Wikipedia tumwiki https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jani_likulu MediaWiki 1.45.0-wmf.5 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Guinea 0 6970 112791 112001 2025-06-16T02:50:30Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 112791 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Country in West Africa}} {{redirect|Guinée|the concept in the African diasporic religion|Haitian Vodou}} {{distinguish|French Guiana|Guinea-Bissau|Equatorial Guinea|New Guinea}} {{for multi|the region|Guinea (region)|other uses|Guinea (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}} {{Use British English|date=September 2019}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Republic of Guinea | common_name = Guinea | native_name = {{native name|fr|République de Guinée}}<br>{{nativename|fuf|𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤘𞤭𞤲𞤫}}<br>{{nativename|emk| ߖߌ߬ߣߍ߫ ߞߊ ߝߊߛߏߖߊߡߊߣߊ}} | image_flag = Flag of Guinea.svg | alt_flag = [[Flag of Guinea|Flag]] | image_coat = Coat of Arms of Guinea.svg | symbol_type = [[Coat of arms of Guinea|Coat of arms]] | national_motto = {{native phrase|fr|"Travail, Justice, Solidarité"|italics=off}}<br />"Work, Justice, Solidarity" | national_anthem = {{native name|fr|[[Liberté (anthem)|Liberté]]}}<br />"Freedom"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:National Anthem of Guinea by US Navy Band.ogg]]}} | image_map = Guinea (orthographic projection).svg | map_caption = Guinea in dark green | image_map2 = Location Guinea AU Africa.svg | map_caption2 = {{map caption |countryprefix= |location_color=dark blue |region=Africa |region_color=dark grey |subregion=the [[African Union]] |subregion_color=light blue}} | capital = [[Conakry]] | coordinates = {{Coord|9|31|N|13|42|W|type:city}} | largest_city = Conakry | official_languages = [[French language|French]] | languages_type = [[Vernacular language|Vernacular<br />language]]s | languages = {{Collapsible list |framestyle=border:none; padding:0; |[[French language|French]] |[[Arabic language|Arabic]] |[[English language|English]] |[[Fula language|Fula]] |[[Mandinka language|Malinké]] |([[N'Ko language|N'ko]]) |[[Susu language|Susu]] |[[Kissi language|Kissi]] |[[Maninka language|Koro]] |[[Kpelle language|Kpelle]] |[[Temne language|Temne]] |[[Toma language|Toma]] |[[Badyara language|Badyara]] |[[Baga language|Baga]] |[[Bambara language|Bambara]] |[[Bassari language|Bassari]] |[[Dan language|Dan]] |[[Dyula language|Dyula]] |[[Landoma language|Landoma]] |[[Limba language|Limba]] |[[Maninka language|Maninka]] |[[Mano language|Mano]] |[[Pular language|Pular]] |[[Sua language|Sua]] |[[Wamey language|Wamey]] |[[Yalunka language|Yalunka]] |[[Zialo language|Zialo]] }} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 33.4% [[Fula people|Fula]] | 29.4% [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] | 21.2% [[Susu people|Susu]] | 7.8% [[Kpelle people|Kpelle]] | 6.2% [[Kissi people|Kissi]] | 2.0% others }} | ethnic_groups_year = <ref name="CIA Factbook1">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea/|title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=26 December 2020 }}</ref> | religion = {{unbulleted list|89.1% [[Islam]]|6.8% [[Christianity]]| 1.6% [[Traditional African religions|Folk religions]]| 2.5% Other}} | religion_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Guinea |date=2022-03-02 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea/#people-and-society |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en |access-date=2022-03-05}}</ref> | demonym = Guinean | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[republic]] under a [[military junta]] | leader_title1 = [[List of presidents of Guinea|Interim President]] and [[National Committee of Reconciliation and Development|CNRD Chairman]] | leader_name1 = [[Mamady Doumbouya]] | leader_title2 = [[List of prime ministers of Guinea|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Amadou Oury Bah]] | leader_title3 = [[National Assembly (Guinea)|Speaker of Parliament]] | leader_name3 = <!--Currently vacant---> | leader_title4 = [[Supreme Court of Guinea|Supreme Court]] | leader_name4 = <!--Currently vacant---> | legislature = [[National Council of the Transition]]<ref>[[National Assembly (Guinea)|National Assembly]] is currently suspended in the wake of the [[2021 Guinean coup d'état]].</ref> | sovereignty_note = (was the colony of [[French Guinea]] since 1891) | sovereignty_type = Independence | established_event1 = from France | established_date1 = 2 October 1958 | established_event2 = Republic | established_date2 = 2 October 1958 | established_event3 = 4th constitution | established_date3 = 2 October 1958 | established_event4 = Second Republic Day | established_date4 = 3 April 1984 | established_event5 = [[2021 Guinean coup d'état]] | established_date5 = 5 September 2021 | area_km2 = 245,857 | area_rank = 77th <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]]--> | area_sq_mi = 94,926 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = negligible | population_estimate = 13,607,249<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Guinea|access-date=22 June 2023|year=2023}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 75th | population_density_km2 = 40.9 | population_density_sq_mi = 106.1 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $33.7 &nbsp;billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> <!--Do not edit!-->| GDP_PPP_rank = 142nd | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}}$2,993<ref name=imf2/> <!--Do not edit!--> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 166th | GDP_nominal = {{increase }}$14.8 &nbsp;billion<ref name=imf2/> <!--Do not edit!--> | GDP_nominal_rank = 140th | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}}$1,346<ref name=imf2/> <!--Do not edit!--> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 161st | Gini = 33.7 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2012 | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?end=2014&locations=GN&start=1990 |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) |publisher=World Bank |access-date=10 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110133707/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?end=2014&locations=GN&start=1990 |archive-date=10 January 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.465 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = decrease<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908052326/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |archive-date=2022-09-08 |url-status=live|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=30 September 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 182nd | currency = [[Guinean franc]] | currency_code = GNF | utc_offset = {{sp}} | time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[+224]] | iso3166code = GN | cctld = [[.gn]] | religion_year = 2014 | population_density_rank = 164th | today = }} '''Guinea''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Guinea.ogg|ˈ|ɡ|ɪ|n|i}} {{respell|GHIN|ee}}),{{efn|{{lang-fr|Guinée}}, {{lang-fuf|𞤘𞤭𞤲𞤫|italic=no|Gine}}, {{lang-wo|Gine}}, {{lang-nqo|ߖߌ߬ߣߍ߫}}, {{lang-bm|Gine}}}} mwalamulo '''Charu cha Guinea''' ({{lang-fr|République de Guinée}}), ni charu icho chili mumphepete mwa nyanja ku [[West Africa]]. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na [[nyanja ya Atlantic]] kumanjiliro gha dazi, [[Guinea-Bissau]] kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi, [[Senegal]] kumpoto, [[Mali]] kumpoto kwa kumafumiro gha dazi, [[Côte d'Ivoire]] kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi, [[Sierra Leone]] na [[Liberia]] kumwera. Nyengo zinyake charu ichi chikuchemeka [[Guinea-Conakry]] chifukwa cha msumba wake wa [[Conakry]].<ref name="uiowa1">{{cite web |url=http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/countries/Guinea-Conakry.html |title=Guinea-Conakry |access-date=11 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205044119/http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/countries/Guinea-Conakry.html |archive-date=5 February 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.musicvideos.the-real-africa.com/guinea/ |title=Music Videos of Guinea Conakry |access-date=12 April 2018 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221053336/http://www.musicvideos.the-real-africa.com/guinea/ |archive-date=21 February 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://netministries.org/see/churches/ch00472 |title=The Anglican Diocese of Ghana |website=Netministries.org |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107033350/http://netministries.org/see/churches/ch00472 |archive-date=7 January 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cfi.fr/partenaires_en.php3?id_rubrique=24&id_article=473 |title=CFI - Africa - Guinea Conakry |access-date=11 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511084226/http://www.cfi.fr/partenaires_en.php3?id_rubrique=24&id_article=473 |archive-date=11 May 2011 }}</ref> Mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu 13.5 miliyoni ndipo chigaŵa chake chili na makilomita 245,857.<ref name="guinea_stats">{{cite web|title=Nations Online: Guinea – Republic of Guinea – West Africa|url=http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/guinea.htm|publisher=Nations Online|access-date=25 August 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030503155420/http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/guinea.htm|archive-date=3 May 2003}}</ref> Charu ichi kale chikachemekanga [[French Guinea]], kweni chikajiyimira paŵekha mu 1958. Ku Guinea ŵanthu ŵakwamba kuwukira boma.<ref name=Bariyo>Nicholas Bariyo & Benoit Faucon, [https://www.wsj.com/articles/military-faction-stages-coup-in-mineral-rich-guinea-11630866469 Military Faction Stages Coup in Mineral-Rich Guinea], ''Wall Street Journal'' (September 5, 2021).</ref><ref name=Larson>Krista Larson, [https://apnews.com/article/africa-elections-senegal-west-africa-term-limits-4c595d69cbfd95d173b7ef1a6da0d5f8 EXPLAINER: Why is history repeating itself in Guinea's coup?], Associated Press (September 7, 2021).</ref><ref name=Paquett>Danielle Paquett, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2021/09/06/guinea-coup-explained/ Here's what we know about the unfolding coup in Guinea], ''Washington Post'' (September 6, 2021).</ref> <ref>[https://www.dw.com/en/west-africa-economic-bloc-suspends-guinea-after-military-coup/a-59127739 West Africa economic bloc suspends Guinea after military coup], [[Deutsche Welle]] (September 8, 2021).</ref>Pakati pajumpha vyaka vinandi kufuma apo boma likamba kulamulira mwaurunji, mu 2010 ŵakachita chisankho chakwamba.<ref name=Paquett/><ref>Abdourahmane Diallo and Adam Nossiter, [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/08/world/africa/08guinea.html Guinea Votes in Its First Democratic Presidential Election], ''New York Times'' (November 7, 2010).</ref><ref name="FH2010">[https://freedomhouse.org/country/guinea/freedom-world/2021 Guinea], ''Freedom in the World'', [[Freedom House]], 2021.</ref> Apo boma likalutilira kucita maungano gha vyaru vinandi, ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kutinkhana, vimbundi vikazara, kweniso ŵasilikari na ŵapolisi ŵakacitiranga nkhaza ŵanthu.<ref name=FH2010/><ref>Saliou Samb, [https://www.reuters.com/article/guinea-politics/guinea-president-conde-vows-to-tackle-corruption-during-third-term-idUSKBN28P27F Guinea President Conde vows to tackle corruption during third term], Reuters (December 15, 2020).</ref> Mu 2011, boma la United States likati ŵanakazi na ŵana ŵakusuzgika na ŵasilikari kweniso ŵakutambuzgika. Mu 2021, gulu la ŵasilikari likawuskapo pulezidenti [[Alpha Condé]] na kukanizga dango la chalo.<ref name=Bariyo/><ref name=Larson/><ref name=Paquett/> Ŵasilamu ŵalipo 85%.<ref name="uiowa1"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.visualgeography.com/categories/guinea/religion.html |title=Religion in Guinea |publisher=Visual Geography |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914140804/http://www.visualgeography.com/categories/guinea/religion.html |archive-date=14 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecobank.com/countryinfo.aspx?cid=74049 |title=The Pan African Bank |publisher=Ecobank |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319131431/http://www.ecobank.com/countryinfo.aspx?cid=74049 |archive-date=19 March 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Charu ichi chili kugaŵika vigaŵa vinayi: Malire gha Nyanja ya Guinea ku Atlantic Coast, Fouta Djallon panji mapiri gha ku Middle Guinea, [[chigaŵa cha Upper Guinea savanna]] kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi, na chigaŵa cha Guinea forestière. Chifurenchi ndicho chikuyowoyeka pa sukulu, mu boma, na mu manyuzipepara. Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vyakujumpha 24, ndipo viyowoyero vikuru chomene ni Susu, Pular, na Maninka. Chuma cha ku Guinea chikuthemba pa ulimi na vinthu vyakuthupi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.africa-import-export.gm/import-export/guinea-conakry.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105124833/http://www.africa-import-export.gm/import-export/guinea-conakry.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 November 2010|title=Guinea Conakry: Major Imports, Exports, Industries & Business Opportunities in Guinea Conakry, Africa|access-date=15 October 2014}}</ref> Ni caru caciŵiri pa caru cose ico cikupanga bauxite, ndipo muli malibwe gha dayimani na golide.<ref name="guineaconakrysupport.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.guineaconakrysupport.com/?lang=en|title=Guinea Conakry Support – Guinee Conakry Trade and Support. (GCTS)|access-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150105021335/http://www.guineaconakrysupport.com/?lang=en|archive-date=5 January 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> Charu ichi ndicho chikaŵa pakwamba pa nthenda ya Ebola mu 2014. ==Zina== {{Further|Guinea (region)#Etymology}} Zina lakuti Guinea lili kufuma ku chigaŵa cha Guinea icho chili mumphepete mwa Gulf of Guinea. Likwendera kumpoto mu vigaŵa vyamuthondo na kumalira ku Sahel. Lizgu la Chingelezi lakuti Guinea likufuma ku lizgu la Chiphwitikizi lakuti Guiné ilo likafuma pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 kuti likung'anamura malo agho ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea ŵakakhalanga. ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Guinea}}<!--two subsections and several other paragraphs have no citations--> Charu icho sono chikuchemeka Guinea chili kufupi na maufumu ghanyake gha ku Africa pambere Ŵafarisi ŵandafike mu ma 1890. Pa Okutobala 2, 1958, charu cha Guinea chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Kufuma apo charu cha Guinea chikapokera wanangwa wake m'paka pa nyengo ya maungano gha boma mu 2010, chikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa ŵamazaza ŵanandi.<ref> {{cite web | last = Zounmenou | first = David | title = Guinea: Hopes for Reform Dashed Again | publisher = allAfrica.com | date = 2 January 2009 | url = http://allafrica.com/stories/200901020524.html | access-date = 27 December 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090111161633/http://allafrica.com/stories/200901020524.html | archive-date = 11 January 2009 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }} </ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_GIN.html |title=UN Human Development Report 2009 |publisher=Hdrstats.undp.org |access-date=28 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100413190650/http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_GIN.html |archive-date=13 April 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ross |first=Will |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7647962.stm |title=Africa {{pipe}} Guineans mark '50 years of poverty' |work=BBC News|date=2 October 2008 |access-date=28 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610090758/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7647962.stm |archive-date=10 June 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Maufumu na maufumu gha ku West Africa === {{main|Imamate of Futa Jallon|Wassoulou Empire}} Charu icho sono chikuchemeka Guinea chikaŵa ku mizi ya maufumu gha ku West Africa. Ufumu wakwambilira, uwo ukaŵa wa Ghana, ukakuranga cifukwa ca malonda ndipo pamasinda ukaparanyika cifukwa ca kuwukira kwa Almoravid. Mu nyengo iyi ndipo chisopa cha Ciisilamu chikambira mu cigaŵa ici kwizira mu ŵamalonda ŵa ku North Africa. Ufumu wa Sosso (zaka za m'ma 1200 m'paka 13 C.E.) ukakura chomene, ndipo Ufumu wa Mali ukamanyikwa chomene apo Soundiata Kéïta wakatonda Soumangourou Kanté uyo wakaŵa fumu ya Sosso pa Nkhondo ya Kirina, mu c. 1235. Ufumu wa Mali ukalamuliranga na ŵanthu awo ŵakachemekanga Mansa (Mafumu), kusazgapo Kankou Moussa uyo wakachita ulendo wa haji ku Mecca mu 1324. Ufumu wa Mali ukayamba kuchepa mu 1500, ndipo pamasinda ukaleka kulamulira. Ufumu wa Songhai ukakura kufuma mu 1460 ndipo pamasinda ukajumpha ufumu wa Mali. Msumba uwu ukalutilira kukura m'paka apo Askia Daoud wakafwira mu 1582. Ufumu uwu ukathereskeka na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Morocco pa Nkhondo ya Tondibi vilimika vitatu pamanyuma pake. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco ŵakatondeka kuwusa makora ufumu uwu ndipo ukagaŵikana mu maufumu ghacoko. Ufumu unyake wa ku West Africa ukati wabwanganduka, maufumu ghakupambanapambana ghakawuka mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Guinea. Ŵasilamu ŵa Fulani ŵakasamira ku Futa Jallon ku Central Guinea, ndipo ŵakakhazikiska boma la Chisilamu kufuma mu 1727 m'paka 1896, ilo likaŵa na dango lakulembeka na ŵalongozgi ŵanyake. Ufumu wa Wassoulou panji Wassulu (1878-1898) ukalongozgekanga na Samori Toure mu chigaŵa cha Malinké icho sono ni Upper Guinea na kumwera kwa Mali (Wassoulou). Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, charu ichi chikasamira ku Ivory Coast. ===Chikoloni=== Kwambira mu ma 1700, ŵamalonda ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kuphalizgana na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Cape.<ref>"John Lovell". in ''The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1558-1603'', ed. P.W. Hasler, 1981. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230704143316/http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1558-1603/member/lovell-john History of Parliament Online website] Retrieved 25 September 2021.</ref><ref>"America and West Indies: October 1653." ''Calendar of State Papers Colonial, America and West Indies'': Volume 1, 1574-1660. Ed. W Noel Sainsbury. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1860. 409–410. [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/colonial/america-west-indies/vol1/pp409-410 British History Online website] Retrieved 25 September 2021.</ref> Ŵazga ŵakatumizgikanga ku vyaru vinyake kuti ŵakagwire nchito. Ŵamalonda aŵa ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ŵazga awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi. Nyengo iyo charu cha Guinea chikaŵa pasi pa mawoko gha ŵasilikari ŵa ku France yikamba m'ma 1800. Mu 1898, ŵasilikari ŵa Samori Touré, uyo wakaŵa themba la ufumu wa Ouassoulou kweniso mulongozgi wa mafuko gha Malinké, ŵakathereskeka. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, charu cha France chikapangana na Britain vya Sierra Leone, Portugal vya Guinea (iyo sono ni Guinea-Bissau), na Liberia. Mu nyengo ya Ŵafarisi, charu ichi chikaŵa mu chigaŵa cha French West Africa. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma ndiwo ŵakalongozganga vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa maboma agha.[[File:Ahmed Sékou Touré na obisku v Ljubljani 1961 (3).jpg|thumb|President [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]] was supported by Communist states, and in 1961, visited [[Yugoslavia]].]] Mu 1958, caru ca France cikawa cifukwa ca masuzgo gha ndyali ndiposo cifukwa ca kutondeka kucita vinthu na maboma ghake, comenecomene Indochina na Algeria. Pa ungano wa ŵanthu wose wa pa Seputembala 28, 1958, boma la France likapeleka wanangwa ku vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa boma ili. Mwakupambana na vyaru vinyake ivyo vikalamulilikanga na boma ili, charu cha Guinea chikapokera wanangwa. Chipani ichi chikalongozgekanga na Ahmed Sékou Touré uyo chipani chake cha Democratic Party of Guinea-African Democratic Rally (PDG) chikapokera vithuzithuzi 56 pa vithuzithuzi 60 mu ma 1957 territorial elections. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku France ŵakafumako, ndipo pa Okutobala 2, 1958, Guinea yikajiphara kuti ni charu chakujiyimira paŵekha, ndipo Sékou Touré ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti. Nyuzipepara ya Washington Post yikati Ŵafalansa "ŵakofya" ŵakagumura vinthu vyose ivyo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti vyawovwira Guinea. Ŵakawuskamo mababu gha magesi, ŵakawuskamo pulani ya maji gha ku Conakry, msumba ukuru, na kotcha munkhwala m'malo mwa kulekera ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea".<ref>{{cite news |last=Dash |first=Leon |author-link=Leon Dash |date=28 March 1984 |title=Guinea's Longtime President, Ahmed Sekou Toure, Dies |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1984/03/28/guineas-longtime-president-ahmed-sekou-toure-dies/18f31685-878c-4759-8028-3bef7fbc568b/ |access-date=28 January 2023}}</ref> === Nkhondo Yakumaliro gha Chikoloni (1958 ̇) === {{See also|Opération Persil}} Pamanyuma, charu cha Guinea chikakolerana na Soviet Union ndipo chikachita vinthu mwakukolerana na fundo za boma. Kufuma apo, yikamba kulondezga fundo za ku China. Likalutilira kupokera ndalama kufuma ku vyaru vinyake nga ni United States. Kuzakafika mu 1960, Touré wakapharazga kuti PDG ndiyo yekha wakaŵa chipani cha ndyali mu caru ici, ndipo kwa vilimika 24 vyakulondezgapo, boma na PDG vikaŵa cimoza. Touré wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti kwa vyaka 47, ndipo pa vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri, ŵanthu ŵakamuwonanga kuti ni mulongozgi wa boma. Pakulondezga fundo za kusankhana mitundu mu vyaru vya mu Africa na Pan-Africanism mu vyaru vinyake, Touré wakazgoka mulongozgi uyo wakachitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kupulikana, ndipo boma lake likakanizga ŵanthu ŵanyake kuti ŵaleke kupulikana nayo. Mu m'ma 1960, boma la Guinea likakanizga ŵanthu kugura malo, likawuskapo ŵalongozgi awo ŵakimikika na ŵa ku France, kweniso likakanizga ubwezi wawo na boma la France na makampani gha ku France. Boma la Touré likathembanga Soviet Union na China kuti liŵawovwire pa vinthu vyakuthupi. Pa Novembala 22, 1970, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Portugal ŵakachita opareshoni yakuchemeka Operation Green Sea. Pakati pa vilato vyawo, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Portugal ŵakakhumbanga kukoma panji kukora Sekou Touré cifukwa ca wovwiri wake wa PAIGC, gulu la ŵanthu ŵakugaluka ilo likacitanga vivulupi mu Guinea kufuma ku misasa yawo mu Guinea.<ref>"Mr Sekou Touré, who gave the PAIGC unstinting support during its war against the Portuguese,..."[http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13213487 Black revolt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090308154755/http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displayStory.cfm?story_id=13213487|date=8 March 2009}}, [[The Economist]] (22 November 1980)</ref> Pamanyuma pa nkhondo, ŵasilikari awo ŵakakhozgekanga na Ŵapwitikizi ŵakawelera, ŵakafwatura ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Portugal awo ŵakaŵa mu jele ku Conakry. Mu vilimika vyakulondezgapo, boma la Touré likaŵawuskamo ŵanthu ŵanandi, ndipo ŵanthu 50,000 ŵakakomeka. Ŵanyake ŵakakakika na kutambuzgika. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakacicizgika kufumamo mu caru ici, cifukwa cakuti ŵakutorana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea ŵakakakika ndipo ŵana ŵawo ŵakaŵapeleka ku boma. Guinea wakasankhika kuŵa ciŵaro cambura kukhazikika ca wupu wa UN Security Council mu 1972-73. Mu 1977, chuma chikamba kunangika, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka, ndyali yikakhalanga makora yayi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakazomerezgekanga yayi kuchita malonda. Ici cikapangiska Touré kuti wasinthe comene vinthu. Touré wakaleka kukhozgera Soviet Union na kwamba kukhozgera United States. Paumaliro wa m'ma 1970 na kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1980, vinthu vikasintha chomene pa nkhani ya vyachuma. Pakuyowoya za ubwezi wake na France, pamanyuma pakuti Valéry Giscard d'Estaing wasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti wa France, malonda ghakasazgikira ndipo vyaru viŵiri ivi vikamba kwendera lumoza. Sékou Touré wakafwa pa 26 March, 1984, pamanyuma pa opareshoni ya mtima mu United States, ndipo wakasinthika na nduna yikuru Louis Lansana Beavogui, uyo wakeneranga kuŵa pulezidenti wa nyengo yeneyiyo, pakulindilira mavoti ghaphya. Pa 3 Epulero 1984, PDG yikeneranga kusankha mulongozgi muphya. Kuyana na dango ili, munthu uyu ndiyo wakeneranga kuŵa yekha mulongozgi wa boma. Maora ghacoko waka pambere ungano uwu undambe, Koloneli Lansana Conté na Diarra Traoré ŵakatora mazaza mwa kuwukira boma kwambura kuthiska ndopa. Conté wakaŵa pulezidenti, ndipo Traoré wakaŵa nduna yikuru m'paka mu Disembala.[[File:President Jimmy Carter with President Ahmed Sǩou Tour ̌of Guinea.jpg|thumb|United States Pulezidenti Jimmy Carter wakupokelera Ahmed Sékou Touré kuwaro kwa White House, Washington, D.C., 1979]] Conté wakasuska ivyo boma lakwamba likacita pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kufumiska ŵakayidi ŵa ndyali 250 na kukhozga ŵanthu pafupifupi 200,000 kuti ŵawelere kufuma ku wuzga. Wakayowoya mwakupulikikwa makora kuti wafumengepo pa kusopa kwautesi. Mu 1992, Conté wakapharazga kuti wawelerenge ku boma, ndipo mu 1993, wakachita mavoti gha pulezidenti. Mu Seputembala 2001, mulongozgi wa chipani chinyake, Alpha Condé, ŵakamujalira mu jele cifukwa ca kunanga civikiliro ca boma. Pamanyuma, wakakhalako kanyengo mu caru ca France. Mu 2001, Conté wakanozga na kutonda pa referendamu ya kusazgirako nyengo ya kuwusa kwa pulezidenti, ndipo mu 2003, wakamba uteŵeti wake wacitatu. Mu Janyuwale 2005, Conté wakapona ku ŵanthu awo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵakukhumba kumukoma apo wakawonekera pa wumba mu msumba wa Conakry. Ŵalwani ŵake ŵakayowoya kuti ni "munthu wakuvuka", ndipo wakeneranga kufumapo, kweni awo ŵakamukhozganga ŵakagomezganga kuti watonda ŵalwani ŵake. Kuyana na magazini ya Foreign Policy, caru ca Guinea cikaŵa pangozi ya kuzgoka caru cakutondeka.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=4350 | title=Failed States list 2008 | publisher=Fund for Peace | access-date=27 June 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626091027/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=4350 | archive-date=26 June 2008 | url-status=live | df=dmy-all }}</ref> Mu 2000, ku Guinea kukaŵa vivulupi ivyo vikakhwaska vyaru vinyake vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Vikawonekanga nga kuti charu ichi chili pafupi kuparanyika. Conté wakati ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vyapafupi ŵakudokera usambazi wa mu Guinea, kweni ŵanthu ŵakakana. Mu 2003, charu cha Guinea chikakolerana na vyaru vyapafupi kuti chilimbane na ŵakugaluka. Mu 2007, boma la Guinea likasankha nduna yikuru.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aspr.ac.at/epu/research/rp_0307.pdf |title=Austrian Study Centre for Peace and Conflict Resolution (ASPR) {{pipe}} Peace Castle Austria |publisher=ASPR |access-date=9 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070615021433/http://www.aspr.ac.at/epu/research/rp_0307.pdf |archive-date=15 June 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1102574.stm |work=BBC News| title=Guinea head blames neighbours | date=6 January 2001 | access-date=2 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/986375.stm |work=BBC News| title=Civil war fears in Guinea | date=23 October 2000 | access-date=2 April 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040619115730/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/986375.stm | archive-date=19 June 2004 | url-status=live | df=dmy-all }}</ref> Conté wakalutilira kuwusa m'paka apo wakafwira pa Disembala 23, 2008. Maora ghacoko waka pamanyuma pa nyifwa yake, Moussa Dadis Camara wakapoka mazaza mwa kuwukira boma, ndipo wakajiphara kuti ni mulongozgi wa boma la ŵasilikari. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kulimbana na boma ili ndipo ŵanthu 157 ŵakafwa apo pa Seputembala 28, 2009, boma likalangura ŵasilikari ŵake kuti ŵawukire ŵanthu awo ŵakawungana kuti ŵakane ivyo Camara wakachita kuti waŵe pulezidenti. Ŵasilikari ŵakamba kutimba ŵanthu, kuŵapweteka, na kuŵakoma, ndipo boma la Britain likakanizga ŵasilikari ŵanyake kuti ŵaleke kovwira boma liphya.<ref name="NYT"> {{cite news | last = MacFarquhar | first = Neil | title = U.N. Panel Calls for Court in Guinea Massacre | work = The New York Times | date = 21 December 2009 | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/22/world/africa/22guinea.html | access-date = 23 December 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110511215744/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/22/world/africa/22guinea.html | archive-date = 11 May 2011 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }} </ref><ref> {{cite news | last = Walker | first = Peter | title = Army steps in after Guinea president Lansana Conté dies | work = The Guardian | location = London | date = 23 December 2008 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/23/guinea-dictator-lansana-conte-dies | access-date = 23 December 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090826134854/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/dec/23/guinea-dictator-lansana-conte-dies | archive-date = 26 August 2009 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }} </ref><ref> {{cite news | title = Guinea massacre toll put at 157 | publisher = BBC | date = 29 September 2009 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8280603.stm | access-date = 23 December 2009 | location = London | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091002232605/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8280603.stm | archive-date = 2 October 2009 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }} </ref><ref> {{cite news | last = McGreal | first = Chris | title = Lansana Conté profile: Death of an African 'Big Man' | work = The Guardian | location = London | date = 23 December 2008 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/23/lansana-conte-profile | access-date = 23 December 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130905092810/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/23/lansana-conte-profile | archive-date = 5 September 2013 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }} </ref> Pa Disembala 3, 2009, movwiri wake wakamukoma Camara apo ŵakakwesananga pa ivyo vikacitika mu Seputembala. Camara wakaluta ku Morocco kuti wakapwelelereke.<ref name = "NYT"/><ref>{{cite web | title = Guinean soldiers look for ruler's dangerous rival | publisher = malaysianews.net | date = 5 December 2009 | url = http://www.malaysianews.net/story/573838 | access-date = 23 December 2009 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110723202201/http://www.malaysianews.net/story/573838 | archive-date = 23 July 2011 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti (na nduna ya vya vimbundi) Sékouba Konaté wakafuma ku Lebanon kuti wazakalongozge caru. Pamanyuma pa kukumana ku Ouagadougou pa 13 na 14 January 2010, Camara, Konaté na Blaise Compaoré, Pulezidenti wa Burkina Faso, ŵakapanga ndondomeko ya malango 12 agho ghakulayizga kuti Guinea wawelerenge ku boma la ŵanthu mu myezi 6. Pa 27 Juni, pa ungano wa ŵalara ŵa boma pakaŵa mautesi ghakukhwaskana na upusikizgi, ndipo pa 7 Novembala pakaŵaso ungano unyake. Kuvota kukaŵa "kwapacanya", ndipo mavoti ghakaŵa "ghawemi". Alpha Condé, mulongozgi wa chipani chakususka cha Rally of the Guinean People (RGP), wakathereska mavoti, ndipo wakalayizga kuti wasinthenge vinthu pa nkhani ya kuvikilira na kunozgaso mapangano gha migodi. Mu Febuluwale 2013, nkhaza za ndyali zikawuka pamanyuma pa viwawa vya mu misewu vyakususkana na mavoti gha mu Meyi. Ŵanthu 9 ŵakakomeka pa viphikiro ivi ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 220 ŵakapwetekeka. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakafwa na kupwetekeka cifukwa cakuti ŵasilikari ŵakagwiliskira nchito vilwero vyakofya. Nkhondo iyi yikapangiska kuti paŵe kulimbana pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Malinke na Fula. Pa 26 March 2013, chipani chakususka chikafumamo mu viphikiro na boma pa nkhani ya chisankho, ŵakati boma lindasungilire ivyo likayowoya, ndipo laswa mapangano ghose.<ref>{{cite news| title=Guinea election talks fail, opposition threatens protests| author=Bate Felix| work=Reuters| url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-guinea-election-idUSBRE92P11320130326| date=26 March 2013| access-date=1 July 2017| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924180316/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/03/26/us-guinea-election-idUSBRE92P11320130326| archive-date=24 September 2015| url-status=live| df=dmy-all}}</ref>[[File:Acte2 FNDC.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Chiwonetsero cha 2019-2020 ku Guinea chotsutsana ndi ulamuliro wa Alpha Condé]] Pa Malichi 25, 2014, wupu wakuwona vya umoyo pa charu chose (WHO) ukati ku Guinea kuli nthenda ya Ebola. Mu nyengo yakwamba iyi, ŵanthu 86 ŵakafwa, ndipo 59 ŵakafwa. Pa Meyi 28, ŵanthu 281 ŵakaŵa na nthenda iyi ndipo 186 ŵakafwa. Munthu wakwamba uyo ŵakagomezga kuti wakafwa wakaŵa Emile Ouamouno, msepuka wa vyaka viŵiri wa ku Meliandou. Wakalwara pa 2 Disembala 2013 ndipo wakafwa pa 6 Disembala. Pa Seputembala 18, 2014, ŵanthu 8 ŵa gulu la ŵapharazgi ŵa Ebola ŵakakomeka na ŵanthu ŵa mu muzi wa Womey. Pa Novembala 1, 2015, ku Guinea kukaŵa ŵanthu 3,810 awo ŵakalwara nthenda iyi ndipo 2,536 ŵakafwa. Nkhondo ya 2019-2020 ku Guinea yikaŵa mbembe zinandi na vivulupi vya ŵanthu ŵanandi ivyo vikacitika pa Okutobala 14, 2019 kwimikana na boma la Alpha Conde. Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 800 ŵakafwa pa nkhondo iyi. Pambuyo pa chisankho cha pulezidenti cha 2020 ku Guinea, chisankho cha Alpha Condé ku nyengo yachitatu chinatsutsidwa ndi otsutsa, omwe adamunamizira zachinyengo. Condé wakayowoya kuti pa March 2020 pakachitika referendum iyo yikamovwira kuti waŵepo pa mavoti. Pa 5 September 2021, pamanyuma pa kuwombera kwa maora ghanandi kufupi na nyumba ya pulezidenti, Lt. Col. Mamady Doumbouya wakatora mazaza pa TV ya boma ndipo wakapharazga kuti boma la Pulezidenti Alpha Conde lapasuka ndipo mphaka za chalo zajalika. Namise, ŵasilikari ŵa boma ŵakamba kulamulira msumba wa Conakry na ŵasilikari ŵa charu. Kuyana na Guinée Matin, pa Seputembala 6, ŵasilikari ŵakamba kulamulira boma na kwamba kunjizga ŵasilikari mu malo mwa boma. Wupu wa United Nations, European Union, African Union, ECOWAS (iyo yikakanizga Guinea kuŵa mu wupu wa ECOWAS) na La Francophonie ŵakasuska boma ilo likapoka boma ili, ndipo ŵakacema kuti pulezidenti Condé wafwatulike. Vinthu vyakuyana waka vikafumira ku vyaru vinyake vya ŵazengezgani na vyakumanjiliro gha dazi (nga ni United States), kweniso ku China (uko ukugwiliskira ntchito Guinea kuti upange hafu ya visulo vyake vya aluminiyamu. Nangauli vili nthena, pa 1 Okutobala 2021, Mamady Doumbouya wakalapizga kuŵa purezidenti wa nyengo yitali.<ref>{{cite news |title=Guinea coup leader sworn in as interim president |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/1/guinea-coup-mamady-doumbouya-interim |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> ==Makhalilo gha charu== {{Main|Geography of Guinea}} [[File:Un-guinea.png|thumb|upright=2.5|center|Mapu agho ghakulongora misumba ya ku Guinea na vigaŵa vyake]] Guinea yili na mphaka na Guinea-Bissau kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi, Senegal kumpoto, Mali kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi, Ivory Coast kumafumiro gha dazi, Sierra Leone kumwera kwa dazi na Liberia kumwera. Charu ichi chili na chigaŵa chakumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, ndipo chikujumphilira kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi m'paka ku mphaka yake ya kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Guinea-Bissau. Maji gha Mlonga wa Niger, Gambia, na Senegal, ghose ghali mu chigaŵa cha Guinea Highlands.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/w4347e0h.htm |title=The Senegal River basin |website=Fao.org |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019075901/http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/w4347e0h.htm |archive-date=19 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/w4347e0i.htm |title=The Niger River basin |website=Fao.org |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721033139/http://www.fao.org/docrep/w4347e/w4347e0i.htm |archive-date=21 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/w4347e0t.htm |title=The West Coast |website=Fao.org |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011063822/http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/w4347e0t.htm |archive-date=11 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>Mu charu ichi muli vyaru vyakukwana 245,857 km2. Mphepete mwa nyanja muli mtunda wa makilomita 320 (200 mi) na mphaka ya makilomita 3,400 (2,100 mi). Chigaŵa ichi chili pakati pa latitude 7° na 13°N, kweniso longitude 7° na 15°W, ndipo chigaŵa chinyake chili kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa latitude 15°. [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map GIN present.svg|thumb|upright=1|Mapu gha nyengo gha Köppen ]] Charu cha Guinea chili na vigaŵa vinayi: Charu cha Maritimic Guinea, icho chikuchemekaso kuti Lower Guinea panji Basse-Coté lowlands, icho ŵanthu ŵake mbanandi chomene ŵa fuko la Susu. Charu cha Fouta Djallon chili na mapiri ghanandi ndipo chili kumpoto na kumwera kwa charu ichi. Mu mapiri gha ku Guinea ndimo mukufuma milonga ya Niger, Gambia, na Senegal. Phiri la Nimba ndilo lili pachanya chomene mu Guinea. Apo vigaŵa vya ku Guinea na Ivory Coast vya Nimba Massif ni malo ghakusungirako vyamoyo gha UNESCO, chigaŵa icho chikuchemeka Guinea Backbone chikuluta ku Liberia, uko ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito migodi vyaka vinandi. Ku Guinea kuli malo 5 agho kuli vyakumera vinandi. Chigaŵa ichi chili na chigaŵa cha 4.9/10, ndipo chili pa nambala 114 pa vyaru 172.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. 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Viyuni vinyake vikukhala mu malo ghakutali chomene na malo ghakuvikilirako ŵanthu. Vinyama ivi ni ivi: * Amphibians : ''[[Hemisus guineensis]]'', ''[[Phrynobatrachus guineensis]]'' * Reptiles : ''[[Acanthodactylus]] guineensis'', ''[[Mochlus]] guineensis'' * Arachnids: ''[[Malloneta guineensis]]'', ''[[Dictyna]] guineensis'' * Insects : ''[[Zorotypus]] guineensis'', ''[[Euchromia guineensis]]'' * Birds: ''[[Melaniparus guineensis]]'' ===Regions and prefectures=== {{Main|Administrative divisions of Guinea}} [[File:Guinea Regions.png|thumb|upright=1.6|[[Regions of Guinea]]]] Charu cha Guinea chili na malo ghakukwana ma kilomita 245,857 mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Chigaŵa ichi chili na vigaŵa vinayi ivyo vikupambana na vinyake. * [[Maritime Guinea]] (''La Guinée Maritime'') covers 18% of the country. * [[Middle Guinea]] (''La Moyenne-Guinée'') covers 20% of the country. * [[Upper Guinea]] (''La Haute-Guinée'') covers 38% of the country. * [[Guinée forestière|Forested Guinea]] (''Guinée forestière'') covers 23% of the country, and is both forested and mountainous. [[File:Fouta Djallon (14582291826).jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Fouta Djallon]] highlands in central Guinea]] Charu cha Guinea chili na vigaŵa 8 ivyo vili na vigaŵa 33. Msumba ukuru wa Conakry, uwo uli na ŵanthu 1,675,069, uli mu chigaŵa chapadera. {|class="wikitable sortable" |- !Chigaŵa!!Msumba!!Ŵanthu <br /> (2014 census by National Institute of Statistics) |- |[[Conakry Region]] ||[[Conakry]]||1,675,069 |- |[[Nzérékoré Region]] ||[[Nzérékoré]]||1,591,716 |- |[[Kindia Region]] ||[[Kindia]]||1,573,690 |- |[[Boké Region]] ||[[Boké]]||1,092,291 |- |[[Labé Region]] ||[[Labé]]||1,001,392 |- |[[Mamou Region]] ||[[Mamou]]||737,062 |- |[[Kankan Region]] ||[[Kankan]]||1,979,038 |- |[[Faranah Region]]||[[Faranah]]||949,589 |} ==Ndale== {{Further|Politics of Guinea}} Charu cha Guinea ni charu cha Republic. Pulezidenti wakusankhika na ŵanthu ndipo ni mulara wa boma. Nyumba ya Malango ya caru cose iyo yili na nyumba yimoza ndiyo yikupanga malango mu caru, ndipo ŵanthu ndiwo ŵakusankha ŵanthu awo ŵali mu nyumba iyi. Khoti Likuru Chomene mu Guinea ndilo lili na mazaza pa milandu yose.<ref name="reuters.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-guinea-election-idUSBRE9AF0AP20131116|title=Guinea's Supreme Court rejects election challenges|work=Reuters|date=16 November 2013|access-date=23 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924190855/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/11/16/us-guinea-election-idUSBRE9AF0AP20131116|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=live|last1=Samb|first1=Saliou}}</ref> Nyumba ya Malango ya ku Guinea, yikaŵavya maungano kufuma mu 2008 m'paka mu 2013, apo yikagaŵirika pamanyuma pa boma kuwukira boma mu Disembala. Kufuma waka mu 2007, mavoti ghakasunkhunyika kanandi waka. Mu Epulero 2012, Pulezidenti Condé wakachedweska mavoti kwamuyirayira, chifukwa cha kukhumbikwa kuti ghaŵe "ghapusu na gha demokilase".<ref name="RNW Africa Desk">{{cite web|title=Guinea president postpones parliamentary elections indefinitely|url=http://www.rnw.nl/africa/article/guinea-president-postpones-parliamentary-elections-indefinitely|publisher=Radio Netherlands Worldwide|access-date=22 August 2012|author=RNW Africa Desk|date=28 April 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120430121146/http://www.rnw.nl/africa/article/guinea-president-postpones-parliamentary-elections-indefinitely|archive-date=30 April 2012}}</ref> Pa Seputembala 24, 2013, ku Guinea kukachitika chisankho chapulezidenti. Chipani cha Pulezidenti Alpha Condé, Rally of the Guinean People (RPG), chikapokera vithuzi vinandi mu Nyumba ya Malango ya ku Guinea, na vithuzi 53 pa vithuzi 114. Maphwando a chipani chakususkana nagho ghakapokera vithuzithuzi 53, ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani chakususkana nawo ŵakasuska kuti ivyo vikalembeka vikaŵa vyautesi. Mulara wa boma la Guinea wakusankhika na ŵanthu wose kuti waŵe na vyaka 5. Munthu uyo wawina wakwenera kupokera mavoti ghanandi kuti waŵe mulara wa boma. Pulezidenti ndiyo wakulamulira charu cha Guinea, ndipo wakuwovwirika na ŵalara ŵa boma 25. Boma likwendeska vinthu mu vigaŵa 8, vigaŵa 33, vigaŵa vichokovichoko vyakujumpha 100, na vigaŵa. Ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ŵakusankhika; pulezidenti wakusora ŵantchito ŵa vigaŵa vinyake vyose. Pulezidenti wakale Alpha Condé wakawovwirika na mtundu waciŵiri ukuru comene mu Guinea, wa Malinke. Ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Fula ndiwo ŵakakolerana na fundo iyi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea/#people-and-society|title=Guinea|date=23 September 2021}}</ref> ===Ubale na vyaru vinyake=== {{Further|Foreign relations of Guinea}} [[File:Vladimir Putin and Alpha Condé (2017-09-28) 2.jpg|thumb|President [[Alpha Condé]] with Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] on 28 September 2017]] Charu cha Guinea chili mu wupu wa African Union, Agency for the French-Speaking Community, African Development Bank, Economic Community of West African States, World Bank, Islamic Development Bank, IMF, na United Nations. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakacitika mu Febuluwale 2009, Kufumira waka mu 1985, ubwezi wa Guinea na vyaru vinyake, kusazgapo vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, ukwenda makora comene. Lipoti la Dipatimenti iyi mu Okutobala 2018 likati nangauli "U.S. yikasuska" boma la Guinea la " 2008 coup d'etat", kweni "U.S". yikaŵa na "ubwezi wakukhora" na Guinea pambere boma la Guinea lindanjire, ndipo pamanyuma pa "mavoti gha pulezidenti wa Guinea mu 2010, United States yikambaso kukolerana na boma". Chikalata ichi chikayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakukolerana na "masankhiro gha wupu wakulongozga mu 2013 na chisankho chachiŵiri cha pulezidenti mu 2015". Lipoti la U.S. March 2021 Dipatimenti ya vyaru vya ku America yikanena kuti boma, mawupu gha vimbundi, na mabungwe gha vyamalonda mu Guinea vikutimbanizga wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Lipoti ili likayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi pa caru cose ŵakususka ivyo vikacitika pa maungano gha boma agho ghakacitika sonosono apa, agho ghakapangiska kuti "Purezidenti Alpha Conde wasankhikeso (nangauli pakaŵa mphindano)... pamanyuma pa kafukufuku uyo wakacitika mu mwezi wa Malichi. Dipatimenti iyi yikadandawura na boma ilo likawuskapo boma mu 2021, ndipo yikachenjezga kuti "nkhaza na viyezgo vyose vyambura kukolerana na dango vizamumara waka mtende, kukhazikika, na kutukuka kwa Guinea, [ndipo] vingapangiska kuti United States na ŵabwezi ŵanyake ŵa Guinea ŵaleke kovwira charu ichi...," Nangauli ŵakayowoyapo yayi kuti pulezidenti Condé wawelere ku mazaza, kweni boma la United States likati "mphapo za charu chose kuti viwovwire kuti vinthu vyende makora mu charu ichi kweniso kuti paŵe mtende".<ref name="us_relations_2021_09_05_state_gov">[https://www.state.gov/on-the-military-seizure-of-power-in-guinea/ "On the Military Seizure of Power in Guinea,"], September 5, 2021, [[United States Department of State]], retrieved September 6, 2021</ref><ref name="guinea_coup_leader_2021_09_06_reuters">[https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/uneasy-calm-guinea-after-president-condes-apparent-ouster-2021-09-06/ "Guinea coup leader bars foreign travel for government officials,"] [[Reuters News Service]], retrieved September 6, 2021</ref> Wupu wa United Nations ukadandawura mwaluŵiro kuti boma likapoka mazaza mu 2021, ndipo ŵabwezi ŵanyake ŵa Guinea ŵakadandawura. Wupu wa African Union na West Africa's regional bloc (ECOWAS), wose ŵakawopanga kuti ŵaŵikenge vyeruzgo apo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti vyeruzgo ivi viŵenge na nkhongono zichoko chifukwa chakuti Guinea njumoza wa vyeruzgo vya West African currency union yayi. ECOWAS yikatumizga mwaluŵiro wupu wa Guinea, ndipo yikapempha kuti pulezidenti Condé wafwatulike, uku yikutuma mathenga ku Conakry kuti ghasange nthowa yakumazgira suzgo ili. Ku China (uko kukuthemba pa Guinea pa hafu ya aluminiyamu wake, na kukolerana na pulezidenti Condé) kukususkana na boma.<ref name="china_is_ok_2021_09_foreign_policy">[https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/09/08/china-guinea-interference-relations-alpha-conde-xi-jinping/ "China Is OK With Interfering in Guinea's Internal Affairs,"], September 8, 2021, ''[[Foreign Policy]]'' retrieved September 9, 2021</ref><ref name="leaders_due_in_guinea_2021_09_09_reuters">[https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/west-african-leaders-due-guinea-post-coup-calm-pervades-conakry-2021-09-09/ West African leaders due in Guinea as post-coup calm pervades Conakry,"] September 9, 2021, [[Reuters News Service]], retrieved September 9, 2021</ref><ref name="leaders_suspend_guinea_2021_09_08_bbc">[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-58487925 "West African leaders suspend Guinea from Ecowas following coup,"] September 9, 2021, [[BBC News]], retrieved September 9, 2021</ref><ref name="guinea_coup_leader_2021_09_06_reuters" /> === Ŵankhondo === {{Main|Military of Guinea}} Gulu la ŵasilikari la Guinea lili kugaŵikana mu vigaŵa vinkhondi: ŵasilikari, ŵasilikari ŵa mu nyanja, ŵasilikari ŵa mu mlengalenga, ŵasilikari ŵa National Gendarmerie na ŵasilikari ŵa Republican Guard. Kuonjezerapo, magulu a chitetezo cha boma akuphatikizapo National Police Force (Sûreté Nationale). Gulu la ŵasilikari ilo likuvikilira ŵanthu, lili na ŵanthu masauzandi ghanandi. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵali na ŵasilikari pafupifupi 15,000, ndipo ni gulu likuru comene la ŵasilikari. Ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo ŵakujumpha 700. Vinthu vyake vikusazgapo ndege zinandi zakulwera nkhondo na vyakurya vya ku Russia. Ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo ŵali na ŵantchito pafupifupi 900 ndipo ŵakwendeska maboti na maboti ghachoko. === Wanangwa wa '''ŵa'''nthu === {{main|Human rights in Guinea}} Ku Guinea, kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera nkhukanizgika. Mu 2010, nduna yikuru yikayowoya kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa kugonana ŵalije wanangwa uwu. Anastasia Gage, pulofesa wa pa Yunivesite ya Tulane, na Ronan van Rossem, pulofesa wa pa Yunivesite ya Ghent, ŵakuti mu Guinea ndimo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukomekera ŵanakazi. Mu 2009, ku Guinea, ŵanakazi ŵakujumpha 98% ŵakachitiskanga viŵaro vyawo. Ku Guinea, "pafupifupi ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose, visopa, na mafuko" ŵakukoma ŵanakazi. Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2005, wakalongora kuti ŵanakazi 96 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵali kuchitapo opareshoni iyi.<ref name="State 2011">{{cite web |author=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor |author-link=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor |year=2012 |title=Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2011: Guinea |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?dlid=186203 |access-date=27 August 2012 |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="The effects of female genital mutil" /><ref name="The effects of female genital mutil">{{cite journal|last2=Gage|first2=A. J.|year=2009|title=The effects of female genital mutilation on the onset of sexual activity and marriage in Guinea|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=38|issue=2|pages=178–185|doi=10.1007/s10508-007-9237-5|pmid=17943434|last1=Rossem|first1=R. V.|s2cid=40103661}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last2=Gage|first2=AJ|year=2009|title=The effects of female genital mutilation on the onset of sexual activity and marriage in Guinea|journal=Arch Sex Behav|volume=38|issue=2|pages=178–85|doi=10.1007/s10508-007-9237-5|pmid=17943434|last1=Van Rossem|first1=R|s2cid=40103661}}</ref> ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Guinea}} [[File:Fisher women on River Niger in Guinea, Africa.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Malinke fisher women on the Niger River, [[Niandankoro]], [[Kankan Region]], in eastern Guinea]] [[File:Kissidougou market.JPG|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Kissidougou]] market]] ===Ulimi=== Pa nyengo yinyake, vyakurya vikagwiranga nchito ŵanthu pafupifupi 75%. Mpunga uwu ukulimika mu malo agho kuli maji ghanandi pakati pa milonga. Chifukwa chakuti mpunga uwo ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakupanga ngwakukwana yayi, ŵakuguliska kufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakuliska mphonje za khofi, anase, maperekisi, vipasi, mango, malalanje, mabhanana, mbatata, matumato, macucumber, malibwe, na vyakurya vinyake. Charu cha Guinea nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vikupanga maapulo na mapeyala. Pali minda ya mpheska, ya makomamanga, ndipo mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, vyakumera vya makomamanga vyamba kukura.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Madiou|first=Sow|title=Impact on agricultural productivity in Guinea of R&D Investment, Foreign Aid and Climate Change|url=https://twasp.info/journal/Cf9659eX/impact-on-agricultural-productivity-in-guinea-of-rd-investment-foreign-aid-and-climate-change|journal=North American Academic Research|year=2020|volume=3|pages=86–106|doi=10.5281/zenodo.3611652|s2cid=244984398 }}</ref> ===Vyachilengiwa=== Ku Guinea kuli mabomba gha bauxite ghakukwana 25% panji kujumpha apa. Muli malibwe gha dayamondi, golide, na visulo vinyake. Bauxite na alumina ni vinthu vikuru comene ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska. Makampani ghanyake ghakupanga moŵa, maji, vyakumwa vyakunowa na hona. Vyaru vili na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 75 peresenti. Mu nyengo iyo charu cha Guinea chikalamuliranga na ŵa ku France, chikaŵa na vyakurya vinandi nga ni nthochi, anase, khofi, mankhwaŵa, na mafuta. Malo agha ghali na dongo, maji, na mphepo. === Kugwira Ntchito M'migodi === {{main|Mining industry of Guinea}} [[File:Guinea Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.3|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Guinea exports, 2019]] Ku Guinea kuli matani ghakujumpha 25 biliyoni gha bauxite, panji kuti hafu ya malo agho ghalipo pa caru cose. Vinthu vyakuthupi ivyo charu ichi chili navyo ni matani ghakujumpha 4 biliyoni gha visulo vyamahara, dayamondi, golide, na uranium. Mu vigaŵa vyose ivi, muli mwaŵi wa kupanga ndalama na malonda, ndipo "nthondo ya ku Guinea iyo njambura kukhazikika ndiposo vimbundi vikulutilira kutondeska ŵanthu kupanga ndalama zinandi". Makampani ghakukolerana agho ghakupanga mabomba gha bauxite na alumina kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Guinea ghakupanga pafupifupi 80% ya ndalama za ku Guinea. Bauxite wakuzgoka aluminiyamu, ndipo pamanyuma wakuzgoka aluminiyamu. Wupu wa Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinée (CBG) ukupeleka matani pafupifupi 14 miliyoni gha bauxite ya mtundu wapachanya pa chaka. CBG ni kampani yakukolerana, 49% yili na boma la Guinea ndipo 51% yili na kampani ya Halco Mining Inc., iyo yikulongozgeka na kampani ya Alcoa (AA) iyo yikupanga aluminiyamu, Rio Tinto Group na Dadco Investments. Wupu wa CBG uli na wanangwa wakuŵa na bauxite mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa Guinea m'paka mu 2038. Mu 2008, ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga ntchito ya magesi ŵakajara misewu iyo CBG yikendangamo. Mu mapangano agho ŵakachita na makampani gha mafuta gha pa caru cose, Guinea wali na fundo yakuti ŵantchito ŵake ŵapelekenge magesi ku ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala kufupi.<ref> {{cite news |url=http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a=8889 |author1=Saliou Samb |author2=Daniel Magnowski |title=One dead in Guinea protest, mine trains stop |agency=Reuters |date=1 November 2008 |work=Minesandcommunities.org |access-date=24 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019125412/http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a=8889 |archive-date=19 October 2014 |url-status=live }} </ref>[[File:River sand production Guinea.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Ŵana awo ŵakugwira nchito za mawoko kuti ŵasange vyakukhumbikwa mu mbumba zawo.]]Wupu wa Compagnie des Bauxites de Kindia (CBK), uwo ni wupu wa boma la Guinea na wa RUSAL, ukupanga matani pafupifupi 2.5 miliyoni pa chaka, ndipo pafupifupi matani ghose agha ghakutumizgika ku Russia na ku vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Europe. Dian Dian, wupu wa ku Guinea na Ukraine, uwo ukupangiska bauxite, ukupangika matani 1,000,000 (1,102,311 short tons; 984,207 long tons) pa chaka. Mu 2004, kampani ya Alumina Compagnie de Guinée (ACG) iyo yikapoka kampani ya Friguia Consortium, yikapanga matani pafupifupi 2.4 miliyoni gha mafuta gha aluminiyamu. Malo agha ghakutumizga matani 750,000 gha alumina. Global Alumina na Alcoa-Alcan ŵali kulembeska mapangano na boma la Guinea kuti ŵazenge mafakitale ghakurughakuru ghakupangira alumina, agho ghali na nkhongono yakuchitira vinthu pafupifupi matani 4 pa chaka. Mu mgodi wa Simandou muli visulo vinandi vya visulo. Mu Malichi 2010, kampani ya Anglo-Australian Rio Tinto Group na aluminiyamu yikuru chomene ya China (Chinalco) ŵakasazga phangano lakukhwaskana na mulimo wa Rio Tinto. Mu 2017, wupu wakuwona vya upusikizgi (SFO), uwo ni wupu wakuwona vya upusikizgi ku Britain, ukayambiska kafukufuku pa ivyo Rio Tinto wakachitanga mu Guinea. Tigui Camara, uyo kale wakaŵa wamaseŵera, ni mwanakazi wakwamba mu Guinea kuŵa na kampani ya migodi iyo yikwendeskeka na ŵanthu.