |url=https://ebird.org/species/smamin1 |title=Small Minivet |publisher=eBird |accessdate=2026-03-31}}</ref> == Nami Lokal (Vernakular) == Ieu manuk miboga sababaraha nami: * '''Basa Sunda:''' [[Sepah leutik]], [[manuk sepah]]. * '''Basa Indonésia:''' [[Sepah kecil]]. * '''Basa Inggris:''' [[Small Minivet]].<ref name="IOC">{{cite web |url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/bristlebill/ |title=Cuckooshrikes, shrikes, babblers, etc. |publisher=IOC World Bird List |accessdate=2026-03-31 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Status Konservasi == Dumasar kana daptar beureum [[IUCN]], ''Pericrocotus cinnamomeus'' asup kana kategori '''Least Concern (LC)''' atanapi "Resiko Handap". Populasina kawilang stabil sarta sumebar lega di wewengkon tropis [[Asia]].<ref name="IUCN" /> == Panyebaran == Sepah leutik sumebar di sakuliah [[Asia Kidul]] dugi ka [[Asia Tenggara]], ngawengku nagara [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Vietnam]], [[Kamboja]], sarta [[Indonésia]]. Di Indonésia, ieu manuk kapanggih di pulo [[Sumatera]], [[Jawa]], sarta [[Bali]]. Habitatna nyaéta [[leuweung]] haneut, [[kebon]], sarta wewengkon rungkun terbuka.<ref name="Ebira" /> == Ciri Fisik == * '''Jantan:''' Miboga sirah sarta tonggong warna kulawu poék semu hideung. Bagian dada, beuteung, sarta sisi buntutna warnana oranyeu hurung atawa semu beureum. * '''Bikang:''' Warnana leuwih kusam, didominasi ku warna kulawu dina bagian luhur sarta warna konéng pias dina bagian handapna. * '''Ukuran:''' Awakna ramping, panjangna kira-kira 15 cm.<ref name="IOC" /> == Baranahan == Sepah leutik nyieun sayang anu kacida rapihna sarta hésé katingali lantaran kamuflasena anu sampurna. * '''Sayang:''' Bentukna kawas cangkir leutik anu déét, dijieun tina harambay tatangkalan sarta rambat [[lancah]], sarta dihias ku lukut atanapi kulit kai supados mirip jeung dahan tangkal. * '''Endog:''' Biasana neundeun 2 nepi ka 3 endog warna héjo pias kalayan bintik-bintik [[coklat]]. * '''Sipat:''' Ieu manuk téh sato sosial anu mindeng néangan kadaharan dina kelompok leutik (4-10 buntut) bari terus disada téréptépan.<ref name="Ebira" /> == Sipat jeung Kadaharan == Kadaharan utamana nyaéta rupa-rupa [[gegeremet]] leutik sarta hileud. Maranéhna pinter néwak mangsa dina sela-sela dangdaunan (''gleaning'') atanapi néwak bari hiber pondok (''sallying'').<ref name="IOC" /> == Référénsi == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Campephagidae]] [[Kategori:Manuk]] [[Kategori:Sato di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Aves]] a7dprtfig3g52k84rfbov4woz06vuzn 0 108198 708600 707722 2026-04-26T14:20:44Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708600 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Potamarcha congener | image = Potamarcha congener, Sambisari Temple complex 02.jpg | image_caption = ''Potamarcha congener'' di kompléks Candi Sambisari, Yogyakarta | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Arthropoda]] | classis = [[Serangga|Insecta]] | ordo = [[Papatong|Odonata]] | familia = [[Libellulidae]] | genus = ''[[Potamarcha]]'' | species = '''''P. congener''''' | binomial = ''Potamarcha congener'' | binomial_authority = (Rambur, 1842) }} '''Potamarcha congener''' nyaéta salah sahiji spésiés [[papatong]] tina kulawarga [[Libellulidae]].<ref name="WDA">World Dragonflies. [https://www.worlddragonflies.org/ Potamarcha congener (Rambur, 1842)]{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.</ref> Ieu sato munggaran didéskripsikeun sacara ilmiah ku [[Jules Pierre Rambur]] dina taun 1842.<ref name="Rambur1842">Rambur, J.P. (1842). ''Histoire naturelle des insectes. Névroptères''. Paris: Librairie Encyclopédique de Roret.</ref> == Vérnakular == Dina basa Sunda, sato ieu umumna disebut '''papatong''' waé sakumaha ilaharna baturna Odonata.<ref name="ITIS">ITIS. [https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=593339 ITIS Report: Potamarcha congener].</ref> Dina basa Inggris, ieu spésiés dipikawanoh ku ngaran ''yellow-tailed skimmer'' atawa ''common chaser''.<ref name="IUCN">IUCN Red List. [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/163717/5640570 Potamarcha congener].</ref> == Taksonomi == Spésiés ieu mangrupa anggota tina génus ''[[Potamarcha]]'' anu sumebar lega di wilayah [[tropis]].<ref name="NCBI">NCBI. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=333458 Taxonomy Browser: Potamarcha congener].</ref> Dina dunya taksonomi, ieu papatong dipikawanoh boga struktur urat jangjang anu husus anu ngabédakeunana jeung génus séjén dina kulawarga [[Libellulidae]].<ref name="ITIS"/> == Sebaranna == Sebaranna pohara lega, ngawengku wilayah [[Asia Kidul]] nepi ka [[Asia Tenggara]] sarta sawatara bagian di [[Australia]].<ref name="GBIF">GBIF.org. [https://www.gbif.org/species/1428384 Potamarcha congener (Rambur, 1842)].</ref> Di [[Indonésia]], ieu papatong bisa kapanggih di ampir sakuliah kapuloan, ti mimiti dataran rendah nepi ka wewengkon pasir.<ref name="GBIF"/> == Habitat == Habitat alami ieu sato nyaéta di sabudeureun cai anu tenang saperti [[balong]], [[sawah]], [[rawa]], sarta solokan anu caina henteu tarik teuing palidnw.<ref name="IUCN"/> Maranéhna mindeng katingal eunteup dina tungtung régang garing atawa jukut di sisi cai nalika nunggu mangsana.<ref name="NCBI"/> == Ciri fisik == Papatong ieu boga ukuran awak anu sedeng kalawan warna dominan abu-abu semu biru (pruinescens) dina bagian dada (thorax) sato anu geus kolot.<ref name="ITIS"/> Jangjangna hérang transparan sarta boga bintik hideung leutik (pterostigma) dina tungtungna.<ref name="WDA"/> Salaku [[prédator]], papatong ieu ngahakan rupa-rupa gegeremet leutik séjénna bari hiber.<ref name="IUCN"/> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Papatong]] [[Kategori:Serangga]] [[Kategori:Odonata]] [[Kategori:Libellulidae]] [[Kategori:Sato di Indonésia]] 5eyjicjrfg5i8lfig0awxdp3bt1ej39 0 108200 708597 707725 2026-04-26T12:57:15Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708597 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Neurothemis terminata | image = Neurothemis terminata - Kampus Unsrat Manado.JPG | image_caption = ''Neurothemis terminata'' jantan di Kampus Unsrat, Manado | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Arthropoda]] | classis = [[Serangga|Insecta]] | ordo = [[Papatong|Odonata]] | familia = [[Libellulidae]] | genus = ''[[Neurothemis]]'' | species = '''''N. terminata''''' | binomial = ''Neurothemis terminata'' | binomial_authority = Ris, 1911 }} '''Neurothemis terminata''' nyaéta salah sahiji spésiés [[papatong]] tina kulawarga [[Libellulidae]].<ref name="WDA">World Dragonflies. [https://www.worlddragonflies.org/ Neurothemis terminata (Ris, 1911)]{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.