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=TIGUI CAMARA: Leading In The Male Dominated Mining Industry|url=https://www.africanleadershipmagazine.co.uk/tigui-camara-leading-in-the-male-dominated-mining-industry/|access-date=2022-01-25|website=African Leadership Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref> ===Mafuta=== Mu 2006, charu cha Guinea chikachita phangano na Hyperdynamics Corporation ku Houston kuti ŵapenje malo ghakutali na nyanja. Chibuŵa chakwamba, Sabu-1, chikeneranga kwambika mu Okutobala 2011, pa malo agho ghakaŵa pasi pa maji mamita pafupifupi 700. Sabu-1 yikaŵa na vigaŵa vinayi vya mchenga wa Cretaceous, ndipo yikaghanaghananga kuti yifwenge mamita 3,600. Pamanyuma pa kumalizga kubowozga mu 2012, chisimi cha Sabu-1 chikawoneka kuti ntchakovwira yayi. Mu Novembala 2012, kampani ya Hyperdynamics, SCS, yikapangana kuti yigulitse 40% ya malo ogulitsira ku Tullow Oil, ndipo chiŵerengero cha eni ake ku Guinea chinakwera kufika pa 37% Hyperdynamics, 40% Tullow Oil, ndi 23% Dana Petroleum. Hyperdynamics yizamuŵa na nyengo m'paka Seputembala 2016, mwakuyana na phangano ilo lilipo sono, kuti yambe kubowozga pa malo ghanyake agho yikukhumba, agho ni Fatala Cenomanian turbidite fan prospect.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hyperdynamics.com/guinea_project.htm|title=Overview of the Guinea Project|website=Hyperdynamics.com|author1=Hyperdynamics|access-date=3 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203114454/http://www.hyperdynamics.com/guinea_project.htm|archive-date=3 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref> {{cite web|url=https://doc.research-and-analytics.csfb.com/docView?document_id=x548038&serialid=6XKHhijcT%2B6Xg1jfyFmVuwQySL6HHtJCNiU0UlOijDA%3D|title=Tullow Oil|date=21 January 2014|work=Equity Research|publisher=Credit Suisse|page=15|author1=Thomas Adolff|author2=Charlotte Elliott|access-date=24 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017122251/https://doc.research-and-analytics.csfb.com/docView?document_id=x548038&serialid=6XKHhijcT%2B6Xg1jfyFmVuwQySL6HHtJCNiU0UlOijDA%3D|archive-date=17 October 2016|url-status=live}} </ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tullowoil.com/index.asp?pageid=137&newsid=805|title=Tullow Oil Agrees Farm-in to Guinea Concession|website=Tullowoil.com|access-date=3 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203120232/http://www.tullowoil.com/index.asp?pageid=137&newsid=805|archive-date=3 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.offshore-technology.com/news/newshyperdynamics-completes-drilling-of-sabu-1-well-offshore-guinea-conakry|title=Hyperdynamics completes drilling at Sabu-1 well offshore Guinea-Conakry|website=Offshore-technology.com|date=14 February 2012|access-date=3 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203115227/http://www.offshore-technology.com/news/newshyperdynamics-completes-drilling-of-sabu-1-well-offshore-guinea-conakry|archive-date=3 February 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> === Ŵalendo === == Galerie == <gallery> File:Le "Voile" de la mariée à Kindia.png|The "Voile de la Mariée" (Bride's Veil) waterfall in Kindia File:Dame_de_Mali_Guinée.jpg|[[:en:fr:Mont Loura|Dame de Mali]] File:Chute_de_Tabouna_à_Kindia_01.jpg|[[:en:fr:Chute de Tabouna|Chute de Tabouna]] à [[:en:fr:Kindia|Kindia]] File:Chute_de_Saala_vue_à_360°_Labé.jpg|[[:en:fr:Chute de Saala|Chute de Saala]] [[:en:fr:Labé|Labé]] File:Chimpanzé_de_Bossou_33.jpg|Chimpanzé de Bossou File:Plage_de_Roume.jpg|Plage sur les [[:en:fr:Îles de Loos|Ile de Loos]] </gallery> Vinyake ivyo vikukondweska chomene mu Guinea ni majigha agho ghali mu vigaŵa vya Basse Guinea (Lower Guinea) na Moyenne Guinea (Middle Guinea). Chigwa cha Soumba pa phiri la Kakoulima ku Kindia, Voile de la Mariée (Valo la Mkwatibwi) ku Dubreka, chigwa cha Kinkon chomwe chili pafupifupi mamita 80 (260 ft) pa Kokoula River ku Pita, mathithi a Kambadaga omwe amatha kufika mamita 100 (330 ft) nyengo yamvula pamtsinje womwewo, mathithi a Ditinn & Mitty ku Dalaba, ndi mathithi a Fetoré ndi mlatho wamwala m'chigawo cha Labe ndi ena mwa malo okopa alendo okhudzana ndi madzi. ==Mayendelo== {{Main|Transport in Guinea}} Malo ghakwendera ndege gha Conakry International Airport ndigho ni ghakurughakuru chomene mu charu ichi, ndipo ghakwendera ku misumba yinyake mu Africa na ku Europe. Njanji iyi yikazengeka pakati pa 1904 na 1910, ndipo yikaŵaso yayi kugwira ntchito mu 1995 ndipo mu 2007 yikamara. Pakwamba, ŵakakhumbanga kunozga msewu uwu kuti uŵe wakwendamo ŵanthu ŵanandi, ndipo apo ntchito yikambanga mu 2010, ŵakayowoya kuti mulimo uwu uli kumara chifukwa cha vimbundi. Pali njanji iyo yikwendeskeka na boma iyo yikukolerana na migodi ya bauxite ya Sangarédi na dowoko la Kamsar (137 km) kweniso njanji ya m'ma 1960 iyo yikwendeskeka na Russia RusAl ku migodi ya Fria (143 km). Pakuŵa chigaŵa cha ndondomeko ya kwambaso kuguliska migodi ya visulo pa Simandou block 1 na 2, wupu uphya uwu ukalayizga mu 2019 kuti uzamupeleka ndalama zakwendeskera mulimo wa kuzenga njanji yiphya yakuya ku Matakong pa nyanja ya Atlantic uko ŵazamuguliska ndalama zakukwana madola mabiliyoni 20 gha ku America kuti ŵazenge dowoko la maji ghakunyang'amira. Njira ya makilomita 650 njitali kuluska nthowa yinyake yakulongozgera kumwera ku Buchanan, Liberia, iyo yikawonekanga nga ni nthowa yinyake mu October 2019.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/trending/LjaSYcEdRjnMwG4RserstA2| title = SP Global report, November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.planete-tp.com/IMG/pdf/cdf_ao-ae_vnrweb_cle13f153.pdf| title = Georges Pilot's history of railways in West Africa (in French)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.africa-confidential.com/article-preview/id/12816/Iron_back_on_track| title = Africa Confidential December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url = http://guineenews.org/kankan-le-chemin-de-fer-conakry-niger-a-quand-sa-rehabilitation/ |author = Amadou Timbo Barry |title = Kankan : Le chemin de fer Conakry-Niger à quand sa réhabilitation ? |date = 14 May 2015 |publisher = Guinee News |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160915153034/http://guineenews.org/kankan-le-chemin-de-fer-conakry-niger-a-quand-sa-rehabilitation/ |archive-date = 15 September 2016 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> Ndipouli, nthowa ya Matakong yikeneranga kuŵa mu Guinea ndipo yikeneranga kuŵa na nthowa yakwendeskera vyakurya. Mu Guinea, magalimoto ghanyake ghali na vyaka vyakujumpha 20, ndipo magalimoto gha taxi ni magalimoto gha vipata vinayi agho mweneko wayowoya kuti ghapangike. Ŵanthu ŵa mu tawuni iyi, awo ŵalije magalimoto, ŵakugwiliskira nchito magalimoto gha tekisi na mabasi ghacoko kuti ŵendenge mu tawuni na mu caru cose. Mahachi na mbunda vikuguza magileta, comenecomene pakunyamura vinthu vya kuzenga. == Ŵanthu == {|class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px" ! colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#cfb;"|Population in Guinea{{UN_Population|ref}} |- ! style="background:#cfb;"|Year ! style="background:#cfb;"|Million |- |style="text-align:left;"|1950 ||style="text-align:right;"|3.0 |- |style="text-align:left;"|2000 ||style="text-align:right;"|8.8 |- |style="text-align:left;"|{{UN_Population|Year}} ||style="text-align:right;"|{{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Guinea}}|R}}/1e6 round 1}} |} {{Main|Demography of Guinea}} Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi ŵalipo 13.5 miliyoni. Msumba wa Conakry ndiwo uli na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. Mu 2014, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakababikanga mu Guinea chikaŵa 4.93 pa mwanakazi waliyose.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2127rank.html|title=The World Factbook|access-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028133713/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2127rank.html|archive-date=28 October 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{Largest cities | country = Guinea | stat_ref = According to the 2014 Census<ref>{{cite web |url=http://citypopulation.de/Guinea-Cities.html |title=Cities and Regions |website=Citypopulation.de |access-date=23 July 2021 }}</ref> | list_by_pop = | div_name = Region | div_link = | city_1 = Conakry | div_1 = Conakry | pop_1 = 1,660,973 | img_1 = Conakry.jpg | city_2 = Nzérékoré | div_2 = Nzérékoré | pop_2 = 195,027 | img_2 = Nzerekore.jpg | city_3 = Kankan | div_3 = Kankan | pop_3 = 190,722 | img_3 = | city_4 = Manéah | div_4 = Kindia | pop_4 = 167,354 | img_4 = | city_5 = Dubréka | div_5 = Kindia | pop_5 = 157,017 | city_6 = Kindia | div_6 = Kindia | pop_6 = 138,695 | city_7 = Siguiri | div_7 = Kankan | pop_7 = 127,492 | city_8 = Kissidougou | div_8 = Faranah | pop_8 = 99,931 | city_9 = Labé | div_9 = Labé | pop_9 = 92,654 | city_10 = Kamsar | div_10 = Boké | pop_10 = 83,428 }} Chiyowoyero cha ku Guinea ni Chifurenchi. Mu 2018, ŵanthu 33.9% ŵakayowoyanga Chipular, ndipo ŵanthu 29.4% ŵakayowoyanga Chimandingo. Chilankhulo chachitatu chomwe chimalankhulidwa kwambiri ndi Chisu, chomwe chimalankhulidwa ndi 21.2% ya anthu mu 2018 ngati chilankhulo chawo choyamba. Viyowoyero vinyake ivyo vikuyowoyeka mu Guinea nga ni chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea vikakwana 16% mu 2018, kusazgapo Kissi na Kpelle.<ref name="CIA Factbook1" /> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea ŵali mu mafuko pafupifupi 24. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mandinka, awo ŵakumanyikwaso kuti Mandingo panji Malinké, ŵalipo 29.4% ndipo ŵakukhala ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Guinea.<ref name=guinea_stats/> TŴafula panji Ŵafula, ŵalipo 33.4% ndipo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa cha Futa Djallon. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Soussou ŵalipo 21.2% ndipo ŵakukhala ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa msumba wa Conakry, Forécariah, na Kindia. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ndiwo ŵakukhala pa chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu 16%, kusazgapo Kpelle, Kissi, Zialo, Toma na ŵanyake. Ku Guinea kuli ŵanthu 10,000 awo mba ku Africa yayi, ndipo ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba ku Lebanon, France, na vyaru vinyake vya ku Europe.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2824.htm |title=Guinea |website=State.gov |date=22 November 2016 |access-date=23 July 2017 }}</ref><ref name="guinea_stats" /><ref name="cia.gov" /><ref name="Fula">In {{lang-fr|Peul|link=no}}. In {{lang-ff|Fulɓe}}.</ref><ref name="cia.gov" /><ref name="cia.gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea/ |title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=12 April 2018 }}</ref> ===Chisopo=== {{Further|Religion in Guinea}} {{bar box |title=Guinea religious sects<ref name="state.gov"/> |titlebar=#ddd |left1='''Religion''' |right1='''Percent''' |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|Islam|lightgreen|85}} {{bar percent|Christianity|blue|8}} {{bar percent|[[Traditional African religion]]|brown|7}} }} Ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea ŵalipo 85% Mbasilamu ndipo 8% Mbakhristu. Ŵanyake, Ŵasilamu na Ŵakristu wuwo, ŵakulondezga vigomezgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa.<ref name="state.gov">[https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/208368.pdf "Guinea 2012 International Religious Freedom Report"], US State Department, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor.</ref><ref>[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108372.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2008: Guinea] . United States [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor]] (29 December 2008). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].''</ref> Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ŵa ku Guinea ŵakulondezga chisopa cha Sunni, cha Maliki. Magulu gha Cikristu ghakuphatikizapo ŵa Katolika, ŵa Anglican, ŵa Baptist, ŵa Seventh-day Adventist, na ŵa Evangelical. Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova ŵakugwira nchito mu caru ici ndipo boma likuŵamanya makora. Ku malo agha kuli cisopa ca Bahá'í. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinyake mba Chihindu, Chibuda, na ŵa chisopa cha Chitchayinizi. Ku Nzerekore kukaŵa nkhondo za mitundu na visopa kwa mazuŵa ghatatu mu Julayi 2013.<ref name="Guinea 2013">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-guinea-violence-idUSBRE96G00820130717|title="Guinea's Conde appeals for calm after 11 killed in ethnic clashes", Reuters, 16 July 2013.|work=Reuters|date=17 July 2013|access-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006190639/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/07/17/us-guinea-violence-idUSBRE96G00820130717|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 3818383|title = A Sufi Interpretation of 'Le Regard du Roi'|journal = Research in African Literatures|volume = 14|issue = 2|pages = 135–164|last1 = Harrow|first1 = Kenneth|year = 1983}}</ref><ref name="bbc.com">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-23335719|title="Guinean troops deployed after deadly ethnic clashes", BBC Africa, 17 July 2013.|work=BBC News|access-date=15 October 2014|date=17 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017234847/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-23335719|archive-date=17 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Nkhondo pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Kpelle awo Mbakhristu panji ŵakugomezga kuti kuli vyamoyo, na ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Konianke awo Mbasilamu ndipo ŵali pafupi na fuko la Malinke, ŵakafwa ŵanthu ŵakukwana 54. Ŵanyake awo ŵakafwa ŵakaŵakoma na vilwero na kotcha ŵamoyo. Nkhaza zikamara apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Guinea ŵakaŵikapo dango lakuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kwiza ku nyumba zawo.<ref name="bbc.com"/><ref name="bbc.com" /> ===Masambilo=== {{Main|Education in Guinea}} [[File:Guinea schoolgirls.jpg|Schoolgirls in [[Conakry]]|thumb]] Mu 2010, ŵanthu 41 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakamanyanga kuŵazga na kulemba (52 pa 100 pa ŵanalume na 30 pa 100 pa ŵanakazi).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html|title=The World Factbook|access-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124171442/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html|archive-date=24 November 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sukulu ya pulayimale njakukakamiza kwa vyaka 6. Mu 1999, ŵanthu 40 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakasambiranga ku pulayimale. Ŵana, comenecomene ŵasungwana, ŵakufumiskika ku sukulu kuti ŵawovwire ŵapapi ŵawo pa nchito za pa nyumba panji zaulimi, panji kuti ŵatoreke: Mu Guinea muli "ciŵelengero cikuru comene" ca ŵana awo ŵakutengwa.<ref>According to the WHO:"The 10 countries with the highest rates of child marriage are: Niger, 75%; Chad and Central African Republic, 68%; India, 66%; '''Guinea, 63%'''; Mozambique, 56%; Mali, 55%; Burkina Faso and South Sudan, 52%; and Malawi, 50%."[https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2013/child_marriage_20130307/en/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424050514/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2013/child_marriage_20130307/en/|date=24 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year=2015&dlid=252689|title=Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2015: Guinea|access-date=19 November 2016|author=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|author-link=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor}}</ref><ref>[http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/guinea.htm Bureau of International Labor Affairs (ILAB) – U.S. Department of Labor] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205042438/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/guinea.htm |date=5 December 2008 }}. Dol.gov. Retrieved 28 June 2011.</ref> ===Umoyo=== {{Further|Health in Guinea}} ====Ebola==== {{Further|Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa}} Mu 2014, ku Guinea kukabuka nthenda ya Ebola. Lekani dipatimenti ya vyaumoyo yikakanizga kuguliska na kurya viyuni ivi. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, nthenda iyi yikathandazgika kufuma ku vigaŵa vya ku mizi kuya ku Conakry, ndipo mu Juni 2014 yikafika mu vyaru vyapafupi nga ni Sierra Leone na Liberia. Mu Ogasiti 2014, charu cha Guinea chikajara mphaka na Sierra Leone na Liberia kuti chileke kuthandazga nthenda iyi.<ref>{{cite news | date= 28 March 2014 | title= Ebola: Guinea outbreak reaches capital Conakry | url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26774343 | publisher= BBC | access-date= 30 March 2014 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140330024741/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26774343 | archive-date= 30 March 2014 | url-status= live | df= dmy-all }}</ref> Nthenda iyi yikamba mu Disembala mu muzi wa Meliandou, kumwera kwa Guinea, kufupi na mphaka na Liberia na Sierra Leone. Munthu wakwamba uyo ŵakamupima wakaŵa mwana wa vyaka viŵiri, ndipo wakafwa pa 6 Disembala, chifukwa cha nthenda ya malungo, kuputa, na vyoto vyaswesi. Pakati pajumpha sabata yimoza, amama ŵa mwana uyu ŵakafwa, ndipo pamanyuma mudumbu na abuya ŵake ŵakafwa. Pamanyuma, nthenda iyi yikathandazgikira ku mizi yinyake cifukwa ca ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵapweleleranga. "Malo ghakusungirako ŵakufwa" ndigho ghakwambiska nthenda iyi. Wupu wa vyaumoyo pa caru cose (WHO) ukati cifukwa ca kuleka kucezga na ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa ici, ŵantchito ŵa vyaumoyo ŵakatondeka kusanga uko kukafuma nthenda iyi. Apo WHO yikamalizga ndondomeko ya Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) pa 29 March 2016, lipoti la Ebola Situation Report ilo likapelekeka pa 30 March likakhozga kuti ŵanthu 5 ŵanyakeso ŵakalwara nthenda iyi mu masabata ghaŵiri agho ghakajumpha, ndipo nthenda iyi yikakhwaskana na nthenda ya Novembala 2014. Nthenda ya Ebola yikananga nthowa zakuchizgira matenda ghanyake mu Guinea. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kuleka kuluta ku chipatala chifukwa cha kopa nthenda iyi kweniso chifukwa cha kuleka kugomezga ndopa. Kweniso chifukwa cha Ebola, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuleka kupwelelera ndopa. Ebola yikwambaso ku Guinea mu January/February 2021.<ref> {{cite news | title = Guinea declares Ebola epidemic: First deaths since 2016 | url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-56060728 | department = Africa | work = BBC News | publisher = BBC | publication-date = 14 February 2021 | access-date = 15 February 2021 | quote = Guinea has officially declared that it is dealing with an Ebola epidemic after the deaths of at least three people from the virus. <br /> They - and four others - fell ill with diarrhoea, vomiting and bleeding after attending the burial of a nurse. [...] A nurse who worked a health centre in Goueké, near the south-eastern city of Nzérékoré, died on 28 January and her funeral was held four days later. }} </ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2016/end-of-ebola-pheic/en/|title= Ebola is no longer a public health emergency|website= World Health Organization|access-date= 14 February 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160331231040/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2016/end-of-ebola-pheic/en/|archive-date= 31 March 2016|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://apps.who.int/ebola/current-situation/ebola-situation-report-4-march-2015|title= Ebola Situation Report – 4 March 2015 {{!}} Ebola|website= apps.who.int|access-date= 14 February 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170301084553/http://apps.who.int/ebola/current-situation/ebola-situation-report-4-march-2015|archive-date= 1 March 2017|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://apps.who.int/ebola/current-situation/ebola-situation-report-30-march-2016|title= Ebola Situation Report – 30 March 2016 {{!}} Ebola|website= apps.who.int|access-date= 14 February 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160613210509/http://apps.who.int/ebola/current-situation/ebola-situation-report-30-march-2016|archive-date= 13 June 2016|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndawinz |first1=Jacques D A |last2=Cissé |first2=Mohamed |last3=Diallo |first3=Mohamadou S K |last4=Sidibé |first4=Cheik T |last5=D'Ortenzio |first5=Eric |title=Prevention of HIV spread during the Ebola outbreak in Guinea |journal=The Lancet |date=April 2015 |volume=385 |issue=9976 |pages=1393 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60713-9 |pmid=25890415 |s2cid=41478740 |url=http://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lancet/PIIS0140-6736(15)60713-9.pdf}}</ref> ====Maternal and child healthcare==== Chiŵerengero cha amayi omwe amafa mu 2021 pa kubadwa 100,000 ku Guinea ndi 576.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.usaid.gov/global-health/health-areas/family-planning/resources/impact-brief-guinea | title=Impact Brief: Guinea | date=21 May 2021 | access-date=28 October 2022 | archive-date=28 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028205848/https://www.usaid.gov/global-health/health-areas/family-planning/resources/impact-brief-guinea | url-status=dead }}</ref> Pa ciŵelengero ici, mu 2010 kukaŵa 680 ndipo mu 2008 kukaŵa 859.9 ndipo mu 1990 kukaŵa 964.7. Ŵana awo ŵakufwa para ŵandafike vyaka vinkhondi ŵakufwa pa ŵana 1,000 146, ndipo ŵana awo ŵakufwa para ŵandafike vyaka vinkhondi ŵakufwa 29. Ku Guinea, pa ŵana 1,000 awo ŵakubabika, mwanakazi yumoza ndiyo wakuŵa mama, ndipo pa ŵanakazi 26 ŵaliwose, yumoza wakufwa. Ku Guinea ndiko kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi comene awo ŵakukoma ŵanakazi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/prevalence/en/|title=WHO – Female genital mutilation and other harmful practices|access-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012192739/http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/prevalence/en/|archive-date=12 October 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf |title=Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A statistical overview and exploration of the dynamics of change – UNICEF DATA |website=Unicef.org |date=22 July 2013 |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405083031/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf |archive-date=5 April 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="SOWMY">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/report/home.html|title=The State of the World's Midwifery|publisher=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=25 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111225024306/http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/report/home.html|archive-date=25 December 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> ====HIV/AIDS==== {{Main|HIV/AIDS in Guinea}} Paumaliro wa 2004, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 170,000 ŵakaŵa na nthenda iyi.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/hiv/HIVCP_GIN.pdf |title=Status of HIV/AIDS in Guinea, 2005 |access-date=30 September 2007 |year=2005 |publisher=World Health Organisation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805150456/http://www.who.int/hiv/HIVCP_GIN.pdf |archive-date=5 August 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/GlobalAtlas/predefinedReports/EFS2006/EFS_PDFs/EFS2006_GN.pdf |title=Epidemiological Fact Sheets: HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, December 2006 |access-date=30 September 2007 |date=December 2006 |publisher=World Health Organisation |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025053159/http://www.who.int/GlobalAtlas/predefinedReports/EFS2006/EFS_PDFs/EFS2006_GN.pdf |archive-date=25 October 2007 }}</ref>Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2001 na 2002 wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusuzgika na HIV mu misumba kuluska ku mizi. Ku Conakry (5%) na mu misumba ya ku Forest Guinea (7%) iyo yili kufupi na Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, na Sierra Leone ndiko kukaŵa nthenda iyi. Matenda gha HIV ghakuthandazgika comene para munthu wakugonana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵanyake. Ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵakuŵa na nthenda ya HIV mwakuyana waka, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 24 ndiwo ŵakusuzgika comene. Pa ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira ntchito za kugonana (42%), ŵasilikari (6.6%), ŵakwendeska magalimoto na matekisi (7.3%), ŵanthu ŵakugwira ntchito mu migodi (4.7%) na ŵanthu ŵakukhwima awo ŵali na TB (8.6%), viŵelengero ivi vikulongora kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira ntchito za kugonana (42%). Pali vinthu vinandi ivyo vikwambiska nthenda ya HIV/AIDS ku Guinea. Vinthu ivi ni kugonana kwambura kuvikilirika, kugonana na ŵanthu ŵanandi, kuleka kuŵazga na kulemba, ukavu ukuru, mphaka zambura kukhazikika, ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo, kusoŵerwa kwa wovwiri wa boma, na kusoŵa kwa wovwiri wa munkhwala na wovwiri wa boma.<ref name=usaid/><ref name="usaid" /><ref name="usaid">{{citation-attribution|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20081113214710/http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/aids/Countries/africa/guinea_05.pdf "Health Profile: Guinea"]. [[USAID]] (March 2005).}}</ref> ==== Kuŵa na njara ==== Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2012, wakalongosora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakulwara matenda gha matenda agha mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Kafukufuku uyu wakalongora kuti ŵana 139,200 ŵakaŵa na suzgo la kusoŵa chakurya, 609,696 ŵakaŵa na suzgo la kusoŵa chakurya, ndipo 1,592,892 ŵakaŵa na nthenda ya kusulura ndopa. Ŵanthu ŵakayowoya kuti vinthu ivi vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kupwelelera ŵanyawo, ŵaleke kusanga wovwiri wa munkhwala, ŵaleke kuŵa na utozi uwemi, kweniso kuti vyakurya vileke kuŵa vyakupambanapambana.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://home.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/eb/wfpdoc062106.pdf |title=Enquête nationale nutrition-santé, basée sur la méthodologie SMART, 2011–2012 |access-date=12 May 2014 |year=2012 |publisher=World Food Programme }}{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ====Malaria==== Maleriya ghakuthandazgika chaka chose, ndipo ghakuthandazgika chomene kwamba mu Julayi m'paka Okutobala. Ku Guinea ŵanthu ŵakulwaralwara cifukwa ca matenda agha.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.healthdata.org/sites/default/files/files/country_profiles/GBD/ihme_gbd_country_report_guinea.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=24 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120427/http://www.healthdata.org/sites/default/files/files/country_profiles/GBD/ihme_gbd_country_report_guinea.pdf |archive-date=26 August 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pmi.gov/docs/default-source/default-document-library/malaria-operational-plans/fy14/guinea_mop_fy14.pdf?sfvrsn=8 |title=Archived copy |access-date=24 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120928/http://www.pmi.gov/docs/default-source/default-document-library/malaria-operational-plans/fy14/guinea_mop_fy14.pdf?sfvrsn=8 |archive-date=26 August 2014 }}</ref> ====COVID-19 pandemic==== {{Main|COVID-19 pandemic in Guinea}} Munthu wakwamba uyo wakasangana na nthenda ya COVID-19 wakalembeka mu Guinea pa 13 March 2020. Paumaliro wa 2020, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakasangika na nthenda iyi chikaŵa 13,722. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, 13,141 ŵakachira, 500 ŵakaŵa ŵamoyo, ndipo 81 ŵakafwa.<ref>{{cite web|title=COVID-19 and W/Africa: 1,994 new cases, 31 new deaths in 24 hours|url=http://apanews.net/en/news/covid-19-and-wafrica-1994-new-cases-31-new-deaths-in-24-hours|publisher=APA|access-date=2 January 2021|date=31 December 2020}}</ref><ref name="First">{{Cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/health-coronavirus-guinea/eu-employee-tests-positive-for-coronavirus-in-guineas-first-case-idUSL8N2B46DI |title=EU employee tests positive for coronavirus in Guinea's first case |date=13 March 2020 |work=Reuters}}</ref> ==Mwambo== [[File:Guinea Dinguiraye market.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Malo agho ŵakuguliskako vyakurya mu chigaŵa cha Dinguiraye, ku Guinea]] === Maseŵera === Mu charu cha Guinea, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa comene maseŵero gha bola. Wupu wakuwona vya maseŵero wa Guinea Football Federation ndiwo ukuchita maseŵero agha. Wupu uwu ndiwo ukwendeska timu ya mpira wa ku caru cose, na ligi ya ku caru cose. Likakhazikiskika mu 1960 ndipo likukolerana na FIFA kufuma mu 1962 na Confederation of African Football kufuma mu 1963. Gulu la mpira la ku Guinea, lakucemeka Syli nationale (Ndlovu za ku Guinea), likucitako maseŵero gha mpira wa pa caru cose kwamba mu 1962. Ŵakamba kulimbana na East Germany. Ŵandafikepo pa chigoti cha World Cup, ndipo ŵakathereskeka na Morocco pa Africa Cup of Nations mu 1976.<ref name=Encyclopedia/><ref name="Encyclopedia" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cafonline.com/en-us/memberassociations/f%C3%A9d%C3%A9rationguin%C3%A9ennedefootball/Home |title=Member Associations: Fédération Guinéenne de Football (FGF) |publisher=Confederation of African Football |access-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702191454/http://www.cafonline.com/en-us/memberassociations/f%C3%A9d%C3%A9rationguin%C3%A9ennedefootball/home |archive-date=2 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/guinea_25923.html |title=At a glance: Guinea - Football boosts girls' education |publisher=UNICEF |access-date=3 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224220145/https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/guinea_25923.html |archive-date=24 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Guinea, Post Report|year = 1985|url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=-FzsyAEIxi8C&rdid=book--FzsyAEIxi8C&rdot=1|access-date=8 September 2021|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|page=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/associations/association=gui/ |title=Associations: Guinea |publisher=FIFA |access-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010102648/https://www.fifa.com/associations/association=gui/ |archive-date=10 October 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia">{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|last2=Jean-Jacques|first2=Daniel|title=Africa: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YjoVCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA593|access-date=5 November 2016|date=14 December 2015|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781598846669|pages=568–569}}</ref> Guinée Championnat National ndi chigawo chapamwamba cha mpira wa ku Guinea. Kufuma waka apo yikambira mu 1965, magulu ghatatu ghakaŵa na chilato cha kutonda mphindano za ku Guinea. Horoya AC wali na vithuzithuzi 16 ndipo ndiyo wakathereska mu 2017. Hafia FC (iyo yikamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Conakry II mu ma 1960s) yili na vithuzithuzi vyakujumpha 15. AS Kaloum Star (iyo yikamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Conakry I mu ma 1960s) yili na maudindo 13. Magulu ghose ghatatu ghali mu msumba wa Conakry. Hafia FC yikathereska African Cup of Champions Clubs katatu, mu 1972, 1975 na 1977, apo Horoya AC yikathereska African Cup Winners' Cup mu 1978.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kuhn|first=Gabriel|title=Soccer vs. the State: Tackling Football and Radical Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BwmsLxiWvnwC&pg=PA33|date=15 March 2011|publisher=PM Press|isbn=9781604865240|page=33}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="RSSSF">{{cite web |url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesg/guineachamp.html |title=Guinea: List of champions |website=Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation |access-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227175550/http://www.rsssf.com/tablesg/guineachamp.html |archive-date=27 February 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Kutora mitala === {{Further|Polygamy in Guinea}} Dango la ku Guinea likukanizga kutora ŵanakazi ŵanandi, kweni pali vinyake ivyo vikukanizgika. Mu 2020, ŵanthu pafupifupi 26% ŵakatoranga ŵanakazi ŵanandi (29% Ŵasilamu na 10% Ŵakhristu).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/12/07/polygamy-is-rare-around-the-world-and-mostly-confined-to-a-few-regions/ | title=Polygamy is rare around the world and mostly confined to a few regions }}</ref><ref>[http://ddata.over-blog.com/xxxyyy/2/86/20/02/CODE-CIVIL.pdf Articles 315-319] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521165450/http://ddata.over-blog.com/xxxyyy/2/86/20/02/CODE-CIVIL.pdf |date=21 May 2013 }}, Civil Code of the Republic of Guinea (Code Civil de la Republique de Guinee)</ref> === Kuphika === {{Further|Cuisine of Guinea}} Vyakurya vya ku Guinea vikupambana kuyana na chigaŵa. Cassava wakumwa. Vyakurya vya ku Guinea ni yétissé, msuzi wa ma nuts, msuzi wa okra na chingwa cha tapalapa. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi, ŵanthu ŵakurya mu "mbale yikuru" na kurya na mawoko kuwaro kwa nyumba.<ref name=dc>{{cite web |url=http://wamu.org/programs/metro_connection/12/09/21/eating_in_the_embassy_guinean_embassy_brings_west_african_food_to_washington |title=Eating in the Embassy: Guinean Embassy Brings West African Food To Washington |publisher=WAMU |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201183046/http://wamu.org/programs/metro_connection/12/09/21/eating_in_the_embassy_guinean_embassy_brings_west_african_food_to_washington |archive-date=1 February 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="friends">{{cite web |url=http://friendsofguinea.org/about-guinea/recipes |title=Recipes & Cookbooks |publisher=Friends of Guinea |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203132146/http://friendsofguinea.org/about-guinea/recipes |archive-date=3 February 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> === Sumo === === Vyakuona === ==Wonaniso== {{portal|Guinea|Africa}} * [[Outline of Guinea]] * [[Index of Guinea-related articles]] {{clear}} ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ===Vyakulemba=== {{notelist}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|voy=Guinea}} * {{Official website|http://www.presidence.gov.gn/}} {{in lang|fr}} * [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea/ Guinea]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081215085918/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/guinea.htm Guinea] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{Curlie|Regional/Africa/Guinea}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13442051 Guinea profile] from the [[BBC News]] * {{wikiatlas|Guinea}} * {{osmrelation-inline|192778}} * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/GIN/Year/2008/Summary Guinea 2008 Summary Trade Statistics] {{Guinea topics}} {{Navboxes | list = {{African Union}} {{Countries of Africa}} {{La Francophonie}} {{Organisation of the Islamic Conference}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|11|N|10|W|display=title}} [[Category:Guinea| ]] [[Category:1958 establishments in Guinea]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Economic Community of West African States]] [[Category:Central African countries]] [[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1958]] [[Category:West African countries]] rbvl20reo1owjdmqe7bmf3slhorxcsq Kusanthura-Maŵiro 0 41839 112787 102922 2025-06-15T15:22:49Z Д.Ильин 9191 112787 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Standard Normal Distribution-en.svg|right|thumb|Kugaŵa kwakaŵiri-kaŵiri, ako kali kakusangika chomene mu kuthithika kwa unandi, kukugwiliskika chomene pa Kusanthura-Maŵiro.]] [[File:Iris_Pairs_Plot.svg|right|thumb|Minda ya kumija na ma tchati gha mzere, yakugwiliskika chomene mu Kusanthura-Maŵiro kwa kulongosoleka kuwoneska ubali pakati pa visintho vyakupambana, apa kugwiriska chibwayila cha Iris flower.]] '''Kusanthura-Maŵiro''' (kufuma ku [[German language|ChiGerman]]: ''[[wikt:Statistik#German|Statistik]]'', {{Abbr|orig.|originally}} "kulongosora [[State (polity)|boma]], la charu")<ref>{{Cite OED|statistics}}</ref><ref>“[https://www.dwds.de/?q=Statistik Statistik]” in ''Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache''</ref> ni kafukufuku uyo wakukhwaskana na kuwunjika, kwendeska, kusanda, kung'anamura, na kulongosora [[uthenga]].<ref name=ox>{{cite book|title = Oxford Reference|chapter = Statistics|date = January 2008|publisher = Oxford University Press|isbn = 978-0-19-954145-4|url = https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199541454.001.0001/acref-9780199541454-e-1566?rskey=nxhBLl&result=1979|access-date = 2019-08-14|archive-date = 2020-09-03|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200903144424/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199541454.001.0001/acref-9780199541454-e-1566?rskey=nxhBLl&result=1979|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Jan-Willem |last=Romijn |year=2014 |title=Philosophy of statistics |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/statistics/ |access-date=2016-11-03 |archive-date=2021-10-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019033058/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/statistics/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Cambridge Dictionary | url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/statistics | access-date=2019-08-14 | archive-date=2020-11-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122210156/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/statistics | url-status=live }}</ref> Para tikugwiliskira ntchito Kusanthura-Maŵiro pa suzgo la sayansi, malonda, panji la umoyo wa ŵanthu, kanandi tikwamba na [[Unandi-wose]] panjiso [[kayezgero ka Kusanthura-Maŵiro]] ako katiŵazgikenge. Unandi-wose, ungaŵa vigaŵa vyakupambana pambana vya ŵanthu panji vinthu nga "ŵanthu ŵose ŵakukhala mu charu" panji "chimenyu chilichose chakuwumba khristoli". Kusanthura-Maŵiro kukuwona vyose vyakukhwaskana na umo vinthu viliri, kusazgapo ndondomeko ya kunozga ma [[statistical survey|Save]] na [[experimental design|ma kafukufuku]].<ref name=Dodge>Dodge, Y. (2006) ''The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms'', Oxford University Press. {{isbn|0-19-920613-9}}</ref> Pala uthenga wa [[chipendero]] ungatoleleka yayi, [[waKusanthura-Maŵiro]] wakutolela uthenga pakupanga makafukufuku na ma save ago ghakugwiliska ntchito [[sample (statistics)|viyezgero]]. Kutola viyezgero vyakwimilra yikuwoneseska kuti fundo zingatandazga mwa mahara kufuma ku kachiyezgero kuluta ku unandi-wose mwanthunthu. [[experimental study|Kafukufuku wakusanda]] kukukhwaska kupima vinthu ivyo vikusangika mu ndondomeko iyo yikusambizgika, kunjizgapo vinthu vinyake ivyo vikusintha vinthu ivi, na kupima vinthu vinyake ivyo vikuchitika mwakuyana na ndondomeko iyo yikapangika kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye usange vinthu ivi vyasintha vinthu ivyo vikupima. Mwakupambaniska, [[observational study|kusanda Kwakulaŵilira]] kukukhwaska kafukufuku wakuseŵeleska yayi. Vyakudanga viŵiri mwa nthowa za Kusanthura-Maŵiro yakugwiliskika mu [[data analysis|kusanda uthenga]]: [[descriptive statistics|Kusanthura-Maŵiro kwakulongosoleka]], Ivyo vikuyowoya mwakudumura ivyo vyafuma mu viyezgero kugwiriska [[Index (statistics)|maindekse]] nthe [[mean|tikatikati]] panji [[standard deviation|yisezgo yakukhazikika]], na [[statistical inference|Kusanthura-Maŵiro mwa fundo]], izo zikufunya fundo kufuma pa uthenga uwo ukupambanangapambananga (nthe, vyakubekeka mwautesi, upambano wa viyezgero).<ref name=LundResearchLtd>{{cite web |last=Lund Research Ltd. |url=https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/descriptive-inferential-statistics.php |title=Descriptive and Inferential Statistics |publisher=statistics.laerd.com |access-date=2014-03-23 |archive-date=2020-10-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026075549/https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/descriptive-inferential-statistics.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Kusanthura-Maŵiro ghakulongosoleka kanandi ghakukhwaska magulu yaŵiri ya maunenesko gha chigaŵo (chiyezgero panji unandi-wose): ''[[central tendency|uzgoloŵezgi wa pakati]]'' (pangi malo) uikukhumba kulongora umo vinthu viliri pakatikati panji umo vikuŵira, apo kusakatuka (panji kuti kusinthasintha) kukulongora umo ŵanthu ŵakufumira pakati pa vinthu. Fundo zakuroska mu [[mathematical statistics|Kusanthura-Maŵiro musamuzi]] zikupangika pa chizengero cha [[probability theory|fundo ya mayero]], iyi yikulongosora umo vinthu vikuchitikira mwamwaŵi. Kanandi ndondomeko ya Kusanthura-Maŵiro kukukhwaska kutolela kwa uthenga kulazgiska ku [[statistical hypothesis testing|kuyezga kwa ubali]] pakati pa vibwayila viŵiri vya Kusanthura-Maŵiro, panji vibwayila vyauthenga na mauthenga ghakuwumbika na ŵanthu kufuma ku chiyezgero chakuwumbika mwausuma. Chiloskero chikupelekeka kulongosola ubali wa Kusanthura-Maŵiro pakati pa vibwayila viŵiri vyauthenga, ndipo this is compared as an [[alternative hypothesis|alternative]] to an idealized [[null hypothesis]] of no relationship between two data sets. Rejecting or disproving the null hypothesis is done using statistical tests that quantify the sense in which the null can be proven false, given the data that are used in the test. Working from a null hypothesis, two basic forms of error are recognized: [[Type I error]]s (null hypothesis is falsely rejected giving a "false positive") and [[Type II error]]s (null hypothesis fails to be rejected and an actual relationship between populations is missed giving a "false negative"). Statistical measurement processes are also prone to error in regards to the data that they generate. Many of these errors are classified as random (noise) or systematic ([[Bias (statistics)|bias]]), but other types of errors (e.g., blunder, such as when an analyst reports incorrect units) can also occur. The presence of [[missing data]] or [[censoring (statistics)|censoring]] may result in biased estimates and specific techniques have been developed to address these problems. {{TOC limit|3}} == Vyakudanga == {{main|Outline of statistics}} Statistics is a mathematical body of science that pertains to the collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of [[data]],<ref>Moses, Lincoln E. (1986) ''Think and Explain with Statistics'', Addison-Wesley, {{isbn|978-0-201-15619-5}}. pp. 1–3</ref> or as a branch of [[mathematics]].<ref>Hays, William Lee, (1973) ''Statistics for the Social Sciences'', Holt, Rinehart and Winston, p. xii, {{isbn|978-0-03-077945-9}}</ref> Some consider statistics to be a distinct [[mathematical sciences|mathematical science]] rather than a branch of mathematics. While many scientific investigations make use of data, statistics is concerned with the use of data in the context of uncertainty and decision-making in the face of uncertainty.<ref>{{cite book |last=Moore |first=David |title=Statistics for the Twenty-First Century |publisher=The Mathematical Association of America |editor=F. Gordon |editor2=S. Gordon |location=Washington, DC |year=1992 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/statisticsfortwe0000unse/page/14 14–25] |chapter=Teaching Statistics as a Respectable Subject |isbn=978-0-88385-078-7 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/statisticsfortwe0000unse/page/14 }} </ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chance |first=Beth L. |author1-link=Beth Chance |author2=Rossman, Allan J. |title=Investigating Statistical Concepts, Applications, and Methods |publisher=Duxbury Press |year=2005 |chapter=Preface |isbn=978-0-495-05064-3 |chapter-url=http://www.rossmanchance.com/iscam/preface.pdf |access-date=2009-12-06 |archive-date=2020-11-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122092901/http://www.rossmanchance.com/iscam/preface.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In applying statistics to a problem, it is common practice to start with a [[statistical population|population]] or process to be studied. Populations can be diverse topics, such as "all people living in a country" or "every atom composing a crystal". Ideally, statisticians compile data about the entire population (an operation called a [[census]]). This may be organized by governmental statistical institutes. ''[[Descriptive statistics]]'' can be used to summarize the population data. Numerical descriptors include [[mean]] and [[standard deviation]] for [[Continuous probability distribution|continuous data]] (like income), while frequency and percentage are more useful in terms of describing [[categorical data]] (like education). When a census is not feasible, a chosen subset of the population called a [[sampling (statistics)|sample]] is studied. Once a sample that is representative of the population is determined, data is collected for the sample members in an observational or [[experiment]]al setting. Again, descriptive statistics can be used to summarize the sample data. However, drawing the sample contains an element of randomness; hence, the numerical descriptors from the sample are also prone to uncertainty. To draw meaningful conclusions about the entire population, ''[[inferential statistics]]'' are needed. It uses patterns in the sample data to draw inferences about the population represented while accounting for randomness. These inferences may take the form of answering yes/no questions about the data ([[hypothesis testing]]), estimating numerical characteristics of the data ([[Estimation theory|estimation]]), describing [[Association (statistics)|associations]] within the data ([[correlation and dependence|correlation]]), and modeling relationships within the data (for example, using [[regression analysis]]). Inference can extend to the [[forecasting]], [[prediction]], and estimation of unobserved values either in or associated with the population being studied. It can include [[extrapolation]] and [[interpolation]] of [[time series]] or [[spatial statistics|spatial data]], as well as [[data mining]]. ===Mathematical statistics=== {{main|Mathematical statistics}} Mathematical statistics is the application of [[mathematics]] to statistics. Mathematical techniques used for this include [[mathematical analysis]], [[linear algebra]], [[stochastic analysis]], [[differential equations]], and [[measure-theoretic probability theory]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lakshmikantham|first1=D. |last2=Kannan|first2= V.|title=Handbook of stochastic analysis and applications|date=2002|publisher=M. Dekker|location=New York|isbn=0824706609}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Schervish|first=Mark J.|title=Theory of statistics|date=1995|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=0387945466|edition=Corr. 2nd print.}}</ref> == Mbiri == {{main|History of statistics|Founders of statistics}} [[File:Jakob Bernoulli.jpg|thumb|Bernoulli's ''[[Ars Conjectandi]]'' was the first work that dealt with [[probability theory]] as currently understood.]] Formal discussions on inference date back to [[Mathematics in medieval Islam|Arab mathematicians]] and [[cryptographers]], during the [[Islamic Golden Age]] between the 8th and 13th centuries. [[Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi|Al-Khalil]] (717–786) wrote the ''Book of Cryptographic Messages'', which contains one of the first uses of [[permutation]]s and [[combination]]s, to list all possible [[Arabic language|Arabic]] words with and without vowels.<ref name="LB">{{cite journal|last=Broemeling|first=Lyle D.|title=An Account of Early Statistical Inference in Arab Cryptology|journal=The American Statistician|date=1 November 2011|volume=65|issue=4|pages=255–257|doi=10.1198/tas.2011.10191|s2cid=123537702}}</ref> [[Al-Kindi|Al-Kindi's]] ''Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages'' gave a detailed description of how to use [[frequency analysis]] to decipher [[encrypted]] messages, providing an early example of [[statistical inference]] for [[Code|decoding]]. [[Ibn Adlan]] (1187–1268) later made an important contribution on the use of [[sample size]] in frequency analysis.<ref name="LB"/> The term 'statistic' was introduced by the Italian scholar [[Girolamo Ghilini]] in 1589 with reference to this science.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ostasiewicz |first=Walenty |year=2014 |title=The emergence of statistical science |journal=Śląski Przegląd Statystyczny |volume=12 |issue=18 |doi=10.15611/sps.2014.12.04 |pages=76–77}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bruneau |first=Quentin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63RnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT64 |title=States and the Masters of Capital: Sovereign Lending, Old and New |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2022 |isbn=978-0231555647}}</ref> The earliest writing containing statistics in Europe dates back to 1663, with the publication of ''[[Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality]]'' by [[John Graunt]].<ref>Willcox, Walter (1938) "The Founder of Statistics". ''Review of the [[International Statistical Institute]]'' 5(4): 321–328. {{JSTOR|1400906}}</ref> Early applications of statistical thinking revolved around the needs of states to base policy on demographic and economic data, hence its [[History of statistics#Etymology|''stat-'' etymology]]. The scope of the discipline of statistics broadened in the early 19th century to include the collection and analysis of data in general. Today, statistics is widely employed in government, business, and natural and social sciences. The mathematical foundations of statistics developed from discussions concerning [[Game of chance|games of chance]] among mathematicians such as [[Gerolamo Cardano]], [[Blaise Pascal]], [[Pierre de Fermat]], and [[Christiaan Huygens]]. Although the idea of probability was already examined in ancient and medieval law and philosophy (such as the work of [[Juan Caramuel]]), [[probability theory]] as a mathematical discipline only took shape at the very end of the 17th century, particularly in [[Jacob Bernoulli|Jacob Bernoulli's]] posthumous work ''[[Ars Conjectandi]]''.<ref>J. Franklin, The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability before Pascal, Johns Hopkins Univ Pr 2002</ref> This was the first book where the realm of games of chance and the realm of the probable (which concerned opinion, evidence, and argument) were combined and submitted to mathematical analysis.<ref>Schneider, I. (2005). Jakob Bernoulli, ''Ars Conjectandi'' (1713). In I. Grattan-Guinness (Ed.), ''Landmark writings in Western Mathematics, 1640-1940'' (pp. 88-103). </ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sylla |first1=E. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-xgwSAjTh34C |title=The Art of Conjecturing, Together with Letter to a Friend on Sets in Court Tennis (trans.) |last2=Bernoulli |first2=Jacob |publisher=JHU Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8018-8235-7 |language=en}}</ref> The [[method of least squares]] was first described by [[Adrien-Marie Legendre]] in 1805, though [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] presumably made use of it a decade earlier in 1795.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lim |first=M. |date=2021 |title=Gauss, Least Squares, and the Missing Planet |url=https://www.actuaries.digital/2021/03/31/gauss-least-squares-and-the-missing-planet/ |access-date=2022-11-01 |website=Actuaries Digital}}</ref> [[File:Karl Pearson, 1910.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.05|[[Karl Pearson]], a founder of mathematical statistics.]] The modern field of statistics emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century in three stages.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jYFRAAAAMAAJ|title=Studies in the history of statistical method|author=Helen Mary Walker|author-link=Helen M. Walker|year=1975|publisher=Arno Press|isbn=978-0405066283|access-date=2015-06-27|archive-date=2020-07-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727141905/https://books.google.com/books?id=jYFRAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The first wave, at the turn of the century, was led by the work of [[Francis Galton]] and [[Karl Pearson]], who transformed statistics into a rigorous mathematical discipline used for analysis, not just in science, but in industry and politics as well. Galton's contributions included introducing the concepts of [[standard deviation]], [[correlation]], [[regression analysis]] and the application of these methods to the study of the variety of human characteristics—height, weight and eyelash length among others.<ref name=Galton1877>{{cite journal | last1 = Galton | first1 = F | year = 1877 | title = Typical laws of heredity | journal = Nature | volume = 15 | issue = 388| pages = 492–553 | doi=10.1038/015492a0| bibcode = 1877Natur..15..492. | doi-access = free }}</ref> Pearson developed the [[Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient]], defined as a product-moment,<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1214/ss/1177012580 | last1 = Stigler | first1 = S.M. | year = 1989 | title = Francis Galton's Account of the Invention of Correlation | journal = Statistical Science | volume = 4 | issue = 2| pages = 73–79 | doi-access = free }}</ref> the [[Method of moments (statistics)|method of moments]] for the fitting of distributions to samples and the [[Pearson distribution]], among many other things.<ref name="Pearson, On the criterion">{{Cite journal|last1=Pearson|first1=K.|year=1900|title=On the Criterion that a given System of Deviations from the Probable in the Case of a Correlated System of Variables is such that it can be reasonably supposed to have arisen from Random Sampling|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1430618|journal=Philosophical Magazine|series=Series 5|volume=50|issue=302|pages=157–175|doi=10.1080/14786440009463897|access-date=2019-06-27|archive-date=2020-08-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818110818/https://zenodo.org/record/1430618|url-status=live}}</ref> Galton and Pearson founded ''[[Biometrika]]'' as the first journal of mathematical statistics and [[biostatistics]] (then called biometry), and the latter founded the world's first university statistics department at [[University College London]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Karl Pearson (1857–1936)|publisher=Department of Statistical Science&nbsp;– [[University College London]]|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/stats/department/pearson.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925065418/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/stats/department/pearson.html|archive-date=2008-09-25}}</ref> The second wave of the 1910s and 20s was initiated by [[William Sealy Gosset]], and reached its culmination in the insights of [[Ronald Fisher]], who wrote the textbooks that were to define the academic discipline in universities around the world. Fisher's most important publications were his 1918 seminal paper ''[[The Correlation between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance]]'' (which was the first to use the statistical term, [[variance]]), his classic 1925 work ''[[Statistical Methods for Research Workers]]'' and his 1935 ''[[The Design of Experiments]]'',<ref>{{cite journal | author = Box, JF | title = R.A. Fisher and the Design of Experiments, 1922–1926 | jstor = 2682986 | journal = [[The American Statistician]] | volume = 34 | issue = 1 |date=February 1980 | pages = 1–7 | doi = 10.2307/2682986}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Yates, F | title = Sir Ronald Fisher and the Design of Experiments | jstor = 2528399 | journal = [[Biometrics (journal)|Biometrics]] | volume = 20 | issue = 2 |date=June 1964 | pages = 307–321 | doi = 10.2307/2528399}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Influence of Fisher's "The Design of Experiments" on Educational Research Thirty Years Later |first1=Julian C. |last1=Stanley |journal=American Educational Research Journal |volume=3 |issue=3 |year=1966|pages= 223–229 |jstor=1161806 |doi=10.3102/00028312003003223|s2cid=145725524 }}</ref> where he developed rigorous [[design of experiments]] models. He originated the concepts of [[sufficiency (statistics)|sufficiency]], [[ancillary statistic]]s, [[linear discriminant analysis|Fisher's linear discriminator]] and [[Fisher information]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Agresti|first=Alan|author2=David B. Hichcock|year=2005|title=Bayesian Inference for Categorical Data Analysis|journal=Statistical Methods & Applications|issue=3|page=298|url=http://www.stat.ufl.edu/~aa/articles/agresti_hitchcock_2005.pdf|doi=10.1007/s10260-005-0121-y|volume=14|s2cid=18896230|access-date=2013-12-19|archive-date=2013-12-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219212926/http://www.stat.ufl.edu/~aa/articles/agresti_hitchcock_2005.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> He also coined the term [[null hypothesis]] during the [[Lady tasting tea]] experiment, which "is never proved or established, but is possibly disproved, in the course of experimentation".<ref name="oed">OED quote: '''1935''' R.A. Fisher, ''[[The Design of Experiments]]'' ii. 19, "We may speak of this hypothesis as the 'null hypothesis', and the null hypothesis is never proved or established, but is possibly disproved, in the course of experimentation."</ref><ref>Fisher|1971|loc=Chapter II. The Principles of Experimentation, Illustrated by a Psycho-physical Experiment, Section 8. The Null Hypothesis</ref> In his 1930 book ''[[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]'', he applied statistics to various [[biology|biological]] concepts such as [[Fisher's principle]]<ref name="Edwards98">{{cite journal|last1=Edwards|first1=A.W.F.|year=1998|title=Natural Selection and the Sex Ratio: Fisher's Sources|journal=American Naturalist|volume=151|issue=6|pages=564–569|doi=10.1086/286141|pmid=18811377|s2cid=40540426}}</ref> (which [[A. W. F. Edwards]] called "probably the most celebrated argument in [[evolutionary biology]]") and [[Fisherian runaway]],<ref name="fisher15">Fisher, R.A. (1915) The evolution of sexual preference. Eugenics Review (7) 184:192</ref><ref name="fisher30">Fisher, R.A. (1930) [[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]. {{isbn|0-19-850440-3}}</ref><ref name="pers00">Edwards, A.W.F. (2000) Perspectives: Anecdotal, Historical and Critical Commentaries on Genetics. The Genetics Society of America (154) 1419:1426</ref><ref name="ander94">{{cite book|last = Andersson|first = Malte|date = 1994|title = Sexual Selection|isbn = 0-691-00057-3|publisher = Princeton University Press|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lNnHdvzBlTYC|access-date = 2019-09-19|archive-date = 2019-12-25|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191225202726/https://books.google.com/books?id=lNnHdvzBlTYC|url-status = live}}</ref><ref name="ander06">Andersson, M. and Simmons, L.W. (2006) Sexual selection and mate choice. Trends, Ecology and Evolution (21) 296:302</ref><ref name="gayon10">Gayon, J. (2010) Sexual selection: Another Darwinian process. Comptes Rendus Biologies (333) 134:144</ref> a concept in [[sexual selection]] about a positive feedback runaway effect found in [[evolution]]. The final wave, which mainly saw the refinement and expansion of earlier developments, emerged from the collaborative work between [[Egon Pearson]] and [[Jerzy Neyman]] in the 1930s. They introduced the concepts of "[[Type I and type II errors|Type II]]" error, [[power of a test]] and [[confidence interval]]s. Jerzy Neyman in 1934 showed that stratified random sampling was in general a better method of estimation than purposive (quota) sampling.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Neyman | first1 = J | year = 1934 | title = On the two different aspects of the representative method: The method of stratified sampling and the method of purposive selection | journal = [[Journal of the Royal Statistical Society]] | volume = 97 | issue = 4| pages = 557–625 | jstor=2342192| doi = 10.2307/2342192 }}</ref> Today, statistical methods are applied in all fields that involve decision making, for making accurate inferences from a collated body of data and for making decisions in the face of uncertainty based on statistical methodology. The use of modern [[computer]]s has expedited large-scale statistical computations and has also made possible new methods that are impractical to perform manually. Statistics continues to be an area of active research, for example on the problem of how to analyze [[big data]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.santafe.edu/news/item/sfnm-wood-big-data/|title=Science in a Complex World – Big Data: Opportunity or Threat?|work=Santa Fe Institute|access-date=2014-10-13|archive-date=2016-05-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530001750/http://www.santafe.edu/news/item/sfnm-wood-big-data/|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Mauthenga gha Kusanthura-Maŵiro== {{main|Statistical data}} === Kutolela uthenga === ====Kutolela Viyezgero==== When full census data cannot be collected, statisticians collect sample data by developing specific [[design of experiments|experiment designs]] and [[survey sampling|survey samples]]. Statistics itself also provides tools for prediction and forecasting through [[statistical model]]s. To use a sample as a guide to an entire population, it is important that it truly represents the overall population. Representative [[sampling (statistics)|sampling]] assures that inferences and conclusions can safely extend from the sample to the population as a whole. A major problem lies in determining the extent that the sample chosen is actually representative. Statistics offers methods to estimate and correct for any bias within the sample and data collection procedures. There are also methods of experimental design that can lessen these issues at the outset of a study, strengthening its capability to discern truths about the population. Sampling theory is part of the [[mathematics|mathematical discipline]] of [[probability theory]]. Probability is used in [[statistical theory|mathematical statistics]] to study the [[sampling distribution]]s of [[sample statistic]]s and, more generally, the properties of [[statistical decision theory|statistical procedures]]. The use of any statistical method is valid when the system or population under consideration satisfies the assumptions of the method. The difference in point of view between classic probability theory and sampling theory is, roughly, that probability theory starts from the given parameters of a total population to [[deductive reasoning|deduce]] probabilities that pertain to samples. Statistical inference, however, moves in the opposite direction—[[inductive reasoning|inductively inferring]] from samples to the parameters of a larger or total population. ====Experimental and observational studies==== A common goal for a statistical research project is to investigate [[causality]], and in particular to draw a conclusion on the effect of changes in the values of predictors or [[Dependent and independent variables|independent variables on dependent variables]]. There are two major types of causal statistical studies: [[Experiment|experimental studies]] and [[Observational study|observational studies]]. In both types of studies, the effect of differences of an independent variable (or variables) on the behavior of the dependent variable are observed. The difference between the two types lies in how the study is actually conducted. Each can be very effective. An experimental study involves taking measurements of the system under study, manipulating the system, and then taking additional measurements using the same procedure to determine if the manipulation has modified the values of the measurements. In contrast, an observational study does not involve [[Scientific control|experimental manipulation]]. Instead, data are gathered and correlations between predictors and response are investigated. While the tools of data analysis work best on data from [[Randomized controlled trial|randomized studies]], they are also applied to other kinds of data—like [[natural experiment]]s and [[Observational study|observational studies]]<ref>[[David A. Freedman (statistician)|Freedman, D.A.]] (2005) ''Statistical Models: Theory and Practice'', Cambridge University Press. {{isbn|978-0-521-67105-7}}</ref>—for which a statistician would use a modified, more structured estimation method (e.g., [[Difference in differences|Difference in differences estimation]] and [[instrumental variable]]s, among many others) that produce [[consistent estimator]]s. =====Vifukufuku===== The basic steps of a statistical experiment are: # Planning the research, including finding the number of replicates of the study, using the following information: preliminary estimates regarding the size of [[Average treatment effect|treatment effects]], [[alternative hypothesis|alternative hypotheses]], and the estimated [[experimental error|experimental variability]]. Consideration of the selection of experimental subjects and the ethics of research is necessary. Statisticians recommend that experiments compare (at least) one new treatment with a standard treatment or control, to allow an unbiased estimate of the difference in treatment effects. # [[Design of experiments]], using [[blocking (statistics)|blocking]] to reduce the influence of [[confounding variable]]s, and [[randomized assignment]] of treatments to subjects to allow [[bias of an estimator|unbiased estimates]] of treatment effects and experimental error. At this stage, the experimenters and statisticians write the ''[[protocol (natural sciences)|experimental protocol]]'' that will guide the performance of the experiment and which specifies the'' primary analysis'' of the experimental data. # Performing the experiment following the [[Protocol (natural sciences)|experimental protocol]] and [[analysis of variance|analyzing the data]] following the experimental protocol. # Further examining the data set in secondary analyses, to suggest new hypotheses for future study. # Documenting and presenting the results of the study. Experiments on human behavior have special concerns. The famous [[Hawthorne study]] examined changes to the working environment at the Hawthorne plant of the [[Western Electric Company]]. The researchers were interested in determining whether increased illumination would increase the productivity of the [[assembly line]] workers. The researchers first measured the productivity in the plant, then modified the illumination in an area of the plant and checked if the changes in illumination affected productivity. It turned out that productivity indeed improved (under the experimental conditions). However, the study is heavily criticized today for errors in experimental procedures, specifically for the lack of a [[control group]] and [[double-blind|blindness]]. The [[Hawthorne effect]] refers to finding that an outcome (in this case, worker productivity) changed due to observation itself. Those in the Hawthorne study became more productive not because the lighting was changed but because they were being observed.<ref name="pmid17608932">{{cite journal |vauthors=McCarney R, Warner J, Iliffe S, van Haselen R, Griffin M, Fisher P |title=The Hawthorne Effect: a randomised, controlled trial |journal=BMC Med Res Methodol |volume=7|pages=30 |year=2007 |pmid=17608932 |pmc=1936999 |doi=10.1186/1471-2288-7-30 |issue=1}}</ref> =====Kuŵazga Kwakulaŵilila===== An example of an observational study is one that explores the association between smoking and lung cancer. This type of study typically uses a survey to collect observations about the area of interest and then performs statistical analysis. In this case, the researchers would collect observations of both smokers and non-smokers, perhaps through a [[cohort study]], and then look for the number of cases of lung cancer in each group.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Rothman|editor1-first=Kenneth J|editor2-last=Greenland|editor2-first=Sander|editor3-last=Lash|editor3-first=Timothy|title=Modern Epidemiology|url=https://archive.org/details/modernepidemiolo00roth|url-access=limited|date=2008|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|page=[https://archive.org/details/modernepidemiolo00roth/page/n100 100]|edition=3rd|language=en|chapter=7|isbn=978-0781755641}}</ref> A [[case-control study]] is another type of observational study in which people with and without the outcome of interest (e.g. lung cancer) are invited to participate and their exposure histories are collected. ===Mitundu ya uthenga=== {{main|Statistical data type||Levels of measurement}} Various attempts have been made to produce a taxonomy of [[level of measurement|levels of measurement]]. The psychophysicist [[Stanley Smith Stevens]] defined nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales. Nominal measurements do not have meaningful rank order among values, and permit any one-to-one (injective) transformation. Ordinal measurements have imprecise differences between consecutive values, but have a meaningful order to those values, and permit any order-preserving transformation. Interval measurements have meaningful distances between measurements defined, but the zero value is arbitrary (as in the case with [[longitude]] and [[temperature]] measurements in [[Celsius]] or [[Fahrenheit]]), and permit any linear transformation. Ratio measurements have both a meaningful zero value and the distances between different measurements defined, and permit any rescaling transformation. Because variables conforming only to nominal or ordinal measurements cannot be reasonably measured numerically, sometimes they are grouped together as [[categorical variable]]s, whereas ratio and interval measurements are grouped together as [[Variable (mathematics)#Applied statistics|quantitative variables]], which can be either [[Probability distribution#Discrete probability distribution|discrete]] or [[Probability distribution#Continuous probability distribution|continuous]], due to their numerical nature. Such distinctions can often be loosely correlated with [[data type]] in computer science, in that dichotomous categorical variables may be represented with the [[Boolean data type]], polytomous categorical variables with arbitrarily assigned [[integer]]s in the [[integer (computer science)|integral data type]], and continuous variables with the [[real data type]] involving [[floating-point arithmetic]]. But the mapping of computer science data types to statistical data types depends on which categorization of the latter is being implemented. Other categorizations have been proposed. For example, Mosteller and Tukey (1977)<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Mosteller | first1 = F. | author-link1 = Frederick Mosteller | last2 = Tukey | first2 = J.W | author-link2 = John Tukey | year = 1977 | title = Data analysis and regression | location = Boston | publisher = Addison-Wesley}}</ref> distinguished grades, ranks, counted fractions, counts, amounts, and balances. Nelder (1990)<ref>[[John Nelder|Nelder, J.A.]] (1990). The knowledge needed to computerise the analysis and interpretation of statistical information. In ''Expert systems and artificial intelligence: the need for information about data''. Library Association Report, London, March, 23–27.</ref> described continuous counts, continuous ratios, count ratios, and categorical modes of data. (See also: Chrisman (1998),<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chrisman | first1 = Nicholas R | year = 1998 | title = Rethinking Levels of Measurement for Cartography | journal = Cartography and Geographic Information Science | volume = 25 | issue = 4| pages = 231–242 | doi=10.1559/152304098782383043}}</ref> van den Berg (1991).<ref>van den Berg, G. (1991). ''Choosing an analysis method''. Leiden: DSWO Press</ref>) The issue of whether or not it is appropriate to apply different kinds of statistical methods to data obtained from different kinds of measurement procedures is complicated by issues concerning the transformation of variables and the precise interpretation of research questions. "The relationship between the data and what they describe merely reflects the fact that certain kinds of statistical statements may have truth values which are not invariant under some transformations. Whether or not a transformation is sensible to contemplate depends on the question one is trying to answer."<ref>Hand, D.J. (2004). ''Measurement theory and practice: The world through quantification.'' London: Arnold.</ref>{{rp|82}} == Nthowa == {{more citations needed section|date=December 2020}} === Descriptive statistics === {{main|Descriptive statistics}} A '''descriptive statistic''' (in the [[count noun]] sense) is a [[summary statistic]] that quantitatively describes or summarizes features of a collection of [[information]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Mann |first=Prem S. |year=1995 |title=Introductory Statistics |url=https://archive.org/details/introductorystat02edmann_z9s5 |url-access=registration |edition=2nd |publisher=Wiley |isbn=0-471-31009-3 }}</ref> while '''descriptive statistics''' in the [[mass noun]] sense is the process of using and analyzing those statistics. Descriptive statistics is distinguished from [[statistical inference|inferential statistics]] (or inductive statistics), in that descriptive statistics aims to summarize a [[Sample (statistics)|sample]], rather than use the data to learn about the [[statistical population|population]] that the sample of data is thought to represent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Descriptive Statistics {{!}} Research Connections |url=https://www.researchconnections.org/research-tools/descriptive-statistics |access-date=2023-01-10 |website=www.researchconnections.org}}</ref> === Inferential statistics === {{main|Statistical inference}} '''Statistical inference''' is the process of using [[data analysis]] to deduce properties of an underlying [[probability distribution]].<ref name="Oxford">Upton, G., Cook, I. (2008) ''Oxford Dictionary of Statistics'', OUP. {{ISBN|978-0-19-954145-4}}.</ref> Inferential statistical analysis infers properties of a [[Statistical population|population]], for example by testing hypotheses and deriving estimates. It is assumed that the observed data set is [[Sampling (statistics)|sampled]] from a larger population. Inferential statistics can be contrasted with [[descriptive statistics]]. Descriptive statistics is solely concerned with properties of the observed data, and it does not rest on the assumption that the data come from a larger population.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Basic Inferential Statistics - Purdue OWL® - Purdue University |url=https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/using_research/writing_with_statistics/basic_inferential_statistics.html |access-date=2023-01-10 |website=owl.purdue.edu}}</ref> ====Terminology and theory of inferential statistics==== =====Statistics, estimators and pivotal quantities===== Consider [[Independent identically distributed|independent identically distributed (IID) random variables]] with a given [[probability distribution]]: standard [[statistical inference]] and [[estimation theory]] defines a [[random sample]] as the [[random vector]] given by the [[column vector]] of these IID variables.<ref name=Piazza>Piazza Elio, Probabilità e Statistica, Esculapio 2007</ref> The [[Statistical population|population]] being examined is described by a probability distribution that may have unknown parameters. A statistic is a random variable that is a function of the random sample, but {{em|not a function of unknown parameters}}. The probability distribution of the statistic, though, may have unknown parameters. Consider now a function of the unknown parameter: an [[estimator]] is a statistic used to estimate such function. Commonly used estimators include [[sample mean]], unbiased [[sample variance]] and [[sample covariance]]. A random variable that is a function of the random sample and of the unknown parameter, but whose probability distribution ''does not depend on the unknown parameter'' is called a [[pivotal quantity]] or pivot. Widely used pivots include the [[z-score]], the [[Chi-squared distribution#Applications|chi square statistic]] and Student's [[Student's t-distribution#How the t-distribution arises|t-value]]. Between two estimators of a given parameter, the one with lower [[mean squared error]] is said to be more [[Efficient estimator|efficient]]. Furthermore, an estimator is said to be [[Unbiased estimator|unbiased]] if its [[expected value]] is equal to the [[true value]] of the unknown parameter being estimated, and asymptotically unbiased if its expected value converges at the [[Limit (mathematics)|limit]] to the true value of such parameter. Other desirable properties for estimators include: [[UMVUE]] estimators that have the lowest variance for all possible values of the parameter to be estimated (this is usually an easier property to verify than efficiency) and [[consistent estimator]]s which [[converges in probability]] to the true value of such parameter. This still leaves the question of how to obtain estimators in a given situation and carry the computation, several methods have been proposed: the [[method of moments (statistics)|method of moments]], the [[maximum likelihood]] method, the [[least squares]] method and the more recent method of [[estimating equations]]. =====Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis===== Interpretation of statistical information can often involve the development of a [[null hypothesis]] which is usually (but not necessarily) that no relationship exists among variables or that no change occurred over time.<ref>{{cite book | last = Everitt | first = Brian | title = The Cambridge Dictionary of Statistics | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK New York | year = 1998 | isbn = 0521593468 | url = https://archive.org/details/cambridgediction00ever_0 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yourstatsguru.com/epar/rp-reviewed/cohen1994/ |title=Cohen (1994) The Earth Is Round (p < .05) |publisher=YourStatsGuru.com |access-date=2015-07-20 |archive-date=2015-09-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905081658/http://www.yourstatsguru.com/epar/rp-reviewed/cohen1994/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The best illustration for a novice is the predicament encountered by a criminal trial. The null hypothesis, H<sub>0</sub>, asserts that the defendant is innocent, whereas the alternative hypothesis, H<sub>1</sub>, asserts that the defendant is guilty. The indictment comes because of suspicion of the guilt. The H<sub>0</sub> (status quo) stands in opposition to H<sub>1</sub> and is maintained unless H<sub>1</sub> is supported by evidence "beyond a reasonable doubt". However, "failure to reject H<sub>0</sub>" in this case does not imply innocence, but merely that the evidence was insufficient to convict. So the jury does not necessarily ''accept'' H<sub>0</sub> but ''fails to reject'' H<sub>0</sub>. While one can not "prove" a null hypothesis, one can test how close it is to being true with a [[Statistical power|power test]], which tests for [[type II error]]s. What [[statisticians]] call an [[alternative hypothesis]] is simply a hypothesis that contradicts the [[null hypothesis]]. =====Error===== Working from a [[null hypothesis]], two broad categories of error are recognized: * [[Type I and type II errors#Type I error|Type I errors]] where the null hypothesis is falsely rejected, giving a "false positive". * [[Type I and type II errors#Type II error|Type II errors]] where the null hypothesis fails to be rejected and an actual difference between populations is missed, giving a "false negative". [[Standard deviation]] refers to the extent to which individual observations in a sample differ from a central value, such as the sample or population mean, while [[Standard error (statistics)#Standard error of the mean|Standard error]] refers to an estimate of difference between sample mean and population mean. A [[Errors and residuals in statistics#Introduction|statistical error]] is the amount by which an observation differs from its [[expected value]]. A [[Errors and residuals in statistics#Introduction|residual]] is the amount an observation differs from the value the estimator of the expected value assumes on a given sample (also called prediction). [[Mean squared error]] is used for obtaining [[efficient estimators]], a widely used class of estimators. [[Root mean square error]] is simply the square root of mean squared error. [[File:Linear least squares(2).svg|thumb|right|A least squares fit: in red the points to be fitted, in blue the fitted line.]] Many statistical methods seek to minimize the [[residual sum of squares]], and these are called "[[least squares|methods of least squares]]" in contrast to [[Least absolute deviations]]. The latter gives equal weight to small and big errors, while the former gives more weight to large errors. Residual sum of squares is also [[Differentiable function|differentiable]], which provides a handy property for doing [[regression analysis|regression]]. Least squares applied to [[linear regression]] is called [[ordinary least squares]] method and least squares applied to [[nonlinear regression]] is called [[non-linear least squares]]. Also in a linear regression model the non deterministic part of the model is called error term, disturbance or more simply noise. Both linear regression and non-linear regression are addressed in [[polynomial least squares]], which also describes the variance in a prediction of the dependent variable (y axis) as a function of the independent variable (x axis) and the deviations (errors, noise, disturbances) from the estimated (fitted) curve. Measurement processes that generate statistical data are also subject to error. Many of these errors are classified as [[Random error|random]] (noise) or [[Systematic error|systematic]] ([[bias]]), but other types of errors (e.g., blunder, such as when an analyst reports incorrect units) can also be important. The presence of [[missing data]] or [[censoring (statistics)|censoring]] may result in [[bias (statistics)|biased estimates]] and specific techniques have been developed to address these problems.<ref>Rubin, Donald B.; Little, Roderick J.A., Statistical analysis with missing data, New York: Wiley 2002</ref> =====Interval estimation===== {{main|Interval estimation}} [[File:NYW-confidence-interval.svg|thumb|right|[[Confidence intervals]]: the red line is true value for the mean in this example, the blue lines are random confidence intervals for 100 realizations.]] Most studies only sample part of a population, so results do not fully represent the whole population. Any estimates obtained from the sample only approximate the population value. [[Confidence intervals]] allow statisticians to express how closely the sample estimate matches the true value in the whole population. Often they are expressed as 95% confidence intervals. Formally, a 95% confidence interval for a value is a range where, if the sampling and analysis were repeated under the same conditions (yielding a different dataset), the interval would include the true (population) value in 95% of all possible cases. This does ''not'' imply that the probability that the true value is in the confidence interval is 95%. From the [[frequentist inference|frequentist]] perspective, such a claim does not even make sense, as the true value is not a [[random variable]]. Either the true value is or is not within the given interval. However, it is true that, before any data are sampled and given a plan for how to construct the confidence interval, the probability is 95% that the yet-to-be-calculated interval will cover the true value: at this point, the limits of the interval are yet-to-be-observed [[random variable]]s. One approach that does yield an interval that can be interpreted as having a given probability of containing the true value is to use a [[credible interval]] from [[Bayesian statistics]]: this approach depends on a different way of [[Probability interpretations|interpreting what is meant by "probability"]], that is as a [[Bayesian probability]]. In principle confidence intervals can be symmetrical or asymmetrical. An interval can be asymmetrical because it works as lower or upper bound for a parameter (left-sided interval or right sided interval), but it can also be asymmetrical because the two sided interval is built violating symmetry around the estimate. Sometimes the bounds for a confidence interval are reached asymptotically and these are used to approximate the true bounds. =====Significance===== {{main|Statistical significance}} Statistics rarely give a simple Yes/No type answer to the question under analysis. Interpretation often comes down to the level of statistical significance applied to the numbers and often refers to the probability of a value accurately rejecting the null hypothesis (sometimes referred to as the [[p-value]]). [[File:P-value in statistical significance testing.svg|upright=1.8|thumb|right|In this graph the black line is probability distribution for the [[test statistic]], the [[Critical region#Definition of terms|critical region]] is the set of values to the right of the observed data point (observed value of the test statistic) and the [[p-value]] is represented by the green area.]] The standard approach<ref name="Piazza"/> is to test a null hypothesis against an alternative hypothesis. A [[Critical region#Definition of terms|critical region]] is the set of values of the estimator that leads to refuting the null hypothesis. The probability of type I error is therefore the probability that the estimator belongs to the critical region given that null hypothesis is true ([[statistical significance]]) and the probability of type II error is the probability that the estimator does not belong to the critical region given that the alternative hypothesis is true. The [[statistical power]] of a test is the probability that it correctly rejects the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is false. Referring to statistical significance does not necessarily mean that the overall result is significant in real world terms. For example, in a large study of a drug it may be shown that the drug has a statistically significant but very small beneficial effect, such that the drug is unlikely to help the patient noticeably. Although in principle the acceptable level of [[statistical significance]] may be subject to debate, the [[significance level]] is the largest p-value that allows the test to reject the null hypothesis. This test is logically equivalent to saying that the p-value is the probability, assuming the null hypothesis is true, of observing a result at least as extreme as the [[test statistic]]. Therefore, the smaller the significance level, the lower the probability of committing type I error. Some problems are usually associated with this framework (See [[Statistical hypothesis testing#Criticism|criticism of hypothesis testing]]): * A difference that is highly statistically significant can still be of no practical significance, but it is possible to properly formulate tests to account for this. One response involves going beyond reporting only the [[significance level]] to include the [[p-value|''p''-value]] when reporting whether a hypothesis is rejected or accepted. The p-value, however, does not indicate the [[effect size|size]] or importance of the observed effect and can also seem to exaggerate the importance of minor differences in large studies. A better and increasingly common approach is to report [[confidence interval]]s. Although these are produced from the same calculations as those of hypothesis tests or ''p''-values, they describe both the size of the effect and the uncertainty surrounding it. * Fallacy of the transposed conditional, aka [[prosecutor's fallacy]]: criticisms arise because the hypothesis testing approach forces one hypothesis (the [[null hypothesis]]) to be favored, since what is being evaluated is the probability of the observed result given the null hypothesis and not probability of the null hypothesis given the observed result. An alternative to this approach is offered by [[Bayesian inference]], although it requires establishing a [[prior probability]].<ref name=Ioannidis2005>{{Cite journal | last1 = Ioannidis | first1 = J.P.A. | author-link1 = John P.A. Ioannidis| title = Why Most Published Research Findings Are False | journal = PLOS Medicine | volume = 2 | issue = 8 | pages = e124 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16060722 | pmc = 1182327 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124}}</ref> * Rejecting the null hypothesis does not automatically prove the alternative hypothesis. * As everything in [[inferential statistics]] it relies on sample size, and therefore under [[fat tails]] p-values may be seriously mis-computed.{{clarify|date=October 2016}} =====Examples===== Some well-known statistical [[Statistical hypothesis testing|tests]] and procedures are: {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em| * [[Analysis of variance]] (ANOVA) * [[Chi-squared test]] * [[Correlation]] * [[Factor analysis]] * [[Mann–Whitney (U)|Mann–Whitney ''U'']] * [[Mean square weighted deviation]] (MSWD) * [[Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient]] * [[Regression analysis]] * [[Spearman's rank correlation coefficient]] * [[Student's t-test|Student's ''t''-test]] * [[Time series analysis]] * [[Conjoint Analysis]] }} ===Exploratory data analysis=== {{main|Exploratory data analysis}} '''Exploratory data analysis''' ('''EDA''') is an approach to [[data analysis|analyzing]] [[data set]]s to summarize their main characteristics, often with visual methods. A [[statistical model]] can be used or not, but primarily EDA is for seeing what the data can tell us beyond the formal modeling or hypothesis testing task. == Misuse == {{main|Misuse of statistics}} [[Misuse of statistics]] can produce subtle but serious errors in description and interpretation—subtle in the sense that even experienced professionals make such errors, and serious in the sense that they can lead to devastating decision errors. For instance, social policy, medical practice, and the reliability of structures like bridges all rely on the proper use of statistics. Even when statistical techniques are correctly applied, the results can be difficult to interpret for those lacking expertise. The [[statistical significance]] of a trend in the data—which measures the extent to which a trend could be caused by random variation in the sample—may or may not agree with an intuitive sense of its significance. The set of basic statistical skills (and skepticism) that people need to deal with information in their everyday lives properly is referred to as [[statistical literacy]]. There is a general perception that statistical knowledge is all-too-frequently intentionally [[Misuse of statistics|misused]] by finding ways to interpret only the data that are favorable to the presenter.<ref name="Huff">Huff, Darrell (1954) ''[[How to Lie with Statistics]]'', WW Norton & Company, Inc. New York. {{isbn|0-393-31072-8}}</ref> A mistrust and misunderstanding of statistics is associated with the quotation, "[[Lies, damned lies, and statistics|There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics]]". Misuse of statistics can be both inadvertent and intentional, and the book ''[[How to Lie with Statistics]]'',<ref name=Huff/> by [[Darrell Huff]], outlines a range of considerations. In an attempt to shed light on the use and misuse of statistics, reviews of statistical techniques used in particular fields are conducted (e.g. Warne, Lazo, Ramos, and Ritter (2012)).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Warne | first1 = R. Lazo | last2 = Ramos | first2 = T. | last3 = Ritter | first3 = N. | year = 2012 | title = Statistical Methods Used in Gifted Education Journals, 2006–2010 | journal = Gifted Child Quarterly | volume = 56 | issue = 3| pages = 134–149 | doi = 10.1177/0016986212444122 | s2cid = 144168910 }}</ref> Ways to avoid misuse of statistics include using proper diagrams and avoiding [[Bias (statistics)|bias]].<ref name="Statistics in Archaeology">{{cite book | chapter = Statistics in archaeology | pages = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaarch00pear/page/n2072 2093]–2100 | first1 = Robert D. | last1 = Drennan | title = Encyclopedia of Archaeology | url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaarch00pear | url-access = limited | year = 2008 | publisher = Elsevier Inc. | editor-first = Deborah M. | editor-last = Pearsall | isbn = 978-0-12-373962-9 }}</ref> Misuse can occur when conclusions are [[Hasty generalization|overgeneralized]] and claimed to be representative of more than they really are, often by either deliberately or unconsciously overlooking sampling bias.<ref name="Misuse of Statistics">{{cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Jerome B. |title=Misuse of Statistics |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |date=December 1938 |volume=33 |issue=204 |pages=657–674 |location=JSTOR |doi=10.1080/01621459.1938.10502344}}</ref> Bar graphs are arguably the easiest diagrams to use and understand, and they can be made either by hand or with simple computer programs.<ref name="Statistics in Archaeology" /> Unfortunately, most people do not look for bias or errors, so they are not noticed. Thus, people may often believe that something is true even if it is not well [[Sampling (statistics)|represented]].<ref name="Misuse of Statistics" /> To make data gathered from statistics believable and accurate, the sample taken must be representative of the whole.<ref name="Modern Elementary Statistics">{{cite journal|last=Freund|first=J.E.|author-link = John E. Freund|title=Modern Elementary Statistics|journal=Credo Reference|year=1988}}</ref> According to Huff, "The dependability of a sample can be destroyed by [bias]... allow yourself some degree of skepticism."<ref>{{cite book|last=Huff|first=Darrell|title=How to Lie with Statistics|year=1954|publisher=Norton|location=New York|author2=Irving Geis |quote=The dependability of a sample can be destroyed by [bias]... allow yourself some degree of skepticism.}}</ref> To assist in the understanding of statistics Huff proposed a series of questions to be asked in each case:<ref name=Huff/> * Who says so? (Does he/she have an axe to grind?) * How does he/she know? (Does he/she have the resources to know the facts?) * What's missing? (Does he/she give us a complete picture?) * Did someone change the subject? (Does he/she offer us the right answer to the wrong problem?) * Does it make sense? (Is his/her conclusion logical and consistent with what we already know?) [[File:Simple Confounding Case.svg|upright=0.9|thumb|right|The [[confounding variable]] problem: ''X'' and ''Y'' may be correlated, not because there is causal relationship between them, but because both depend on a third variable ''Z''. ''Z'' is called a confounding factor.]] ===Misinterpretation: correlation=== {{See also|Correlation does not imply causation}} The concept of [[correlation]] is particularly noteworthy for the potential confusion it can cause. Statistical analysis of a [[data set]] often reveals that two variables (properties) of the population under consideration tend to vary together, as if they were connected. For example, a study of annual income that also looks at age of death, might find that poor people tend to have shorter lives than affluent people. The two variables are said to be correlated; however, they may or may not be the cause of one another. The correlation phenomena could be caused by a third, previously unconsidered phenomenon, called a lurking variable or [[confounding variable]]. For this reason, there is no way to immediately infer the existence of a causal relationship between the two variables. ==Applications== ===Applied statistics, theoretical statistics and mathematical statistics=== ''Applied statistics,'' sometimes referred to as ''Statistical science,''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nelder|first=John A.|date=1999|title=From Statistics to Statistical Science|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2681191|journal=Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series D (The Statistician)|volume=48|issue=2|pages=257–269|doi=10.1111/1467-9884.00187|jstor=2681191|issn=0039-0526|access-date=2022-01-15|archive-date=2022-01-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115160959/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2681191|url-status=live}}</ref> comprises descriptive statistics and the application of inferential statistics.<ref>Nikoletseas, M.M. (2014) "Statistics: Concepts and Examples." {{isbn|978-1500815684}}</ref><ref>Anderson, D.R.; Sweeney, D.J.; Williams, T.A. (1994) ''Introduction to Statistics: Concepts and Applications'', pp. 5–9. West Group. {{isbn|978-0-314-03309-3}}</ref> ''Theoretical statistics'' concerns the logical arguments underlying justification of approaches to [[statistical inference]], as well as encompassing ''mathematical statistics''. Mathematical statistics includes not only the manipulation of [[probability distribution]]s necessary for deriving results related to methods of estimation and inference, but also various aspects of [[computational statistics]] and the [[design of experiments]]. [[Statistical consultant]]s can help organizations and companies that do not have in-house expertise relevant to their particular questions. ===Machine learning and data mining=== [[Machine learning]] models are statistical and probabilistic models that capture patterns in the data through use of computational algorithms. ===Statistics in academia=== Statistics is applicable to a wide variety of [[academic discipline]]s, including [[Natural science|natural]] and [[social science]]s, government, and business. Business statistics applies statistical methods in [[econometrics]], [[auditing]] and production and operations, including services improvement and marketing research.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://amstat.tandfonline.com/loi/jbes|title=Journal of Business & Economic Statistics|website=Journal of Business & Economic Statistics|publisher=Taylor & Francis|access-date=16 March 2020|archive-date=27 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727052958/https://amstat.tandfonline.com/loi/jbes|url-status=live}}</ref> A study of two journals in tropical biology found that the 12 most frequent statistical tests are: [[analysis of variance]] (ANOVA), [[chi-squared test]], [[Student's t-test]], [[linear regression]], [[Pearson’s correlation coefficient]], [[Mann-Whitney U test]], [[Kruskal-Wallis test]], [[Diversity index#Shannon index|Shannon’s diversity index]], [[Tukey's range test]], [[cluster analysis]], [[Spearman's rank correlation coefficient]] and [[principal component analysis]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Natalia Loaiza Velásquez, María Isabel González Lutz & Julián Monge-Nájera|date=2011|title=Which statistics should tropical biologists learn?|url=https://investiga.uned.ac.cr/ecologiaurbana/wp-content/uploads/sites/30/2017/09/JMN-2011-statistics-should-learn.pdf|journal=Revista Biología Tropical|volume=59|pages=983–992|access-date=2020-04-26|archive-date=2020-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019160957/https://investiga.uned.ac.cr/ecologiaurbana/wp-content/uploads/sites/30/2017/09/JMN-2011-statistics-should-learn.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> A typical statistics course covers descriptive statistics, probability, binomial and [[normal distribution]]s, test of hypotheses and confidence intervals, [[linear regression]], and correlation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pekoz|first=Erol|title=The Manager's Guide to Statistics|date=2009|publisher=Erol Pekoz|isbn=978-0979570438}}</ref> Modern fundamental statistical courses for undergraduate students focus on correct test selection, results interpretation, and use of [[free statistics software]].<ref name=":0" /> ===Statistical computing=== [[File:Gretl screenshot.png|thumb|upright=1.15|right|[[gretl]], an example of an [[List of open source statistical packages|open source statistical package]]]] {{main|Computational statistics}} The rapid and sustained increases in computing power starting from the second half of the 20th century have had a substantial impact on the practice of statistical science. Early statistical models were almost always from the class of [[linear model]]s, but powerful computers, coupled with suitable numerical [[algorithms]], caused an increased interest in [[Nonlinear regression|nonlinear models]] (such as [[Artificial neural network|neural networks]]) as well as the creation of new types, such as [[generalized linear model]]s and [[multilevel model]]s. Increased computing power has also led to the growing popularity of computationally intensive methods based on [[Resampling (statistics)|resampling]], such as [[permutation test]]s and the [[Bootstrapping (statistics)|bootstrap]], while techniques such as [[Gibbs sampling]] have made use of [[Bayesian model]]s more feasible. The computer revolution has implications for the future of statistics with a new emphasis on "experimental" and "empirical" statistics. A large number of both general and special purpose [[List of statistical packages|statistical software]] are now available. Examples of available software capable of complex statistical computation include programs such as [[Mathematica]], [[SAS (software)|SAS]], [[SPSS]], and [[R (programming language)|R]]. ===Business statistics=== In business, "statistics" is a widely used [[Management#Nature of work|management-]] and [[decision support]] tool. It is particularly applied in [[financial management]], [[marketing management]], and [[Manufacturing process management|production]], [[operations management for services|services]] and [[operations management]] .<ref>{{cite web |url=https://amstat.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?show=aimsScope&journalCode=ubes20 |title=Aims and scope |website=Journal of Business & Economic Statistics |publisher=Taylor & Francis |access-date=16 March 2020 |archive-date=23 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623194835/https://amstat.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?show=aimsScope&journalCode=ubes20 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://amstat.tandfonline.com/loi/jbes |title=Journal of Business & Economic Statistics |website=Journal of Business & Economic Statistics |publisher=Taylor & Francis |access-date=16 March 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727052958/https://amstat.tandfonline.com/loi/jbes |url-status=live }}</ref> Statistics is also heavily used in [[management accounting]] and [[auditing]]. The discipline of [[Management Science]] formalizes the use of statistics, and other mathematics, in business. ([[Econometrics]] is the application of statistical methods to [[economic data]] in order to give empirical content to [[economic theory|economic relationships]].) A typical "Business Statistics" course is intended for [[Business education#Undergraduate education|business majors]], and covers <ref>Numerous texts are available, reflecting the scope and reach of the discipline in the business world: * Sharpe, N. (2014). ''Business Statistics'', Pearson. {{ISBN|978-0134705217}} * Wegner, T. (2010). ''Applied Business Statistics: Methods and Excel-Based Applications,'' Juta Academic. {{ISBN|0702172863}} Two [[Open textbook|open textbooks]] are: * Holmes, L., Illowsky, B., Dean, S. (2017). [https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/509 ''Introductory Business Statistics''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616084059/https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/509|date=2021-06-16}} * Nica, M. (2013). [https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/384 ''Principles of Business Statistics''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518151122/https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/384|date=2021-05-18}}</ref> [[descriptive statistics]] ([[Data collection|collection]], description, analysis, and summary of data), probability (typically the [[binomial distribution|binomial]] and [[normal distribution]]s), test of hypotheses and confidence intervals, [[linear regression]], and correlation; (follow-on) courses may include [[forecasting]], [[time series]], [[decision trees]], [[multiple linear regression]], and other topics from [[business analytics]] more generally. See also {{sectionlink|Business mathematics#University level}}. [[Professional certification in financial services|Professional certification programs]], such as the [[Chartered Financial Analyst|CFA]], often include topics in statistics. ===Statistics applied to mathematics or the arts=== Traditionally, statistics was concerned with drawing inferences using a semi-standardized methodology that was "required learning" in most sciences. This tradition has changed with the use of statistics in non-inferential contexts. What was once considered a dry subject, taken in many fields as a degree-requirement, is now viewed enthusiastically.{{according to whom|date=April 2014}} Initially derided by some mathematical purists, it is now considered essential methodology in certain areas. * In [[number theory]], [[scatter plot]]s of data generated by a distribution function may be transformed with familiar tools used in statistics to reveal underlying patterns, which may then lead to hypotheses. * Predictive methods of statistics in [[forecasting]] combining [[chaos theory]] and [[fractal geometry]] can be used to create video works.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cline|first=Graysen|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1132348139|title=Nonparametric Statistical Methods Using R|date=2019|publisher=EDTECH|isbn=978-1-83947-325-8|oclc=1132348139|access-date=2021-09-16|archive-date=2022-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515012840/https://www.worldcat.org/title/nonparametric-statistical-methods-using-r/oclc/1132348139|url-status=live}}</ref> * The [[process art]] of [[Jackson Pollock]] relied on artistic experiments whereby underlying distributions in nature were artistically revealed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Palacios|first1=Bernardo|last2=Rosario|first2=Alfonso|last3=Wilhelmus|first3=Monica M.|last4=Zetina|first4=Sandra|last5=Zenit|first5=Roberto|date=2019-10-30|title=Pollock avoided hydrodynamic instabilities to paint with his dripping technique|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=14|issue=10|pages=e0223706|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0223706|issn=1932-6203|pmc=6821064|pmid=31665191|bibcode=2019PLoSO..1423706P|doi-access=free}}</ref> With the advent of computers, statistical methods were applied to formalize such distribution-driven natural processes to make and analyze moving video art.{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}} * Methods of statistics may be used predicatively in [[performance art]], as in a card trick based on a [[Markov process]] that only works some of the time, the occasion of which can be predicted using statistical methodology. * Statistics can be used to predicatively create art, as in the statistical or [[stochastic music]] invented by [[Iannis Xenakis]], where the music is performance-specific. Though this type of artistry does not always come out as expected, it does behave in ways that are predictable and tunable using statistics. == Specialized disciplines == {{main|List of fields of application of statistics}} Statistical techniques are used in a wide range of types of scientific and social research, including: [[biostatistics]], [[computational biology]], [[computational sociology]], [[network biology]], [[social science]], [[sociology]] and [[social research]]. Some fields of inquiry use applied statistics so extensively that they have [[specialized terminology]]. These disciplines include: {{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|* [[Actuarial science]] (assesses risk in the insurance and finance industries) * Applied information economics * [[Astrostatistics]] (statistical evaluation of astronomical data) * [[Biostatistics]] * [[Chemometrics]] (for analysis of data from [[chemistry]]) * [[Data mining]] (applying statistics and [[pattern recognition]] to discover knowledge from data) * [[Data science]] * [[Demography]] (statistical study of populations) * [[Econometrics]] (statistical analysis of economic data) * [[Statistical study of energy data|Energy statistics]] * [[Engineering statistics]] * [[Epidemiology]] (statistical analysis of disease) * [[Geography]] and [[geographic information system]]s, specifically in [[spatial analysis]] * [[Image processing]] * [[Jurimetrics]] ([[law]]) * [[Medical statistics]] * [[Political science]] * [[Psychological statistics]] * [[Reliability engineering]] * [[Social statistics]] * [[Statistical mechanics]]}} In addition, there are particular types of statistical analysis that have also developed their own specialised terminology and methodology: {{Columns-list|colwidth=30em| * [[Bootstrapping (statistics)|Bootstrap]]{{\}}[[Jackknife resampling|jackknife]] [[Resampling (statistics)|resampling]] * [[Multivariate statistics]] * [[Statistical classification]] * [[Structured data analysis (statistics)|Structured data analysis]] * [[Structural equation modelling]] * [[Survey methodology]] * [[Survival analysis]] * Statistics in various sports, particularly [[Baseball statistics|baseball]] – known as [[sabermetrics]] – and [[Cricket statistics|cricket]] }} Statistics form a key basis tool in business and manufacturing as well. It is used to understand measurement systems variability, control processes (as in [[statistical process control]] or SPC), for summarizing data, and to make data-driven decisions. In these roles, it is a key tool, and perhaps the only reliable tool.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}} == See also == {{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=no |others=no |about=yes |label=Statistics}} {{main|Outline of statistics}} <!-- NOTE: This is mainly for statistics-related lists. Please consider adding links to either the "Outline of statistics" or the "List of statistics articles" entries rather than here.--> {{Columns-list|colwidth=20em| * [[Abundance estimation]] * [[Glossary of probability and statistics]] * [[List of academic statistical associations]] * [[List of important publications in statistics]] * [[List of national and international statistical services]] * [[List of statistical packages]] (software) * [[List of statistics articles]] * [[List of university statistical consulting centers]] * [[Notation in probability and statistics]] * [[Statistics education]] * [[World Statistics Day]] }} ;Foundations and major areas of statistics {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|<!-- Foundations and major areas of statistics, closely related fields NOT already mentioned in "Specialised disciplines" section--> * [[Foundations of statistics]] * [[List of statisticians]] * [[Official statistics]] * [[Multivariate analysis of variance]] :<!--empty column--> :<!--empty column--> }} == References == {{reflist}} ==Further reading== * Lydia Denworth, "A Significant Problem: Standard scientific methods are under fire. Will anything change?", ''[[Scientific American]]'', vol. 321, no. 4 (October 2019), pp.&nbsp;62–67. "The use of [[p value|''p'' values]] for nearly a century [since 1925] to determine [[statistical significance]] of [[experiment]]al results has contributed to an illusion of [[certainty]] and [to] [[Replication crisis|reproducibility crises]] in many [[science|scientific fields]]. There is growing determination to reform statistical analysis... Some [researchers] suggest changing statistical methods, whereas others would do away with a threshold for defining "significant" results." (p.&nbsp;63.) * {{cite book|author1=Barbara Illowsky|author2=Susan Dean|title=Introductory Statistics|url=https://openstax.org/details/introductory-statistics|year=2014|publisher=OpenStax CNX|isbn=978-1938168208}} * {{cite web|first=David W.|last=Stockburger|url=http://psychstat3.missouristate.edu/Documents/IntroBook3/sbk.htm|title=Introductory Statistics: Concepts, Models, and Applications|edition=3rd Web|website=[[Missouri State University]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528093101/http://psychstat3.missouristate.edu/Documents/IntroBook3/sbk.htm|archive-date=28 May 2020}} * [https://www.openintro.org/stat/textbook.php?stat_book=os ''OpenIntro Statistics''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616110442/https://www.openintro.org/stat/textbook.php?stat_book=os |date=2019-06-16 }}, 3rd edition by Diez, Barr, and Cetinkaya-Rundel * Stephen Jones, 2010. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170215092220/https://books.google.com/books?id=mywdBQAAQBAJ ''Statistics in Psychology: Explanations without Equations'']. Palgrave Macmillan. {{isbn|978-1137282392}}. * {{cite journal | last1 = Cohen | first1 = J | year = 1990 | title = Things I have learned (so far) | url = http://moityca.com.br/pdfs/Cohen_1990.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171018181831/http://moityca.com.br/pdfs/Cohen_1990.