</ref> Ieu sato munggaran didéskripsikeun sacara ilmiah ku [[Friedric Ris]] dina taun 1911.<ref name="Ris1911">Ris, F. (1911). ''Libellulinen monographisch bearbeitet''. Collections Zoologiques du Baron Edm. de Selys Longchamps.</ref> == Vérnakular == Dina basa Sunda, sato ieu umumna disebut '''papatong beureum''' dumasar kana warna awak jeung jangjangna anu dominan beureum (hususna nu jalu).<ref name="ITIS">ITIS. [https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=593297 ITIS Report: Neurothemis terminata].</ref> Dina basa Inggris, ieu spésiés dipikawanoh ku ngaran ''straight-edged red bolt''.<ref name="IUCN">IUCN Red List. [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/163751/5645731 Neurothemis terminata].</ref> == Taksonomi == Spésiés ieu mangrupa anggota tina génus ''[[Neurothemis]]'' anu anggotana kawentar boga jangjang kalawan pola warna anu poék pisan.<ref name="NCBI">NCBI. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=1256334 Taxonomy Browser: Neurothemis terminata].</ref> Dina dunya taksonomi, ieu papatong dipikawanoh boga ciri unik dina tungtung pola warna jangjangna anu lempeng, béda jeung baraya deukeutna nyaéta ''Neurothemis fluctuans''.<ref name="ITIS"/> == Sebaranna == Sebaranna pohara lega di wilayah Asia Tenggara, ngawengku [[Indonésia]], [[Pilipina]], [[Malaysia]], nepi ka wilayah [[Palau]].<ref name="GBIF">GBIF.org. [https://www.gbif.org/species/1428543 Neurothemis terminata (Ris, 1911)].</ref> Di Indonésia, ieu papatong bisa kapanggih ampir di sakuliah pulo, ti mimiti [[Jawa]], [[Sumatra]], [[Sulawesi]], nepi ka [[Nusa Tenggara]].<ref name="GBIF"/> == Habitat == Habitat alami ieu sato nyaéta di wewengkon anu deukeut ka cai tenang saperti [[balong]], [[sawah]], [[rawa]], sarta sisi [[leuweung]].<ref name="IUCN"/> Maranéhna mindeng katingal eunteup dina jukut atawa régang garing di tempat anu kakeunaan ku cahaya srangéngé langsung.<ref name="NCBI"/> == Ciri fisik == Papatong jalu boga warna awak jeung jangjang beureum lestreng, iwal ti bagian tungtung jangjangna anu hérang transparan.<ref name="ITIS"/> Sedengkeun anu bikang biasana boga warna cokelat konéng kalawan jangjang anu lolobana transparan.<ref name="WDA"/> Salaku [[prédator]], sato ieu kacida pentingna pikeun ngajaga kasaimbangan ékosistem ku cara ngadahar gegeremet leutik séjénna.<ref name="IUCN"/> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Papatong]] [[Kategori:Serangga]] [[Kategori:Odonata]] [[Kategori:Libellulidae]] [[Kategori:Sato di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:gegeremet]] dkoa7w1sjez1fcwzrk8kyilctaoxp1o 0 108204 708613 707743 2026-04-26T17:53:17Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708613 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox World Heritage Site | WHS = Taman Nasional Lorentz | Image = [[File:Taman nasional Lorentz.jpg|200px|Taman Nasional Lorentz]] | State Party = {{INA}} | Type = Alam | Criteria = vii, viii, ix, x | ID = 955 | Region = [[Daptar Situs Warisan Dunya di Asia jeung Oséania|Asia Pasifik]] | Year = 1999 | Session = ka-23 | area = 2.505.600 [[Héktar|ha]] | lat_d = 4 | lat_m = 45 | lat_s = | lat_NS = S | long_d = 137 | long_m = 50 | long_s = | long_EW = E | map = Indonesia | map_caption = Perenahna Taman Nasional Lorentz di Indonésia | Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/955 }} '''Taman Nasional Lorentz''' nyaéta taman nasional pangbadagna di Asia Tenggara anu perenahna di propinsi [[Papua]], [[Indonésia]]. Kalayan legana sakitar 2.505.600 [[Héktar|ha]] sarta sacara géografis perenahna dina koordinat 4°45'S 137°50'E, ieu kawasan ngawengku sababaraha wilayah administratif saperti [[Kabupatén Asmat]], [[Kabupatén Mimika]], jeung [[Kabupatén Jayawijaya]].