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2017-10-18 | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 45 | issue = 12 | pages = 1304–1312 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.45.12.1304 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Gigerenzer | first1 = G | year = 2004 | title = Mindless statistics | journal = Journal of Socio-Economics | volume = 33 | issue = 5 | pages = 587–606 | doi = 10.1016/j.socec.2004.09.033 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Ioannidis | first1 = J.P.A. | year = 2005 | title = Why most published research findings are false | journal = PLOS Medicine | volume = 2 | issue = 4 | pages = 696–701 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0040168 | pmid = 17456002 | pmc = 1855693 }} ==External links== {{Sister project links|Statistics}} * (Electronic Version): TIBCO Software Inc. (2020). [https://docs.tibco.com/data-science/textbook Data Science Textbook]. * [http://onlinestatbook.com/index.html ''Online Statistics Education: An Interactive Multimedia Course of Study'']. Developed by Rice University (Lead Developer), University of Houston Clear Lake, Tufts University, and National Science Foundation. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060717201702/http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/ UCLA Statistical Computing Resources] (archived 17 July 2006) * [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/statistics/ Philosophy of Statistics] from the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] {{Statistics |state=expanded}} {{Areas of mathematics |collapsed}} {{Glossaries of science and engineering}} {{Portal bar|Mathematics}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Statistics| ]]<!--space-indexed (i.e. lead/home/eponymous) category first--> [[Category:Data]] [[Category:Formal sciences]] [[Category:Information]] [[Category:Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics)]] [[Category:Research methods]] [[Category:Arab inventions]] 4f9gy5sooe7mtvwaifmawmah9tylxh1 User talk:DDPhiriJr 3 43610 112792 110153 2025-06-16T08:47:07Z Tumbuka Arch 6863 112792 wikitext text/x-wiki == THANK YOU == @[[User:DDPhiriJr|DDPhiriJr]] Hi, just wanted to thank you for what you did with artist's articles by putting images. Thanks for that and please continue. Don't know if you understand Tumbuka, but thanks anyways ''':)''' [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'><sup>★</sup><sub>★</sub><sup>★</sup></span>''']] 19:37, 16 Julayi 2023 (UTC) :@[[User:DDPhiriJr|DDPhiriJr]] Can you add email on your account? It helps during password reset and also helps when you want to send messageprivately. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'><sup>★</sup><sub>★</sub><sup>★</sup></span>''']] 05:22, 17 Julayi 2023 (UTC) ::Moni, ine nkhugwiliskira nchito Intaneti comene yayi. Iyi ni nthowa yiwemi comene yakuyowoyeskana. [[User:DDPhiriJr|DDPhiriJr]] ([[User talk:DDPhiriJr|pakuchezgela]]) 12:32, 18 Julayi 2023 (UTC) :::@[[User:DDPhiriJr|DDPhiriJr]] Okay naonga chomene. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'><sup>★</sup><sub>★</sub><sup>★</sup></span>''']] 12:33, 18 Julayi 2023 (UTC) ::::@[[User:DDPhiriJr|DDPhiriJr]] Okay naonga chomene = Okay thank you [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'><sup>★</sup><sub>★</sub><sup>★</sup></span>''']] 12:34, 18 Julayi 2023 (UTC) == Translations == @[[User:DDPhiriJr|DDPhiriJr]] Hi, since writing manually takes ages, alternatively you can use this translator to create articles:[https://translate.glosbe.com/en-tum Tumbuka - English translator | Glosbe Translate]. It can translate from Tumbuka to any language and back. There are no issues at all about it. Its translations are similar to someone who has high level of understanding Tumbuka language. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'><sup>★</sup><sub>★</sub><sup>★</sup></span>''']] 18:01, 18 Julayi 2023 (UTC) :Another one is here, [https://translate.wmcloud.org/ English- Tumbuka translator (MINT)] [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'><sup>★</sup><sub>★</sub><sup>★</sup></span>''']] 18:03, 18 Julayi 2023 (UTC) ::Please watch this video about how to translate, it is different.https://drive.google.com/file/d/1-fhdt5AlhETNtcE66Y7ScJkRfjwAxhaA/view?usp=sharing [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'><sup>★</sup><sub>★</sub><sup>★</sup></span>''']] 18:04, 18 Julayi 2023 (UTC) == Welcome! == Hello, welcome to the Wiki! If you’ll like, you can write about your home town (and maybe others nearby if you know any information about them), they are found by typing in “TownName, DistrictName”, like [[Hoya, Chasefu]] or [[Chitimba, Rumphi]], if you have any questions you can ask [[User talk:CubanoBoi|Me]] or [[User talk:Tumbuka Arch|Tumbuka Arch]]. [[File:Coat of arms of Cuba.svg|20px]] [[User:CubanoBoi|CubanoBoi]] [[File:Coat of arms of Cuba.svg|20px]] 16:53, 21 Julayi 2023 (UTC) == MISC == @[[User:DDPhiriJr|DDPhiriJr]] Hi, how are you? You seem to be missing,is everything alright? Be well :) tqavh9i9cca53az4u6ntxs2j0m0qg2z 112793 112792 2025-06-16T08:47:49Z Tumbuka Arch 6863 /* MISC */ 112793 wikitext text/x-wiki == THANK YOU == @[[User:DDPhiriJr|DDPhiriJr]] Hi, just wanted to thank you for what you did with artist's articles by putting images. Thanks for that and please continue. Don't know if you understand Tumbuka, but thanks anyways ''':)''' [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'><sup>★</sup><sub>★</sub><sup>★</sup></span>''']] 19:37, 16 Julayi 2023 (UTC) :@[[User:DDPhiriJr|DDPhiriJr]] Can you add email on your account? It helps during password reset and also helps when you want to send messageprivately. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'><sup>★</sup><sub>★</sub><sup>★</sup></span>''']] 05:22, 17 Julayi 2023 (UTC) ::Moni, ine nkhugwiliskira nchito Intaneti comene yayi. Iyi ni nthowa yiwemi comene yakuyowoyeskana. [[User:DDPhiriJr|DDPhiriJr]] ([[User talk:DDPhiriJr|pakuchezgela]]) 12:32, 18 Julayi 2023 (UTC) :::@[[User:DDPhiriJr|DDPhiriJr]] Okay naonga chomene. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'><sup>★</sup><sub>★</sub><sup>★</sup></span>''']] 12:33, 18 Julayi 2023 (UTC) ::::@[[User:DDPhiriJr|DDPhiriJr]] Okay naonga chomene = Okay thank you [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'><sup>★</sup><sub>★</sub><sup>★</sup></span>''']] 12:34, 18 Julayi 2023 (UTC) == Translations == @[[User:DDPhiriJr|DDPhiriJr]] Hi, since writing manually takes ages, alternatively you can use this translator to create articles:[https://translate.glosbe.com/en-tum Tumbuka - English translator | Glosbe Translate]. It can translate from Tumbuka to any language and back. There are no issues at all about it. Its translations are similar to someone who has high level of understanding Tumbuka language. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'><sup>★</sup><sub>★</sub><sup>★</sup></span>''']] 18:01, 18 Julayi 2023 (UTC) :Another one is here, [https://translate.wmcloud.org/ English- Tumbuka translator (MINT)] [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'><sup>★</sup><sub>★</sub><sup>★</sup></span>''']] 18:03, 18 Julayi 2023 (UTC) ::Please watch this video about how to translate, it is different.https://drive.google.com/file/d/1-fhdt5AlhETNtcE66Y7ScJkRfjwAxhaA/view?usp=sharing [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'><sup>★</sup><sub>★</sub><sup>★</sup></span>''']] 18:04, 18 Julayi 2023 (UTC) == Welcome! == Hello, welcome to the Wiki! If you’ll like, you can write about your home town (and maybe others nearby if you know any information about them), they are found by typing in “TownName, DistrictName”, like [[Hoya, Chasefu]] or [[Chitimba, Rumphi]], if you have any questions you can ask [[User talk:CubanoBoi|Me]] or [[User talk:Tumbuka Arch|Tumbuka Arch]]. [[File:Coat of arms of Cuba.svg|20px]] [[User:CubanoBoi|CubanoBoi]] [[File:Coat of arms of Cuba.svg|20px]] 16:53, 21 Julayi 2023 (UTC) == MISC == @[[User:DDPhiriJr|DDPhiriJr]] Hi, how are you? You seem to be missing, is everything alright? Be well :) _[[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'><sup>★</sup><sub>★</sub><sup>★</sup></span>''']] 08:47, 16 Juni 2025 (UTC) bazdtbcmag8i0tbi49yzub18m2mhp0r Bashar al-Assad 0 46754 112786 111991 2025-06-15T13:32:36Z KiranBOT 9970 removed AMP tracking from URLs ([[:m:User:KiranBOT/AMP|details]]) ([[User talk:Usernamekiran|report error]]) v2.2.7r lm_rs 112786 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|President of Syria from 2000 to 2024}} {{Family name hatnote|[[Al-Assad family|Assad]]|lang=Arabic}} {{Current related|date=December 2024|2=Fall of the Assad regime}} {{pp-extended|small=yes}} {{Use British English|date=June 2018}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}} {{Infobox officeholder | honorific-prefix = | name = Bashar al-Assad | native_name = {{nobold|بشار الأسد}} | native_name_lang = ar | image = Bashar al-Assad in May 2024.png | image_upright = | alt = | caption = Assad in 2024 | order = 19th | office = President of Syria | primeminister = {{clist|title=''See list''|[[Muhammad Mustafa Mero]]|[[Muhammad Naji al-Otari]]|[[Adel Safar]]|[[Riyad Farid Hijab]]|[[Omar Ibrahim Ghalawanji]]|[[Wael Nader al-Halqi]]|[[Imad Khamis]]|[[Hussein Arnous]]|[[Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali]]}} | vicepresident = {{clist|title=''See list''| Abdul Halim Khaddam<br />(2000–2005)|[[Zuhair Masharqa]]<br />(2000–2006)|[[Farouk al-Sharaa]]<br />(2006–2014)|[[Najah al-Attar]]<br />(2006–2024)|[[Faisal Mekdad]]<br />(Sep–Dec 2024)}} | term_start = 17 July 2000 | term_end = 8 December 2024 | predecessor = {{ubl|[[Hafez al-Assad]]|[[Abdul Halim Khaddam]] (acting)}} | successor = | office1 = General Secretary of the [[Central Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Central Command]] of the [[Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party]] | deputy1 = {{ubl|[[Abdullah al-Ahmar]]|[[Hilal Hilal]]|[[Ibrahim al-Hadid]]}} | term_start1 = 24 June 2000 | term_end1 = 8 December 2024 | predecessor1 = Hafez al-Assad | successor1 = Ibrahim al-Hadid | birth_name = Bashar Hafez al-Assad | birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1965|9|11}} | birth_place = [[Damascus]], [[Ba'athist Syria|Syrian Arab Republic]] | death_date = | death_place = | death_cause = | residence = {{ubl|[[Presidential Palace, Damascus|The People's Palace]], [[Damascus]] (until 2024)| [[Moscow]], Russia (since 2024)}} | party = [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party]] | otherparty = [[National Progressive Front (Syria)|National Progressive Front]] | spouse = {{marriage|[[Asma al-Assad]]|2000}} | children = 3, including [[Hafez Bashar al-Assad|Hafez]] | father = [[Hafez al-Assad]] | mother = [[Anisa Makhlouf]] | relatives = [[al-Assad family]] | signature = Bashar Hafez al-Assad Signature.png | allegiance = Syria | branch = [[Syrian Armed Forces]] | serviceyears = 1988–2024 | rank = [[File:Syria Army - OF10.svg|15px]] [[Field marshal]] | unit = [[Republican Guard (Syria)|Republican Guard]] (until 2000) | commands = [[Syrian Armed Forces]] | battles = [[Syrian civil war]] | citizenship = | education = [[Damascus University]] ([[Medical degree|MD]]) }} {{Bashar al-Assad series}} {{Ba'athism sidebar}} '''Bashar al-Assad''' (wakababika pa 11 Seputembala 1965) ndi wandale wa ku Syria ndipo ndi msilikari uyo wakaba 19th president wa Syria kufuma 2000 mpaka kuwa kwa boma la Assad mu 2024. Apo wakaŵa pulezidenti, Assad wakaŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa Siriya kweniso wakaŵa mulembi wa ŵasilikari ŵa chipani cha Ba'ath. Iyo ni mwana wa Hafez al-Assad, uyo wakaŵa pulezidenti kufuma mu 1971 mpaka apo wakafwira mu 2000.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=September 2022 |title=Civilian Death Toll |url=https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305114908/https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-date=5 March 2022 |website=SNHR}}</ref><ref name=":7">* {{Cite news|date=6 March 2023|title=Security Council Deems Syria's Chemical Weapon's Declaration Incomplete|work=United Nations: Meetings Coverage and Press Releases|url=https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314022057/https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm|archive-date=14 March 2023}} * {{Cite web |date=15 May 2023 |title=Fifth Review Conference of the Chemical Weapons Convention |url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515121348/https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-date=15 May 2023 |website=European Union External Action}}</ref> M'ma 1980, Assad wakazgoka dokotala, ndipo kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1990 wakasambizganga vya maso ku London. Mu 1994, mukuru wake Bassel al-Assad wakafwa pa ngozi ya galimoto, ndipo Assad wakacemeka ku Syria kuti wakapokere udindo wa Bassel. Assad wakanjira sukulu ya usilikali na kwamba kulongozga ŵasilikari ŵa Siriya mu Lebanoni mu 1998. Pa 17 July 2000, Assad wakazgoka pulezidenti, ndipo wakawelera mu malo gha adada ŵake, awo ŵakafwa pa 10 June 2000.Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikacitika mu 2001-2002 vikawovwira kuti Damascus Spring yimare, nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵe palipose kweniso kuti paŵe demokilase.<ref name=":7" /> Ŵasayansi na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakulongosora kuti muwuso wa Assad ukaŵa wa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵayendere makora, ndipo boma la Syria likaŵa nga ni boma la ŵapolisi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakaŵasuzganga na kuŵatambuzga chomene. Apo boma la Assad likati ni la ŵanthu ŵa visopa vinyake yayi, ŵasayansi na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakayowoya kuti boma ili likagwiliskiranga nchito ŵanthu ŵa visopa vinyake mu caru ici. Nangauli Asad wakahara mazaza na nkharo ya wiske, kweni ŵanthu ŵakamutemwanga yayi nga umo ŵakachitiranga ŵadada ŵake. Pa cifukwa ici, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu muwuso wa ŵawiske ŵakaleka nchito panji ŵakathereskeka, ndipo ŵamazaza ŵa mu muwuso ŵakasuskika na ŵanthu ŵakugomezgeka ŵa fuko la Alawite. Mapulogiramu ghakwambilira gha Assad gha kuwunjikira chuma ghakawunjikira mpambano ndipo ghakawunjikira nkhongono ŵanthu ŵa ku Damascus awo ŵakagomezgekanga ku mbumba ya Assad, ndipo ghakaŵachimbizga ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi, mu misumba, ŵamalonda, ŵamalonda, na ŵanthu ŵa ku Ba'ath. Mu Febuluwale 2005, ŵanthu ŵa ku Lebanon ŵakacita nkhondo ya Cedar Revolution, iyo yikamba cifukwa ca kukoma Rafic Hariri, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya caru ca Lebanon.<ref name=":6" /> Mu 2011, United States, European Union, na vigaŵa vinandi vya Arab League vikacema Assad kuti wafumeko pa udindo wake cifukwa ca kuyuzga ŵanthu awo ŵakakhuŵiliranga mu nyengo ya Arab Spring. Nkhondo iyi yikoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 580,000, ndipo ŵanthu 306,000 awo ŵakafwa ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari yayi. Boma la Assad lapanga milandu yinandi ya nkhondo mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya chalo cha Syria, apo ŵasilikari ŵake ŵacita nkhondo zinandi na vilwero vya mankhwala (makamaka, bomba la sarin ku Ghouta pa 21 August 2013). Wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu wa UN, ukayowoya kuti ivyo ukawona vikavumbura kuti Assad wali na mulandu wa nkhondo, ndipo boma la vyaru vinyake likamufumba na kumususka. Mu Novembala 2024, gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Syria likawukira boma na chilato chakuti likhizge Assad. Pa Disembala 8, ŵasilikari ŵakugaluka ŵakati ŵanjira mu Damascus, Assad wakacimbilira ku Moscow ndipo boma la Russia likamupa ciphokwero. Pamanyuma pa zuŵa lenelira, ŵasilikari ŵakagalukira boma la Damaseko, ndipo boma la Assad likamara..<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 December 2024 |title=Syrian rebels topple President Assad, prime minister calls for free elections |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-celebrate-captured-homs-set-sights-damascus-2024-12-07/ |access-date=7 December 2024 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=9 December 2024 |title=Assad flees to Moscow after rebels take Syrian capital, Russian state media report |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/syria-damascus-falls-to-rebels-1.7404700 |access-date=9 December 2024 |work=[[CBC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=8 December 2024|title=Syria's President Bashar al Assad is in Moscow and has been granted asylum, confirms Russian state media|url=https://uk.news.yahoo.com/syrias-president-bashar-al-assad-175000548.html}}</ref> == Umoyo wakwamba, mbumba na masambiro == {{Further|Al-Assad family}} Bashar al-Assad wakababikira ku Damascus pa 11 September 1965, mwana wachiŵiri wa Anisa Makhlouf na Hafez al-Assad. Mu Ciarabu, zina lakuti "Al-Assad" likung'anamura kuti "nkhalamu". Ali al-Assad, uyo wakaŵa sekuru wa Assad, wakasintha zina lake kufuma pa kuŵa mulimi na kuŵa munthu wakuzirwa, ndipo mu 1927, wakasintha zina la mbumba yake kufuma pa "Wahsh" (kung'anamura kuti "Chikavu") na kuŵa "Al-Assad". Dada wa Assad, Hafez al-Assad, wakababikira mu mbumba yambura ndalama, iyo yikaŵa ya ku mizi ndipo yikaŵa ya chigaŵa cha Alawite. Hafez wakakwezga ŵanthu awo ŵakamulondezganga mu chipani cha Ba'ath, ndipo ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko la Alawite. Pamanyuma pa cipanduko ici, ŵasilikari ŵa Alawite ŵakamba kuwusa, ndipo ŵa Sunni, ŵa Druze, na ŵa Ismaili ŵakafumiskika mu gulu la ŵasilikari na gulu la Ba'ath. Muwuso wa ŵasilikari wa Hafez al-Assad wa vilimika 30, ukazgora Siriya kuŵa muwuso waciŵembu. Ndondomeko yiphya ya ndyali yikalongozgekanga na ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa ŵa gulu la Ba'ath, awo ŵakaŵa ŵakugomezgeka comene ku mbumba ya Assad, ndipo ŵakalongozganga ŵasilikari, ŵasilikari ŵa boma, na ŵapolisi.<ref name="Allam, Saber 2019 26–27">{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2= Salah Saber |title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=26–27 |chapter=The domestic structure of the regime}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cole |first=Robert |title=The Encyclopaedia of Propaganda |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=9781317471981 |pages=760–761 |chapter=Syria}}</ref> Mubali Assad wakaŵa na ŵabali ŵake ŵankhondi, ndipo ŵatatu ŵali kufwa. Mudumbu munyake zina lake Bushra wakafwa apo wakaŵa bonda. Mudumbu wa Assad, Majd, wakaŵa munthu wakumanyikwa yayi, ndipo pali vinandi yayi ivyo tikumanya vya iyo padera pa fundo yakuti wakaŵa wakupendera maghanoghano, ndipo wakafwa mu 2009 pamanyuma pa "kulwara kwa nyengo yitali". Mwakupambana na ŵanung'una ŵake Bassel na Maher, na mudumbu wake Bushra, Bashar wakaŵa wakuzika, wakudemelera, ndipo wakakhumbanga yayi kunjira ndyali panji usilikari. Ŵana ŵa Assad ŵakatemwanga yayi kucezga na adada ŵawo, ndipo Bashar wakayowoya kuti wakanjira mu ofesi ya adada ŵake kamoza pera apo ŵakaŵa pulezidenti. Munthu munyake uyo wakasambiranga nayo ku yunivesite wakayowoya kuti wakaŵa na soni, wakakhumbanga yayi kulaŵiskana na munthu, ndipo wakayowoyanga mwakuzika. Assad wakasambira sukulu ya pulayimale na sekondare ku sukulu ya Al-Hurriya ku Damascus. Mu 1982, wakamalizga masambiro gha ku sekondare ndipo wakasambira udokotala pa yunivesite ya Damascus.{{sfn|Leverett|2005|p=59}} == Medical career and rise to power == [[File:Basil assad.JPG|thumb|upright=0.95|Chithunzithunzi cha Bassel al-Assad (1962–1994), mubali mulara wa Bashar, uyo pakwamba wakakhumbikwiranga kuzakatora malo gha ŵawiske pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa Syria, kweni wakafwa pa ngozi ya galimoto mu 1994.]] Mu 1988, Assad wakamalizga masambiro ghake gha udokotala ndipo wakamba kugwira nchito ya udokotala ku chipatala cha Tishrin ku Damascus. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vinayi, wakasamira ku London kuti wakambe masambiro gha ku chipatala cha Western Eye. Mu nyengo iyo wakaŵa ku London, ŵanthu ŵakamuzunuranga kuti ni "munthu wakucita vya makompyuta". Bashar wakaŵa na vilato vichoko waka vya ndyali, ndipo adada ŵake ŵakasambizganga Bassel, mukuru wa Bashar kuti waŵe mulongozgi wa caru. Mu 1994, Bassel wakafwa pa ngozi ya galimoto, ndipo nyengo yicoko waka, Bashar wakacemeka kuti wakambe usilikari. Boma likamba kuphalira ŵanthu kuti Bashar ni "chigomezgo cha ŵanthu wose" kuti ŵalutilire kuwusa mu muwuso wa Assad. Ŵakati ŵafwa waka, Hafez al-Assad wakasankha Bashar kuti ndiyo waŵe themba. Kwa vyaka 6 na hafu, mpaka apo wakafwira mu 2000, Hafez wakanozganga Bashar kuti wapokere mazaza. General Bahjat Suleiman, uyo wakaŵa msilikari mu gulu la ŵasilikari, wakapika mulimo wa kulongozga kunozgekera kuti vinthu viŵe makora, ndipo mulimo uwu ukachitika mu vigaŵa vitatu. Cakwamba, ŵasilikari na ŵasilikari ŵakamovwira comene Bashar. Caciŵiri, ŵanthu ŵakamba kumumanya makora Bashar. Paumaliro, Bashar wakamanyikwa makora umo boma likwendera.<ref name="Ladno">{{cite news|title=Ladno.ru|script-title=ru:Асад Башар : биография|trans-title=Bashar Assad: A Biography|url=http://www.ladno.ru/person/asad/bio/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150441/http://ladno.ru/person/asad/bio/|archive-date=18 October 2015|access-date=23 September 2011|newspaper=Ladno|language=ru}}</ref> Kuti waŵe msilikari, Bashar wakaluta ku sukulu ya usilikali ku Homs mu 1994 ndipo wakaluta ku gulu la ŵasilikari la Syrian Republican Guard mu Janyuwale 1999. Kuti Bashar waŵe na mazaza pa ŵasilikari, ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ŵakaŵachimbizga kuti ŵaleke kunjira usilikari, ndipo ŵapya, ŵawukirano, ŵasilikari ŵa chigaŵa cha Alawite awo ŵakaŵa ŵakugomezgeka kwa Bashar ndiwo ŵakanjira m'malo mwawo. Mu 1998, Bashar wakatora udindo wa Syria ku Lebanon, uwo kufuma mu 1970 ukaŵa wa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti Abdul Halim Khaddam, uyo m'paka pa nyengo iyi wakaŵa kuti wangakhumbikwira kuŵa pulezidenti. Pakwamba kulamulira ku Lebanon, Bashar wakathereska Khaddam na kukhazikiska boma lake ku Lebanon. Mu chaka chenechichi, pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana na ŵanthu ŵa ndyali ŵa ku Lebanoni, Bashar wakimika Emile Lahoud, uyo wakaŵa mubwezi wake wakugomezgeka, kuŵa pulezidenti wa ku Lebanoni ndipo wakathereska Rafic Hariri, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya ku Lebanoni. Kuti watimbanizge boma la Syria ku Lebanon, Bashar wakasora Rustum Ghazaleh, uyo wakakhala kwa nyengo yitali nga ni High Commissioner wa Syria ku Lebanon, Ghazi Kanaan.{{sfn|Blanford|2006|p=88}} Kuyana waka na ntchito yake ya usilikari, Bashar wakachitanga ntchito za boma. Wakapika mazaza ghanandi ndipo wakazgoka mulara wa ofesi yakupokelera madandaulo na mapemphero gha ŵantu, ndipo wakalongozga kampeni yakulimbana na vimbundi. Chifukwa cha kampeni iyi, ŵanandi awo ŵangaŵa ŵakususkana na Bashar pakuŵa pulezidenti ŵakazengeka mulandu chifukwa cha vimbundi. Bashar wakazgokaso Pulezidenti wa wupu wa ŵamakompyuta ŵa ku Syria ndipo wakawovwira kuti paŵe intaneti ku Syria, ndipo ivi vikamovwira kuti ŵawoneke kuti ni munthu uyo ​​wakusintha vinthu mazuŵa ghano ndiposo wakusintha vinthu. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezgeka ŵa Ba'athist mu chipani, ŵasilikari na gulu la Alawite ŵakakhozgeranga Bashar al-Assad, ndipo ivi vikamovwira kuti waŵe mulongozgi wa ŵawiske.<ref name="facing down rebellion">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/10338256 |title=Syrian President Bashar al-Assad: Facing down rebellion |work=BBC News |date=21 October 2015 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=11 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411120901/https://www.bbc.com/news/10338256 |url-status=live }}</ref> == Presidency == {{Main|Presidency of Bashar al-Assad}} === Early leadership (2000–2011) === [[File:TlassBashar.webp|thumb|Pa nyengo iyo, Nduna ya Chitetezo Mustafa Tlass pamoza na Bashar al-Assad, pa 1 Ogasiti 2000. Pamanyuma Tlass na mwana wake Manaf Tlass ŵakafumapo pa gulu ili pamanyuma pakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Syria ŵasintha boma.]] [[File:AlAsssad2004 militaryuniform.jpg|thumb|Assad mu 2004]] Hafez al-Assad wakati wafwa pa 10 June 2000, Constitution ya Syria yikasinthika. Ŵakachepeska vyaka vya munthu uyo wangaŵa pulezidenti kufuma pa 40 kufika pa 34, apo Bashar wakaŵa pa nyengo iyo. Asad ndiyo yekha wakakhalapo pa mpikisano uwu ndipo pa 10 Julayi 2000, wakazomerezgeka kuŵa pulezidenti. Mwakuyana na udindo wake wa pulezidenti wa Syria, wakasoleka kuŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa Syria kweniso kuŵa mulembi wa chipani cha Ba'ath. Pa vyaka 7 vilivyose kukaŵanga visankho ndipo Assad ndiyo wakawusanga. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuwona umo vinthu viliri pa caru ŵakuwona kuti ivyo vikucitika pa visora ni vyautesi ndipo ŵakususka ŵakuvilekeska. Masankho ghaŵiri ghaumaliro agho ghakachitika mu 2014 na 2021 ghakachitikira mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa mu mawoko gha boma la Syria.<ref name="theguardian.com">{{cite news |date=28 May 2014 |title=Syrians in Lebanon battle crowds to vote for Bashar al-Assad |website=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/28/syrians-lebaanon-vote-assad-embassies-refugees-boycott |access-date=9 November 2017 |archive-date=20 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320122744/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/28/syrians-lebaanon-vote-assad-embassies-refugees-boycott |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="telegraph.co.uk">{{cite news |date=16 July 2014 |title=Bashar al-Assad sworn in for a third term as Syrian president |website=The Daily Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10970476/Bashar-al-Assad-sworn-in-for-a-third-term-as-Syrian-president.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=17 December 2016 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10970476/Bashar-al-Assad-sworn-in-for-a-third-term-as-Syrian-president.html |archive-date=11 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Kossaify">{{Cite news |last=Kossaify |first=Ephrem |date=22 April 2021 |title=UN reiterates it is not involved in Syrian presidential election |work=Arab News |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/%7B%7B |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422181511/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/middle-east |archive-date=22 April 2021}}</ref> ==== Damascus Spring ==== {{See also|Damascus Spring}} Wakati wamba waka kuwusa, gulu linyake lakucemeka Damascus Spring, ilo likalongozgekanga na ŵalembi, ŵanthu ŵavinjeru, ŵakususka, na ŵanthu ŵakutemwa vinthu vyautesi, likacita vinthu mwamahara, ndipo ŵakamalizga kujalira jele la Mezzeh na kufumiska ŵakayidi ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa mu gulu la Muslim Brotherhood. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakambaso kutimbana na ŵasilikari, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti vinthu viŵe nga ni umo vikaŵira ku Damascus mu nyengo ya chiwuvi. Ŵanandi ŵakaŵakora, kuŵatimba, kuŵatumizga ku wuzga, panji kuŵakaka, ndipo boma likalutilira kuŵapa wanangwa wa kuyowoya. Vinthu ivyo ŵakacita pakwamba vikawelerapo kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na mazaza pa vinthu, ndipo boma likakanizga mulimo wa Damascus Spring na chilato chakuti "ŵanthu ŵaŵe ŵakukolerana kweniso ŵakhazikike". Ndondomeko ya boma ya "kukolerana pa vinthu vya ŵanthu na vya malonda" yikazgoka chimanyikwiro cha vimbundi, ndipo awo ŵakakolerananga na Assad ndiwo ŵakasanganga chandulo. Maofesi ghanandi ghakakanizgika, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵavinjeru ŵakakoleka na ŵapolisi ŵa Mukhabarat, ŵakakomeka na kutambuzgika. Ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ivyo boma likalayizga pakwamba vikaŵa vigaŵa vya nthowa iyo boma likagwiliskiranga nchito kuti lisange Ŵasiriya awo ŵakakolerananga yayi na boma liphya. Pa ulendo wa nduna yikuru ya Britain Tony Blair ku Syria mu Okutobala 2001, Bashar wakususka pakweru kuwukira kwa United States ku Afghanistan pa ungano wa wupu wa ŵapharazgi, wakati "tikutondeka kuzomera ivyo tikuwona zuŵa lililose pa TV kwithu - kukomeka kwa ŵanthu ŵambura mulandu. Ŵanandi ŵakufwa zuŵa lililose". Pa ungano uwu, Asad wakalumba gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Palestina kuti ni "ŵasilikari awo ŵakurwa nkhondo ya wanangwa" ndipo wakasuska Israyeli na vyaru vya ku Europe. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma la Britain ŵakayowoya kuti ivyo Assad wakacitanga pakusopa vikaŵa vyakukolerana yayi na ŵanthu ŵanyake. Ŵakatenge wakususka ivyo vikacitika pa Seputembala 11, ndipo wakuzomerezga kuti boma la Israyeli ndakuzomerezgeka. Pamanyuma pa vilengo vya pa 11 Seputembala, ndipo pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku America ya kulimbana na vigeŵenga, "Syria yikaŵa yimoza mwa vyaru ivyo CIA yikagwiliskiranga nchito pa nkhondo yakwimikana na al-Qaeda", ndipo "makhaliro na unandi wa uthenga uwo ukafumanga ku Syria [ukaŵa] ukuru comene kuluska ivyo CIA yikaghanaghananga". 8] Syria yikakolerana chomene na CIA pakukaka ŵanthu na kuŵafumba mafumbo. Mu majele gha ku Syria ndimo mukaŵanga ŵanthu ŵanandi awo CIA yikaŵapharazgiranga kuti mba al-Qaeda. Kuyana na lipoti la 2013 la gulu la Open Society Foundations, ku Syria ndiko kukaŵanga ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya CIA.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/05/cia-rendition-countries-covert-support|title=CIA rendition: more than a quarter of countries 'offered covert support': Report finds at least 54 countries co-operated with global kidnap, detention and torture operation mounted after 9/11 attacks|last=Cobain|first=Ian|date=5 February 2013|work=The Guardian|access-date=10 October 2024|archive-date=19 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190519103259/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/05/cia-rendition-countries-covert-support|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Killing of Rafic Hariri and Cedar Revolution ==== {{See also|Assassination of Rafic Hariri|Cedar Revolution|Syrian occupation of Lebanon}} {{quote box|"It will be [[Emile Lahoud|Lahoud]].. opposing him is tantamount to opposing [[Assad dynasty|Assad]] himself.. I will break [[Lebanon]] over your head and over [[Walid Jumblatt]]'s head. So you had better return to [[Beirut]] and arrange the matter on that basis." | source = — Assad's threats to [[Rafic Hariri]] in August 2004, over the issue of tenure extension of Syrian ally Emile Lahoud<ref>{{Cite book |last=Coughlin |first=Con |title=Assad: The Triumph of Tyranny |publisher=Pan Macmillan |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-5290-7490-1 |location=London |pages=80–97 |chapter=5: First Blood}}</ref> | align = right | width = 25em }} [[File:Hariri Scene-of-crime View-from-east.jpg|thumb|left|The crime-scene in [[Beirut]] where Hariri and 21 others were killed in a terrorist attack in February 2005. The area was cordoned off to conduct an international investigation.]] On 14 February 2005, [[Rafic Hariri]], the former prime minister of Lebanon, was [[Assassination of Rafic Hariri|assassinated]] in a massive truck-bomb explosion in [[Beirut]], killing 22 people. ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]'' reported that "Syria was widely blamed for Hariri's murder. In the months leading to the assassination, relations between Hariri and Syrian President Bashar al-Assad plummeted amid an atmosphere of threats and intimidation."<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0214/Rafik-Hariri-In-Lebanon-assassination-reverberates-10-years-later |title=Rafik Hariri: In Lebanon, assassination reverberates 10 years later |journal=The Christian Science Monitor |access-date=20 April 2015 |date=14 February 2015 |archive-date=20 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420011320/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0214/Rafik-Hariri-In-Lebanon-assassination-reverberates-10-years-later |url-status=live }}</ref> Bashar promoted his brother-in-law [[Assef Shawkat]], a key figure suspected of orchestrating the terrorist attack, as the chief of [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|Syrian Military Intelligence Directorate]] immediately after Hariri's death.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 July 2012 |title=Comeback kid of Assad regime was a feared figure |work=Sydney Morning Herald |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/comeback-kid-of-assad-regime-was-a-feared-figure-20120719-22d5g.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120721080802/https://www.smh.com.au/world/comeback-kid-of-assad-regime-was-a-feared-figure-20120719-22d5g.html |archive-date=21 July 2012}}</ref> [[File:Cedar Revolution Demonstrators.jpg|thumb|Protesters take to the streets during Lebanon's "Independence Intifada", also known as the [[Cedar Revolution]].]] The killings caused massive uproar, triggering an ''[[intifada]]'' in [[Lebanon]] and hundreds of thousands of protestors poured on the streets to demand total withdrawal of Syrian military forces. After mounting international pressure that called Syria to implement the [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559|UNSC Resolution 1559]], Bashar al-Assad declared on 5 March that he would order the departure of Syrian soldiers. On 14 March 2005, more than a million [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]] protestors – Muslims, Christians, and Druze – demonstrated in Beirut, marking the monthly anniversary of Hariri's murder. UN Resolution 1595, adopted on 7 April, sent an [[Assassination of Rafic Hariri#Investigation|international commission]] to investigate the assassination of Hariri. By 5 May 2005, United Nations had officially confirmed the total departure of all Syrian soldiers, ending the 29-year old [[Syrian occupation of Lebanon|military occupation]]. The uprisings that occurred in these months came to be known as Lebanon's "independence intifada" or the "[[Cedar Revolution]]".<ref>Rudy Jaafar and [[Maria Stephan|Maria J. Stephan]]. (2009). "Lebanon's Independence Intifada: How an Unarmed Insurrection Expelled Syrian Forces", in Maria J. Stephan (ed.), ''Civilian Jihad: Nonviolent Struggle, Democratization, and Governance in the Middle East'', New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp.&nbsp;169–185.</ref> UN investigation commission's report published on 20 October 2005 revealed that high-ranking members of [[Syrian intelligence]] and [[Assad family]] had directly supervised the killing.<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 October 2005 |title=UN Harīrī probe implicates Syria |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4362698.stm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051107092900/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4362698.stm |archive-date=7 November 2005}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author1=John Kifner |author2= Warren Hoge |date=21 October 2005 |title=Top Syrian Seen as Prime Suspect in Assassination |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/21/world/middleeast/top-syrian-seen-as-prime-suspect-in-assassination.html |access-date=21 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529190850/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/21/world/middleeast/top-syrian-seen-as-prime-suspect-in-assassination.html |archive-date=29 May 2015 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mehlis |first=Detlev |date=19 October 2005 |title=Report of the International Independent Investigation Commission Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1595 (2005) |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/21_10_05_mehlisreport.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051021233807/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/21_10_05_mehlisreport.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2005 |journal=}}</ref> The [[BBC]] reported in December 2005 that "Damascus has strongly denied involvement in the car bomb which killed Hariri in February".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4519346.stm |title=Middle East – New Hariri report 'blames Syria' |access-date=20 April 2015 |date=11 December 2005 |archive-date=26 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326082247/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4519346.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Pratibha Devisingh Patil and the Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh at the ceremonial reception of the President of Syrian Arab Republic, Dr. Bashar al – Assad and his wife Mrs. Asma al-Assad, in New Delhi on June 18, 2008.jpg|thumb|Assad with Indian Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] in New Delhi, India, 18 June 2008]] On 27 May 2007, Assad was [[2007 Syrian presidential election|approved for another seven-year term]] in a referendum on his presidency, with 97.6% of the votes supporting his continued leadership.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm |title=Syria |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |date=26 January 2012 |access-date=4 March 2012 |archive-date=21 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121022641/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=29 May 2007 |title=Syria's Assad wins another term |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6700021.stm |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-date=5 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505061141/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6700021.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=28 May 2007 |title=Democracy Damascus style: Assad the only choice in referendum |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |access-date=9 October 2016 |archive-date=20 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420124315/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |url-status=live }}</ref> Opposition parties were not allowed in the country and Assad was the only candidate in the referendum.<ref name="CBS %">Klatell, James (27 May 2007). [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ "Syrians Vote in Presidential Referendum"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134454/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ |date=6 April 2017 }}. CBS News.</ref> Syria's opposition parties under the umbrella of [[Damascus Declaration]] denounced the elections as illegitimate and part of the regime's strategy to sustain the "[[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] system".<ref name="WaPo %2">{{cite news |date=28 May 2007 |title=Syrians Vote For Assad in Uncontested Referendum |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |location=Damascus |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052701117.html |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180511075416/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052701117.html |archive-date=11 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="Reuters %2">{{Cite news |last=Yacoub Oweis |first=Khaleb |date=17 May 2007 |title=Syria's opposition boycotts vote on Assad |work=[[Reuters]] |location=Damascus |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-vote-opposition-idUSOWE75174320070517 |access-date=11 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134644/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-vote-opposition-idUSOWE75174320070517 |archive-date=6 April 2017}}</ref> Elections in Syria are officially designated as the event of "renewing the pledge of allegiance" to the [[Assad dynasty|Assads]] and voting is enforced as a compulsory duty for every citizen. Announcement of the results are followed by pro-government rallies conducted across the country extolling the regime, wherein citizens declare their "devotion" to the President and celebrate "the virtues" of the Assad dynasty.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Klatell |first=James |date=27 May 2007 |title=Syrians Vote in Presidential Referendum |work=CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134454/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ |archive-date=6 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Black |first=Ian |date=28 May 2007 |title=Democracy Damascus style: Assad the only choice in referendum |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134014/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |archive-date=6 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Chulov |first=Martin |date=13 April 2014 |title=The one certainty about Syria's looming election – Assad will win |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2014/apr/13/certainty-syria-election-assad-will-win |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621100122/https://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2014/apr/13/certainty-syria-election-assad-will-win |archive-date=21 June 2017}}</ref> Syria began developing a covert [[Syria and weapons of mass destruction#Nuclear program|nuclear weapons programme]] with assistance of [[North Korea]] during the 2000s, but its suspected [[nuclear reactor]] was destroyed by the [[Israeli Air Force]] during [[Operation Orchard|Operation Outside the Box]] in September 2007.<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=The Silent Strike |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/09/17/the-silent-strike |url-status=live |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118235708/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/09/17/the-silent-strike |archive-date=18 November 2017 |access-date=18 November 2017}}</ref><ref name="ifimes.org">{{Cite web |title=Syria: Between oppression and freedom |url=https://www.ifimes.org/en/researches/syria-between-oppression-and-freedom/3325 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410215253/https://www.ifimes.org/en/researches/syria-between-oppression-and-freedom/3325 |archive-date=10 April 2022 |website=Ifimes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=28 April 2008 |title=N.Koreans may have died in Israel raid in Syria: NHK |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-korea-north-syria/n-koreans-may-have-died-in-israel-raid-in-syria-nhk-idUSL271480120080428 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424091316/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-korea-north-syria/n-koreans-may-have-died-in-israel-raid-in-syria-nhk-idUSL271480120080428 |archive-date=24 April 2023}}</ref> === Syrian Civil War (2011–2024) === ==== Leadership until 2015 ==== {{See also|Arab Spring|2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian civil war|Sanctions against Syria}} [[File:Syrian Demonstration Douma Damascus 08-04-2011.jpg|thumbnail|Anti-Assad demonstrations in [[Douma, Syria|Douma]], 8 April 2011]] [[Civil uprising phase of the Syrian Civil War|Protests in Syria]] began on 26 January 2011 following the [[Arab Spring]] protests that called for political reforms and the reinstatement of civil rights, as well as an end to the [[state of emergency]] which had been in place since 1963.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/2011/02/201129135657367367.html |title=Q&A: Syrian activist Suhair Atassi |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=9 February 2011 |access-date=13 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110212112539/http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/2011/02/201129135657367367.html |archive-date=12 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> One attempt at a "day of rage" was set for 4–5 February, though it ended uneventfully.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna41400687 |title='Day of rage' protest urged in Syria |work=[[NBC News]] |date=3 February 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-date=13 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913054615/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna41400687 |url-status=live }}</ref> Protests on 18–19 March were the largest to take place in Syria for decades, and the Syrian authority responded with violence against its protesting citizens.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/19/world/middleeast/19syria.html |title=In Syria, Crackdown After Protests |work=The New York Times |date=18 March 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322061301/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/19/world/middleeast/19syria.html |archive-date=22 March 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In his first public response to the protests delivered on 30 March 2011, Assad blamed the unrest on "conspiracies" and accused the Syrian opposition and protestors of seditious "''[[Fitna (word)|fitna]]''", toeing the party-line of framing the [[Ba'athist Syria|Ba'athist state]] as the victim of an international plot. He also derided the [[Arab Spring]] movement, and described those participating in the protests as "germs" and [[Fifth column|fifth-columnists]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sadiki |first1=Larbi |title=Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring |last2=Abbas |first2=Akeel |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-52391-2 |location=New York |pages=412, 413 |chapter=31: Deconstructing Despotic Legacies in the Arab Spring|quote=In the nearly 50-minute speech, President al-Assad gave his interpretation to the protests in Syria and other Arab countries, almost mocking the Arab Spring, invoking the outside regional and international conspirators and their inside 'agents' as the evil 'them'.. Resorting to conspiratorial attribution to explain the 'real' reasons behind the protests in Syria, al-Assad bestowed a pathological inevitability on the actions of political opposition, where the oppressive political system he heads turns into a noble victim, recipient of foreign illnesses. [Assad speech] "Conspiracies are like germs: They procreate at every moment everywhere; they cannot be annihilated, but the immunity of the body can be strengthened against them." … dissent loses its political meaning, or moral justification, acquiring 'othering' essence when the president places it in the dismissive context of the 'fitna'.}}</ref><ref name="Farge">{{Cite news |last=Farge |first=Emma |date=28 June 2022 |title=War has killed 1.5% of Syria's population: UN estimate |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-civilian-death-toll-over-306000-since-2011-un-2022-06-28/ |url-status=live |access-date=28 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628101243/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-civilian-death-toll-over-306000-since-2011-un-2022-06-28/ |archive-date=28 June 2022}}</ref><ref name="ohchr.org">{{Cite web |title=UN Human Rights Office estimates more than 306,000 civilians were killed over 10 years in Syria conflict |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/06/un-human-rights-office-estimates-more-306000-civilians-were-killed-over-10 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701075327/https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/06/un-human-rights-office-estimates-more-306000-civilians-were-killed-over-10 |archive-date=1 July 2022 |access-date=1 July 2022 |website=Ohchr.org}}</ref> {{quote box|"Throughout the speech, al-Assad remained faithful to the basic ideological line of [[neo-Ba'athism|Syrian Baathism]]: the binary opposition of a devilishly determined, conspiring 'outside' bent on hurting a heroically defending and essentially good 'inside'... consistent with [[Baathist]] dualism, [the speech] makes the sparing, if not grudging, mention of supposedly minor dissent in this 'inside'. This dissent loses its political meaning, or moral justification, acquiring 'othering' essence when the president places it in the dismissive context of the '''fitna'''... Following this hard-line speech, the protesters' demands moved from reforming to overthrowing the regime."| source = — Professor Akeel Abbas on Assad's first public speech after the outbreak of [[2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian Revolution protests]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sadiki |first1=Larbi |title=Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring |last2=Abbas |first2=Akeel |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-52391-2 |location=New York |pages=412, 413 |chapter=31: Deconstructing Despotic Legacies in the Arab Spring}}</ref> | align = right | width = 25em }} The U.S. imposed limited sanctions against the Assad government in April 2011, followed by [[Barack Obama]]'s executive order as of 18 May 2011 targeting Bashar Assad specifically and six other senior officials.<ref>{{cite web |title=Administration Takes Additional Steps to Hold the Government of Syria Accountable for Violent Repression Against the Syrian People |url=http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1181.aspx |work=[[United States Department of the Treasury]] |access-date=18 May 2011 |quote=Today, President Obama signed an Executive Order ([[s:Executive Order 13573|E.O. 13573]]) imposing sanctions against Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and six other senior officials of the Government of Syria in an effort to increase pressure on the Government of Syria to end its use of violence against its people and to begin a transition to a democratic system that protects the rights of the Syrian people. |archive-date=22 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522122023/http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1181.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=ussanct>{{cite news |title=How the U.S. message on Assad shifted |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/checkpoint-washington/post/how-the-us-message-on-assad-shifted/2011/08/18/gIQAfPZxNJ_blog.html |access-date=23 November 2015 |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=18 August 2011 |archive-date=15 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415104022/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/checkpoint-washington/post/how-the-us-message-on-assad-shifted/2011/08/18/gIQAfPZxNJ_blog.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Oweis |first=Khaled Yacoub |title=U.S. imposes sanctions on Syria's Assad |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-idUSLDE73N02P20110518 |access-date=12 March 2015 |work=[[Reuters]] |date=18 May 2011 |quote=The U.S. move, announced by the Treasury Department, freezes any of the Syrian officials' assets that are in the United States or otherwise fall within U.S. jurisdiction and generally bars U.S. individuals and companies from dealing with them. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518111248/https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/18/us-syria-idUSLDE73N02P20110518 |archive-date=18 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 23 May 2011, the EU foreign ministers agreed at a meeting in Brussels to add Assad and nine other officials to a list affected by travel bans and asset freezes.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13500395 |work=BBC News |title=EU imposes sanctions on President Assad |date=23 May 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-date=1 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401032222/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13500395 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 24 May 2011, Canada imposed sanctions on Syrian leaders, including Assad.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-13533833 |work=BBC News |title=Canada imposes sanctions on Syrian leaders |date=24 May 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402085604/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-13533833 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 20 June, in response to the demands of protesters and international pressure, Assad promised a national dialogue involving movement toward reform, [[2012 Syrian parliamentary election|new parliamentary elections]], and greater [[Civil and political rights|freedoms]]. He also urged [[refugee]]s to return home from Turkey, while assuring them [[amnesty]] and blaming all unrest on a small number of saboteurs.<ref>{{cite news |title=Speech of H.E. President Bashar al-Assad at Damascus University on the situation in Syria |url=http://sana.sy/eng/337/2011/06/21/pr-353686.htm |date=21 June 2011 |agency=[[Syrian Arab News Agency]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525170047/http://sana.sy/eng/337/2011/06/21/pr-353686.htm |archive-date=25 May 2012}}</ref> [[File:Lattakia 20 june 2010.jpg|thumb|Pro-Assad demonstration in [[Alawite]] majority coastal city of [[Latakia]], 20 June 2011]] [[File:Anti-government protest in Assi square of Hama.ogg|right|thumb|275px|Hundreds of thousands of anti-Assad protesters parade the Syrian flag and shout the [[Arab Spring]] slogan [[Ash-shab yurid isqat an-nizam]] (''the people want to bring down the regime!'') in the Assi square, during the [[Siege of Hama (2011)|Siege of Hama]], 22 July 2011.]] In July 2011, U.S. Secretary of State [[Hillary Clinton]] said Assad had "lost legitimacy" as president.<ref name="ussanct"/> On 18 August 2011, Barack Obama issued a written statement that urged Assad to "step aside".<ref name=mustgo>{{cite news |title=Assad must go, Obama says |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/assad-must-go-obama-says/2011/08/18/gIQAelheOJ_story.html |access-date=23 November 2015 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=18 August 2011 |archive-date=13 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513065624/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/assad-must-go-obama-says/2011/08/18/gIQAelheOJ_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/assad-must-go-the-world-unites-against-syria-s-tyrant-2340307.html|title=Assad must go: the world unites against Syria's tyrant|work=[[The Independent]]|date=19 August 2011|access-date=25 November 2024|archive-date=18 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241118232120/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/assad-must-go-the-world-unites-against-syria-s-tyrant-2340307.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=whstatem>[https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/08/18/president-obama-future-syria-must-be-determined-its-people-president-bashar-al-assad President Obama: "The future of Syria must be determined by its people, but President Bashar al-Assad is standing in their way."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123020409/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/08/18/president-obama-future-syria-must-be-determined-its-people-president-bashar-al-assad |date=23 January 2017 }} The White House website, 18 August 2011.</ref> In August, the cartoonist [[Ali Farzat]], a critic of Assad's government, was attacked. Relatives of the humourist told media outlets that the attackers threatened to break Farzat's bones as a warning for him to stop drawing cartoons of government officials, particularly Assad. Farzat was hospitalised with fractures in both hands and blunt force trauma to the head.<ref>{{cite news |author=Nour Ali |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/25/syria-cartoonist-ali-ferzat-beaten |title=Syrian forces beat up political cartoonist Ali Ferzat |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=4 March 2012 |date=25 August 2011 |location=London |archive-date=19 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419133157/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/25/syria-cartoonist-ali-ferzat-beaten |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/Syrian-Activists-Anti-Regime-Cartoonist-Attacked-Beaten-128385448.html |title=Prominent Syrian Cartoonist Attacked, Beaten |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |date=25 August 2011 |access-date=4 March 2012 |archive-date=3 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203183255/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/Syrian-Activists-Anti-Regime-Cartoonist-Attacked-Beaten-128385448.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Since October 2011, Russia, as a [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent member]] of the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]], repeatedly [[United Nations Security Council veto power|vetoed]] Western-sponsored draft resolutions in the UN Security Council that would have left open the possibility of UN sanctions, or even military intervention, against the Assad government.