<ref name="UNESCO">UNESCO World Heritage Centre. [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/955 Lorentz National Park].</ref> Kawasan ieu mangrupa salah sahiji taman nasional anu miboga ékosistem paling lengkep di dunya, mimiti ti wilayah basisir nepi ka puncak gunung anu saljuan.<ref name="Dephut">Kamentrian Lingkungan Hidup jeung Kehutanan. [http://www.menlhk.go.id Profil Taman Nasional Lorentz].</ref> == Kaistimewaan == Kaistimewaan utama Taman Nasional Lorentz nyaéta ayana gletser atawa salju abadi di Puncak [[Cartensz Pyramide]] (Puncak Jaya), anu mangrupa salah sahiji ti saeutik gunung tropis di dunya anu miboga és.<ref name="UNESCO"/> Salian ti éta, taman nasional ieu mangrupa Situs Warisan Dunya (''World Heritage Site'') anu ngawengku rupa-rupa tipe [[végétasi]], mimiti ti leuweung [[babakoan]] (''mangrove''), [[rawa]], nepi ka padang jukut [[alpén]] (''alpine grass'').<ref name="IUCN">IUCN. [https://www.iucn.org/ Protected Areas: Lorentz].</ref> == Sajarah == [[File:Taman Nasional Lorentz.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Taman Nasional Lorentz]] Ngaran ''Lorentz'' dicokot tina ngaran saurang panalungtik asal Walanda, [[Hendrikus Albertus Lorentz]], anu ngalakukeun ékspédisi di wilayah ieu dina taun 1909.<ref name="GBIF">GBIF.org. [https://www.gbif.org/dataset/84457580-705d-11e0-911d-00145eb45e97 Biodiversity in Lorentz National Park]{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.</ref> Dina taun 1990, pamaréntah [[Indonésia]] netepkeun wewengkon ieu salaku [[Taman Nasional]], sarta dina taun 1999 resmi didaptarkeun ku [[UNESCO]] salaku Situs Warisan Dunya.<ref name="UNESCO"/> == Flora == Taman Nasional Lorentz miboga rupa-rupa [[tutuwuhan]] anu kacida beungharna, di antarana: * ''Leuweung Mangrove'': didominasi ku jinis ''[[Rhizophora]]'' jeung ''[[Avicennia]]''. * ''Leuweung Rawa'': loba kapanggih tatangkalan [[Sagu]] (''[[Metroxylon sagu]]''). * ''Vegetasi Alpén'': rupa-rupa jinis lumut jeung jukut luhur saperti ''[[Deschampsia]]''. * ''Tatangkalan lianna'': saperti [[Nira]] (''[[Nypa fruticans]]'') sarta rupa-rupa jinis [[Angkrék]] (''[[Orchidaceae]]'').<ref name="NCBI">NCBI. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi Taxonomy Browser: Lorentz Flora].</ref> == Fauna == Kawasan ieu mangrupa imah pikeun rupa-rupa sato liar anu kabagi kana sababaraha kelompok:<ref name="IUCN"/> === Mamalia === * [[Kangguru Tangkal]] (''[[Dendrolagus]]'') * [[Echidna]] monyong panjang (''[[Zaglossus bruijni]]'') * [[Posum]] (''[[Phalanger]]'') === Aves (Manuk) === * [[Cendrawasih]] (''[[Paradisaeidae]]'') * [[Kasuari]] (''[[Casuarius]]'') * [[Kakatua]] (''[[Cacatua]]'') * [[Puyuh Salju]] (''[[Anurophasis monorthonyx]]'') === Réptil jeung Amfibi === * [[Kuya]] monyong babi (''[[Carettochelys insculpta]]'') * [[Buaya]] muara (''[[Crocodylus porosus]]'') * Rupa-rupa jinis [[Kadali]] sarta [[Ulay]] asli Papua. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Taman Nasional di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Situs Warisan Dunya di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Papua]] [[Kategori:Taman Nasional]] 7aes37kg3cu0ikigcu2dpnenoszhbbj 0 108238 708596 707943 2026-04-26T12:41:04Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 708596 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width:22em; font-size:90%; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9; padding:5px;" |- ! colspan="2" style="font-size:125%; background-color:#ccffcc; text-align:center;" | Mystacoleucus |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[File:Barb gonio 080525 9625 ltn.jpg|250px]]<br/>''Salah sahiji jinis Mystacoleucus (Génggéhék) ti perairan Jawa.'' |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Regnum | [[Animalia]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Phylum | [[Chordata]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Classis | [[Actinopterygii]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Ordo | [[Cypriniformes]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Familia | [[Cyprinidae]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Genus | '''Mystacoleucus''' |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Jinis | [[Lauk Cai Tawar]] |} '''Mystacoleucus''' nyaéta salah sahiji genus [[Lauk]] tina kulawarga [[Cyprinidae]] (kulawarga lauk mas). Genus ieu sumebar di perairan tawar wilayah [[Asia Tenggara]] sarta [[Asia Timur]]. Lauk-lauk tina genus ieu miboga ciri fisik anu has sarta mangrupa bagian penting tina ékosistem walungan di Indonésia.<ref name="FishBaseMysta">Froese, R. and D. Pauly. (2026). ''Genus Mystacoleucus''. FishBase. https://www.fishbase.se/identification/RegionSpeciesList.php?genus=Mystacoleucus</ref> == [[Vérnakular]] == * Di [[Indonésia]], anggota genus ieu anu paling kasohor nyaéta '''[[Ampa|Génggéhék]]''' (''M. marginatus'').<ref name="Kottelat">Kottelat, M., dkk. (1993). ''Freshwater Fishes of Western Indonesia and Sulawesi''. Periplus Editions.</ref> * Di sawatara daérah, lauk ieu ogé disebut ku nami '''[[Kapiat]]''' atanapi '''[[Masik]]'''.<ref name="KemenkeuMysta">Kementerian Kelautan dan Perikanan RI. ''Inventarisasi Sumber Daya Ikan Lokal''. https://kkp.go.id/djpb/{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == [[Karakteristik Mandiri]] == Genus ''Mystacoleucus'' miboga bédana anu nyata dibandingkeun genus sanésna dina kulawarga Cyprinidae: * '''[[Cucuk Nyangirah]] (Procumbent Dorsal Spine):''' Ciri utama genus ieu nyaéta miboga cucuk leutik anu seukeut sarta nyangirah (ngarah) ka hareup, perenahna pas di payuneun sirip tonggongna.<ref name="NelsonFish">Nelson, J.S. (2006). ''Fishes of the World''. John Wiley & Sons.</ref> * '''[[Sisit]]:''' Miboga sisit anu warna pérak mencrang, mindeng miboga pola garis atanapi bintik hideung dina tungtung siripna.<ref name="FishBaseMysta"/> * '''[[Ukuran]]:''' Lolobana anggota genus ieu ukuranna sedeng, biasana henteu leuwih ti 20 cm panjangna. == Sebaran sarta Habitat == * '''[[Wilayah]]:''' Kapanggih sacara alami di walungan-walungan di [[Thailand]], [[Malaysia]], [[Laos]], [[Viétnam]], sarta [[Indonésia]] (hususna [[Jawa]], [[Sumatra]], sarta [[Kalimantan]]).<ref name="Kottelat"/> * '''[[Habitat]]:''' Resep hirup di walungan anu palina cai sedeng dugi ka tarik, caina herang, sarta dasarna taringgul ku sela-sela batu walungan.