<ref name=guardunlegit>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/23/russian-vetoes-putting-un-security-council-legitimacy-at-risk-says-us |title=Russian vetoes are putting UN security council's legitimacy at risk, says US |work=The Guardian |access-date=10 January 2016 |date=23 September 2015 |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517013841/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/23/russian-vetoes-putting-un-security-council-legitimacy-at-risk-says-us |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Itar-Tass27-1-12">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-russia-idUSTRE80Q0I620120127 |title=Russia won't back U.N. call for Syria's Assad to go |date=27 January 2012 |access-date=12 January 2016 |work=[[Reuters]] |archive-date=28 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128064627/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/01/27/us-syria-russia-idUSTRE80Q0I620120127 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39935 Russia and China veto draft Security Council resolution on Syria] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629175424/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39935 |date=29 June 2017 }} UN website, 4 October 2011.</ref> By the end of January 2012, it was reported by [[Reuters]] that over 5,000 civilians and protesters (including armed militants) had been killed by the Syrian army, security agents and militia ([[Shabiha]]), while 1,100 people had been killed by "terrorist armed forces".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/syria-idINDEE7BC00720111213 |work=Reuters |title=Syria death toll hits 5,000 as insurgency spreads |date=13 December 2011 |author=Khaled Yacoub Oweis |access-date=5 July 2021 |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807040746/https://in.reuters.com/article/syria-idINDEE7BC00720111213 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On 10 January 2012, Assad gave a speech in which he maintained the uprising was engineered by foreign countries and proclaimed that "victory [was] near". He also said that the [[Arab League]], by suspending Syria, revealed that it was no longer Arab. However, Assad also said the country would not "close doors" to an Arab-brokered solution if "national sovereignty" was respected. He also said a referendum on a new constitution could be held in March.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16483548 |work=BBC News |title=Syria's Assad blames 'foreign conspiracy' |date=10 January 2012 |access-date=10 January 2012 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402193447/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16483548 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Bombed out vehicles Aleppo.jpg|thumb|Destroyed vehicle on a devastated [[Aleppo]] street, 6 October 2012]] On 27 February 2012, Syria claimed that a proposal that a new constitution be drafted received 90% support during the [[2012 Syrian constitutional referendum|relevant referendum]]. The referendum introduced a fourteen-year cumulative term limit for the president of Syria. The referendum was pronounced meaningless by foreign nations including the U.S. and Turkey; the EU announced fresh sanctions against key regime figures.<ref>{{cite news |author=Martin Chulov |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/27/syria-bashar-al-assad |title=Syria claims 90% of voters backed reforms in referendum |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=4 March 2012 |date=27 February 2012 |location=London |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517014625/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/27/syria-bashar-al-assad |url-status=live }}</ref> In July 2012, Russian Foreign Minister [[Sergey Lavrov]] denounced Western powers for what he said amounted to blackmail thus provoking a civil war in Syria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article3646362.ece |title=Russia backs Assad as fighting in Damascus escalates |date=17 July 2012 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |first=Atul |last=Aneja |location=Chennai |access-date=17 July 2012 |archive-date=18 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article3646362.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> On 15 July 2012, the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] declared Syria to be in a state of civil war,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18849362 |work=BBC News |title=Syria in civil war, Red Cross says |date=15 July 2012 |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620110230/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18849362 |url-status=live }}</ref> as the nationwide death toll for all sides was reported to have neared 20,000.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/22/syria-death-toll-tops-19000 |newspaper=The Guardian |title=Syrian death toll tops 19,000, say activists |date=22 July 2012 |access-date=31 July 2012 |location=London |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517014621/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/22/syria-death-toll-tops-19000 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 6 January 2013, Assad, in his first major speech since June, said that the conflict in his country was due to "enemies" outside of Syria who would "go to Hell" and that they would "be taught a lesson". However, he said that he was still open to a political solution saying that failed attempts at a solution "does not mean we are not interested in a political solution."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/01/06/world/meast/syria-civil-war/?hpt=hp_t1 |title=Al-Assad: Enemies of Syria 'will go to hell' |work=CNN |date=6 January 2013 |access-date=25 January 2013 |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019103510/http://edition.cnn.com/2013/01/06/world/meast/syria-civil-war/?hpt=hp_t1 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |work=Listening Post |url=http://blogs.aljazeera.com/liveblog/topic/syria-153 |title=Syrian Live Blog |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=6 January 2012 |access-date=25 January 2013 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071334/http://blogs.aljazeera.com/liveblog/topic/Syria-153 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In July 2014, Assad renewed his third term of presidency after voting process conducted in pro-regime territories which were boycotted by the opposition and condemned by the [[UN|United Nations]].<ref name="theguardian.com"/><ref name="telegraph.co.uk"/><ref name="Kossaify"/> According to [[Joshua Landis]]: "He's (Assad) going to say: 'I am the state, I am Syria, and if the West wants access to Syrians, they have to come through me.'"<ref name="telegraph.co.uk"/> [[File:VOA Arrott - A View of Syria, Under Government Crackdown 05.jpg|thumb|A poster of Bashar al-Assad at a checkpoint on the outskirts of Damascus]] After the fall of four military bases in September 2014,<ref name="AssadWeak">{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21625865-bashar-assad-may-be-weaker-he-thinks-tough-bowing |title=Bashar Assad may be weaker than he thinks |newspaper=The Economist |date=16 October 2014 |access-date=16 October 2014 |quote=In Latakia and Tartus, two coastal cities near the Alawite heartland, posters of missing soldiers adorn the walls. When IS took over four government bases in the east of the country this summer, slaughtering dozens of soldiers and displaying some of their heads on spikes in Raqqa, IS's stronghold, families started to lose faith in the government. A visitor to the region reports hearing one man complain: 'We're running out of sons to give them.' |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019131748/https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21625865-bashar-assad-may-be-weaker-he-thinks-tough-bowing |url-status=live }}</ref> which were the last government footholds in the [[Raqqa Governorate]], Assad received significant criticism from his Alawite base of support.<ref name="Dissent2014">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-dissent-idUSKBN0GW2GQ20140901 |last1=Dziadosz |first1=Alexander |last2=Heneghan |first2=Tom |title=Pro-government Syrian activist arrested after rare public dissent |work=Reuters |access-date=23 September 2014 |date=September 2014 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924204007/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/01/us-syria-crisis-dissent-idUSKBN0GW2GQ20140901 |url-status=live }}</ref> This included remarks made by Douraid al-Assad, cousin of Bashar al-Assad, demanding the resignation of the Syrian Defence Minister, [[Fahd Jassem al-Freij]], following the massacre by the [[Islamic State]] of hundreds of government troops captured after the IS victory at [[Battle for Tabqa Air base|Tabqa Airbase]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-military-idUKKBN0HD0LW20140918 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180419222514/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-military-idUKKBN0HD0LW20140918 |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 April 2018 |last=Westhall |first=Syliva |title=Assad's army stretched but still seen strong in Syria's war |work=Reuters |access-date=23 September 2014|date=18 September 2014 }}</ref> This was shortly followed by Alawite protests in [[Homs]] demanding the resignation of the governor,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/kurdish-fighters-group-nearing-syrian-town-25911163 |last1=Hadid |first1=Diaa |title=Activists Say Assad Supporters Protest in Syria |website=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |agency=Associated Press |access-date=3 October 2014 |archive-date=2 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141002102336/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/kurdish-fighters-group-nearing-syrian-town-25911163 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the dismissal of Assad's cousin [[Hafez Makhlouf]] from his security position leading to his subsequent exile to Belarus.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/change-leadership-damascus-syria-regime.html |title=Assad dismisses security chief of powerful 'Branch 40' |first1=Jean |last1=Aziz |publisher=Al Monitor |date=16 October 2014 |access-date=16 October 2014 |archive-date=18 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018101938/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/change-leadership-damascus-syria-regime.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Growing resentment towards Assad among Alawites was fuelled by the disproportionate number of soldiers killed in fighting hailing from Alawite areas,<ref name="BurySons">{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/syrias-alawites-pay-heavy-price-bury-sons-26598184 |title=Syria's Alawites Pay Heavy Price as They Bury Sons |first1=Diaa |last1=Hadid |agency=Associated Press |date=1 November 2014 |access-date=1 November 2014 |archive-date=31 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031172047/http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/syrias-alawites-pay-heavy-price-bury-sons-26598184 |url-status=live }}</ref> a sense that the Assad regime has abandoned them,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/mideast-crisis-homs-blast-idUSL5N0SO3GI20141029 |title=Car bomb wounds 37 in government-held area of Syria's Homs |work=Reuters |date=29 October 2014 |access-date=9 November 2014 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924210033/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/29/mideast-crisis-homs-blast-idUSL5N0SO3GI20141029 |url-status=live }}</ref> as well as the failing economic situation.<ref name="AlawitesVoice">{{cite news |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/syria-tartous-alawites-pro-regime-protests.html |title=Alawites find their voice against Assad |publisher=Al Monitor |date=29 October 2014 |access-date=1 November 2014 |archive-date=2 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102024626/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/syria-tartous-alawites-pro-regime-protests.html? |url-status=live }}</ref> Figures close to Assad began voicing concerns regarding the likelihood of its survival, with one saying in late 2014; "I don't see the current situation as sustainable ... I think Damascus will collapse at some point."<ref name="AssadWeak" /> [[File:Syrian civil war 01 12 2015.png|thumb|Military situation in December 2015]] In 2015, several members of the Assad family died in [[Latakia]] under unclear circumstances.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11518232/In-Syrias-war-Alawites-pay-heavy-price-for-loyalty-to-Bashar-al-Assad.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11518232/In-Syrias-war-Alawites-pay-heavy-price-for-loyalty-to-Bashar-al-Assad.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=In Syria's war, Alawites pay heavy price for loyalty to Bashar al-Assad |work=The Daily Telegraph |last=Sherlock |first=Ruth |date=7 April 2015 |access-date=7 April 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> On 14 March, an influential cousin of Assad and founder of the [[shabiha]], Mohammed Toufic al-Assad, was assassinated with five bullets to the head in a dispute over influence in [[Qardaha]]{{snd}}the [[ancestral home]] of the Assad family.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2015/Mar-14/290802-assad-relative-assassinated-in-syria-activists.ashx |title=Assad relative assassinated in Syria: activists |work=The Daily Star |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=15 March 2015 |access-date=15 March 2015 |archive-date=31 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531205717/http://www.dailystar.com.lb//News/Middle-East/2015/Mar-14/290802-assad-relative-assassinated-in-syria-activists.ashx |url-status=live }}</ref> In April 2015, Assad ordered the arrest of his cousin Munther al-Assad in Alzirah, Latakia.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/syria-bashar-al-assad-arrests-own-cousin-munther-kidnapping-links-1496410 |title=Syria: Bashar al-Assad arrests own cousin Munther 'for kidnapping links' |last1=Alajlan |first1=Anas |work=International Business Times |date=14 April 2015 |access-date=15 April 2015 |archive-date=17 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417073648/http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/syria-bashar-al-assad-arrests-own-cousin-munther-kidnapping-links-1496410 |url-status=live }}</ref> It remains unclear whether the arrest was due to actual crimes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0421/Can-Syria-s-Assad-withstand-latest-battlefield-setbacks-video |title=Can Syria's Assad withstand latest battlefield setbacks? (+video) |work=The Christian Science Monitor |last=Blanford |first=Nicholas |date=21 August 2015 |access-date=22 April 2015 |archive-date=21 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621060446/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0421/Can-Syria-s-Assad-withstand-latest-battlefield-setbacks-video |url-status=live }}</ref> After a string of government defeats in northern and southern Syria, analysts noted growing government instability coupled with continued waning support for the Assad government among its core Alawite base of support,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/flash-points-syria-assad-losing-power/ |title=Flash Points: Is Syria's Assad losing power? |work=CBS News |last=Flores |first=Reena |date=2 May 2015 |access-date=3 May 2015 |quote='a lot of suspicion within the regime itself about who's doing what and if folks are leaving.' [...] 'These are signs that I think demonstrate a bit of weakness and instability in the regime that you haven't seen in recent months,' he said. He cites the waning support from the nation's minority Alawite community as one of these important shifts. |archive-date=4 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504064305/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/flash-points-syria-assad-losing-power/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and that there were increasing reports of Assad relatives, Alawites, and businessmen fleeing Damascus for Latakia and foreign countries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/.premium-1.655153 |title=Syrian rebel victories stretch Assad's forces |work=Haaretz |last1=Harel |first1=Amos |last2=Cohen |first2=Gili |last3=Khoury |first3=Jack |date=6 May 2015 |access-date=6 May 2015 |quote=There have also been increasing reports of Assad relatives, businessmen and high-ranking members of the Alawite community fleeing Damascus for the coastal city of Latakia, or other countries, after transferring large sums of money to banks in Lebanon, eastern Europe and the United Arab Emirates. |archive-date=18 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/.premium-1.655153 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gulfnews.com/opinion/time-to-reconsider-life-after-al-assad-1.1507735 |title=Time to reconsider 'Life after Al Assad' |work=Gulf News |last=Karkouti |first=Mustapha |date=9 May 2015 |access-date=10 May 2015 |quote=[The] reality on the ground can't be more clear as the population in the regime-controlled parts of Syria are preparing for life after the Al Assad dynasty. According to information received by this author, many businessmen and financiers who flourished under the regime have successfully moved huge amounts of money and capital to neighbouring Lebanon. Some of these funds are now known to have been secretly deposited in Europe.}}</ref> Intelligence chief [[Ali Mamlouk]] was placed under house arrest sometime in April and stood accused of plotting with Assad's exiled uncle [[Rifaat al-Assad]] to replace Bashar as president.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11596142/Bashar-al-Assads-spy-chief-arrested-over-Syria-coup-plot.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11596142/Bashar-al-Assads-spy-chief-arrested-over-Syria-coup-plot.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Bashar al-Assad's spy chief arrested over Syria coup plot |work=The Daily Telegraph |last1=Sherlock |first1=Ruth |last2=Malouf |first2=Carol |date=11 May 2015 |access-date=12 May 2015 |quote=Mamlouk had also used a businessman from Aleppo as an intermediary to contact Rifaat al-Assad, Bashar's uncle, who has lived abroad exile since he was accused of seeking to mount a coup in Syria in the 1980s.}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Further high-profile deaths included the commanders of the Fourth Armoured Division, the Belli military airbase, the army's special forces and of the First Armoured Division, with an errant air strike during the [[Palmyra offensive (May 2015)|Palmyra offensive]] killing two officers who were reportedly related to Assad.<ref>{{cite news |last=Kaileh |first=Salameh |url=http://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/comment/2015/5/22/the-syrian-regime-is-slowly-being-liquidated |title=The Syrian regime is slowly being liquidated |website=Al-Araby Al-Jadeed |date=22 May 2015 |access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref> ==== After Russian intervention (from 2015) ==== {{See also|Russian involvement in the Syrian civil war|Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war}} [[File:Ali Khamenei and Bashar al-Assad05.jpg|thumb|Bashar al-Assad meets with Iran's supreme leader [[Ali Khamenei]], 25 February 2019.]] [[File:Sergey Shoigu and Bashar al-Assad (2017-09-12).jpg|thumb|Assad with former Russian defense minister [[Sergei Shoigu]], 9 September 2017]] On 4 September 2015, when prospects of Assad's survival looked bleak, Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] said that Russia was providing the Assad government with sufficiently "serious" help: with both logistical and military support.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Oliphant|first1=Roland|last2=Loveluck|first2=Louisa|date=4 September 2015|title=Vladimir Putin confirms Russian military involvement in Syria's civil war|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/11845635/Vladimir-Putin-confirms-Russian-military-involvement-in-Syrias-civil-war.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/11845635/Vladimir-Putin-confirms-Russian-military-involvement-in-Syrias-civil-war.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=14 January 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Naylor|first=Hugh|date=4 September 2015|title=Putin says Syria's president is ready for elections, compromise|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|location=Beirut|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/putin-says-syrias-president-is-ready-for-elections-compromise-with-rebels/2015/09/04/9dfa818b-92c2-4012-b956-1784189b8ab7_story.html|access-date=11 October 2021|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref name="Borshchevskaya 2022 69–88">{{Cite book |last=Borshchevskaya |first=Anna |title=Putin's War in Syria |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-7556-3463-7 |location=London |pages=69–88 |chapter=6: The Military Campaign }}</ref> Shortly after the start of [[Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War|direct military intervention by Russia]] on 30 September 2015 at the formal request of the Syrian government, Putin stated the military operation had been thoroughly prepared in advance and defined Russia's goal in Syria as "stabilising the legitimate power in Syria and creating the conditions for political compromise".<ref name="goalstabilis">{{cite news |url=http://www.interfax.ru/russia/472593 |script-title=ru:Путин назвал основную задачу российских военных в Сирии |agency=[[Interfax]] |date=11 October 2015 |language=ru |access-date=12 January 2016 |archive-date=21 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221040027/http://www.interfax.ru/russia/472593 |url-status=live }}</ref> Putin's intervention saved the Assad regime at a time when it was on the verge of a looming collapse. It also enabled Moscow to achieve its key geo-strategic objectives such as total control of Syrian airspace, naval bases that granted permanent martial reach across the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] and easier access to intervene in Libya.<ref name="Borshchevskaya 2022 69–88"/> In November 2015, Assad reiterated that a diplomatic process to bring the country's civil war to an end could not begin while it was occupied by "terrorists", although it was considered by [[BBC News]] to be unclear whether he meant only [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIL]] or Western-supported rebels as well.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34867215 |title=Syria crisis: Assad says no transition while 'terrorists' remain |newspaper=BBC News |date=19 November 2015 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=11 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811133244/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34867215 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 22 November, Assad said that within two months of its air campaign Russia had achieved more in its fight against ISIL than the [[American-led intervention in Syria|U.S.-led coalition]] had achieved in a year.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://kommersant.ru/doc/2860324 |script-title=ru:ВКС РФ за два месяца добились большего прогресса в Сирии, чем альянс США за год |trans-title=Russian air force have in two months achieved more progress in Syria that the U.S. alliance in a year |magazine=Kommersant |date=22 November 2015 |access-date=22 November 2015 |language=ru |archive-date=15 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415104020/https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2860324 |url-status=live }}</ref> In an interview with [[Czech Television]] on 1 December, he said that the leaders who demanded his resignation were of no interest to him, as nobody takes them seriously because they are "shallow" and controlled by the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rozhovor s Bašárem Asadem|url=http://www.ceskatelevize.cz/ivysilani/10997918455-mimoradne-porady-ct24/215411034000172-rozhovor-s-basarem-asadem/|website=Czech Television|access-date=1 December 2015|language=cs|archive-date=19 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160119001015/http://www.ceskatelevize.cz/ivysilani/10997918455-mimoradne-porady-ct24/215411034000172-rozhovor-s-basarem-asadem|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |script-title=ru:Асад обвинил Турцию, Саудовскую Аравию и Катар в поддержке террористов в Сирии |url=https://www.newsru.com/world/02dec2015/assad.html |website=newsru.com |language=ru |date=2 December 2015 |access-date=8 September 2019 |archive-date=11 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811163204/https://www.newsru.com/world/02dec2015/assad.html |url-status=live }}</ref> At the end of December 2015, senior U.S. officials privately admitted that Russia had achieved its central goal of stabilising Syria and, with the expenses relatively low, could sustain the operation at this level for years to come.<ref name="reutersstabilis">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-russia-syria-idUSKBN0UB0BA20151229 |title=U.S. sees bearable costs, key goals met for Russia in Syria so far |work=Reuters |date=28 December 2015 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=15 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415104043/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-russia-syria-idUSKBN0UB0BA20151229 |url-status=live }}</ref> In December 2015, Putin stated that Russia was supporting Assad's forces and was ready to back anti-Assad rebels in a joint fight against IS.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/putin-claims-support-to-syrian-rebels/a-18913306|title=Putin claims support to Syrian rebels|work=[[DW News]]|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]|date=11 December 2015|access-date=19 November 2022|archive-date=8 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408032500/https://amp.dw.com/en/putin-claims-support-to-syrian-rebels/a-18913306|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Syrian President Bashar al-Assad meets Iran's special representative on Syrian affairs Ali Akbar Velayati.jpg|thumb|Bashar al-Assad meets with Iran's representative on Syrian affairs, [[Ali Akbar Velayati]], 6 May 2016.]] On 22 January 2016, the ''[[Financial Times]]'', citing anonymous "senior western intelligence officials", claimed that Russian general [[Igor Sergun]], the director of [[GRU (Russian Federation)|GRU]], the Main Intelligence Directorate of the General Staff of the [[Armed Forces of the Russian Federation]], had shortly before his sudden death on 3 January 2016 been sent to Damascus with a message from Vladimir Putin asking that President Assad step aside.<ref name="ftresign">{{cite web |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/735b4746-c01f-11e5-9fdb-87b8d15baec2.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/735b4746-c01f-11e5-9fdb-87b8d15baec2.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |title=Vladimir Putin asked Bashar al-Assad to step down |newspaper=Financial Times |date=22 January 2016 |access-date=22 January 2016}}</ref> The ''Financial Times''' report was denied by Putin's spokesman.<ref>{{Cite web|date=22 January 2016|title=Putin Requested Assad Step Aside, But Syrian Leader Refused|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2016/01/22/putin-requested-assad-step-aside-but-syrian-leader-refused-a51558|access-date=11 October 2021|website=[[The Moscow Times]]|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029174859/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2016/01/22/putin-requested-assad-step-aside-but-syrian-leader-refused-a51558|url-status=live}}</ref> It was reported in December 2016 that Assad's forces had retaken half of rebel-held [[Aleppo]], ending a 6-year stalemate in the city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2016/12/03/Assads-forces-retake-half-of-rebel-held-Aleppo/3411480810004/ |first=Eric |last=DuVall |title=Assad's forces retake half of rebel-held Aleppo |work=[[United Press International]] |date=3 December 2016 |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-date=11 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211201105/http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2016/12/03/Assads-forces-retake-half-of-rebel-held-Aleppo/3411480810004/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-38194136|title=Aleppo siege: Syria rebels lose 50% of territory|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=3 December 2016|access-date=21 June 2018|archive-date=13 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413140020/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-38194136|url-status=live}}</ref> On 15 December, as it was reported government forces were on the brink of retaking all of Aleppo{{snd}}a "turning point" in the civil war, Assad celebrated the "liberation" of the city, and stated, "History is being written by every Syrian citizen."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fox6now.com/2016/12/17/evacuation-agreement-reached-in-aleppo-rebel-group-says/ |title=Evacuation agreement reached in Aleppo, rebel group says|website=Fox 6 Now|publisher=Fox News|date=17 December 2016 |access-date=21 December 2016 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220125836/http://fox6now.com/2016/12/17/evacuation-agreement-reached-in-aleppo-rebel-group-says/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> After the election of [[Donald Trump]], the priority of the U.S. concerning Assad was unlike the priority of the [[Presidency of Barack Obama#Syrian civil war|Obama administration]], and in March 2017, [[United States Ambassador to the United Nations|U.S. Ambassador to the UN]] [[Nikki Haley]] stated the U.S. was no longer focused on "getting Assad out",<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. priority on Syria no longer focused on "getting Assad out": Haley |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-usa-haley-idUSKBN1712QL |work=Reuters |date=30 March 2017 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=2 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502174900/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-usa-haley-idUSKBN1712QL |url-status=live }}</ref> but this position changed in the wake of the [[2017 Khan Shaykhun chemical attack]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.axios.com/tillerson-u-s-will-lead-coalition-to-oust-assad-2348075513.html |title=Tillerson: U.S. will lead coalition to oust Assad |first=Alayna |last=Treene |date=6 April 2017 |access-date=7 April 2017 |archive-date=23 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023192349/https://www.axios.com/tillerson-u-s-will-lead-coalition-to-oust-assad-2348075513.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Following the [[2017 Shayrat missile strike|missile strikes on a Syrian airbase]] on the orders of President Trump, Assad's spokesperson described the U.S.' behaviour as "unjust and arrogant aggression" and stated that the missile strikes "do not change the deep policies" of the Syrian government.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Syria's Assad Calls U.S. Airstrikes an Outrageous Act |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2017-04-07/syrias-assad-calls-us-airstrikes-an-outrageous-act |magazine=U.S. News & World Report |access-date=7 April 2017 |archive-date=24 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124220516/https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2017-04-07/syrias-assad-calls-us-airstrikes-an-outrageous-act |url-status=live }}</ref> President Assad also told the [[Agence France-Presse]] that Syria's military had given up all its chemical weapons in 2013, and would not have used them if they still retained any, and stated that the chemical attack was a "100 percent fabrication" used to justify a U.S. airstrike.<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad says Idlib chemical attack 'fabrication': AFP interview |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-assad-idUSKBN17F1NE |work=Reuters |date=13 April 2017 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=7 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207132915/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-assad-idUSKBN17F1NE |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2017, Russian President Putin said "Assad didn't use the [chemical weapons]" and that the chemical attack was "done by people who wanted to blame him for that."<ref>{{cite web |title=Putin: Syria chemical attack was provocation against Assad |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News United States]]|publisher=[[American Broadcasting Company]]|date=2 June 2017 |first1=Ian |last1=Phillips |first2=Vladimir |last2=Isachenkov |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/putin-syria-chemical-attack-provocation-assad-47790720 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170602223827/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/putin-syria-chemical-attack-provocation-assad-47790720 |archive-date=2 June 2017}}</ref> UN and international chemical weapons inspectors from the [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]] (OPCW) found the attack was the work of the Assad regime.<ref name="CNN sarin report"/> [[File:Vladimir Putin visited Khmeimim Air Base in Syria (2017-12-11) 41.jpg|thumb|Assad and Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] at the [[Khmeimim Air Base]] in Syria, 11 December 2017]] On 7 November 2017, the Syrian government announced that it had signed the [[Paris Climate Agreement]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/07/climate/syria-joins-paris-agreement.html|title=Syria Joins Paris Climate Accord, Leaving Only U.S. Opposed|last=Friedman|first=Lisa|date=7 November 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=12 December 2017|archive-date=13 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413160706/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/07/climate/syria-joins-paris-agreement.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2018, it recognized the independence of Russian-occupied separatist republics of [[Abkhazia|Abhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]] in Georgia, leading to backlash from the [[European Union]], [[United States]], [[Canada]] and other countries.<ref name="Deutsche Welle">{{Cite news |date=30 May 2018 |title=Syria recognizes Georgia's breakaway regions |work=[[Deutsche Welle]] |url=https://www.dw.com/en/syria-recognizes-georgias-breakaway-regions-in-nod-to-russia/a-43988153 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530092144/https://www.dw.com/en/syria-recognizes-georgias-breakaway-regions-in-nod-to-russia/a-43988153 |archive-date=30 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 May 2018 |title=Georgia Severs Relations With Syria For Recognizing Abkhazia, South Ossetia |work=rferl.org |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530034717/https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |archive-date=30 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2018 |title=Canada concerned by Syria's recognition of Georgian breakaway regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/global-affairs/news/2018/06/canada-concerned-by-syrias-recognition-of-georgian-breakaway-regions-of-abkhazia-and-south-ossetia.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180605131719/https://www.canada.ca/en/global-affairs/news/2018/06/canada-concerned-by-syrias-recognition-of-georgian-breakaway-regions-of-abkhazia-and-south-ossetia.html |archive-date=5 June 2018 |website=Government of Canada}}</ref> On 30 August 2020, the [[First Hussein Arnous government]] was formed, which included a new [[Council of Ministers (Syria)|Council of Ministers]].<ref>{{Cite web|agency=AFP|date=30 August 2020|title=Syria's Assad designates new government headed by PM Arnous|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/world/syrian-crisis/syrias-assad-designates-new-government-headed-by-pm-arnous|access-date=8 March 2021|website=Daily Sabah|archive-date=30 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200830231314/https://www.dailysabah.com/world/syrian-crisis/syrias-assad-designates-new-government-headed-by-pm-arnous|url-status=live}}</ref> In the [[2021 Syrian presidential election|2021 presidential elections]] held on 26 May, Assad secured his fourth 7-year tenure; by winning 95.2% of the eligible votes. The elections were boycotted by the [[Syrian opposition|opposition]] and [[Syrian Democratic Forces|SDF]]; while the refugees and internally displaced citizens were disqualified to vote; enabling only 38% of Syrians to participate in the process. Independent international observers as well as representatives of Western countries described the elections as a farce. [[United Nations]] condemned the elections for directly violating Resolution 2254; and announced that it has "no mandate".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kossaify |first=Ephrem |date=22 April 2021 |title=UN reiterates it is not involved in Syrian presidential election |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/%7B%7B |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425141450/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/middle-east |archive-date=25 April 2021 |website=Arab News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Walker |first=Nigel |date=9 June 2021 |title=Syria: 2021 presidential election and future prospects |url=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-9250/CBP-9250.pdf |journal=House of Commons Library |pages=4–15 |via=UK Parliament |access-date=4 January 2023 |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815074550/https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-9250/CBP-9250.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=28 May 2021 |title=Syria's Assad wins 4th term with 95% of vote, in election the West calls fraudulent |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-president-bashar-al-assad-wins-fourth-term-office-with-951-votes-live-2021-05-27/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127122709/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-president-bashar-al-assad-wins-fourth-term-office-with-951-votes-live-2021-05-27/ |archive-date=27 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Syria Events of 2021 |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103070540/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/syria |archive-date=3 January 2023 |website=Human Rights Watch|date=14 December 2021 }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite news |last=Lister |first=Charles |date=10 May 2021 |title=US policy in Syria in 2021 |work=Asharq al-Awsat |url=https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/2965846/charles-lister/us-policy-syria-2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813233750/https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/2965846/charles-lister/us-policy-syria-2021 |archive-date=13 August 2022}}</ref> [[File:RaisiAssad2023.jpg|thumb|Assad with Iranian President [[Ebrahim Raisi]] in Damascus, 3 May 2023]] On 10 August 2021, the [[Second Hussein Arnous government]] was formed.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1 August 2021|title=Syria's Assad asks PM Arnous to form new cabinet|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-asks-pm-hussein-arnous-form-new-cabinet-2021-08-01/|access-date=5 October 2021|archive-date=5 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005033010/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-asks-pm-hussein-arnous-form-new-cabinet-2021-08-01/|url-status=live}}</ref> Under Assad, Syria became a strong supporter of the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]] and was one of the five countries that opposed the [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] resolution denouncing the invasion, which called upon Russia to pull back its troops. Three days prior to the invasion, Foreign Minister [[Faisal Mekdad]] was dispatched to Moscow to affirm Syria's recognition of [[Donetsk People's Republic|Donetsk]] and [[Luhansk People's Republic|Luhansk]] separatist republics. A day after the invasion, Bashar al-Assad praised the invasion as "a correction of history and a restoration of balance in the [[International order|global order]] after the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|fall of the Soviet Union]]" in a phone call with [[Vladimir Putin]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Syria's Assad says Russia's Ukraine invasion a 'correction of history' |work=Al-Arabiya News |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2022/02/25/Syria-s-Assad-says-Russia-s-Ukraine-invasion-a-correction-of-history- |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225144651/https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2022/02/25/Syria-s-Assad-says-Russia-s-Ukraine-invasion-a-correction-of-history- |archive-date=25 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 March 2022 |title=General Assembly Overwhelmingly Adopts Resolution Demanding Russian Federation Immediately End Illegal Use of Force in Ukraine, Withdraw All Troops |url=https://press.un.org/en/2022/ga12407.doc.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807161917/https://press.un.org/en/2022/ga12407.doc.htm |archive-date=7 August 2022 |website=United Nations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Makki |first=Danny |date=9 March 2022 |title=Syria's role in Putin's invasion of Ukraine |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/syrias-role-putins-invasion-ukraine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309133840/https://www.mei.edu/publications/syrias-role-putins-invasion-ukraine |archive-date=9 March 2022 |website=Middle East Institute}}</ref> Syria became the first country after Russia to officially recognize the "independence and sovereignty" of the two breakaway regions in June 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 June 2022 |title=Syria to recognize Ukraine's Luhansk and Donetsk regions |work=[[Associated Press]] |url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-middle-east-syria-moscow-c5505e965d7d354b2b1f408385197829 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702012411/https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-middle-east-syria-moscow-c5505e965d7d354b2b1f408385197829 |archive-date=2 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 July 2022 |title=Syria recognizes independence, sovereignty of Donetsk, Luhansk – state news agency |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-recognizes-independence-sovereignty-donetsk-luhansk-state-news-agency-2022-06-29/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703150251/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-recognizes-independence-sovereignty-donetsk-luhansk-state-news-agency-2022-06-29/ |archive-date=3 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 June 2022 |title=Syria first country other than Russia to recognise Ukraine separatist republics of Donetsk and Lugansk |work=WIO News |url=https://www.wionews.com/world/syria-first-country-other-than-russia-to-recognise-ukraine-separatist-republics-of-donetsk-and-lugansk-493080 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220629211244/https://www.wionews.com/world/syria-first-country-other-than-russia-to-recognise-ukraine-separatist-republics-of-donetsk-and-lugansk-493080 |archive-date=29 June 2022}}</ref> On the 12th anniversary of beginning of the protests of [[2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian Revolution]], Bashar al-Assad held a meeting with [[Vladimir Putin]] during an official visit to Russia. In a televised broadcast with Putin, Assad defended Russia's "special military operation" as a war against "[[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazis]] and [[Banderite|old Nazis]]" of Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite news |date=15 March 2023 |title=Assad meets Putin in Moscow as Syrians mark 12 years since anti-regime uprising |work=France 24 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20230315-assad-meets-putin-in-moscow-as-syrians-mark-12-years-since-anti-regime-uprising |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315170723/https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20230315-assad-meets-putin-in-moscow-as-syrians-mark-12-years-since-anti-regime-uprising |archive-date=15 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="rferl.org">{{Cite web |date=19 March 2023 |title=Zelenskiy Announces Sanctions On Hundreds Of Individuals, Including Syrian President, Iranian Drone Makers |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/zelenskiy-ukraine-sanctions-syria-iran/32324885.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319093053/https://www.rferl.org/a/zelenskiy-ukraine-sanctions-syria-iran/32324885.html |archive-date=19 March 2023 |website=rferl.org}}</ref> He recognised the [[Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts|Russian annexation of four Ukrainian oblasts]] and ratified the new Russian borders, claiming that the territories were "historically Russian". Assad also urged Russia to expand its [[Russian military intervention in the Syrian civil war|military presence in Syria]] by establishing new bases and deploying more boots on the ground, making its military role permanent.{{Efn|Sources:<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 March 2023 |title=Assad welcomes new Russian bases in Syria after Putin meeting |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/16/assad-will-welcome-new-russian-military-bases-in-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316094529/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/16/assad-will-welcome-new-russian-military-bases-in-syria |archive-date=16 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author1=Guy Faulconbridge |author2=Caleb Davis |date=16 March 2023 |title=Syria's Assad would like more Russian bases and troops |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-says-would-welcome-more-russian-troops-2023-03-16/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316070448/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-says-would-welcome-more-russian-troops-2023-03-16/ |archive-date=16 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 March 2023 |title=Assad: Syria recognizes Russia's new borders |url=https://www.teletrader.com/assad-syria-recognizes-russia-s-new-borders/news/details/59649372?ts=1679546104895 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323052728/https://www.teletrader.com/assad-syria-recognizes-russia-s-new-borders/news/details/59649372?ts=1679549248213 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |website=teletrader.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=16 March 2023 |title=Assad Welcomes New Russian Bases in Syria, Recognizes Russian Annexations in Ukraine |work=Havana Times |url=https://havanatimes.org/news/assad-welcomes-new-russian-bases-in-syria-recognizes-russian-annexations-in-ukraine/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323053657/https://havanatimes.org/news/assad-welcomes-new-russian-bases-in-syria-recognizes-russian-annexations-in-ukraine/ |archive-date=23 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Minal |date=16 March 2023 |title=Assad Says Syria Recognizes New Russian Borders Following Accession Of New Regions |work=Pakistan Point |url=https://www.pakistanpoint.com/en/story/1659999/assad-says-syria-recognizes-new-russian-borders-followi.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323053926/https://www.pakistanpoint.com/en/story/1659999/assad-says-syria-recognizes-new-russian-borders-followi.html |archive-date=23 March 2023}}</ref>}} [[File:Syrian Civil War map (November 29, 2024).svg|thumb|Military situation before the [[2024 Syrian opposition offensives|opposition offensives]] in late 2024.<br />Territories held by the [[Syrian Democratic Forces|SDF]] (yellow), [[Islamic State|IS]] (grey), the [[Syrian Army]] (red), the [[Syrian National Army|SNA]] and [[Turkey]] (light green), [[Tahrir al-Sham]] (white), the [[Revolutionary Commando Army|SFA]] and the [[United States]] (teal).]] In March 2023, he visited the [[United Arab Emirates]] and met with UAE's President [[Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad in UAE as Second Post-Quake Gulf Visit Signals Growing Arab Outreach |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/syria-s-assad-arrives-in-uae-for-official-visit-/7011966.html |work=VOA News |date=19 March 2023}}</ref> In May 2023, he attended the [[2023 Arab League summit|Arab League summit in Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]], where he was welcomed by Saudi Crown Prince [[Mohammed bin Salman]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad wins warm welcome at Arab summit after years of isolation |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-attend-arab-summit-bringing-regional-isolation-an-end-2023-05-19/ |work=Reuters |date=19 May 2023 |access-date=24 September 2023 |archive-date=20 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020102358/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-attend-arab-summit-bringing-regional-isolation-an-end-2023-05-19/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He met with Egyptian President [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]] and other Arab leaders.<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad shakes hands, kisses cheeks with onetime foes at Arab League summit |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-shakes-hands-kisses-cheeks-with-onetime-foes-arab-league-summit-2023-05-19/ |work=Reuters |date=19 May 2023}}</ref> In September 2023, Assad attended the [[Asian Games]] opening ceremony in [[Hangzhou]] and met with Chinese President [[Xi Jinping]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria's Bashar al Assad and wife laugh and wave at Asian Games opening ceremony amid China talks |url=https://news.sky.com/story/syrias-bashar-al-assad-and-wife-laugh-and-wave-at-asian-games-opening-ceremony-amid-china-talks-12968127 |work=Sky News |date=23 September 2023 |access-date=24 September 2023 |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928010235/https://news.sky.com/story/syrias-bashar-al-assad-and-wife-laugh-and-wave-at-asian-games-opening-ceremony-amid-china-talks-12968127 |url-status=live }}</ref> They announced the establishment of a China–Syria strategic partnership.<ref>{{cite news |title=Leaders of Syria and China announce strategic partnership as part of Asian Games diplomacy |url=https://apnews.com/article/china-syria-asian-games-diplomacy-assad-xi-cce801eaa586fe5db82d28df79b0f91f |work=Associated Press |date=22 September 2022 |access-date=24 September 2023 |archive-date=8 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108022849/https://apnews.com/article/china-syria-asian-games-diplomacy-assad-xi-cce801eaa586fe5db82d28df79b0f91f |url-status=live }}</ref> In November 2023, Assad attended the [[2023 Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit|Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit]] in Riyadh.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/saudi-arabia-host-extraordinary-joint-islamic-arab-summit-riyadh-saturday-2023-11-10/|title=Arab and Muslim leaders call for immediate end to Gaza war|publisher=[[Reuters]]|date=11 November 2023|author=Aziz El Yaakoubi, Nayera Abdallah}}</ref> In May 2024, he attended the Arab League summit in [[Bahrain]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2024/05/assad-sisi-gulf-leaders-bahrain-arab-league-summit-gaza-war-rages|title=Assad, Sisi, Gulf leaders in Bahrain for Arab League summit as Gaza war rages|date=16 May 2024|publisher=Al Monitor}}</ref> === Rebel offensive, regime collapse and exile in Russia (2024) === {{See also|2024 Syrian opposition offensives|Fall of the Assad regime}} [[File:Northwestern Syria offensive (2024).jpg|thumb|right|[[2024 Syrian opposition offensives|Syrian opposition offensives]] that overthrew Assad's regime in 11 days]] In December 2024, the United States, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom urged for de-escalation in Syria as violence flared up once again. Rebel factions, led by the Islamist group [[Tahrir al-Sham|Hayat Tahrir al-Sham]] (HTS), had [[Battle of Aleppo (2024)|taken control of Aleppo]], prompting a retaliatory airstrike campaign by President Assad and his Russian allies. The strikes, which targeted population centers and several hospitals in the [[Insurgency in Idlib|rebel-held]] city of [[Idlib]], resulted in at least 25 deaths, according to the [[White Helmets (Syrian civil war)|White Helmets]] rescue group. [[NATO]] countries issued a joint statement calling for the protection of civilians and critical infrastructure to prevent further displacement and ensure humanitarian access. They stressed the urgent need for a Syrian-led political solution, in accordance with [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 2254]], which advocates for dialogue between the Syrian government and opposition forces. The [[2024 Syrian opposition offensives|rebel offensive]], which had begun on 27 November 2024, continued its [[2024 Hama offensive|advance into Hama Governorate]] following their capture of Aleppo.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria: US, Germany, France, UK call for de-escalation |date=2 December 2024 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/syria-us-germany-france-uk-call-for-de-escalation/a-70933512 |website=DW News |access-date=2 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=4 December 2024 |title=Fighting Worsens Already Dire Conditions in Northwestern Syria |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/12/03/world/middleeast/syria-civil-war-rebels-aleppo.html |website=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Syrian hospital hit in air attack on opposition-held Idlib |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/program/newsfeed/2024/12/3/syrian-hospital-hit-in-air-attack-on-opposition-held-idlib |access-date=5 December 2024 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref> On 4 December 2024, fierce clashes erupted in [[Hama Governorate]] as the Syrian army engaged Islamist-led insurgents in a bid to halt their advance on the key city of [[Hama]]. Government forces claimed to have launched a counteroffensive with air support, pushing back rebel factions, including Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), around six miles from the city. However, despite reinforcements, the rebels captured the city on 5 December.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Syria rebels capture major city of Hama after military withdraws |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cql5r2px4yyo |access-date=5 December 2024 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> The fighting led to widespread displacement, with nearly 50,000 people fleeing the area and over 600 casualties reported, including 104 civilians.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian army launches counterattack as rebels push towards Hama |date=4 December 2024 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20241204-syrian-army-launches-counterattack-as-rebels-push-towards-hama |website=France24 |access-date=4 December 2024}}</ref> On 6 December, rebels began encircling the capital Damascus.<ref>{{cite news |date=7 December 2024 |title=Syrian rebels seize Damascus, ending decades of brutal Assad dynasty rule |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/syrian-rebels-control-south-approaching-damascus |access-date=10 December 2024 |publisher=[[Middle East Eye]]}}</ref> On 7 December, Assad fled the city just before [[Fall of Damascus|its fall to the rebels]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Syrian army command tells officers that Assad's rule has ended, officer says |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-celebrate-captured-homs-set-sights-damascus-2024-12-07/ |website=Reuters |access-date=8 December 2024}}</ref> ending 54 years of the Assad family's rule.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/article/syria-bashar-assad-war-1468a97ff95bb782f5933856d99c9a8d|work=Associated Press News|title=The fall of Bashar Assad after 13 years of war in Syria brings to an end a decades-long dynasty|date=8 December 2024|author=Zeina Karam & Abby Sewell}}</ref> The Russian government said that Assad had "stepped down" as president following a personal decision and had left Syria.<ref>{{cite web |title=Where is Bashar al-Assad? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cqx89reeevgo |website=BBC |access-date=8 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=10 December 2024 |title=Assad Chose to Resign From Syrian Presidency, Kremlin Says |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/12/10/assad-chose-to-resign-from-syrian-presidency-kremlin-says-a87282 |access-date=10 December 2024 |publisher=[[The Moscow Times]]}}</ref> [[Interfax]], quoting an unnamed source at the [[Kremlin]], said that Assad and his family had arrived in Moscow and that the Russian government had granted them [[Political asylum|asylum]] "on humanitarian grounds."<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last1=Gebeily |first1=Maya |last2=Azhari |first2=Timour |date=8 December 2024 |title=Syria's Assad and his family are in Moscow after Russia granted them asylum, say Russian news agencies |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-his-family-are-moscow-after-russia-granted-them-asylum-say-russian-2024-12-08/ |access-date=8 December 2024 |website=Reuters}}</ref> == Controversies == === Corruption === {{Main|Corruption in Syria}} {{See also|Economy of Syria}} At the onset of the [[Syrian Revolution of Dignity|Syrian revolution]], corruption in Syria was endemic, and the country was ranked 129th in the 2011 [[Corruption Perceptions Index]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2011|title=2011 – CPI|year=2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002112428/https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2011|archive-date=2 October 2020|website=Transparency.org}}</ref> Since the 1970s, Syria's economy has been dominated by the patronage networks of Ba'ath party elites and [[Alawite]] loyalists of the Assad family, who established control over Syria's public sectors based on kinship and nepotism. The pervasive nature of corruption had been a source of controversy within the Ba'ath party circles and the wider public; as early as the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=M. Sadowski |first=Yahya |date=1987 |title=Patronage and the Ba'th: Corruption and Control in Contemporary Syria |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41857946 |journal=Arab Studies Quarterly |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=442–461 |jstor=41857946 }}</ref> Bashar al-Assad's economic liberalization program during the 2000s became a symbol of corruption and nepotism, as the scheme's beneficiaries were Alawite loyalists who seized a significant portion of the privatized sectors and business assets. The government's actions alienated the vast majority of the Syrian public, particularly the rural and urban working classes, who strongly disliked the resulting economic disparities that became overtly visible.<ref name="Allam, Saber 2019 26–27"/><ref name="France 24">{{Cite news|date=9 July 2020|title=Assad's 20-year rule, from Damascus Spring to pariah|work=France 24|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20200609-assad-s-20-year-rule-from-damascus-spring-to-pariah|access-date=21 May 2023|archive-date=14 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514182340/https://www.france24.com/en/20200609-assad-s-20-year-rule-from-damascus-spring-to-pariah|url-status=live}}</ref> Assad's cousin [[Rami Makhlouf]] was the regime's most favored oligarch during this period, marked by the institutionalization of corruption, handicapping of small businesses and casting down private [[entrepreneurship]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 July 2012 |title=Bashar al-Assad's inner circle |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13216195 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327062345/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13216195 |archive-date=27 March 2022}}</ref> The persistence of corruption, sectarian bias towards Alawites, nepotism and widespread bribery that existed in party, bureaucracy and military led to popular anger that resulted in the eruption of the 2011 Syrian Revolution. The protests were the most fierce in working-class neighbourhoods, which had long bore the brunt of the regime's exploitation policies that privileged its own loyalists.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gersh |first=Nick |date=6 February 2017 |title=The Role of Corruption in the Syrian Civil War |url=https://globalanticorruptionblog.com/2017/02/06/the-role-of-corruption-in-the-syrian-civil-war/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219152118/https://globalanticorruptionblog.com/2017/02/06/the-role-of-corruption-in-the-syrian-civil-war/ |archive-date=19 February 2017 |website=GAB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2=Salah Saber |title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=26–27}}</ref> According to [[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]], as a result of the Syrian civil war, "government-controlled Syria is truncated in size, battered and impoverished."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/assads-syria-truncated-battered-defiant-26633429 |title=Assad's Syria Truncated, Battered, but Defiant |work=Abc News |first=Diaa |last=Hadid |date=2 November 2014 |access-date=2 November 2014 |archive-date=2 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102205346/http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/assads-syria-truncated-battered-defiant-26633429 |url-status=live }}</ref> Economic sanctions (the [[Syria Accountability Act]]) were applied long before the Syrian civil war by the U.S. and were joined by the EU at the outbreak of the civil war, causing disintegration of the Syrian economy.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17088270 |title=Syria 'disintegrating under crippling sanctions' |work=BBC News |date=19 February 2012 |access-date=2 November 2014 |archive-date=15 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150515091458/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17088270 |url-status=live }}</ref> These sanctions were reinforced in October 2014 by the EU and U.S.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-eu-idUSKCN0IA1AF20141021 |title=EU targets ministers, UAE firm in latest Syria sanctions |work=Reuters |first=Adrian |last=Croft |date=21 October 2014 |access-date=2 November 2014 |archive-date=7 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007014415/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/21/us-mideast-crisis-syria-eu-idUSKCN0IA1AF20141021 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2014/10/16/treasury-syrian-sanctions-qusay-mihoub/17354081/ |title=Tightened sanctions target Syrian human rights abuses |work=USA Today |first=Gregory |last=Korte |date=16 October 2014 |access-date=9 November 2014 |archive-date=11 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811132431/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2014/10/16/treasury-syrian-sanctions-qusay-mihoub/17354081/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Industry in parts of the country that are still held by the government is heavily state-controlled, with [[economic liberalisation]] being reversed during the current conflict.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-economy-socialist-idUSBRE8630FA20120704 |title=Syria reverts to socialist economic policies to ease tension |first1=Suleiman |last1=Al-Khalidi |work=Reuters |date=4 July 2012 |access-date=19 October 2014 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020124949/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/07/04/us-syria-economy-socialist-idUSBRE8630FA20120704 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[London School of Economics]] has stated that as a result of the Syrian civil war, a [[war economy]] has developed in Syria.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKCN0IU10Z20141110?irpc=932 |title=Local ceasefires best way to ease Syrians' suffering: researchers |work=Reuters |date=10 November 2014 |access-date=10 November 2014 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308161119/https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKCN0IU10Z20141110?irpc=932 |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2014 [[European Council on Foreign Relations]] report also stated that a war economy has formed: {{blockquote|Three years into a conflict that is estimated to have killed at least 140,000 people from both sides, much of the Syrian economy lies in ruins. As the violence has expanded and sanctions have been imposed, assets and infrastructure have been destroyed, economic output has fallen, and investors have fled the country. Unemployment now exceeds 50 percent and half of the population lives below the poverty line ... against this backdrop, a war economy is emerging that is creating significant new economic networks and business activities that feed off the violence, chaos, and lawlessness gripping the country. This war economy – to which Western sanctions have inadvertently contributed – is creating incentives for some Syrians to prolong the conflict and making it harder to end it.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ecfr.eu/page/-/ECFR97_SYRIA_BRIEF_AW.pdf |title=Syria's War Economy |first1=Jihad |last1=Yazigi |publisher=European Council on Foreign Relations |date=7 April 2014 |access-date=19 October 2014 |archive-date=9 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009205851/http://www.ecfr.eu/page/-/ECFR97_SYRIA_BRIEF_AW.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>}} A [[United Nations|UN]] commissioned report by the Syrian Centre for Policy Research states that two-thirds of the Syrian population now lives in "extreme poverty".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-economy-idUSKBN0E81WL20140528 |title=Syria's economy heads into ruin: U.N. sponsored report |first1=Suleiman |last1=Al-Khalidi |work=Reuters |date=28 May 2014 |access-date=19 October 2014 |archive-date=24 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824204400/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/05/28/us-syria-economy-idUSKBN0E81WL20140528 |url-status=live }}</ref> Unemployment stands at 50 percent.<ref name="SurvivalMode">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-regime-cuts-subsidies-focuses-ailing-economy-on-war-effort/2014/11/29/5f830894-719c-11e4-a2c2-478179fd0489_story.html |title=Syria's Assad regime cuts subsidies, focuses ailing economy on war effort |newspaper=The Washington Post |first1=Hugh |last1=Naylor |date=29 November 2014 |access-date=6 December 2014 |archive-date=3 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103114216/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-regime-cuts-subsidies-focuses-ailing-economy-on-war-effort/2014/11/29/5f830894-719c-11e4-a2c2-478179fd0489_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In October 2014, a $50 million mall opened in [[Tartus]] which provoked criticism from government supporters and was seen as part of an Assad government policy of attempting to project a sense of normalcy throughout the civil war.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Oct-17/274357-glitzy-mall-sparks-anger-from-assad-backers.ashx |title=Glitzy mall sparks anger from Assad backers |first1=Rita |last1=Daou |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=17 October 2014 |access-date=19 October 2014 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022183913/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Oct-17/274357-glitzy-mall-sparks-anger-from-assad-backers.ashx |url-status=dead }}</ref> A government policy to give preference to families of slain soldiers for government jobs was cancelled after it caused an uproar<ref name="BurySons"/> while rising accusations of corruption caused protests.<ref name="AlawitesVoice"/> In December 2014, the EU banned sales of jet fuel to the Assad government, forcing the government to buy more expensive uninsured jet fuel shipments in the future.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11290437/EU-tries-to-ground-Bashar-al-Assads-warplanes-by-banning-fuel-supplies.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11290437/EU-tries-to-ground-Bashar-al-Assads-warplanes-by-banning-fuel-supplies.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=EU tries to ground Bashar al-Assad's warplanes by banning fuel supplies |work=The Telegraph |first1=David |last1=Blair |date=12 December 2014 |access-date=13 December 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Taking advantage of the increased role of the state as a result of the civil war, Bashar and his wife Asma have begun annexing Syria's economic assets from their loyalists, seeking to displace the old business elites and monopolize their direct control of the economy. [[Maher al-Assad]], the brother of Bashar, has also become wealthy by overseeing the operations of Syria's state-sponsored [[captagon]] drug industry and seizing much of the spoils of war. The ruling couple currently owns vast swathes of Syria's shipping, real estate, telecommunications and banking sectors.<ref>{{Cite news |date=15 November 2022 |title=Changes to Syria's Business Elite Concentrates Wealth in Hands of Presidential Couple |work=The Syria Report |url=https://syria-report.com/analysis-changes-to-syrias-business-elite-concentrates-wealth-in-hands-of-presidential-couple-open-access/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202222632/https://syria-report.com/analysis-changes-to-syrias-business-elite-concentrates-wealth-in-hands-of-presidential-couple-open-access/ |archive-date=2 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author1=Chloe Cornish |author2=Asser Khattab |date=25 July 2019 |title=Syria's Assad puts pressure on business elite |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/a7a75e4c-a95d-11e9-984c-fac8325aaa04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727060100/https://www.ft.com/content/a7a75e4c-a95d-11e9-984c-fac8325aaa04 |archive-date=27 July 2019}}</ref> Significant changes have been happening to Syrian economy since the government's confiscation campaigns launched in 2019, which involved major economic assets being transferred to the Presidential couple to project their power and influence. Particularly noteworthy dynamic has been the rise of [[Asma al-Assad]], who heads Syria's clandestine economic council and is thought to have become "a central funnel of economic power in Syria". Through her Syria Trust NGO, the backbone of her financial network, Asma vets the foreign aid coming to Syria; since the government authorizes UN organizations only if it works under state agencies.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jalabi |first=Raya |date=2023 |title=Syria's state capture: the rising influence of Mrs Assad |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/a51c6227-0c93-4fe1-aca7-25783a43708f |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405013209/https://www-ft-com.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/content/a51c6227-0c93-4fe1-aca7-25783a43708f |archive-date=5 April 2023}}</ref> Corruption has been rising sporadically in recent years, with Syria being considered the most corrupt country in the [[Arab World]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=31 January 2023 |title=Middle East corruption rankings: Syria most corrupt, UAE least, Turkey slipped |work=Al-Monitor |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/01/middle-east-corruption-rankings-syria-most-corrupt-uae-least-turkey-slipped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203201215/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/01/middle-east-corruption-rankings-syria-most-corrupt-uae-least-turkey-slipped |archive-date=3 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=31 January 2023 |title=Syria, Yemen and Libya among 'lowest in the world' for corruption perceptions |work=The New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-yemen-and-libya-rank-among-lowest-corruption-index?amp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208070207/https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-yemen-and-libya-rank-among-lowest-corruption-index?amp |archive-date=8 February 2023}}</ref> As of 2022, Syria is the ranked second worst globally in the [[Corruption Perceptions Index]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title= Corruption Perceptions Index |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204001659/https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2022 |archive-date=4 February 2023 |website=[[Transparency International]]}}</ref> === Sectarianism === {{See also|Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian civil war}} Hafez al-Assad's government was widely counted amongst the most repressive Arab [[dictatorship]]s of the 20th century. As Bashar inherited his father's mantle, he sought to implement "authoritarian upgrading" by purging those from his father's generation and staffing the party and military with loyalist Alawite officers, further entrenching the sectarianism within the system.<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2=Salah Saber |title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=27–30 |chapter=The domestic structure of the regime |quote=Because he lacks his father's leadership skills... Bashar may settle for consensus among his junta of Alawi officers... When Bashar assumed office he attempted to consolidate power through 'authoritarian upgrading'.. However, the conservative military establishment and senior members of the regime were not favorable to Bashar's reforms, which forced Bashar to retire such senior personnel in order to further consolidate his power. But Bashar struggled to appoint new and loyal staff, his Ba'athist regime became increasingly like a sectarian family clan}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{Cite news |last=Ker-Lindsay |first=James |date=27 April 2023 |title=Is Syria No Longer a Pariah State? |work=World Politics Review |url=https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/syria-pariah-state/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602100607/https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/syria-pariah-state/ |archive-date=2 June 2023}}</ref> While officially the Ba'athist government adheres to a strict secularist doctrine, in practice it has implemented sectarian engineering policies in the society to suppress dissent and monopolize its absolute power.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |title=Flight of Icarus? The PYD's Precarious Rise in Syria |publisher=International Crisis Group |date=8 May 2014 |access-date=4 October 2014 |page=23 |quote=The regime aims to compel people to take refuge in their sectarian and communitarian identities; to split each community into competing branches, dividing those who support it from those who oppose it |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220181554/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> {{quote box|"During Hafez-al-Assad's reign, he resorted to emphasising the sectarian identities that the previous [[Ba'ath Party]] rejected; believing the only way to ensure stability was through building a trusted security force... Hafez pursued a strategy to "make the Alawite community a loyal monolith while keeping Syria's Sunni majority divided". Yet Syria became a [[police state]], enforcing stability through threat of brute force repression... Bashar had already followed in his father's footsteps, carefully manoeuvring his most loyal allies into the military-security apparatus, government ministries and the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'ath party]]." | source = — Antonia Robson<ref name="Robson">{{Cite web |date=3 May 2021 |last=Robson| first=Antonia |title=The Mobilisation of Sectarian Identities in the Syrian Civil War |url=https://www.e-ir.info/2021/05/03/the-mobilisation-of-sectarian-identities-in-the-syrian-civil-war/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130180133/https://www.e-ir.info/2021/05/03/the-mobilisation-of-sectarian-identities-in-the-syrian-civil-war/ |archive-date=30 November 2022 |website=E-International Relations}}</ref> | align = right | width = 25em }} The regime has attempted to portray itself to the outside world as "the protector of minorities" and instills the fear of the majority rule in the society to mobilize loyalists from minorities.<ref name="NPR_APRIL_2015">{{cite web |last=Meuse |first=Alison |date=18 April 2015 |title=Syria's Minorities: Caught Between Sword Of ISIS And Wrath of Assad |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2015/04/18/400360836/syrias-minorities-caught-between-sword-of-isis-and-wrath-of-assad |access-date=19 April 2015 |publisher=NPR |quote=Karim Bitar, a Middle East analyst at Paris think tank IRIS [...] says [...] 'Minorities are often used as a shield by authoritarian regimes, who try to portray themselves as protectors and as a bulwark' |archive-date=19 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150419125016/http://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2015/04/18/400360836/syrias-minorities-caught-between-sword-of-isis-and-wrath-of-assad |url-status=live }}</ref> Assad loyalist figures like [[Michel Samaha]] have advocated sectarian mobilization to defend the regime from what he labelled as the "sea of [[Sunnis]]". Assad regime has unleashed sectarian violence through private Alawite militias like the ''[[Shabiha]]'', particularly in Sunni areas. Alawite religious iconography and communal sentiments are common themes used by [[Alawites|Alawite]] warrior-shaykhs who lead the Alawite militias; as justification to commit massacres, abductions and torture in opposition strongholds.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ümit Üngör|first=Uğur |date=9 February 2022 |title=The Specter of Sectarian Violence in Syria |url=https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/the-specter-of-sectarian-violence-in-syria/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704031407/https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/the-specter-of-sectarian-violence-in-syria/ |archive-date=4 July 2022 |access-date=19 April 2015 |publisher=NPR}}</ref> Various development policies adopted by the regime had followed a sectarian pattern. An urbanization scheme implemented by the government in the city of Homs led to expulsions of thousands of Sunni residents during the 2000s, while Alawite majority areas were left intact.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2016 |last=Hokayem| first=Emile|title=Assad or We Burn the Country|url=https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323074045/https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-date=23 March 2022 |website=War on the rocks}}</ref> Even as [[Syrian Ba'athism]] absorbed diverse communal identities into the homogenous unifying discourse of the state; socio-political power became monopolized by Alawite loyalists. Despite officially adhering to non-confessionalism, [[Syrian Armed Forces]] have also been institutionally sectarianized. While the conscripts and lower-ranks are overwhelmingly non-Alawite, the higher ranks are packed by Alawite loyalists who effectively control the logistics and security policy. Elite units of the Syrian military such as the [[Tiger Forces]], [[Republican Guard (Syria)|Republican Guard]], [[4th Armoured Division (Syria)|4th Armoured Division]], etc. regarded by the government as crucial for its survival; are composed mostly of Alawites. Sunni officers are under constant surveillance by the secret police, with most of them being assigned with Alawite assistants who monitor their movements. Pro-regime [[paramilitary]] groups such as the [[National Defense Force (Syria)|National Defense Force]] are also organized around sectarian loyalty to the Ba'athist government. During the [[2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian Revolution]] uprisings, the [[Ba'athist Syria|Ba'athist government]] deployed a securitization strategy that depended on sectarian mobilization, unleashing violence on protestors and extensive crackdowns across the country, prompting opposition groups to turn to armed revolt. Syrian society was further sectarianized following the [[Iranian involvement in the Syrian civil war|Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war]], which witnessed numerous [[Khomeinism|Khomeinist]] militant groups sponsored by Iran fight in the side of the Assad government.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2016 |last=Hokayem| first=Emile|title=Assad or We Burn the Country|url=https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323074045/https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-date=23 March 2022 |website=E-International Relations}}</ref><ref name="Robson"/> === Human rights === {{See also|Human rights in Syria}} The Ba'athist government has been ruling Syria as a totalitarian state, policing every aspect of Syrian society for decades. Commanders of government's security forces – consisting of [[Syrian Arab Army]], [[secret police]], Ba'athist paramilitaries – directly implement the executive functions of the state, with scant regard for legal processes and [[bureaucracy]]. The surveillance system of the ''[[Mukhabarat]]'' is pervasive, with the total number of agents working for its various branches estimated to be as high as 1:158 ratio with the civilian population. Security services shut down civil society organizations, curtail freedom of movement within the country and bans non-Ba'athist political literature and symbols.<ref name="ifimes.org"/><ref name="Hill">{{Cite news |last=Hill |first=Evan |date=16 July 2010 |title=Syria slammed on human rights |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2010/7/16/syria-slammed-on-human-rights |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521182156/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2010/7/16/syria-slammed-on-human-rights |archive-date=21 May 2023}}</ref> In 2010, [[Human Rights Watch]] published the report "''A Wasted Decade''" documenting repression during Assad's first decade of [[emergency rule]]; marked by arbitrary arrests, censorship and discrimination against [[Kurds in Syria|Syrian Kurds]].<ref name="Hill"/><ref name="hrw.org">{{Cite web |date=16 July 2010 |title=A Wasted Decade: Human Rights in Syria during Bashar al-Asad's First Ten Years in Power |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2010/07/16/wasted-decade/human-rights-syria-during-bashar-al-asads-first-ten-years-power |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713084607/https://www.hrw.org/report/2010/07/16/wasted-decade/human-rights-syria-during-bashar-al-asads-first-ten-years-power |archive-date=13 July 2015 |website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref>[[File:Syria.BasharAlAssad.02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Billboard with a portrait of Bashar al-Assad and the text 'Syria is protected by God' on the [[Damascus#Walls and gates of Damascus|old city wall of Damascus]] in 2006]] Throughout the 2000s, the dreaded ''[[Mukhabarat]]'' agents carried out routine [[Forced abduction|abductions]], [[arbitrary detention]]s and [[torture]] of civilians. Numerous [[show trial]]s were conducted against dissidents, filling Syrian prisons with journalists and human rights activists. Members of Syria's [[General Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|General Intelligence Directorate]] had long enjoyed broad privileges to carry out extrajudicial actions and they have immunity from criminal offences. In 2008, Assad extended this immunity to other departments of security forces.<ref name="hrw.org"/> Human Rights groups, such as [[Human Rights Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]], have detailed how the Assad government's [[secret police]] tortured, imprisoned, and killed political opponents, and those who speak out against the government.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Wasted Decade |url=https://www.hrw.org/en/node/91580/section/4 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |pages=4, 8 |date=16 July 2010 |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-date=16 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416235023/http://www.hrw.org/en/node/91580/section/4 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=2010 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Syria |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,,SYR,,4da56d83a2,0.html |publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |date=8 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019171745/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country%2C%2C%2C%2CSYR%2C%2C4da56d83a2%2C0.html |archive-date=19 October 2012}}</ref> In addition, some 600 Lebanese political prisoners are thought to be held in government prisons since the [[Syrian occupation of Lebanon]], with some held for as long as over 30 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mmedia.me/lb/en/reportsfeatures/565320-syrias-secret-prisoners |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171009185724/https://m.media/Pages/NotFoundPage.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 October 2017 |title=Syria's secret prisoners |publisher=NOW News |last1=Luca |first1=Ana Maria |date=21 May 2015 |access-date=22 May 2015}}</ref> Since 2006, the Assad government has expanded the use of [[Persona non grata|travel bans]] against political dissidents.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/17155868 |title=How Syria controls its dissidents – Banning travel |date=30 September 2010 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=8 March 2011 |archive-date=30 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120830231102/http://www.economist.com/node/17155868 |url-status=live }}</ref><!-- The Syrian [[General Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|General Intelligence Directorate]] is Alawite dominated.{{sfn|Pierret|2013|p=204}}--> In an interview with [[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] in 2007, Assad stated: "We don't have such [things as] political prisoners," though ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported the arrest of 30 Syrian political dissidents who were organising a joint opposition front in December 2007, with 3 members of this group considered to be opposition leaders being remanded in custody.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/14/world/middleeast/14syria.html |work=The New York Times |title=Challenged, Syria Extends Crackdown on Dissent |first=Thanassis |last=Cambanis |date=14 December 2007 |access-date=26 April 2010 |archive-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605051853/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/14/world/middleeast/14syria.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The government also denied permission for human rights organizations and independent NGOs to work in the country.<ref name="hrw.org"/> In 2010, Syria banned [[Veil|face veils]] at universities.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-10684359 |title=Syria bans face veils at universities |newspaper=BBC News |date=19 July 2010 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=5 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405215836/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-10684359 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2010/0720/Veil-ban-Why-Syria-joins-Europe-in-barring-the-niqab |title=Veil ban: Why Syria joins Europe in barring the niqab |journal=The Christian Science Monitor |date=20 July 2010 |access-date=13 November 2014 |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517215400/https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2010/0720/Veil-ban-Why-Syria-joins-Europe-in-barring-the-niqab |url-status=live }}</ref> Following the protests of Syrian Revolution in 2011, Assad partially relaxed the veil ban.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/apr/06/syria-relax-veil-ban-teacher |title=Syria relaxes veil ban for teachers |newspaper=The Guardian |date=6 April 2011 |agency=Associated Press |access-date=14 December 2016 |archive-date=8 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190908080959/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/apr/06/syria-relax-veil-ban-teacher |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:(5)_Montreal_Syrian_solidarity_demonstration_March_27.jpg|thumb|Demonstration in [[Montreal]] in solidarity with the people of Syria. The sign reads: "Stop torture and inhumane treatment of prisoners in Syria!"]] ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'' journal released an editorial on the Syrian situation in the wake of the 2011 protests:<ref name="The Sturdy House That Assad Built">{{cite journal |author=Michael Bröning |date=7 March 2011 |title=The Sturdy House That Assad Built |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67561/michael-broening/the-sturdy-house-that-assad-built |journal=[[Foreign Affairs]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119093700/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2011-03-07/sturdy-house-assad-built |archive-date=19 January 2023}}</ref> {{blockquote|During its decades of rule... the Assad family developed a strong political safety net by firmly integrating the military into the government. In 1970, Hafez al-Assad, Bashar's father, seized power after rising through the ranks of the [[Syrian armed forces]], during which time he established a network of loyal [[Alawites]] by installing them in key posts. In fact, the military, ruling elite, and [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|ruthless secret police]] are so intertwined that it is now impossible to separate the [[Assad regime]] from the security establishment. Bashar al-Assad's threat to use force against protesters would be more plausible than Tunisia's or Egypt's were. So, unlike in Tunisia and Egypt, where a professionally trained military tended to play an independent role, the regime and its loyal forces have been able to deter all but the most resolute and fearless oppositional activists... At the same time, it is significantly different from [[Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1977–2011)|Libya]], where the military, although brutal and loyal to the regime, is a more disorganized group of militant thugs than a trained and disciplined army.}} Between 2011 and 2013; the state security apparatus is believed to have tortured and killed over 10,000 [[civil activist]]s, [[political dissidents]], [[Independent journalists|journalists]], [[Civil defense|civil defense volunteers]] and those accused of treason and terror charges, as part of a campaign of deadly crackdown ordered by Assad.<ref name="Entous, Nissenbaum">{{Cite news |author1=Adam Entous |author2=Dion Nissenbaum |date=25 July 2014 |title=10,000 Bodies: Inside Syrian President Bashar al-Assad's Crackdown |work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/10-000-bodies-inside-syrian-president-bashar-al-assads-crackdown-1406315472 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103162318/https://www.wsj.com/articles/10-000-bodies-inside-syrian-president-bashar-al-assads-crackdown-1406315472 |archive-date=3 January 2023}}</ref> In June 2023, [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] voted in favour of establishing an independent body to investigate the whereabouts of hundreds of thousands of missing civilians who have been forcibly disappeared, killed or languishing in Assad regime's [[Human rights in Syria#Detention Centres|dungeons]] and [[torture chamber]]s. The vote was condemned by Russia, North Korea and Iran.<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 June 2023 |title=UN votes to establish independent body to clarify fate of over 130,000 Syrians missing in conflict |work=The Week |url=https://www.theweek.in/wire-updates/international/2023/06/30/fgn2-un-syria.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630045225/https://www.theweek.in/wire-updates/international/2023/06/30/fgn2-un-syria.amp.html |archive-date=30 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kossaify |first=Ephrem |date=30 June 2023 |title=In milestone decision, UN creates institution for Syria's missing and disappeared |work=Arab News |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/2330286/middle-east |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630045427/https://www.arabnews.com/node/2330286/middle-east |archive-date=30 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=M. Lederer |first=Edith |date=30 June 2023 |title=UN votes to establish independent body to clarify fate of over 130,000 Syrians missing in conflict |work=AP News |url=https://apnews.com/article/un-syria-conflict-missing-people-75ab620d2ab939b54152a3f1ded5a156 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630163007/https://apnews.com/article/un-syria-conflict-missing-people-75ab620d2ab939b54152a3f1ded5a156 |archive-date=30 June 2023}}</ref> In 2023, [[Canada]] and Netherlands [[Canada and the Netherlands v. Syrian Arab Republic|filed a lawsuit against Syria]] at the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ), charging the latter with violating the [[United Nations Convention Against Torture]]. The joint petition accused the Syrian regime of organizing "unimaginable physical and mental pain and suffering" as a strategy to collectively punish the Syrian population.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 June 2023 |title=Joint statement by Canada and the Kingdom of the Netherlands on instituting proceedings at the International Court of Justice to hold Syria to account for torture |url=https://www.government.nl/documents/diplomatic-statements/2023/06/12/joint-statement-by-canada-and-the-netherlands-on-instituting-proceedings-at-the-international-court-of-justice-to-hold-syria-to-account-for-torture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613135748/https://www.government.nl/documents/diplomatic-statements/2023/06/12/joint-statement-by-canada-and-the-netherlands-on-instituting-proceedings-at-the-international-court-of-justice-to-hold-syria-to-account-for-torture |archive-date=13 June 2023 |website=Government of Netherlands}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=12 June 2023 |title=Canada and the Kingdom of the Netherlands jointly institute proceedings against the Syrian Arab Republic and request the Court to indicate provisional measures |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/188/188-20230612-PRE-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613135950/https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/188/188-20230612-PRE-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-date=13 June 2023 |website=International Court of Justice.org |pages=1, 2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2023 |title=Canada and the Kingdom of Netherlands vs. the Syrian Arab Republic |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/188/188-20230608-REQ-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612142054/https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/188/188-20230608-REQ-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-date=12 June 2023 |website=International Court of Justice.org}}</ref> Russia vetoed [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] efforts to prosecute Bashar al-Assad at the International Criminal Court.<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 June 2023 |title=Canada and Netherlands take Syria to ICJ over alleged torture |work=The National |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/2023/06/12/canada-and-netherlands-take-syria-to-icj-over-alleged-torture/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613135519/https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/2023/06/12/canada-and-netherlands-take-syria-to-icj-over-alleged-torture/ |archive-date=13 June 2023}}</ref> === Repression of Kurds === {{Further|Arab Belt|Arabization#Arabization in Syria|Qamishli massacre|label 1=Arab Belt Project|label 2=Arabization in Syria}} [[Ba'athist Syria]] had long banned [[Kurdish language]] in schools and public institutions; and discrimination against [[Syrian Kurds|Kurds]] steadily increased during the rule of Bashar al-Assad. State policy officially suppressed Kurdish culture; with more than 300,000 Syrian Kurds being rendered stateless. Kurdish grievances against state persecution eventually culminated in the [[2004 Qamishli riots|2004 Qamishli Uprisings]], which were crushed down violently after sending Syrian military forces. The ensuing crackdown resulted in the killings of more than 36 Kurds and injuring at least 160 demonstrators. More than 2000 civilians were arrested and tortured in government detention centres. Restrictions on Kurdish activities has been further tightened following the Qamishli massacre, with the [[Assad regime]] virtually banning all Kurdish cultural gatherings and political activism under the charges of "inciting strife" or "weakening national sentiment." During 2005–2010, [[Human Rights Watch]] verified security crackdowns on at least 14 [[Kurdish population|Kurdish]] political and cultural gatherings.<ref name="hrw.org"/><ref name="Hill"/> In March 2008, Syrian military opened fire at a Kurdish gathering in Qamishli that marked Nowruz, killing three and injuring five civilians.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 March 2008 |title=Syria: Investigate Killing of Kurds |work=Human RIghts Watch |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2008/03/23/syria-investigate-killing-kurds |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505183620/https://www.hrw.org/news/2008/03/23/syria-investigate-killing-kurds |archive-date=5 May 2023}}</ref> === Censorship === {{Main|Censorship in Syria|Internet censorship in Syria}} On 22 September 2001, Assad decreed a Press Law that tightened government control over all literature printed or published in Syria; ranging from newspapers to books, pamphlets and periodicals. Publishers, writers, editors, distributors, journalists and other individuals accused of violating the Press Law are imprisoned or fined. Censorship has also been expanded into the [[cyberspace]], and various websites are banned. Numerous bloggers and content creators have been arrested under various "national security" charges.<ref name="hrw.org"/> A 2007 law requires [[internet cafés]] to record all the comments users post on chat forums.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bashar Al-Assad, President, Syria |url=http://en.rsf.org/spip.php?page=predateur&id_article=42411 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716102326/http://en.rsf.org/spip.php?page=predateur&id_article=42411 |archive-date=16 July 2012 |access-date=26 October 2012 |publisher=[[Reporters Without Borders]]}}</ref> Another decree in 2008 obligated internet cafes to keep records of their customers and report them routinely to the police.<ref name="10 Worst Countries to be a Blogger">{{Cite web |date=30 April 2009 |title=10 Worst Countries to be a Blogger |url=https://cpj.org/reports/2009/04/10-worst-countries-to-be-a-blogger/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202201109/https://cpj.org/reports/2009/04/10-worst-countries-to-be-a-blogger/ |archive-date=2 February 2023 |website=Committee to Protect Journalists}}</ref> Websites such as [[Arabic Wikipedia]], [[YouTube]], and [[Facebook]] were [[Internet censorship in Syria|blocked intermittently between 2008 and February 2011]].<ref>{{cite news |date=24 July 2008 |title=Red lines that cannot be crossed – The authorities don't want you to read or see too much |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=http://www.economist.com/node/11792330 |access-date=10 March 2011 |archive-date=11 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511054714/http://www.economist.com/node/11792330 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Jennifer Preston |date=9 February 2011 |title=Syria Restores Access to Facebook and YouTube |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/world/middleeast/10syria.html |access-date=21 February 2017 |archive-date=10 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110210033047/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/world/middleeast/10syria.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Internet Enemies – Syria |url=http://en.rsf.org/internet-enemie-syria,39779.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518055039/http://en.rsf.org/internet-enemie-syria%2C39779.html |archive-date=18 May 2011 |access-date=29 April 2011 |publisher=Reporters Without Borders}}</ref> [[Committee to Protect Journalists]] (CPJ) ranked Syria as the third dangerous country to be an online blogger in 2009. Individuals are arrested based on a wide variety of accusations; ranging from undermining "national unity" to posting or sharing "false" content.<ref name="hrw.org"/><ref name="10 Worst Countries to be a Blogger"/> Syria was ranked as the third most censored country in CPJ's 2012 report. Apart from restrictions for international journalists that prohibit their entry, domestic press is controlled by state agencies that promote Ba'athist ideology. From 2011, the Syrian government has issued a complete [[media blackout]] and foreign correspondents were quickly detained, abducted or tortured. As a result, the outside world is able to know of situations happening inside Syria only through videos of independent civilian journalists. The Assad government has shut down internet coverage, [[Cellular network|mobile networks]] as well as telephone lines in areas under its control to prevent any news that has its attempts to monopolize information related to Syria.<ref>{{cite web |date=2 May 2012 |title=10 Most Censored Countries |url=http://cpj.org/reports/2012/05/10-most-censored-countries.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725103343/http://www.cpj.org/reports/2012/05/10-most-censored-countries.php |archive-date=25 July 2012 |access-date=14 August 2012 |work=Committee to Protect Journalists}}</ref> === Crackdowns, ethnic cleansing, and forced disappearances === {{Further|Casualties of the Syrian civil war|Syrian refugee crisis}} The [[2011 Syrian revolution#Crackdown|crackdown]] ordered by Bashar al-Assad against Syrian protesters was the most ruthless of all military clampdowns in the entire [[Arab Spring]]. As violence deteriorated and death toll mounted to the thousands; the European Union, Arab League and United States began imposing wide range of sanctions against Assad regime. By December 2011, [[United Nations]] had declared the situation in Syria to be a "[[civil war]]".<ref>{{Cite news |author1=Elizabeth A. Kennedy |author2=Frank Jordans |date=2 December 2011 |title=UN: Syria now in a civil war |work=MSNBC |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna45514855 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726024135/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna45514855 |archive-date=26 July 2021}}</ref> By this point, all the protestors and armed [[Resistance movement|resistance]] groups had viewed the unconditional resignation of Bashar al-Assad as part of their core demands. In July 2012, [[Arab League]] held an emergency session demanding the "swift resignation" of Assad and promised "safe exit" if he accepted the offer.<ref>{{cite news |author=Bassem Mroue |date=18 April 2011 |title=Bashar Assad Resignation Called For By Syria Sit-In Activists |work=[[HuffPost]] |agency=Associated Press |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/04/18/bashar-assad-resignation-syria-protest_n_850657.html |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512045222/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/04/18/bashar-assad-resignation-syria-protest_n_850657.html |archive-date=12 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=23 July 2012 |title=Arab League to offer 'safe exit' if Assad resigns |work=CNN|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/07/22/world/meast/syria-unrest |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514043736/http://www.cnn.com/2012/07/22/world/meast/syria-unrest |archive-date=14 May 2013}}</ref> Assad rebuffed the offers, instead seeking foreign military support from Iran and Russia to defend his embattled regime through [[Scorched earth|scorched-earth tactics]], massacres, sieges, forced starvations, ethnic cleansing, etc.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yacoubian |first=Mona |date=1 January 2021 |title=Syria Timeline: Since the Uprising Against Assad |url=https://www.usip.org/syria-timeline-uprising-against-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224072630/https://www.usip.org/syria-timeline-uprising-against-assad |archive-date=24 February 2021 |website=United States Institute of Peace}}</ref> The crackdowns and extermination campaigns of Assad regime resulted in the [[Syrian refugee crisis]]; causing the [[forced displacement]] of 14 million Syrians, with around 7.2 million refugees.<ref name="Syria Refugee Crisis Explained">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2023 |title=Syria Refugee Crisis Explained |url=https://www.unrefugees.org/news/syria-refugee-crisis-explained/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329091756/https://www.unrefugees.org/news/syria-refugee-crisis-explained/ |archive-date=29 March 2023 |website=UNHCR: The UN Refugee Agency}}</ref> This has made the Syrian refugee crisis the largest [[refugee crisis]] in the world; and [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]] High Commissioner [[Filippo Grandi]] has described it as "the biggest humanitarian and refugee crisis of our time and a continuing cause for suffering."<ref name="Syria Refugee Crisis Explained" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Syria Refugee Crisis |url=https://www.unrefugees.org/emergencies/syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518033038/https://www.unrefugees.org/emergencies/syria/ |archive-date=18 May 2023}}</ref> === Ethnic cleansing === [[File:Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg|thumb|Wounded civilians getting rushed to a hospital in [[Aleppo]]]] Eva Koulouriotis has described Bashar al-Assad as the "master of [[ethnic cleansing]] in the 21st century".<ref name="J. Koulouriotis">{{Cite web |last=J. Koulouriotis |first=Eva |date=22 May 2022 |title=Assad: Master of ethnic cleansing in the 21st century |url=https://www.syriawise.com/opinion-assad-master-of-ethnic-cleansing-in-the-21st-century/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702072830/https://www.syriawise.com/opinion-assad-master-of-ethnic-cleansing-in-the-21st-century/ |archive-date=2 July 2022 |website=Syria Wise}}</ref> During the course of the civil war, Assad ordered depopulation campaigns throughout the country to re-shape its demography in favor of his regime and the military tactics have been compared to the [[Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War|persecutions of the Bosnian war]]. Between 2011 and 2015, [[Ba'athism|Ba'athist]] militias are reported to have committed 49 ethno-sectarian [[massacre]]s for the purpose of implementing its social engineering agenda in the country. [[Alawites|Alawite]] loyalist militias known as the ''[[Shabiha]]'' have been launched into [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] villages and towns, perpetrating numerous [[Anti-Sunnism|anti-Sunni]] massacres. These include the [[Houla massacre|Houla]], [[Bayda and Baniyas massacres]], [[Al-Qubeir massacre]], Al-Hasawiya massacre, and others which have resulted in hundreds of deaths with hundreds of thousands of residents fleeing under threats of regime persecution and [[sexual violence]]. Pogroms and deportations were pronounced in central Syrian regions and Alawite majority coastal areas where the Syrian military and Hezbollah prioritize the establishment of strategic control by expelling Sunni residents and bringing in Iran-backed Shia militants.<ref>{{Cite news |author1=Martin Chulov |author2=Mona Mahmood |date=22 July 2013 |title=Syrian Sunnis fear Assad regime wants to 'ethnically cleanse' Alawite heartland |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/22/syria-sunnis-fear-alawite-ethnic-cleansing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505110349/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/22/syria-sunnis-fear-alawite-ethnic-cleansing |archive-date=5 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Nakhoul |first=Samia |date=12 June 2012 |title=Insight: Syria massacres, ethnic cleansing that may backfire |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-massacres-idUSBRE85A1DY20120611 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222180327/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-massacres-idUSBRE85A1DY20120611 |archive-date=22 December 2021}}</ref><ref name="J. Koulouriotis"/><ref>{{Cite news |last=Hamad |first=Sam |date=30 June 2017 |title=Daraa 'de-escalation' masks Assad's ethnic cleansing in Syria |work=New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/opinion/daraa-de-escalation-masks-assads-ethnic-cleansing-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207165354/https://www.newarab.com/opinion/daraa-de-escalation-masks-assads-ethnic-cleansing-syria |archive-date=7 December 2022}}</ref> In 2016, UN officials criticized Bashar al-Assad for pursuing demographic engineering and ethnic cleansing in [[Darayya District|Darayya district]] in Damascus under the guise of de-escalation deals.<ref>{{Cite news |last=El-Bar |first=Karim |date=5 September 2016 |title='Ethnic cleansing on an unprecedented scale': Rebels, UN criticise Assad tactics |work=Middle East Eye |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/ethnic-cleansing-unprecedented-scale-rebels-un-criticise-assad-tactics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015105258/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/ethnic-cleansing-unprecedented-scale-rebels-un-criticise-assad-tactics |archive-date=15 October 2021}}</ref> Syrian government forces have pursued mass-killings of civilian populations as part of its war strategy throughout the conflict and is responsible for inflicting more than 90% of the [[Casualties of the Syrian civil war|total civilian deaths in the Syrian civil war]].<ref name="auto1">*{{Cite news |date=20 June 2022 |title=Assad, Iran, Russia committed 91% of civilian killings in Syria |work=Middle East Monitor |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220620-assad-iran-russia-committed-91-of-civilian-killings-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104153837/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220620-assad-iran-russia-committed-91-of-civilian-killings-in-syria/ |archive-date=4 January 2023 }} * {{Cite web |date=September 2022 |title=Civilian Death Toll |url=https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305114908/https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-date=5 March 2022 |website=SNHR }} * {{Cite news |date=19 June 2022 |title=91 percent of civilian deaths caused by Syrian regime and Russian forces: rights group |work=The New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-regime-and-russia-caused-91-deaths-report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105112752/https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-regime-and-russia-caused-91-deaths-report |archive-date=5 January 2023 }} * {{Cite web |title=2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Syria |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702114009/https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/syria/ |archive-date=2 July 2022 |website=U.S Department of State }} * {{Cite web |last=Roth |first=Kenneth |date=9 January 2017 |title=Barack Obama's Shaky Legacy on Human Rights |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/01/09/barack-obamas-shaky-legacy-human-rights |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202082511/https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/01/09/barack-obamas-shaky-legacy-human-rights |archive-date=2 February 2021 |website=Human Rights Watch }} * {{Cite web |title=The Regional War in Syria: Summary of Caabu event with Christopher Phillips |url=https://www.caabu.org/news/news/regional-war-syria-summary-caabu-event-christopher-phillips |website=Council for Arab-British Understanding |access-date=21 May 2023 |archive-date=9 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209022611/https://www.caabu.org/news/news/regional-war-syria-summary-caabu-event-christopher-phillips |url-status=live }}</ref> The UN estimates a minimum of 306,000 civilian deaths occurred between 2011 and 2021.<ref name="Farge"/><ref name="ohchr.org"/> As of 2022, the total death toll has risen to approximately 580,000.<ref name="GCR2P2">{{Cite web |date=1 December 2022 |title=Syria |url=https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128063728/https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/syria/ |archive-date=28 January 2023 |website=Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect}}</ref> An additional 154,000 civilians have been [[forcibly disappeared]] or subject to [[Arbitrary arrest and detention|arbitrary detentions]] across Syria between 2011 and 2023. As of 2023, more than 135,000 individuals are being [[torture]]d, incarcerated or dead in [[Human rights in Syria#Detention Centers|Ba'athist prison networks]], including thousands of [[Woman|women]] and [[child]]ren.