<ref name="SeriouslyFishMysta">Seriously Fish. ''Mystacoleucus species profile''. https://www.seriouslyfish.com/group/barbs/</ref> == Daptar Spésiés == Aya sababaraha spésiés anu parantos diaku sacara ilmiah dina genus ieu, di antarana: * ''[[Mystacoleucus argenteus]]'' * ''[[Mystacoleucus atridorsalis]]'' * ''[[Mystacoleucus marginatus]]'' ([[Génggéhék]]) * ''[[Mystacoleucus padangensis]]'' (Lauk Bilih ti situ Singkarak)<ref name="FishBaseMysta"/> == Baranahan == Lauk dina genus ieu baranahan ku cara neundeun endog dina substrat dasar walungan. Prosés mijahna kacida gumantungna kana kaayaan usum, dimana parobahan debit cai nalika usum hujan janten tanda pikeun mimiti baranahan.<ref name="KemenkeuMysta"/> == [[Référénsi]] == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Cyprinidae]] [[Kategori:Mystacoleucus]] [[Kategori:Lauk cai tawar]] [[Kategori:Lauk Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Lauk]] ige9da8lfmc3ehhntm94xtj8qualr4v 0 108395 708631 2026-04-27T04:09:13Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 Mindahkeun ka [[Kurban]] 708631 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Kurban]] attic5vewgdkizp8r39ips7ba2m1adx 0 108396 708635 2026-04-27T08:50:24Z Syahira Rizkia 27597 Nyieun kaca anyar '''Kangker kulit''' nyaéta kaayaan tumuwuhna sél-sél dina kulit anu teu normal. Panyababna rupa-rupa, kitu deui tingkat parahna ogé béda-béda. Kangker kulit paling ilahar kapanggih dina lapisan [[sél skuamosa]], basal, jeung mélanosit. Biasana, kangker ieu tumuwuh dina [[épidermis]] (lapisan pangluarna kulit), ku kituna tumor atawa benjolanana bisa katingali ti luar. Ku sabab kitu, gejalana kaasup anu paling gampang katingali ti mimiti tahapan awal. Salian ti éta... 708635 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kangker kulit''' nyaéta kaayaan tumuwuhna sél-sél dina kulit anu teu normal. Panyababna rupa-rupa, kitu deui tingkat parahna ogé béda-béda. Kangker kulit paling ilahar kapanggih dina lapisan [[sél skuamosa]], basal, jeung mélanosit. Biasana, kangker ieu tumuwuh dina [[épidermis]] (lapisan pangluarna kulit), ku kituna tumor atawa benjolanana bisa katingali ti luar. Ku sabab kitu, gejalana kaasup anu paling gampang katingali ti mimiti tahapan awal. Salian ti éta, kangker kulit ogé kaasup jinis kangker anu résiko maotna leuwih leutik, lantaran biasana hésé nyebar nepi ka organ-organ vital saperti [[jantung]], [[paru-paru]], [[Kabubuahan|ginjal]], jeung batang otak dina awak manusa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.alodokter.com/kanker-kulit|title=Kanker Kulit|website=Alodokter|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rspondokindah.co.id/id/news/kanker-kulit-penyebab-gejala-penanganan|title=Kanker Kulit: Gejala, Penyebab, dan Penanganan {{!}} RS Pondok Indah|website=www.rspondokindah.co.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://iccc.id/sekilas-kanker-kulit|title=Sekilas Kanker Kulit|website=iccc.id|language=en|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref> == Référénsi == kbxi2fm90mrdxgbdh4n85rb55p0bjod 708636 708635 2026-04-27T08:53:01Z Syahira Rizkia 27597 708636 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kangker kulit''' nyaéta kaayaan tumuwuhna sél-sél dina kulit anu teu normal. Panyababna rupa-rupa, kitu deui tingkat parahna ogé béda-béda. Kangker kulit paling ilahar kapanggih dina lapisan [[sél skuamosa]], basal, jeung mélanosit.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ayosehat.kemkes.go.id/penyakit/kanker-kulit|title=Kanker Kulit|website=ayosehat.kemkes.go.id|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref> Biasana, kangker ieu tumuwuh dina [[épidermis]] (lapisan pangluarna kulit), ku kituna tumor atawa benjolanana bisa katingali ti luar. Ku sabab kitu, gejalana kaasup anu paling gampang katingali ti mimiti tahapan awal. Salian ti éta, kangker kulit ogé kaasup jinis kangker anu résiko maotna leuwih leutik, lantaran biasana hésé nyebar nepi ka organ-organ vital saperti [[jantung]], [[paru-paru]], [[Kabubuahan|ginjal]], jeung batang otak dina awak manusa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.alodokter.com/kanker-kulit|title=Kanker Kulit|website=Alodokter|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rspondokindah.co.id/id/news/kanker-kulit-penyebab-gejala-penanganan|title=Kanker Kulit: Gejala, Penyebab, dan Penanganan {{!}} RS Pondok Indah|website=www.rspondokindah.co.id|language=id|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://iccc.id/sekilas-kanker-kulit|title=Sekilas Kanker Kulit|website=iccc.id|language=en|accessdate=2026-04-27}}</ref> == Référénsi == e6zh2hhfksax7wvjwagyqzmymwxy8sf 0 108397 708644 2026-04-27T11:04:12Z Raflinoer32 26400 Raflinoer32 mindahkeun kaca [[Pembunuhan Affan Kurniawan]] ka [[Pupusna Affan Kurniawan]]: Judul anu salah éja, atawa typo. 708644 wikitext text/x-wiki #ALIH [[Pupusna Affan Kurniawan]] cmms3f9pbjr0vw2n6okof6r5rcxowuc 0 108398 708646 2026-04-27T11:56:01Z Dinototosugiarto 11449 Ngabaladah 708646 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Al-Hakim''' (basa Arab: الحاكم) nyaéta salah sahiji jejer utama dina [[Ushul Fiqh]] anu ngabahas ngeunaan sumber mutlak tina sagala [[hukum]] sarta wewenang pikeun nangtukeun hak jeung kawajiban manusa.<ref>Al-Ghazali, ''Al-Mustasfa fi 'Ilm al-Ushul'', Jilid 1, kc. 83.</ref> == Wangenan == Sacara istilah, Al-Hakim nyaéta zat anu mibanda wewenang mutlak pikeun nangtukeun hukum sarta méré paréntah ka sakabéh [[manusa]] (''[[Mukalaf|mukallaf]]'').<ref>Al-Amidi, ''Al-Ihkam fi Ushul al-Ahkam'', Jilid 1, kc. 112.</ref> Sakabéh ulama [[Islam]] sapuk yén anu disebut Al-Hakim téh nyaéta [[Alloh]] SWT.<ref>Asy-Syatibi, ''Al-Muwafaqat'', Jilid 1, kc. 154.</ref> == Kalungguhan Akal sarta Wahyu == Dina nangtukeun hukum, para ulama béda pandangan ngeunaan peran [[akal]]: * '''Asy'ariyah:''' Akal manusa teu mibanda wewenang pikeun nangtukeun hukum tanpa pituduh tina [[wahyu]].<ref>Al-Iji, ''Al-Mawaqif fi 'Ilm al-Kalam'', kc. 321.</ref> * '''Mu'tazilah:''' Akal manusa bisa mikanyaho kahadéan (''husn'') sarta kagoréngan (''qubh'') hiji perkara sarta nangtukeun hukumna sanajan tacan aya wahyu.<ref>Al-Jashshash, ''Al-Fushul fi al-Ushul'', Jilid 2, kc. 245.</ref> == Dicutat tina == {{reflist}} == Rujukan Primér == * '''Al-Amidi, Saifuddin'''. ''Al-Ihkam fi Ushul al-Ahkam''. Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-Arabi. * '''Al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid'''. ''Al-Mustasfa fi 'Ilm al-Ushul''. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyah. * '''Al-Jashshash, Abu Bakar'''. ''Al-Fushul fi al-Ushul''. Kuwait: Wizarat al-Awqaf. * '''Asy-Syatibi, Abu Ishaq'''. ''Al-Muwafaqat fi Ushul asy-Syari'ah''. Kairo: Dar Ibnu 'Affan. * '''Ibnu Amir al-Hajj'''. ''At-Taqrir wa at-Tahbir fi 'Ilm al-Ushul''. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr. [[Kategori:Ushul Fiqih]] [[Kategori:Hukum Islam]] iqgvsi9dt2dg32a1xjblepckzw0gc0s 0 108399 708647 2026-04-27T11:58:58Z Haikal FK 1705 24730 Dijieun ku cara narjamahkeun kaca "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1347169202|Phantom of Heilbronn]]" 708647 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Hn-gedenktafel-theresienwiese.jpg|ka|jmpl|250x250px|Tanggeran pikeun ngingetkeun tempat kajadian paéhna Perwira Kiesewetter]] '''Jurig Heilbronn''', nu sok disebut ogé jadi '''Awéwé Euweuh Beungeutan''', éta téh saurang awéwé tukang maéhan jelema nu paéhna ngaruntuy (''serial killer'') nu ceuk hipotésis mah teu bisa kapaluruh saha-sahana sakumaha anu dicindekkeun tina bukti-bukti DNA nu katimu di sababaraha tempat kajadian perkara (TKP) di Ostria, Parancis, jeung Jérman saprak taun 1993 nepi ka 2009. Genep jelema nu kapaéhan téh salah sahijina perwira pulisi Michèle Kiesewetter, di Heilbronn, Jerman, sabot tanggal 25 April 2007. Nu jadi hiji-hijina patula-patali heuleutna kabangsatan éta téh pédah ayana DNA ti saurang awéwé, nu geus katimu ti 40 TKP, kaasup tina kasus dipaéhanana jelema nepi ka bangsat. Pas keur tungtung bulan Maret 2009, jelema-jelma nu nalungtik nyieun kacindekkan lamun saenyana mah euweuh éta nu disebut "bangsat jurig" téh, jeung deuih, DNA nu salila ieu loba katimu téh geus aya ti dituna dina kapas nu dipaké pikeun ngumpulkeun sémpel DNA; asalna mah tina DNA bogana saurang awéwé nu jadi pagawé di pabrik tempat nyieun éta kapas.<ref name="BBC2009">{{Cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7966641.stm|title='DNA bungle' haunts German police|date=2009-03-28|access-date=2021-11-09|work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> == Béréndélan Tujuleun == {{Reflist}} == Tempo ogé == * Prawo Jazdy (dipajarkeun kriminal), 'kriminal jurig' di Républik Irlandia == Tutumbu kaluar == * ''[http://www.thelocal.de/national/20090113-16739.html Ganjaran pikeun 'pameuncit hantu' ngahontal rékor €300.000]'', The Local, 13 Januari 2009 * Allan Hall: ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20090211004359/http://www.theage.com.au/world/woman-without-a-face-leaves-german-police-in-the-dark-20081116-683p.html?page=-1 'Awéwé Tanpa Rupa' ngajantenkeun pulisi Jerman teu terang]'', The Age, 17 Nopémber 2008 * Ned Temko: ''[https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2008/nov/09/germany-serial-killer Pamburuan Jérman pikeun pembunuh anu katelah 'awéwé tanpa rupa']'', The Guardian, 9 Nopémber 2008 * ''[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1584625/DNA-clues-in-hunt-for-faceless-serial-killer.html Petunjuk DNA dina paburuan pembunuh berantai 'tanpa rupa']'', The Daily Telegraph, 14 April 2008 * Tristana Moore: ''[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7341360.stm Jérman moro pembunuh hantu]'', [[BBC]], 11 April 2008 * Allan Hall: ''[http://news.scotsman.com/latestnews/Police-step-up-hunt-for.3966304.jp Pulisi ningkatkeun usaha pikeun milarian pembunuh berantai, 'awéwé tanpa rupa']'', The Scotsman, 10 April 2008 * Roger Boyes: ''[http://www.independent.ie/world-news/europe/junkies-needle-may-lead-to-woman-serial-killer-890844.html Jarum Junkie tiasa nyababkeun awéwé janten pembunuh berantai]'', Irish Independent, 29 Juni 2007 * Peter M. Schneider: ''[https://www.aerzteblatt.de/archiv/65020/Forensische-DNA-Analyse-Fall-eines-Phantoms-und-die-Folgen Forensische DNA-Analyse: Fall eines Phantoms – und die Folgen]'', Deutsches Ärzteblatt, 2009; 106(24): A-1239 / B-1057 / C-1029 i1uce9hmqayprmg3al56bj4fu6v3j6g