<ref>* {{Cite news |date=March 2023 |title=Record of Arbitrary Arrests |work=SNHR |url=https://snhr.org/blog/2021/08/14/record-of-arbitrary-arrests1/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513172453/https://snhr.org/blog/2021/08/14/record-of-arbitrary-arrests1/ |archive-date=13 May 2023}} * {{Cite web |date=15 March 2023 |title=On the 12th Anniversary of the Popular Uprising |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/12th-anniversary-popular-uprising-total-230224-civilians-documented-dead-including-15275-who-died-due-torture-154871-arrested-andor-forcibly-disappeared-and-roughly-14-million-syrians-displaced#:~:text=The%20report%20reveals%20that%20no,March%202011%20and%20March%202023. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316062415/https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/12th-anniversary-popular-uprising-total-230224-civilians-documented-dead-including-15275-who-died-due-torture-154871-arrested-andor-forcibly-disappeared-and-roughly-14-million-syrians-displaced |archive-date=16 March 2023 |website=[[ReliefWeb]]}} * {{Cite news |last=Mustafa |first=Wafa |date=18 May 2023 |title=Assad's regime took my father. Normalising relations feels like an attempt to rewrite history |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2023/may/18/assads-regime-took-my-father-normalising-relations-feels-like-an-attempt-to-rewrite-history |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519021625/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2023/may/18/assads-regime-took-my-father-normalising-relations-feels-like-an-attempt-to-rewrite-history |archive-date=19 May 2023}} * {{Cite web |date=9 June 2021 |title=Humans not Numbers |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/humans-not-numbers-case-international-mechanism-address-detainees-and |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411115616/https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/humans-not-numbers-case-international-mechanism-address-detainees-and |archive-date=11 April 2023 |website=[[ReliefWeb]]}} * {{Cite web |date=18 May 2023 |title=Seven reasons why normalizing with Assad is a shameful, terrible move |url=https://diary.thesyriacampaign.org/assad-normalization-arab-league/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518154642/https://diary.thesyriacampaign.org/assad-normalization-arab-league/ |archive-date=18 May 2023 |website=The Syria campaign}}</ref> Since 2011, the Assad regime has arrested and detained children without trial until the age of 18, after which they are transferred to Syrian military field courts and killed. A 2024 investigative report by the Syrian Investigative Journalism Unit (SIRAJ) identified 24 Syrian children who were forcibly disappeared, had their assets confiscated, detained and later killed after they reached the age of 18. The report, based on inside sources within the Assad government, interviews with victims' families, and public sources, estimated that more than 6,000 detainees under the age of 18 were sentenced to death in the [[Sednaya Prison]] and an Assadist military field court in [[Al-Dimas]] between 2014 and 2017, citing eyewitness accounts of an insider within the Ba'athist military police.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Ali Al Ibrahim |author2=Mohamad Skaf |date= 28 October 2024|title=Delayed Execution: The Syrian Regime Detains Minors in Prisons to Execute Them Upon Reaching 18 |url=https://sirajsy.net/the-syrian-regime-detains-minors/ |website=SIRAJ |access-date=31 October 2024 |archive-date=21 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241121052540/https://sirajsy.net/the-syrian-regime-detains-minors/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 October 2024 |title=Syria regime detained children until 18 before executing them under 'terrorism' law, investigation reveals |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20241029-syria-regime-detained-children-until-18-before-executing-them-under-terrorism-law-investigation-reveals/#comment-6582201907 |work=Middle East Monitor |access-date=31 October 2024 |archive-date=21 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241121052320/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20241029-syria-regime-detained-children-until-18-before-executing-them-under-terrorism-law-investigation-reveals/#comment-6582201907 |url-status=live }}</ref> === War crimes === {{Further|Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war|Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war}} {{quote box|"The nature and extent of Assad's violence is strategic in design and effect. He is pursuing a [[state terrorism|strategy of terror]], [[siege]], and [[Ethnic cleansing|depopulation]] in key areas, calculating that winning back the loyalty of much of the [[Sunni]] middle class and underclass is highly unlikely and certainly not worth the resources and political capital. Better to level half the country than to give it over to the [[Syrian opposition|opposition]]." | source = — Emile Hokayem, Senior Fellow at [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2016 |last=Hokayem| first=Emile|title="Assad or We Burn the Country" |url=https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323074045/https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-date=23 March 2022 |website=War on the rocks}}</ref> | align = right | width = 25em }} Numerous politicians, dissidents, authors and journalists have nicknamed Assad as the "butcher" of Syria for his war-crimes, [[Anti-Sunnism|anti-Sunni]] sectarian mass-killings, [[Chemical warfare|chemical weapons attacks]] and [[ethnic cleansing]] campaigns.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holland |first=Jack |title=Selling War and Peace: Syria and the Anglosphere |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9781108489249 |location=New York |page=211 |chapter=7: Proxy War}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dagher |first=Sam |title=Assad Or We Burn the Country: How One Family's Lust for Power Destroyed Syria |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-316-55670-5 |location=New York|chapter=15: Don't Stay with the Butcher}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tibi |first=Bassam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uXAdAAAAQBAJ |title=The Shari'a State: Arab Spring and Democratization |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-66216-1 |location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Warrick |first=Jobby |title=Red Line |publisher=Doubleday |year=2021 |isbn=9780385544467 |location=New York}}</ref> The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] has stated that at least 10 European citizens were tortured by the Assad government while detained during the Syrian civil war, potentially leaving Assad open to prosecution by individual European countries for [[war crime]]s.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2014-12-15/us-says-europeans-tortured-by-assads-death-machine |title=U.S. says Europeans killed by Assad's death machine |work=Chicago Tribune |agency=Bloomberg News |first1=Josh |last1=Rogin |date=15 December 2014 |access-date=4 January 2015 |archive-date=13 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413082059/http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2014-12-15/us-says-europeans-tortured-by-assads-death-machine |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="CNN sarin report" /> [[UN High Commissioner for Human Rights]] Navi Pillay stated in December 2013 that UN investigations directly implicated Bashar al-Assad guilty of [[crimes against humanity]] and pursuing an extermination strategy developed "at the highest level of government, including the [[President of Syria|head of state]]."<ref>{{cite news |date=2 December 2013 |title=UN implicates Bashar al-Assad in Syria war crimes |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-25189834 |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331104230/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-25189834 |archive-date=31 March 2022}}</ref> [[Stephen Rapp]], the [[United States Ambassador-at-Large for War Crimes Issues|U.S. Ambassador-at-Large for War Crimes Issues]], stated in 2014 that the crimes committed by Assad are the worst seen since those of [[Nazi Germany]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/fbi-says-europeans-tortured-by-assad-regime |title=FBI says Europeans tortured by Assad regime |first1=Tamar |last1=Pileggi |date=15 December 2014 |access-date=4 January 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150114063429/http://www.timesofisrael.com/fbi-says-europeans-tortured-by-assad-regime/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In March 2015, Rapp further stated that the case against Assad is "much better" than those against [[Slobodan Milošević]] of Serbia or [[Charles Taylor (Liberian politician)|Charles Taylor]] of Liberia, both of whom were indicted by international tribunals.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/us-war-crimes-case-assad-milosevic-29542721 |title=US: War Crimes Case Vs. Assad Better Than One for Milosevic |work=ABC News |first1=Cara |last1=Anna |agency=Associated Press |date=11 March 2015 |access-date=11 March 2015 |archive-date=23 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150323132342/http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/us-war-crimes-case-assad-milosevic-29542721 |url-status=live }}</ref> Charles Lister, Director of the Countering Terror and Extremism Program at [[Middle East Institute]], describes Bashar al-Assad as "21st century's biggest war criminal".<ref name="auto"/> [[File:Bombing_of_Darayya.png|thumb|240x240px|Bombing of [[Darayya]] suburb of [[Damascus]] by the [[Syrian Air Force|Syrian Arab Air Force]], 17 June 2016]] In a February 2015 interview with the [[BBC]], Assad dismissed accusations that the [[Syrian Arab Air Force]] used [[barrel bomb]]s as "childish", claiming that his forces have never used these types of "barrel" bombs and responded with a joke about not using "cooking pots" either.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.channel4.com/news/assad-syria-interview-bbc-barrel-bombs-facts-video |title='There are no barrel bombs': Assad's Syria 'facts' |publisher=Channel Four News |date=10 February 2015 |access-date=12 February 2015 |archive-date=12 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212212426/http://www.channel4.com/news/assad-syria-interview-bbc-barrel-bombs-facts-video |url-status=live }}</ref> The ''[[BBC]] Middle East'' editor conducting the interview, [[Jeremy Bowen]], later described Assad's statement regarding barrel bombs as "patently not true".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-31438916 |title=What does Assad really think about Syria's civil war? |work=BBC News |date=15 February 2014 |access-date=15 February 2015 |last=Bowen |first=Jeremy |archive-date=15 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215040413/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-31438916 |url-status=live }}</ref><!--The Syrian Arab Air Force's use of barrel bombs is well documented.--><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.pri.org/stories/2014-02-04/what-are-barrel-bombs-and-why-syrian-military-using-them |title=What are 'barrel bombs' and why is the Syrian military using them? |publisher=PRI |date=4 February 2014 |access-date=14 February 2015 |last=Bell |first=Matthew |archive-date=15 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215185404/http://www.pri.org/stories/2014-02-04/what-are-barrel-bombs-and-why-syrian-military-using-them |url-status=live }}</ref> As soon as [[Civil uprising phase of the Syrian civil war|demonstrations arose in 2011–2012]], Bashar al-Assad opted to implement the "[[Samson Option|Samson option]]", the characteristic approach of the [[Neo-ba'athist]] regime since the era of Hafez al-Assad; wherein protests were violently suppressed and demonstrators were shot and fired at directly by the armed forces. However, unlike Hafez; Bashar had even less loyalty and was politically fragile, exacerbated by alienation of the majority of the population. As a result, Bashar chose to crack down on dissent far more comprehensively and harshly than his father; and a mere allegation of collaboration was reason enough to get assassinated.<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2=Salah Saber|title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=29–38 |chapter=The domestic structure of the regime}}</ref> [[Nadim Shehadi]], the director of [[The Fares Center for Eastern Mediterranean Studies]], stated that "In the early 1990s, Saddam Hussein was massacring his people and we were worried about the weapons inspectors," and claimed that "Assad did that too. He kept us busy with chemical weapons when he massacred his people."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2015/Jun-11/301349-iran-spends-billions-to-prop-up-assad.ashx |title=Iran spends billions to prop up Assad |publisher=TDA |agency=Bloomberg |date=11 June 2015 |access-date=11 June 2015 |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517021040/http://www.dailystar.com.lb//News/Middle-East/2015/Jun-11/301349-iran-spends-billions-to-prop-up-assad.ashx |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/06/19/a-damning-indictment-of-syrian-president-assad-s-systematic-massacres.html |title=A Damning Indictment of Syrian President Assad's Systematic Massacres |newspaper=The Daily Beast |last1=Dettmer |first1=Jamie |date=19 June 2015 |access-date=21 June 2015 |archive-date=18 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418223422/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/06/19/a-damning-indictment-of-syrian-president-assad-s-systematic-massacres.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Contrasting the policies of Hafez al-Assad and that of his son Bashar, former [[Vice President of Syria|Syrian vice-president]] and [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'athist]] dissident [[Abdul Halim Khaddam]] states: <blockquote>"The Father had a mind and the Son has a loss of reason. How could the army use its force and the security apparatus with all its might to destroy Syria because of a protest against the mistakes of one of your security officials. The father would act differently. Father Hafez hit Hama after he encircled it, warned and then hit Hama after a long siege... But his son is different. On the subject of Daraa, Bashar gave instructions to open fire on the demonstrators."<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2=Salah Saber |title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=33–34 |chapter=The domestic structure of the regime}}</ref></blockquote> Human rights organizations and criminal investigators have documented Assad's war crimes and sent it to the [[International Criminal Court]] for indictment.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nebehay |first1=Stephanie |date=10 June 2014 |title=Assad tops list of Syria war crimes suspects handed to ICC: former prosecutor |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN0EL25020140610?irpc=932 |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129194851/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/06/10/us-syria-crisis-warcrimes-idUSKBN0EL25020140610?irpc=932 |archive-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> Since Syria is not a party to the [[Rome Statute]], [[International Criminal Court]] requires authorization from the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] to send Bashar al-Assad to tribunal. As this gets consistently [[veto]]ed by Assad's primary backer [[Russia]], ICC prosecutions have not transpired. On the other hand, courts in various European countries have begun prosecuting and convicting senior Ba'ath party members, [[Syrian Armed Forces|Syrian military]] commanders and ''[[Mukhabarat]]'' officials charged with war crimes.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Swart |first=Mia |date=15 March 2021 |title=National courts lead the way in prosecuting Syrian war crimes |work=Al Jazeera News |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/15/national-courts-lead-the-way-in-prosecuting-syrian-war-crimes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303174028/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/15/national-courts-lead-the-way-in-prosecuting-syrian-war-crimes |archive-date=3 March 2022}}</ref> In September 2015, France began an inquiry into Assad for [[crimes against humanity]], with French Foreign Minister [[Laurent Fabius]] stating "Faced with these crimes that offend the human conscience, this bureaucracy of horror, faced with this denial of the values of humanity, it is our responsibility to act against the impunity of the killers".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/france-opens-war-crimes-inquiry-against-assad-regime-222026549.html |title=France opens probe into Assad regime for crimes against humanity |work=Yahoo News |agency=Agence France-Presse |last1=Talagrand |first1=Pauline |date=30 September 2015 |access-date=1 October 2015 |archive-date=30 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930084126/http://news.yahoo.com/france-opens-war-crimes-inquiry-against-assad-regime-222026549.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In February 2016, head of the UN Commission of Inquiry on Syria, [[Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro|Paulo Pinheiro]], told reporters: "The mass scale of deaths of detainees suggests that the government of Syria is responsible for acts that amount to extermination as a crime against humanity." The UN Commission reported finding "unimaginable abuses", including women and children as young as seven perishing while being held by Syrian authorities. The report also stated: "There are reasonable grounds to believe that high-ranking officers{{snd}}including the heads of branches and directorates{{snd}}commanding these detention facilities, those in charge of the military police, as well as their civilian superiors, knew of the vast number of deaths occurring in detention facilities ... yet did not take action to prevent abuse, investigate allegations or prosecute those responsible".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/un-probe-accuses-damascus-extermination-detainees-131405484.html |title=UN probe accuses Syria govt of 'exterminating' detainees |work=Yahoo News |agency=Agence France-Presse |last1=Larson |first1=Nina |date=8 February 2016 |access-date=11 February 2016 |archive-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160209093447/http://news.yahoo.com/un-probe-accuses-damascus-extermination-detainees-131405484.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In March 2016, the [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs|U.S. House Committee on Foreign Affairs]] led by [[New Jersey]] Rep. [[Chris Smith (New Jersey politician)|Chris Smith]] called on the Obama administration to create a war crimes [[tribunal]] to investigate and prosecute violations "whether committed by the officials of the Government of Syria or other parties to the civil war".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/02/assad-war-crimes-russia-us-congress-persecution-cholera.html |title=Congress goes after Assad for war crimes |publisher=Al Monitor |last1=Pecquet |first1=Julian |date=1 March 2016 |access-date=1 March 2016 |archive-date=29 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160229102201/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/02/assad-war-crimes-russia-us-congress-persecution-cholera.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2018, Germany's chief prosecutor issued an international arrest warrant for one of Assad's most senior military officials, [[Jamil Hassan]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/germany-seeks-arrest-of-leading-syrian-general-on-war-crimes-charges/2018/06/08/2fa025d0-6b21-11e8-a335-c4503d041eaf_story.html |title=Germany seeks arrest of leading Syrian general on war crimes charges |last=Loveluck |first=Louisa |date=8 June 2018 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=12 June 2018 |issn=0190-8286 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612163014/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/germany-seeks-arrest-of-leading-syrian-general-on-war-crimes-charges/2018/06/08/2fa025d0-6b21-11e8-a335-c4503d041eaf_story.html |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Hassan is the head of Syria's powerful [[Air Force Intelligence Directorate]]. Detention centers run by Air Force Intelligence are among the most notorious in Syria, and thousands are believed to have died because of [[torture]] or neglect. Charges filed against Hassan claim he had command responsibility over the facilities and therefore knew of the abuse. The move against Hassan marked an important milestone of prosecutors trying to bring senior members of Assad's inner circle to trial for war crimes. In an investigative report about the [[Tadamon Massacre]], Professors [[Uğur Ümit Üngör]] and Annsar Shahhoud, found witnesses who attested that Assad gave orders for the [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|Syrian Military Intelligence]] to direct the [[Shabiha]] to kill civilians.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/how-a-massacre-of-nearly-300-in-syria-was-revealed/ | title=How a Massacre of Nearly 300 in Syria Was Revealed | newspaper=New Lines Magazine | date=27 April 2022 | first1=Annsar | last1=Shahhoud | first2=Uğur | last2=Ümit Üngör | access-date=1 May 2022 | archive-date=27 April 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427195055/https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/how-a-massacre-of-nearly-300-in-syria-was-revealed/ | url-status=live }}</ref> === 2023–2024 arrest warrant and legal proceedings === On 15 November 2023, France issued an arrest warrant against Syrian President Bashar Assad over the use of banned chemical weapons against civilians in Syria.<ref name=":1">{{cite news |date=15 November 2023 |title=France issues arrest warrant for Syria's President Assad – source |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/france-issues-arrest-warrants-against-syrias-president-assad-source-2023-11-15/ |work=Reuters}}</ref> In May 2024, French anti-terrorism prosecutors requested the Paris appeals court to consider revoking Assad's arrest warrant, asserting his absolute immunity as a serving head of state.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last1=Surk |first1=Barbara |last2=Turnbull |first2=Alex |date=26 June 2024 |title=Paris court upholds validity of France's arrest warrant for Syrian President Bashar Assad |url=https://apnews.com/article/syria-france-assad-war-crimes-arrest-warrant-d64d25b39801dafdcbe031558b52b81b |work=Associated Press}}</ref> On 26 June 2024, the Paris appeals court determined that the international arrest warrant issued by France against Assad for alleged complicity in war crimes during the Syrian civil war remains valid. This decision was confirmed by attorneys involved in the case.<ref name=":3" /> According to the lawyers, this ruling marked the first instance where a national court acknowledged that the personal immunity of a serving head of state is not absolute, as reported by The Associated Press.<ref name=":3" /> ===Chemical attacks=== {{Main|Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war}} {{See also|Syria and weapons of mass destruction}} The [[Syrian Arab Armed Forces|Syrian military]] has deployed chemical warfare as a systematic military strategy in the [[Syrian civil war]], and is estimated to have committed over 300 [[Chemical warfare|chemical attacks]], targeting civilian populations throughout the course of the conflict.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Loveluck |first=Louisa |date=17 February 2019 |title=Syrian army responsible for Douma chemical weapons attack, watchdog confirms |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrian-military-linked-to-more-than-300-chemical-attacks-report-says/2019/02/16/c6e128de-31d4-11e9-ac6c-14eea99d5e24_story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301032936/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrian-military-linked-to-more-than-300-chemical-attacks-report-says/2019/02/16/c6e128de-31d4-11e9-ac6c-14eea99d5e24_story.html |archive-date=1 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Burke |first=Michael |date=17 February 2019 |title=Syria used chemical weapons more than 300 times, researchers say |work=The Hill |url=https://thehill.com/policy/international/430414-syria-used-chemical-weapons-more-than-300-times-researchers-say/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190219014216/https://thehill.com/policy/international/430414-syria-used-chemical-weapons-more-than-300-times-researchers-say/ |archive-date=19 February 2019}}</ref> Investigation conducted by the [[Global Public Policy Institute (GPPi)|GPPi]] research institute documented 336 confirmed attacks involving chemical weapons in Syria between 23 December 2012 and 18 January 2019. The study attributed 98% of the total verified chemical attacks to the Assad's regime. Almost 90% of the attacks had occurred after the [[Ghouta chemical attack]] in August 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Tobias Schneider |author2=Theresa Lutkefend |date=February 2019 |title=Nowhere to Hide: The Logic of Chemical Weapons Use in Syria |url=https://www.gppi.net/media/GPPi_Schneider_Luetkefend_2019_Nowhere_to_Hide_Web.pdf |journal= |pages=1–47 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216060712/https://www.gppi.net/media/GPPi_Schneider_Luetkefend_2019_Nowhere_to_Hide_Web.pdf |archive-date=16 December 2022 |via=GPPi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Lombardo |first=Clare |date=17 February 2019 |title=More Than 300 Chemical Attacks Launched During Syrian Civil War, Study Says |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/02/17/695545252/more-than-300-chemical-attacks-launched-during-syrian-civil-war-study-says |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107103943/https://www.npr.org/2019/02/17/695545252/more-than-300-chemical-attacks-launched-during-syrian-civil-war-study-says |archive-date=7 January 2023}}</ref> [[File:Ghouta massacre4 (cropped).JPG|thumb|Children killed by pro-[[Syrian military|Assad military forces]] in the Ghouta chemical attack, the deadliest [[chemical warfare|chemical weapons attack]] in the 21st century]] Syria joined the Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW member state in October 2013, and there are currently three OPCW missions with UN mandates to investigate chemical weapons issues in Syria. These are the Declaration Assessment Team (DAT) to verify Syrian [[Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons|declarations of CW Programme]]; [[OPCW Fact-Finding Mission in Syria|OPCW Fact-Finding Mission]] (FFM) tasked to identify the chemical attacks and type of weapons used; and the Investigation and Identification Team (IIT) which investigates the perpetrators of the chemical attacks. The conclusions are submitted to the [[United Nations|United Nations bodies]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Syria and the OPCW |url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/featured-topics/opcw-and-syria#:~:text=As%20a%20result%20of%20a,completeness%20of%20Syria's%20declaration%20remain. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230506165127/https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/featured-topics/opcw-and-syria |archive-date=6 May 2023 |website=OPCW| date=27 January 2023 }}</ref> In April 2021, Syria was suspended from OPCW through the public vote of member states, for not co-operating with the body's Investigation Identification Team (IIT) and violating the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Corder |first=Mike |date=21 April 2021 |title=States suspend Syria's OPCW rights over chemical attacks |work=AP News |url=https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524194220/https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276 |archive-date=24 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=22 April 2021 |title=Conference of the States Parties adopts Decision to suspend certain rights and privileges of the Syrian Arab Republic under the CWC |url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2021/04/conference-states-parties-adopts-decision-suspend-certain-rights-and |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303125905/https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2021/04/conference-states-parties-adopts-decision-suspend-certain-rights-and |archive-date=3 March 2022 |website=OPCW}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=22 April 2021 |title=Decision addressing the Possession and Use of Chemical Weapons by the Syrian Arab Republic |url=https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021/04/c25dec09%28e%29.pdf |journal= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319223356/https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021/04/c25dec09(e).pdf |archive-date=19 March 2022 |via=OPCW}}</ref> Findings of another investigation report published the OPCW-IIT in July 2021 concluded that the Syrian regime had engaged in confirmed chemical attacks at least 17 times, out of the reported 77 chemical weapon attacks attributed to Assadist forces.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 2021 |title=OPCW Confirms Chemical Weapons Use in Syria |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-07/news-briefs/opcw-confirms-chemical-weapons-use-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401005907/https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-07/news-briefs/opcw-confirms-chemical-weapons-use-syria |archive-date=1 April 2022 |website=Arms Control Association}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 June 2021 |title=Syria has likely used chemical weapons 17 times: International chemical weapons watchdog |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/syria-has-likely-used-chemical-weapons-17-times-international-chemical-weapons-watchdog/article34724203.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606111350/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/syria-has-likely-used-chemical-weapons-17-times-international-chemical-weapons-watchdog/article34724203.ece |archive-date=6 June 2021}}</ref> As of March 2023, independent United Nations inquiry commissions have confirmed at least nine chemical attacks committed by forces loyal to the [[Assad Government|Assad government]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 March 2023 |title=Security Council Deems Syria's Chemical Weapon's Declaration Incomplete |work=United Nations: Meetings Coverage and Press Releases |url=https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314022057/https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm |archive-date=14 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=15 May 2023 |title=Fifth Review Conference of the Chemical Weapons Convention |url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515121348/https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-date=15 May 2023 |website=European Union External Action}}</ref> [[File:2015-08-21 Gedenken am Ernst-August-Platz in Hannover an die Giftgas-Opfer von Ghouta in Syrien, (14).JPG|thumb|Members of the Syrian community in [[Hannover]] protest against Bashar al-Assad on the second anniversary of [[Ghouta chemical attacks]], 21 August 2015.]] The deadliest chemical attack have been the Ghouta chemical attacks, when Assad government forces launched the [[nerve agent]] [[sarin]] into civilian areas during its brutal [[Siege of Eastern Ghouta]] in early hours of 21 August 2013. Thousands of infected and dying victims flooded the nearby hospitals, showing symptoms such as foaming, body convulsions and other neurotoxic symptoms. An estimated 1,100–1,500 civilians; including women and children, are estimated to have been killed in the attacks.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ashraf |first=Sareta |date=22 August 2022 |title=Nine Years Since Ghouta: Reflecting on the Use of Chemical Weapons in Syria |url=https://www.ushmm.org/genocide-prevention/blog/nine-years-since-ghouta-chemical-weapons-in-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822152939/https://www.ushmm.org/genocide-prevention/blog/nine-years-since-ghouta-chemical-weapons-in-syria |archive-date=22 August 2022 |website=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author1=Ben Hubbard |author2=Mark Mazzetti |author3=Mark Landler|date=26 August 2013 |title=Blasts in the Night, a Smell, and a Flood of Syrian Victims |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/27/world/middleeast/blasts-in-the-night-a-smell-and-a-flood-of-syrian-victims.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117184248/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/27/world/middleeast/blasts-in-the-night-a-smell-and-a-flood-of-syrian-victims.html |archive-date=17 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=10 September 2013 |title=Attacks on Ghouta |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2013/09/10/attacks-ghouta/analysis-alleged-use-chemical-weapons-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102104640/https://www.hrw.org/report/2013/09/10/attacks-ghouta/analysis-alleged-use-chemical-weapons-syria |archive-date=2 November 2022 |website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> The attack was internationally condemned and represented the deadliest use of chemical weapons since the [[Iran–Iraq War|Iran-Iraq war]].<ref>{{cite news |author=S.B. |date=21 August 2013 |title=Syria's war: If this isn't a red line, what is? |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2013/08/syria-s-war |url-status=live |access-date=15 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220174814/http://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2013/08/syria-s-war |archive-date=20 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=22 August 2013 |title=Syria gas attack: death toll at 1,400 worst since Halabja |url=http://www.theweek.co.uk/world-news/syria-uprising/54759/syria-gas-attack-death-toll-1400-worst-halabja |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825115627/http://www.theweek.co.uk/world-news/syria-uprising/54759/syria-gas-attack-death-toll-1400-worst-halabja |archive-date=25 August 2013 |access-date=24 August 2013 |work=The Week}}</ref> On 21 August 2022, United States government marked the ninth anniversary of Ghouta Chemical attacks stating: "[[United States]] remembers and honors the victims and survivors of the Ghouta attack and the many other chemical attacks we assess the Assad regime has launched. We condemn in the strongest possible terms any use of chemical weapons anywhere, by anyone, under any circumstances... The United States calls on the Assad regime to fully declare and destroy its [[Syria chemical weapons program|chemical weapons program]]... and for the regime to allow the [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]]' Declaration Assessment Team."<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 August 2022 |title=Ninth Anniversary of the Ghouta, Syria Chemical Weapons Attack |url=https://www.state.gov/ninth-anniversary-of-the-ghouta-syria-chemical-weapons-attack/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526194512/https://www.state.gov/ninth-anniversary-of-the-ghouta-syria-chemical-weapons-attack/ |archive-date=26 May 2023 |website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> In April 2017, a [[sarin]] [[Khan Shaykhun chemical attack|chemical attack on Khan Sheikhoun]] killed more than 80 people.{{sfn|Bronner|2007|p=63}}<ref>{{cite news |date=8 May 2014 |title=Flight of Icarus? The PYD's Precarious Rise in Syria |page=23 |publisher=International Crisis Group |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |url-status=dead |access-date=4 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220181554/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2016 |quote=The regime aims to compel people to take refuge in their sectarian and communitarian identities; to split each community into competing branches, dividing those who support it from those who oppose it}}</ref><ref name="Entous, Nissenbaum" /> In response, U.S. president [[Donald Trump]] ordered an [[2017 Shayrat missile strike|missile strike against the Syrian Shayrat base]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/04/05/middleeast/syria-airstrike-idlib-how-it-unfolded/index.html |title=Airstrike to US intervention: How attack unfolded |author1=Lauren Said-Moorhouse |author2=Sarah Tilotta |work=CNN|access-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612165854/https://edition.cnn.com/2017/04/05/middleeast/syria-airstrike-idlib-how-it-unfolded/index.html |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="WhyWasSharyatAirbaseBombed">{{cite news |date=7 April 2017 |title=Syria war: Why was Shayrat airbase bombed? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-39531045 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=30 April 2024 |archive-date=30 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240430182855/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-39531045 |url-status=live }}</ref> A joint report from the UN and international chemical weapons inspectors concluded that Assad regime perpetrated the sarin attack.<ref name="CNN sarin report">{{Cite news |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/10/26/middleeast/syria-khan-sheikhoun-chemical-attack-sarin/index.html |title=UN: Syria responsible for sarin attack that killed scores |author1=Steve Almasy |author2=Richard Roth |work=CNN|access-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612174315/https://edition.cnn.com/2017/10/26/middleeast/syria-khan-sheikhoun-chemical-attack-sarin/index.html |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ReutersSyriaChemicalWeaponsKhanSheikhoun">{{cite news |last=Campos |first=Rodrigo |date=27 October 2017 |title=Syrian government to blame for April sarin attack: U.N. report |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN1CV3GF/ |work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=30 April 2024 |archive-date=24 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240424151004/https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN1CV3GF/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In April 2018, a [[Douma chemical attack|chemical attack occurred in Douma]], prompting the U.S. and its allies to accuse Assad of violating international law and initiated joint [[2018 bombing of Damascus and Homs|missile strikes at chemical weapons facilities in Damascus and Homs]]. Both Syria and Russia denied involvement.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/13/world/middleeast/un-syria-haley-chemical-weapons.html|title=U.S. Says Syria Has Used Chemical Weapons at Least 50 Times During War|work=The New York Times|date=13 April 2018|last1=Gladstone|first1=Rick|access-date=16 April 2018|archive-date=2 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802140836/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/13/world/middleeast/un-syria-haley-chemical-weapons.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Cooper|first1=Helene|last2=Gibbons-Neff|first2=Thomas|last3=Hubbard|first3=Ben|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/13/world/middleeast/trump-strikes-syria-attack.html|title=U.S., Britain and France Strike Syria Over Suspected Chemical Weapons Attack|work=The New York Times|date=13 April 2018|access-date=27 November 2020|archive-date=14 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414012221/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/13/world/middleeast/trump-strikes-syria-attack.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The third report published on 27 January 2023 by the OPCW-IIT concluded that the Assad regime was responsible for the [[2018 Douma chemical attack]] which killed at least 43 civilians.{{Efn|Sources: * {{Cite web |date=27 January 2023 |title=OPCW Releases Third Report by Investigation and Identification Team |url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2023/01/opcw-releases-third-report-investigation-and-identification-team |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127111421/https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2023/01/opcw-releases-third-report-investigation-and-identification-team |archive-date=27 January 2023}} * {{Cite web |date=27 January 2023 |title=Third Report by the OPCW Investigation and Identification Team |url=https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2023/01/s-2125-2023%28e%29.pdf |journal= |pages=2–139 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127111959/https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2023/01/s-2125-2023(e).pdf |archive-date=27 January 2023 |via=OPCW}} * {{Cite web |date=27 January 2023 |title=Joint Statement on OPCW Report Finding Syrian Regime Responsible for Chemical Weapons Attack in Douma, Syria on April 7, 2018 |url=https://www.state.gov/joint-statement-on-opcw-report-finding-syrian-regime-responsible-for-chemical-weapons-attack-in-douma-syria-on-april-7-2018/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128024629/https://www.state.gov/joint-statement-on-opcw-report-finding-syrian-regime-responsible-for-chemical-weapons-attack-in-douma-syria-on-april-7-2018/ |archive-date=28 January 2023 |website=U.S Department of State}} * {{Cite news |date=27 January 2023 |title=OPCW blames Syria gov't for 2018 chlorine gas attack in Douma |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/1/27/opcw-blames-syria-government-forces-for-2018-douma-chlorine-gas-attack}} * {{Cite news |date=27 January 2023 |title=Watchdog blames Syria for 2018 Douma chemical attack |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-64424831 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128025152/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-64424831 |archive-date=28 January 2023}} * {{Cite news |last=Chulov |first=Martin |date=27 January 2023 |title=Syrian regime found responsible for Douma chemical attack |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/27/syrian-regime-found-responsible-for-douma-chemical-weapons-attack |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127200237/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/27/syrian-regime-found-responsible-for-douma-chemical-weapons-attack |archive-date=27 January 2023}} * {{Cite news |last=Loveluck |first=Louisa |date=27 January 2023 |title=Syrian army responsible for Douma chemical weapons attack, watchdog confirms |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/01/27/syria-chemical-weapons-douma-opcw/}}}} === Comments on the Holocaust === {{See also|Holocaust denial}} In a speech delivered at the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'ath party]]'s central committee meeting in December 2023, Bashar al-Assad claimed that there was "no evidence" of the killings of six million Jews during [[the Holocaust]]. Emphasizing that Jews were not the sole [[Holocaust victims|victims of Nazi extermination campaigns]], Assad alleged that the Holocaust was "politicized" by [[Allied Powers (World War II)|Allied powers]] to facilitate the mass-deportation of [[European Jews]] to Palestine, and that it was used as an excuse to justify the creation of Israel. Assad also accused the U.S. government of financially and militarily sponsoring the [[rise of Nazism]] during the [[Interwar period|inter-war period]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Silkoff |first=Shira |date=20 December 2023 |title=Syria's Assad claims Holocaust was a lie fabricated to justify creation of Israel |work=The Times of Israel |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrias-assad-claims-holocaust-was-a-lie-fabricated-to-justify-creation-of-israel/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231220150406/https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrias-assad-claims-holocaust-was-a-lie-fabricated-to-justify-creation-of-israel/ |archive-date=20 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=20 December 2023 |title=Syrian President Assad denies Holocaust and accuses U.S. of funding Nazis in controversial speech |work=i24news |url=https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/israel/diplomacy/1703081866-syrian-president-assad-denies-holocaust-and-accuses-u-s-of-funding-nazis-in-controversial-speech |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231220142407/https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/israel/diplomacy/1703081866-syrian-president-assad-denies-holocaust-and-accuses-u-s-of-funding-nazis-in-controversial-speech |archive-date=20 December 2023}}</ref> ==Public image== === Domestic opposition and support === {{Further|Syrian opposition}} [[File:Syrian_Civil_War_map_(March_15_2013).svg|thumb|[[Syrian opposition]] in March 2013]] The secular resistance to Assad rule is mainly represented by the [[Syrian National Council]] and [[National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces]], two political bodies that constitute a coalition of [[Centre-left politics|centre-left]] and [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] [[Conservatism|conservative]] factions of the [[Syrian opposition]]. Military commanders and civilian leaders of [[Free Syrian Army]] militias are represented in these councils. The coalition represents the political wing of the [[Syrian Interim Government]] and seeks the [[democratic transition]] of Syria through grass-roots activism, protests and armed [[Resistance movement|resistance]] to overthrow the Ba'athist dictatorship.<ref name="nahex">{{cite web |date=31 May 2013 |title=Syria Opposition Expands, Closes Meeting |url=http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/85113-syria-opposition-expands-closes-meeting |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625042548/http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/85113-syria-opposition-expands-closes-meeting |archive-date=25 June 2013 |work=Naharnet}}</ref><ref name="cnn">{{cite news|date=23 August 2011 |title=Syrian activists form a 'national council' |work=CNN|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/08/23/syria.un.resolution/index.html?eref=mrss_igoogle_cnn |url-status=live |access-date=24 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107012915/http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/08/23/syria.un.resolution/index.html?eref=mrss_igoogle_cnn |archive-date=7 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sayigh |first=Yezid |date=April 2013 |title=The Syrian Opposition's Leadership Problem |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/files/syrian_leaderiship_problem.pdf|location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |pages=1–31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220916020532/https://carnegieendowment.org/files/syrian_leaderiship_problem.pdf |archive-date=16 September 2022}}</ref> A less influential faction within the Syrian opposition is the [[National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change]] (NCC), a coalition of [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] [[Socialism|socialist]] parties that seek to end the rule of [[Al-Assad family|Assad family]] but without [[Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war|foreign involvement]]. Established in June 2011, major parties in the NCC coalition are the [[Democratic Arab Socialist Union]], [[Syrian Democratic People's Party]] and the [[Communist Labour Party (Syria)|Communist Labour Party]].<ref name="Guide to the Syrian opposition">{{Cite news |date=17 October 2013 |title=Guide to the Syrian opposition |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15798218 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104105606/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-15798218 |archive-date=4 January 2023}}</ref> [[National Democratic Rally (Syria)|National Democratic Rally]] (NDR) was an older left-wing opposition coalition of [[Socialism|socialist]] parties formed in 1980, but banned by the Baathist government. NDR was active during the nationwide protests of the 1980s and the [[Damascus Spring]] of the 2000s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Daher |first=Joseph |date=30 October 2020 |title=Syria's Labor Communist Party, a rich political history |url=https://syriauntold.com/2020/10/30/syrias-labor-communist-party-a-rich-political-history-2/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104175433/https://syriauntold.com/2020/10/30/syrias-labor-communist-party-a-rich-political-history-2/ |archive-date=4 January 2023 |website=Syria Untold}}</ref> During the early years of the civil war, the [[Druze in Syria]] primarily sought to remain neutral, "seeking to stay out of the conflict". [[Druze-Israeli]] politician Majalli Wahabi claimed in 2016 that over half support the Assad government despite its relative weakness in Druze areas.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Druse-ex-MK-Syrian-brethren-not-abandoned-by-Assad-441879 |title=Druse ex-MK: Syrian brethren not abandoned by Assad |date=21 January 2016 |work=The Jerusalem Post}}</ref> The "Sheikhs of Dignity" movement, which had sought to remain neutral and to defend Druze areas,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/features/2015/2/7/the-neutral-druze-sheikh-angering-syrias-regime |title=The 'neutral' Druze sheikh angering Syria's regime |publisher=The New Arab |date=7 February 2015 |access-date=2 February 2016}}</ref> blamed the government after its leader [[Sheikh Wahid al-Balous]] was assassinated and organized large scale protests which left six government security personnel dead.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/six-syria-regime-loyalists-killed-after-druze-cleric-assassinated/ |title=Six Syria regime loyalists killed after Druze cleric assassinated |work=The Times of Israel |agency=AFP and AP |date=5 September 2015 |access-date=2 February 2016}}</ref> Druze community became fervently opposed to the Assad government over time and has been vocal about its opposition to increasing Iranian interference in Syria.<ref name="Abdulhamid">{{Cite journal |last=Abdulhamid |first=Ammar |date=5 February 2024 |title=The Syrian Conflict |url=https://www.cjlpa.org/post/the-syrian-conflict-the-myth-of-containment-and-the-realities-of-accountability |journal=The Cambridge Journal of Law, Politics, and Art |via=cjlpa.org}}</ref> In August 2023, mass protests against Assad regime erupted in the Druze-majority city of [[As-Suwayda|Suweida]],<ref>{{cite web |date=17 August 2023 |title=Protests in southern Syria as economy worsens |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/08/protests-southern-syria-economy-worsens |access-date=29 August 2023 |website=Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East}}</ref><ref name="Sinjab">{{Cite news |last=Sinjab |first=Lina |date=24 August 2023 |title=Syria: Protests over growing economic hardship spread in south |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-66607118 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825090905/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-66607118 |archive-date=25 August 2023 |access-date=26 August 2023 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> which eventually spread to other [[Southern Syria protests (2023 – present)|regions of Southern Syria]].<ref name="Sinjab"/><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 August 2023 |title=Syria Protests Spurred by Economic Misery Stir Memories of the 2011 Anti-Government Uprising |url=https://english.aawsat.com/features/4514386-syria-protests-spurred-economic-misery-stir-memories-2011-anti-government-uprising |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829122111/https://english.aawsat.com/features/4514386-syria-protests-spurred-economic-misery-stir-memories-2011-anti-government-uprising |archive-date=29 August 2023 |work=Asharq al-Awsat}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=al-Mahmoud |first=Hussam |date=12 February 2024 |title=Six months into As-Suwayda uprising, What is the future of street protests? |url=https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2024/02/six-months-into-as-suwayda-uprising-what-is-the-future-of-street-protests/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240212161419/https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2024/02/six-months-into-as-suwayda-uprising-what-is-the-future-of-street-protests/ |archive-date=12 February 2024 |work=Enab Baladi}}</ref> Druze cleric Hikmat al-Hajiri, religious leader of Syrian Druze community, has declared war against "Iranian invasion of the country".<ref name="Abdulhamid"/> Syrian [[Sufism|Sufi]] scholar [[Muhammad al-Yaqoubi]], a fervent opponent of both the Ba'athist regime and [[Islamic State]] group, has described Assad's rule as a "reign of terror" that wreaked havoc and enormous misery on the Syrian populace.<ref>{{Cite news |last=al-Yaqoubi |first=Muhammad |date=5 December 2014 |title=To defeat the Islamic State we must first remove Bashar al-Assad |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/defeating-the-islamic-state-requires-first-ousting-bashar-al-assad/2014/12/05/8097b9f8-7c05-11e4-9a27-6fdbc612bff8_story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816235657/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/defeating-the-islamic-state-requires-first-ousting-bashar-al-assad/2014/12/05/8097b9f8-7c05-11e4-9a27-6fdbc612bff8_story.html |archive-date=16 August 2022}}</ref> [[File:0718-Syria-Defectors-reemerge.jpg|thumb| Military-Ba'ath party nexus constructed during the 1970s was the backbone of al-Assad's (centre) dictatorship.]] The regime's support base consisted of [[Ba'athism|Ba'athist]] loyalists who dominate Syrian politics, [[trade union]]s, youth organizations, [[Students' union|students unions]], [[bureaucracy]] and [[Syrian Armed Forces|armed forces]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Awad |first=Ziad |title=The 2022 Syrian Local Elections: A Leadership Rooted in Regime Networks |date= 2023 |publisher=European University Institute |isbn=978-92-9466-358-0 |location=San Domenico di Fiesole (FI) Italy |pages=5–20 |doi=10.2870/52247 |issue=1}}</ref> [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'ath party]] institutions and its political activities form the "vital pillars of regime survival". Family networks of politicians in the Ba'ath party-led [[National Progressive Front (Syria)|National Progressive Front]] (NPF) and businessmen loyal to the Assad family form another pole of support. Electoral listing is supervised by Ba'ath party leadership which expels candidates not deemed "sufficiently loyal".<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Carl Yonker |author2=Christopher Solomon |title=The Banality of Authoritarian Control: Syria's Ba'ath Party Marches On |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/83906 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202101520/https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/83906 |archive-date=2 December 2022 |website=carnegieendowment.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Al-Assad: The Presidency That Never Ends |url=https://crd.org/al-assad/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226152530/https://crd.org/al-assad/ |archive-date=26 February 2023 |website=[[Civil Rights Defenders]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Awad |first=Ziad |title=The 2022 Syrian Local Elections: A Leadership Rooted in Regime Networks |year=2023 |publisher=European University Institute |isbn=978-92-9466-358-0 |location= San Domenico di Fiesole (FI) Italy |pages=5–20 |doi=10.2870/52247 |issue=1}}</ref> Although it has been reported at various stages of the Syrian civil war that [[Religion in Syria|religious minorities]] such as the [[Alawites]] and [[Christianity in Syria|Christians in Syria]] favour the Assad government because of its secularism,<ref>"[http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Security-Watch/2014/0122/Loyalty-to-Assad-runs-deep-on-Syrian-coast Loyalty to Assad runs deep on Syrian coast] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627151953/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Security-Watch/2014/0122/Loyalty-to-Assad-runs-deep-on-Syrian-coast|date=27 June 2015}}". ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]''. 22 January 2014.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrias-christians-stand-by-assad/ |title=Syria's Christians stand by Assad |work=[[CBS News]] |date=6 February 2012 |access-date=13 January 2016 |archive-date=11 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111004508/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503543_162-57372175-503543/syrias-christians-stand-by-assad/ |url-status=live }}</ref> opposition exists among [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] Christians who have claimed that the Assad government seeks to use them as "puppets" and deny their distinct ethnicity, which is non-Arab.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yourmiddleeast.com/culture/a-glifmpse-into-the-world-of-syrias-christian-sutoro-fighters-video_24956 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150407135145/http://www.yourmiddleeast.com/culture/a-glifmpse-into-the-world-of-syrias-christian-sutoro-fighters-video_24956 |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 April 2015 |last=Ahmad |first=Rozh |title=A glimpse into the world of Syria's Christian "Sutoro" fighters (video) |publisher=Your Middle East |date=23 September 2014 |access-date=17 March 2015 |quote=The regime wants us to be puppets, deny our ethnicity and demand an Arab-only state. }}</ref> Although Syria's [[Alawites|Alawite]] community forms Bashar al-Assad's core support base and dominate the [[Syrian Military|military]] and [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|security apparatus]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/10/20111010122434671982.html |title=Assad's Alawites: The guardians of the throne |first=Nir |last=Rosen |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=8 January 2017}}</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/syrias-alawites-the-people-behind-assad-1435166941 Syria's Alawites: The People Behind Assad] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226142611/https://www.wsj.com/articles/syrias-alawites-the-people-behind-assad-1435166941 |date=26 February 2017 }} ''The Wall Street Journal'', 25 June 2015.</ref> in April 2016, [[BBC News]] reported that Alawite leaders released a document seeking to distance themselves from Assad.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-35941679 |title=Syrian Alawites distance themselves from Assad |work=BBC News |last=Wyatt |first=Caroline |date=4 April 2016 |access-date=10 April 2016}}</ref> [[File:Syrian Civil War map (November 24, 2023).svg|thumb|Military situation, November 2023 – November 2024]] [[Kurdish Supreme Committee]] was a coalition of 13 Kurdish political parties opposed to Assad regime. Before its dissolution in 2015, the committee consisted of [[Kurdish National Council|KNC]] and [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|PYD]].<ref name="Guide to the Syrian opposition"/> [[Circassians in Syria]] have also become strong opponents of the regime as Ba'athist crackdowns and massacres across Syria intensified viciously; and members of Circassian ethnic minority have attempted to escape Syria, fearing persecution.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richmond |first=Walter |title=The Circassian Genocide |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8135-6068-7 |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey |page=170 |chapter=8: The Road to Sochi}}</ref> In 2014, the Christian [[Syriac Military Council]], the largest Christian organization in Syria, allied with the Free Syrian Army opposed to Assad,<ref name="SyriacMilitaryCouncil">{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/09/25/world/meast/us-syria-rebel-agreement/ |last1=Bronstein |first1=Scott |last2=Griffin |first2=Drew |title=Syrian rebel groups unite to fight ISIS |work=CNN|date=26 September 2014 |access-date=1 October 2014 |quote=Under the agreement, moderate Muslim rebel groups fighting under the Supreme Military Council of Syria agreed to form an alliance with the predominantly Christian Syriac Military Council.}}</ref> joining other Syrian Christian militias such as the [[Sutoro]] who had joined the Syrian opposition against the Assad government.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2014/12/21/syria-christian-islamic-state/18915275 |title=Remaining Christians in Syria fight to save their land |work=USA Today |first1=Sophie |last1=Cousins |date=22 December 2014 |access-date=9 March 2015}}</ref> [[Abu Mohammad al-Julani]], commander of the [[Tahrir al-Sham]] rebel militia, condemned Assad regime for converting Syria "into an ongoing earthquake the past 12 years", in the context of the [[2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes]].<ref>{{Cite news |author1=Ruth Michaelson |author2=Lorenzo Tondo |date=13 February 2023 |title=Syrian rebel leader pleads for outside help a week on from earthquakes |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/13/syria-earthquake-rebel-leader-pleas-for-outside-help |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214012142/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/13/syria-earthquake-rebel-leader-pleas-for-outside-help |archive-date=14 February 2023}}</ref> "In June 2014, Assad won a disputed [[2014 Syrian presidential election|presidential election]] held in government-controlled areas (and boycotted in opposition-held areas<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/03/syria-presidential-electi_n_5435706.html |title=Syria's 2014 Presidential Election Ignored in Opposition-Held Areas |work=HuffPost |date=2 August 2014 |access-date=2 February 2016}}</ref> and Kurdish areas governed by the [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|Democratic Union Party]]<ref>{{cite news |author=Wladimir van Wilgenburg |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/06/syria-kurds-assad-presidential-elections-pyd.html |title=Syria's Kurdish region to boycott presidential elections |work=Al-Monitor |access-date=8 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607230545/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/06/syria-kurds-assad-presidential-elections-pyd.html |archive-date=7 June 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>) with 88.7% of the vote. Turnout was estimated to be 73.42% of eligible voters, including those in rebel-controlled areas.<ref>{{cite news |date=4 June 2014 |title=Supreme Constitutional Court: Number of participants in Presidential elections reached at 11.634.412 with 73.42% |url=http://sana.sy/eng/393/2014/06/04/548612.htm |agency=Syrian Arab News Agency |location=Damascus |access-date=4 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607000918/http://sana.sy/eng/393/2014/06/04/548612.htm |archive-date=7 June 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The regime's electoral commission also disqualified millions of Syrian citizens displaced outside the country from voting.<ref>{{cite news |last=Evans |first=Dominic |date=28 April 2014 |title=Assad seeks re-election as Syrian civil war rages |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-assad-idUKKBN0DE0UY20140428 |access-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104163541/https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-assad-idUKKBN0DE0UY20140428 |archive-date=4 January 2023}}</ref> Independent observers and academic scholarship unanimously describe the event as a [[sham election]] organized to legitimise Assad's rule.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cheeseman |first=Nicholas |title=How to Rig an Election |date=2019 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-24665-0 |pages=140–141 |oclc=1089560229}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Norris |first1=Pippa |last2=Martinez i Coma |first2=Ferran |last3=Grömping |first3=Max |date=2015 |title=The Year in Elections, 2014 |url=https://sites.google.com/site/electoralintegrityproject4/projects/expert-survey-2/the-year-in-elections-2015 |journal=Election Integrity Project |language=en |quote=The Syrian election ranked as worst among all the contests held during 2014. |access-date=21 May 2020 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415091339/https://sites.google.com/site/electoralintegrityproject4/projects/expert-survey-2/the-year-in-elections-2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Mark P. |date=2018 |editor1-last=Herron |editor1-first=Erik S |editor2-last=Pekkanen |editor2-first=Robert J |editor3-last=Shugart |editor3-first=Matthew S |title=Presidential and Legislative Elections |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190258658.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190258658-e-23 |access-date=21 May 2020 |website=The Oxford Handbook of Electoral Systems |language=en |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190258658.001.0001 |isbn=978-0190258658 |quote="unanimous agreement among serious scholars that... al-Assad's 2014 election... occurred within an authoritarian context."}}</ref> In his inauguration ceremony, Bashar denounced the opposition as "terrorists" and "traitors"; while attacking the [[Western world|West]] for backing what he described as the "fake [[Arab Spring|Arab spring]]".<ref>{{cite news |last=Makdisi |first=Marwan |date=16 July 2014 |title=Confident Assad launches new term in stronger position |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-assad-idUSKBN0FL0NN20140717 |access-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903040841/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-assad-idUSKBN0FL0NN20140717 |archive-date=3 September 2017}}</ref> ''[[The Times of Israel|Times of Israel]]'' reported that although various individuals interviewed in a "Sunni-dominated, middle-class neighborhood of central Damascus" exhibited fealty for Assad; it was not possible to discern the actual support for the regime due to the ubiquitous influence of the [[Syrian intelligence|secret police]] in the society.<ref>"[http://www.timesofisrael.com/assad-wins-syria-presidency-with-88-7-of-vote/ Syria's Assad reelected with 88.7% of vote] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126192515/http://www.timesofisrael.com/assad-wins-syria-presidency-with-88-7-of-vote/|date=26 January 2016}}". [[The Times of Israel]]. 4 June 2014.</ref> Ba'athist dissident [[Abdul Halim Khaddam]] who had served as [[Vice President of Syria|Syrian Vice President]] during the tenures of both Hafez and Bashar, disparaged Bashar al-Assad as a pawn in Iran's [[Shia crescent|imperial scheme]]. Contrasting the power dynamics that existed under both the autocrats, Khaddam stated: <blockquote>"[Bashar] is not like his father.. He never allowed the Iranians to intervene in Syrian affairs.. During Hafez Assad's time, an Iranian delegation arrived in Syria and attempted to convert some of the Muslim Alawite Syrians to Shia Islam... Assad ordered his minister of foreign Affairs to summon the Iranian ambassador to deliver an ultimatum: The delegation has 24 hours to exit Syria.... They had no power [during Hafez's rule], unlike Bashar who gave them [Iranians] power and control."<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 October 2017 |title=Interview with Former Syrian Vice President Abdul Halim Khaddam |url=https://newsweekme.com/exclusive-interview-former-syrian-vice-president-abdul-halim-khaddam/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005013940/http://newsweekme.com/exclusive-interview-former-syrian-vice-president-abdul-halim-khaddam/ |archive-date=5 October 2016 |website=NewsWeek}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=6 October 2016 |title=Daesh was nurtured by Iran, says former Syrian vice president |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/994396/middle-east |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006075951/http://www.arabnews.com/node/994396/middle-east |archive-date=6 October 2016 |website=Arab News}}</ref></blockquote> === International opposition === [[File:Manifestation_pro_révolution_syrienne_contre_Assad_et_Poutine_-_Paris,_14-12-2016-5.jpg|thumb|Anti-Assad demonstrations held in [[Paris]], 14 December 2016]] Foreign journalists and political observers who travelled to Syria have described it as the most "ruthless [[police state]]" in the [[Arab world|Arab World]]. Assad's violent repression of [[Damascus Spring]] of the early 2000s and the publication of a UN report that implicated him in the [[Assassination of Rafic Hariri|assassination]] of [[Lebanese Prime Minister]] [[Rafic Hariri]], exacerbated Syria's [[Post–Cold War era|post-Cold War]] isolation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bowen |first=Jeremy |title=The Arab Uprisings: The People Want the Fall of the Regime |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-1471129827 |pages=14, 15, 118 |chapter=Prologue: Before the Spring}}</ref><ref name="Fisher">{{Cite news |last=Fisher |first=Marc |date=16 June 2012 |title=Syria's Assad has embraced pariah status |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-has-embraced-pariah-status/2012/06/16/gJQAsY9shV_story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618133455/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-has-embraced-pariah-status/2012/06/16/gJQAsY9shV_story.html |archive-date=18 June 2012}}</ref> Following global outrage against Assad regime's deadly crackdown on the [[Arab Spring|Arab Spring protestors]] which led to the Syrian civil war, [[Scorched earth|scorched-earth policy]] against the civilian populations resulting in more than half a million deaths, [[mass murder]]s and systematic deployment of [[chemical warfare]] throughout the conflict; Bashar al-Assad became an international [[Pariah state|pariah]] and numerous world leaders have urged him to resign.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jung|last3=Beck|last2=Seeberg |first1=Dietrich|first3=Martin|first2=Peter |title=The Levant in Turmoil: Syria, Palestine, and the Transformation of Middle Eastern Politics|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-349-57628-9 |location= New York|pages=101–102 |chapter=5: The Crisis in Syria, International and Regional Sanctions, and the Transformation of the Political Order in the Levant}}</ref><ref name="Fisher"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Khan |first=Hamzah |date=24 November 2021 |title=Focus on Pariah Leaders: Bashar al-Assad |url=https://blogs.shu.edu/thediplomaticenvoy/2021/11/24/focus-on-pariah-leaders-bashar-al-assad/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208152331/http://blogs.shu.edu/thediplomaticenvoy/2021/11/24/focus-on-pariah-leaders-bashar-al-assad/ |archive-date=8 December 2022 |website=The Diplomatic Envoy}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=C. Tucker |first=Spencer |title=U.S Conflicts in The 21st Centiry (Volume 1) |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4408-3878-1 |location=Santa Barbara, California |pages=834, 835}}</ref> Since 2011, Bashar al-Assad has lost recognition from several international organizations such as the [[Arab League]] (in 2011),<ref name="NYT Arab League">{{cite news |last=MacFarquhar |first=Neil |date=12 November 2011 |title=Arab League Votes to Suspend Syria |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/13/world/middleeast/arab-league-votes-to-suspend-syria-over-its-crackdown-on-protesters.html |access-date=12 November 2011}}</ref> [[Union for the Mediterranean]] (in 2011)<ref>{{cite news |date=1 December 2012 |title=Syria suspends its membership in Mediterranean union |publisher=Xinhua News Agency |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-12/01/c_131282989.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111206201635/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-12/01/c_131282989.htm |archive-date=6 December 2011}}</ref> and [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|Organization of Islamic Co-operation]] (in 2012).<ref name="CNN OIC">{{cite news |date=14 August 2012 |title=Regional group votes to suspend Syria; rebels claim downing of jet |work=CNN|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/13/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=hp_t1 |access-date=14 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=16 August 2012 |title=OIC Suspends Syria Over Crackdown |work=RFE/RL |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208075035/https://www.rferl.org/amp/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html |archive-date=8 February 2023}}</ref> [[United States]], [[European Union]], [[Turkey]], [[Arab League]] and various countries began enforcing broad sets of sanctions against Syrian regime from 2011, with the objective of forcing Assad to resign and assist in a political solution to the crisis.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jung|last3=Beck|last2=Seeberg |first1=Dietrich|first3=Martin|first2=Peter |title=The Levant in Turmoil: Syria, Palestine, and the Transformation of Middle Eastern Politics |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-349-57628-9 |location=New York |pages=101–122 |chapter=5: The Crisis in Syria, International and Regional Sanctions, and the Transformation of the Political Order in the Levant}}</ref> International bodies have criticized one-sided elections organized by Assad government during the conflict. In the 2014 London conference of countries of the [[Friends of Syria Group|Friends of Syria group]], [[Foreign Secretary|British Foreign Secretary]] [[William Hague]] characterized Syrian elections as a "parody of democracy" and denounced the regime's "utter disregard for human life" for perpetrating [[War crime|war-crimes]] and [[State terrorism|state-terror]] on the [[Syrians|Syrian population]].<ref>{{cite news |date=15 May 2014 |title=UK's William Hague attacks Assad's Syria elections plan |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-27419552 |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026161021/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-27419552 |archive-date=26 October 2022}}</ref> Assad's policy of holding elections under the circumstances of an ongoing civil war were also rebuked by the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|UN Secretary-General]] [[Ban Ki-moon]].<ref name="UN">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSBREA3K0ST20140421?irpc=932 |title=Syrian election will undermine political solution: U.N.'s Ban |work=Reuters |date=21 April 2014 |access-date=2 February 2016}}</ref> [[File:Ted_Kaufman_with_al-Assad.jpg|thumb|Assad meets with U.S. Senator [[Ted Kaufman]] in 2009]] [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] suspended all relations with Syria following Bashar al-Assad's [[International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia|recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia]], condemning his government as a "Russian-manipulated regime" that supported [[Russian-occupied territories in Georgia|Russian occupation]] and "[[ethnic cleansing]]".{{Efn|Sources:<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 May 2018 |title=US Condemns Syria for Recognizing Georgia's Breakaway Regions |work=[[Voice of America]] |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/us-condemns-syria-for-recognizing-georgia-s-breakaway-regions/4416097.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323062308/https://www.voanews.com/a/us-condemns-syria-for-recognizing-georgia-s-breakaway-regions/4416097.html |archive-date=23 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="Deutsche Welle"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 May 2018 |title=Georgia Severs Relations With Syria For Recognizing Abkhazia, South Ossetia |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530034717/https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |archive-date=30 May 2018 |website=rferl.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 May 2018 |title=Syria recognises Russian-backed Georgia regions |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-44291091 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529144450/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-44291091 |archive-date=29 May 2018}}</ref>}} Following Assad's strong backing of [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] and recognition of the breakaway separatist republics, [[Ukraine]] cut off all diplomatic relations with Syria in June 2022. Describing Assad's policies as "worthless", [[Ukrainian President]] [[Volodimir Zelensky]] pledged to expand further [[sanctions against Syria]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 June 2022 |title=Ukraine's Zelenskyy cuts ties with Syria after it recognized separatist republics |work=[[Al Arabiya]] |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/world/2022/06/30/Ukraine-s-Zelenskyy-cuts-ties-with-Syria-after-it-recognized-separatist-republics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630120322/https://english.alarabiya.net/News/world/2022/06/30/Ukraine-s-Zelenskyy-cuts-ties-with-Syria-after-it-recognized-separatist-republics |archive-date=30 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=30 June 2022 |title=Ukraine Cuts Diplomatic Ties With Syria After It Recognizes Eastern Regions As Independent |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine-syria-diplomatic-ties-russia-assad/31922447.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701050748/https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine-syria-diplomatic-ties-russia-assad/31922447.html |archive-date=1 July 2022 |website=rferl.org}}</ref> In March 2023, [[National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine]] put into effect a range of sanctions targeting 141 firms and 300 individuals linked to Assad regime, Russian weapons manufacturers and Iranian dronemakers. This was days after Assad's visit to [[Moscow]], wherein he justified [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] as a fight against "old and new Nazis". Bashar al-Assad, Prime Minister [[Hussein Arnous]] and Foreign Minister [[Faisal Mekdad|Faisal Mikdad]] were amongst the individuals who were sanctioned.{{Efn|<ref name="rferl.org"/><ref>{{Cite news |date=18 March 2023 |title=Zelensky imposes sanctions against Syrian dictator Bashar Al-Assad, other officials |work=The Kyiv Independent |url=https://kyivindependent.com/news-feed/zelensky-imposes-sanctions-against-syrian-dictator-bashar-al-assad-other-officials |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318134326/https://kyivindependent.com/news-feed/zelensky-imposes-sanctions-against-syrian-dictator-bashar-al-assad-other-officials |archive-date=18 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 March 2023 |title=Decree of the President of Ukraine No. 163/2023 |url=https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/1632023-46149 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319043836/https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/1632023-46149 |archive-date=19 March 2023 |website=Office of the President of Ukraine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=18 March 2023 |title=Zelenskyy introduces sanctions against Syria's Assad |work=[[Anadolu Agency]] |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/russia-ukraine-war/zelenskyy-introduces-sanctions-against-syrias-assad/2849658 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318212055/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/russia-ukraine-war/zelenskyy-introduces-sanctions-against-syrias-assad/2849658 |archive-date=18 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="The New Arab">{{Cite news |date=19 March 2023 |title=Ukraine's Zelensky imposes sanctions on Syria's Assad, other officials |work=[[The New Arab]] |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/ukraines-zelensky-imposes-sanctions-syrias-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320201806/https://www.newarab.com/news/ukraines-zelensky-imposes-sanctions-syrias-assad |archive-date=20 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=18 March 2023 |title=Ukraine sanctions Syrian dictator Assad, hundreds of other individuals and entities |work=TVP World |url=https://tvpworld.com/68572144/ukraine-sanctions-syrian-dictator-assad-hundreds-of-other-individuals-and-entities |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319121913/https://tvpworld.com/68572144/ukraine-sanctions-syrian-dictator-assad-hundreds-of-other-individuals-and-entities |archive-date=19 March 2023}}</ref>}} Sanctions also involved freezing of all Syrian state properties in Ukraine, curtailment of monetary transactions, termination of economic commitments and recision of all official Ukrainian awards.<ref name="The New Arab"/> Syria formally broke its diplomatic ties to Ukraine on 20 July, citing the [[Reciprocity (international relations)|principle of reciprocity]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 July 2022 |title=Syria, a close Russia ally, breaks diplomatic ties with Ukraine |work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/7/20/syria-formally-breaks-diplomatic-ties-with-ukraine}}</ref> [[File:Rückschrittskoalition_stoppen_protest_and_protest_against_Assad_in_Berlin_2023-03-18_01_(cropped)3.jpg|thumb|Anti-Assad demonstrations in [[Berlin]], 18 March 2023]] In April 2023, a French court declared three high-ranking Ba'athist security officials guilty of [[crimes against humanity]], [[torture]], and various war-crimes against French-Syrian citizens. These included [[Ali Mamlouk]], director of [[National Security Bureau of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|National Security Bureau of Syrian Ba'ath party]] and [[Jamil Hassan]], former head of the [[Air Force Intelligence Directorate|Syrian Air Force Intelligence Directorate]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 April 2023 |title=France to try senior Assad allies for crimes against humanity in Syria |work=France 24 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20230404-france-to-try-senior-assad-allies-for-crimes-against-humanity-in-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405004515/https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20230404-france-to-try-senior-assad-allies-for-crimes-against-humanity-in-syria |archive-date=5 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=5 April 2023 |title=France to try Syrian regime officials for crimes against humanity |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/4/5/france-to-try-syrian-regime-officials-for-crimes-against-humanity |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415214212/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/4/5/france-to-try-syrian-regime-officials-for-crimes-against-humanity |archive-date=15 April 2023}}</ref> France had issued [[international arrest warrant]]s against the three officers over the case in 2018.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jarry |first=Emmanuel |date=5 November 2018 |title=France issues arrest warrants for senior Syrian officials |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-france/france-issues-arrest-warrants-for-senior-syrian-officials-idUSKCN1NA11L |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406162922/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-france/france-issues-arrest-warrants-for-senior-syrian-officials-idUSKCN1NA11L |archive-date=6 April 2023}}</ref> In May 2023, [[French Foreign Minister]] Catherine Colonna publicly demanded the prosecution of Bashar al-Assad for engaging in [[Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war|chemical warfare]] and killing [[Casualties of the Syrian civil war|hundreds of thousands of people]]; branding him as "the enemy of his own people".<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 May 2023 |title=Syria's Assad should be put on trial, says French foreign minister |work=France 24 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20230523-syria-s-assad-should-be-put-on-trial-says-french-foreign-minister |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524023150/https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20230523-syria-s-assad-should-be-put-on-trial-says-french-foreign-minister |archive-date=24 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=23 May 2023 |title=French minister demands Assad trial |work=Daily Tribune |url=https://tribune.net.ph/2023/05/24/french-minister-demands-assad-trial/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524013433/https://tribune.net.ph/2023/05/24/french-minister-demands-assad-trial/ |archive-date=24 May 2023}}</ref> On 15 November 2023, France issued an arrest warrant against Assad for use of chemical weapons against civilians in Syria.<ref name=":1" /> ==== Left-wing ==== [[File:Madrid - Acampada Sol 2011 39.JPG|thumb|Billboards of the [[Anti-austerity movement in Spain|Spanish Indignados Movement]] with denouncements of Bashar al-Assad's crackdown against [[Syrian revolution]] in [[Puerta del Sol]] square, [[Madrid]] (29 May 2011)]] Bashar al-Assad is widely criticised by left-wing activists and intellectuals world-wide for appropriating leftist ideologies and its [[socialist]], [[Progressivism|progressive]] slogans as a cover for his own family rule and to empower a loyalist clique of elites at the expense of ordinary Syrians. His close alliance with clergy-ruled [[Khomeinism|Khomeinist]] [[Iran]] and its sectarian militant networks; while simultaneously pursuing a policy of locking up left-wing critics of [[Al-Assad family|Assad family]] has been subject to heavy criticism.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harkin |first=Juliette |date=1 May 2018 |title='Assadism' Is Destroying Syria – Here's Where It Came From |url=https://thewire.in/world/assadism-is-destroying-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410213629/https://thewire.in/world/assadism-is-destroying-syria |archive-date=10 April 2021 |website=The Wire}}</ref> The [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Egypt Region|Egyptian branch]] of the [[Iraqi Ba'ath movement]] has declared its strong support to the [[2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian revolution]]; denouncing Ba'athist Syria as a repressive dictatorship controlled by the "Assad gang". It has attacked Assad family's Ba'athist credentials, accusing the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Syrian Ba'ath party]] of acting as the borderguards of [[Israel]] ever since its overthrowal of the [[National Command of the Ba'ath Party|Ba'athist National Command]] during the [[1966 Syrian coup d'état|1966 coup d'état]]. Describing Bashar al-Assad as a disgraceful person for inviting hostile powers like [[Iran]] to Syria, Egyptian Ba'athists have urged the [[Free Syrian Army|Syrian revolutionaries]] to unite in their efforts to overthrow the Assad regime and resist foreign imperialism.<ref>{{cite web |date=7 May 2013 |title=The statement of the Arab Baath Socialist Party of Egyptian on the aggression against Syria |url=http://www.aladhwaa.net/?ac=3&no=6445&d_f=10&t_f=0&t=5&lang_in=Ar |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216203242/http://www.aladhwaa.net/?ac=3&no=6445&d_f=10&t_f=0&t=5&lang_in=Ar |archive-date=16 December 2014 |access-date=30 July 2018 |newspaper=Aladhwaa}}</ref> Describing Assad's regime as a [[mafia state]] that thrives on corruption and sectarianism, [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]] socialist academic [[Gilbert Achcar]] stated: <blockquote>"Bashar Assad's cousin became the richest man in the country, controlling – it is widely believed – over half of the economy. And that's only one member of the ruling clan... The clan functions as a real mafia, and has been ruling the country for several decades. This constitutes the deep root of the explosion, in combination with the fact that the Syrian regime is one of the most despotic in the region. Compared to Assad's Syria, [[History of Egypt under Hosni Mubarak|Mubarak's Egypt]] was a beacon of democracy and political freedom!... What is specific to this regime is that Assad's father has reshaped and reconstructed the state apparatus, especially its hard nucleus – the armed forces – in order to create a Pretorian guard for itself. The army, especially its elite forces, is tied to the regime itself in various ways, most prominently through the use of sectarianism. Even people who had never heard of Syria before know now that the regime is based on one minority in the country – about 10% of the population; the [[Alawites]]."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Achcar |first=Gilbert |date=8 October 2013 |title=Syria between Revolutions and Counter-Revolutions |url=https://www.cetri.be/Syria-between-Revolution-and?lang=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602233849/http://www.cetri.be/Syria-between-Revolution-and |archive-date=2 June 2016 |website=CETRI}}</ref></blockquote>The [[Progressive Socialist Party]] (PSP) in Lebanon has taken an anti-Assad stance and organised mass-protests in support of the Syrian revolution. In August 2012, PSP publicly denounced the Assad government as a "killing machine" engaged in slaughtering Syrian people. PSP leader Ayman Kamaleddine demanded the expulsion of the Syrian ambassador from Lebanon, describing him as "the representative of the murderer regime in Lebanon".<ref name=":1" /> === International support === ==== Far-right ==== Bashar al-Assad's regime has received support from prominent [[white nationalist]], [[neo-Nazi]] and [[far-right]] figures in Europe, who were attracted by his "[[war on terror]]" discourse against [[Islamists]] during the period of [[European refugee crisis]]. Assad's bombings of Syrian cities are admired in the [[Islamophobic]] discourse of far-right circles, which considers Muslims as a civilizational enemy. American [[White-supremacists|white supremacists]] often praise Assad as an authoritarian bulwark against what they view as the forces of "Islamic extremism" and [[Globalist (epithet)|globalism]]; and several pro-Assad slogans were chanted in the neo-Nazi [[Unite the Right rally]] held in [[Charlottesville, Virginia|Charlottesville]] in 2017.{{Efn|sources: * {{Cite news |last=Elba |first=Mariam |date=8 September 2017 |title=Mariam Elba |work=The Intercept |url=https://theintercept.com/2017/09/08/syria-why-white-nationalists-love-bashar-al-assad-charlottesville/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005175942/https://theintercept.com/2017/09/08/syria-why-white-nationalists-love-bashar-al-assad-charlottesville/ |archive-date=5 October 2017}} * {{Cite news |last=Strickland |first=Patrick |date=14 February 2018 |title=Why do Italian fascists adore Syria's Bashar al-Assad? |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/2/14/why-do-italian-fascists-adore-syrias-bashar-al-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105164955/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/2/14/why-do-italian-fascists-adore-syrias-bashar-al-assad |archive-date=5 January 2023}} * {{Cite news |last=Snell |first=James |date=17 August 2017 |title=Why Nazis from Charlottesville to Europe love Bashar al-Assad |work=New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/opinion/why-nazis-love-bashar-al-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227143504/https://www.newarab.com/opinion/why-nazis-love-bashar-al-assad |archive-date=27 December 2022}} * {{Cite news |last=Ayoub |first=Joey |date=3 October 2022 |title=How the European far right coopted an Arabic letter |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2022/10/3/how-the-european-far-right-coopted-an-arabic-letter |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220215405/https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2022/10/3/how-the-european-far-right-coopted-an-arabic-letter |archive-date=20 December 2022}} * {{Cite news |date=3 November 2022 |title=Western Far-right Worries Syrians and Delights Bashar al-Assad |work=The Syrian Observer |url=https://syrianobserver.com/news/79899/western-far-right-worries-syrians-and-delights-bashar-al-assad.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103015933/https://syrianobserver.com/news/79899/western-far-right-worries-syrians-and-delights-bashar-al-assad.html |archive-date=3 November 2022}} * {{Cite news |last=Huetlin |first=Josephine |date=28 March 2018 |title=The European Far-Right's Sick Love Affair With Bashar al-Assad |work=The Daily Beast |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-european-far-rights-sick-love-affair-with-bashar-al-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116203833/https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-european-far-rights-sick-love-affair-with-bashar-al-assad |archive-date=16 November 2022}}}}<ref name="Assad_far_right">{{cite news |last1=MacDonald |first1=Alex |date=2 December 2014 |title=Europe's far-right activists continue to throw their weight behind Syria's Assad |publisher=Middle East Eye |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/in-depth/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad |access-date=6 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801045342/https://www.middleeasteye.net/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad |archive-date=1 August 2020}}</ref> [[Nick Griffin]], the former leader of the [[British National Party]] (BNP), was formerly an official ambassador and guest of the Syrian government;<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/mobile/1.629501 |title=Disgraced U.K. politician's visit to Syria raises eyebrows back home |work=Haaretz |date=1 December 2014 |access-date=3 December 2014}}</ref> due to public controversy, the Assad government publicly disassociated itself from him after his trip to Syria in 2014.<ref>{{cite news |last1=MacDonald |first1=Alex |date=2 December 2014 |title=Europe's far-right activists continue to throw their weight behind Syria's Assad |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/in-depth/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801045342/https://www.middleeasteye.net/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad |archive-date=1 August 2020 |access-date=6 December 2014 |publisher=Middle East Eye |quote=...the Syrian government attempted to distance themselves from Nick Griffin last time he visited…}}</ref> ==== Right-wing ==== In 2017, former [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] [[United States House of Representatives|congresswoman]] [[Tulsi Gabbard]] met with then-president Bashar al-Assad on an unannounced visit to Syria.<ref name=":4">{{cite web |title=Tulsi Gabbard, Trump's top spy pick, faces fresh scrutiny over Syria and Russia positions |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c14l6jpykmjo |website=www.bbc.com}}</ref> The visit was the first by a U.S. lawmaker since 2011,<ref>{{cite web |title=Tulsi Gabbard's Trip to Meet Assad |url=https://www.sacouncil.com/aalert_gabbard_assad |website=Syrian American Council |language=en}}</ref> and made under a travel warning issued by the [[United States Department of State]], which continues to warn U.S. citizens against all travel to the country.<ref name=":5">{{cite web |title=Congresswoman Gabbard makes unannounced trip to Syria |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/congresswoman-gabbard-makes-unannounced-trip-syria |website=PBS News |language=en-us |date=18 January 2017}}</ref> Gabbard did not consult with the [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|House speaker]] or State Department before meeting with Assad.<ref name=":5" /> The meeting came after Gabbard introduced legislation that would, in her words, "end our country's illegal war to overthrow the Syrian government."<ref name=":5" /> She said that Assad is "a brutal [[dictator]]. Just like [[Saddam Hussein]]. Just like [[Gadhafi]] in Libya. The reason that I’m so outspoken on this issue of ending these wasteful [[United States involvement in regime change|regime-change]] wars is because I have seen firsthand this high human cost of war and the impact that it has on my fellow brothers and sisters in uniform."<ref>{{cite news |title=Tulsi Gabbard: Bashar Assad is 'a brutal dictator' |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/08/01/politics/tulsi-gabbard-assad-dictator-cnntv/index.html |work=CNN |date=1 August 2019}}</ref> Following her visit to Syria, Gabbard expressed doubts that the Assad regime was behind chemical weapons attacks in Syria.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Manduley |first=Christina |date=8 April 2017 |title=Congresswoman 'skeptical' Assad regime behind gas attack {{!}} CNN Politics |url=https://www.cnn.com/2017/04/07/politics/tulsi-gabbard-assad-chemical-weapons-blitzer-cnntv/index.html |access-date=8 December 2024 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> Gabbard has continued to defend her comments, and in 2019 stated that Assad was "not the enemy of the United States because Syria does not pose a direct threat to the United States".<ref name=":4" /> ==== Left-wing ==== Left-wing support for Assad has been split since the start of the Syrian civil war;{{sfn|Hashemi|Postel|2013|pp=11–13}}{{update inline|date=April 2024}} the Assad government has been accused of cynically manipulating [[Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian Civil War|sectarian identity]] and [[anti-imperialism]] to continue its worst activities.{{sfn|Hashemi|Postel|2013|p=231}} Some heads of state or governments have declared their support for Assad, including North Korean leader [[Kim Jong Un]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/north-korean-leader-offers-support-to-assad/a-16392804|title=North Korean leader offers support to Assad |date= 20 November 2012|website=Deutsche Welle|language=en-GB|access-date=20 August 2019}}</ref> After declaring victory in the 2014 elections, Assad received congratulations from [[President of Venezuela]] [[Nicolás Maduro]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lainfo.es/en/2014/06/05/venezuela-congratulated-by-bashar-al-assad-in-syrian-presidential-victory/ |title=Venezuela congratulated by Bashar Al Assad in Syrian presidential victory |work=lainfo.es |access-date=25 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811131504/http://lainfo.es/en/2014/06/05/venezuela-congratulated-by-bashar-al-assad-in-syrian-presidential-victory/ |archive-date=11 August 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[President of Algeria]] [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://syriatimes.sy/index.php/news/local/13361-president-assad-receives-congratulations-from-president-bouteflika-on-winning-elections |title=syriatimes.sy – President Assad Receives Congratulations from President Bouteflika on Winning Elections |work=syriatimes.sy |access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref> [[President of Guyana]] [[Donald Ramotar]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sana.sy/eng/21/2014/06/21/551372.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140621123014/http://sana.sy/eng/21/2014/06/21/551372.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 June 2014 |title=الوكالة العربية السورية للأنباء |work=Syrian Arab News Agency |access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref> [[President of South Africa]] [[Jacob Zuma]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sana.sy/en/?p=4016 |title=President al-Assad receives congratulatory cable from South African President Zuma |author=Hazem al-Sabbagh |access-date=20 April 2015|date=23 June 2014 }}</ref> President of [[Nicaragua]] [[Daniel Ortega]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://syriatimes.sy/index.php/presidential-elections/13206-nicaragua-s-ortega-congratulates-president-al-assad-on-winning-elections |title=Nicaragua's Ortega Congratulates President Al-Assad on Winning Elections |work=syriatimes.sy}}</ref> and [[Mahmoud Abbas]], the leader of [[Fatah]] and [[President of the State of Palestine]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sana.sy/en/?p=4246 |title=President al-Assad receives congratulatory letter from President Abbas |author=h.said |access-date=20 April 2015|date=25 June 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/news/middle-east/12365-abbas-congratulates-al-assad-for-re-election-as-syrian-president |title=Abbas congratulates Al-Assad for re-election as Syrian president |work=Middle East Monitor |access-date=20 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512105225/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/news/middle-east/12365-abbas-congratulates-al-assad-for-re-election-as-syrian-president |archive-date=12 May 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/20320 |title=Abbas says he backs Syria's "war against terrorism" |work=Al Akhbar English |access-date=20 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503220223/http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/20320 |archive-date=3 May 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Palestinian [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] militant group [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] (PFLP) supported Assad during the Syrian civil war. As a result of this stance, the Iranian government increased its military and financial funding to the PFLP.<ref>{{cite web |title=Iran Increases Aid to PFLP Thanks to Syria Stance |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/09/iran-pflp-gaza-palestine-syria.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418132016/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/09/iran-pflp-gaza-palestine-syria.html |archive-date=18 April 2015 |access-date=20 April 2015 |work=Al-Monitor}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pro-Assad Palestinians call for Yarmouk truce |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/01/201318143633928478.html |access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref> === International public relations === [[File:Lula Al-Assad Itamaraty 2010.jpg|thumb|Bashar al-Assad wearing the "Grand Collar" of the ''[[National Order of the Southern Cross]]'', accompanied by Brazilian President [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] in [[Brasília]], 30 June 2010]] [[File:Alexander Lukashenko in a meeting with Bashar al-Assad in December 2003 (1) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Belarusian president [[Alexander Lukashenko]] alongside Bashar al-Assad during a state-visit to Syria in December 2003]] In order to promote their image and media-portrayal overseas, Bashar al-Assad and his wife [[Asma al-Assad]] hired U.S. and UK based [[Public relations|PR firms]] and consultants.<ref name=turnedtowest>{{cite news |title=Syria's Assads Turned to West for Glossy P.R. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/middleeast/syrian-conflict-cracks-carefully-polished-image-of-assad.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=10 June 2012 |last1=Carter |first1=Bill |last2=Chozick |first2=Amy}}</ref> In particular, these secured photoshoots for Asma al-Assad with fashion and celebrity magazines, including ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]''{{'}}s March 2011 "A Rose in the Desert".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/01/the-only-remaining-online-copy-of-vogues-asma-al-assad-profile/250753/ |title=The Only Remaining Online Copy of Vogue's Asma al-Assad Profile |author=Max Fisher |work=The Atlantic|date=3 January 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gawker.com/asma-al-assad-a-rose-in-the-desert-1265002284 |title=Asma al-Assad: A Rose in the Desert |author=Joan Juliet Buck |work=Gawker |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150604013456/http://gawker.com/asma-al-assad-a-rose-in-the-desert-1265002284 |archive-date=4 June 2015}}</ref> These firms included [[Bell Pottinger]] and [[Brown Lloyd James]], with the latter being paid $5,000 a month for their services.<ref name=turnedtowest/><ref name=PRcomeback/> At the outset of the Syrian civil war, Syrian government networks were hacked by the group [[Anonymous (group)|Anonymous]], revealing that an ex-[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] journalist had been hired to advise Assad on how to manipulate the public opinion of the U.S. Among the advice was the suggestion to compare the popular uprising against the regime to the [[Occupy Wall Street]] protests.<ref>{{cite web |title=Anonymous exposes e-mails of Syrian presidential aides |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2012/02/anonymous-hackers-expose-emails-of-syrian-presidential-aides/ |website=Ars Technica |date=8 February 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015 |last=Gallagher |first=Sean}}</ref> In a separate email leak several months later by the [[Supreme Council of the Syrian Revolution]], which were published by ''[[The Guardian]]'', it was revealed that Assad's consultants had coordinated with an Iranian government media advisor.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/14/assad-emails-lift-lid-inner-circle |title=Exclusive: secret Assad emails lift lid on life of leader's inner circle |first1=Robert |last1=Booth |first2=Mona |last2=Mahmood |first3=Luke |last3=Harding |work=The Guardian |quote=Before a speech in December his media consultant prepared a long list of themes, reporting that the advice was based on "consultations with a good number of people in addition to the media and political adviser for the Iranian ambassador". |date=14 March 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> In March 2015, an expanded version of the aforementioned leaks was handed to the Lebanese ''[[NOW News]]'' website and published the following month.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/AssadLeaks/565291-friends-in-the-media |last=Rowell |first=Alex |title=International relations |publisher=NOW News |date=18 May 2015 |access-date=23 May 2015 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022091657/https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/AssadLeaks/565291-friends-in-the-media |url-status=dead }}</ref> After the Syrian civil war began, the Assads started a [[social media]] campaign which included building a presence on Facebook, YouTube, and most notably [[Instagram]].<ref name="PRcomeback">{{cite news |url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/media/2013/09/14/Assad-makes-PR-comeback-targets-American-psyche-.html |title=Assad makes PR comeback, targets 'American psyche' |first=Mustapha |last=Ajbaili |publisher=Al Arabiya |quote=Assad's regime also activated its YouTube channel and multiple Facebook accounts. |date=14 September 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> A Twitter account for Assad was reportedly activated; however, it remained unverified.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/07/30/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-joined-instagram-here-are-his-first-photos/ |title=Syrian President Bashar al-Assad joined Instagram. Here are his first photos. |first=Caitlin |last=Dewey |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=30 July 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> This resulted in much criticism, and was described by ''[[The Atlantic Wire]]'' as "a propaganda campaign that ultimately has made the [Assad] family look worse".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thewire.com/politics/2013/08/bashar-al-assads-family/68915/ |title=The Failed Public Relations Campaign of Bashar al Assad's Family |first=Allie |last=Jones |work=The Wire |quote=a propaganda campaign that ultimately has made the family look worse |date=30 August 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015 |archive-date=8 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308212143/http://www.thewire.com/politics/2013/08/bashar-al-assads-family/68915/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Assad government has also allegedly arrested activists for creating Facebook groups that the government disapproved of,<ref name=Dissent2014/> and has appealed directly to Twitter to remove accounts it disliked.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/series/assad-emails-the-documents |title=Assad emails: 'Fares closed all your Twitter accounts' |work=The Guardian |date=14 March 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> The social media campaign, as well as the previously leaked emails, led to comparisons with [[Hannah Arendt]]'s ''[[Eichmann in Jerusalem|A Report on the Banality of Evil]]'' by ''The Guardian'', ''The New York Times'' and the ''Financial Times''.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/06/syrian-presidency-instagram-banality-evil |title=The Syrian presidency's Instagram account shows the banality of evil |first=Johnathan |last=Jones |work=The Guardian |date=6 September 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/15/syrias-first-couple-and-the-banality-of-e-mail/ |title=Syria's First Couple and the Banality of E-Mail |first1=Robert |last1=Mackey |work=The New York Times |date=15 March 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e0ce4102-710e-11e1-a7f1-00144feab49a.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e0ce4102-710e-11e1-a7f1-00144feab49a.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |title=Assad: faithful student of ruthlessness |first1=Roula |last1=Khalaf |work=Financial Times |date=18 March 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> In October 2014, 27,000 photographs depicting torture committed by the Assad government were put on display at the [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/bashar-al-assad-s-syrian-torture-chambers-205323124.html |title=Inside Bashar Assad's Torture Chambers |first1=Michael Abdel |last1=Isikoff |work=Yahoo News |date=13 October 2014 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/photo-gallery/syria-army-defectors-photos |title=Photos Presented to the House Foreign Affairs Committee by 'Caesar' at Briefing on 'Assad's Killing Machine Exposed: Implications for U.S. Policy'|publisher=House Committee on Foreign Affairs |date=30 July 2014 |access-date=15 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314211352/http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/photo-gallery/syria-army-defectors-photos |archive-date=14 March 2015}}</ref> Lawyers were hired to write a report on the images by the British law firm [[Carter-Ruck]], which in turn was funded by the [[Government of Qatar]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/01/20/world/syria-torture-photos-amanpour/ |title=Gruesome Syria photos may prove torture by Assad regime |author1=Mick Krever |author2=Schams Elwazer|date=20 January 2014 |work=CNN|access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref> [[File:دیدار بشار اسد با سید علی خامنه‌ای، ۱۰ مهر ۱۳۸۹ (04).jpg|thumb|Assad with Iranian President [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]] and Ayatollah Ali Khamenei in Tehran, Iran, 2010]] In November 2014, the [[Quilliam (think tank)|Quilliam Foundation]] reported that a propaganda campaign, which they claimed had the "full backing of Assad", spread false reports about the deaths of Western-born jihadists in order to deflect attention from the government's alleged war crimes. Using a picture of a Chechen fighter from the [[Second Chechen War]], pro-Assad media reports disseminated to Western media outlets, leading them to publish a false story regarding the death of a non-existent British jihadist.<ref name="Simpson 2014">{{cite news | last=Simpson | first=John | title=Assad's allies invent British jihadi death | website=The Times | date=6 November 2014 | url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/assads-allies-invent-british-jihadi-death-0fstqsrn2zl | access-date=25 November 2020}}</ref> In 2015, [[Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war|Russia intervened in the Syrian civil war]] in support of Assad, and on 21 October 2015, Assad flew to Moscow and met with Russian president Vladimir Putin, who said regarding the civil war: "this decision can be made only by the Syrian people. Syria is a friendly country. And we are ready to support it not only militarily but politically as well."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/10/syria-assad-met-russia-putin-moscow-151021064340109.html |title=Syria's Assad in surprise visit to Moscow |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref> == Personal life == [[File:Bashar and Asma al-Assad.jpg|thumb|Bashar al-Assad and his wife [[Asma al-Assad]]]] Assad speaks fluent English and basic conversational French, having studied at the Franco-Arab al-Hurriyah school in [[Damascus]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/04/how-bashar-al-assad-became-so-hated/275058/ |title=How Bashar al-Assad Became So Hated |first1=Majid |last1=Rafizadeh |date=17 April 2013 |access-date=14 March 2015 |work=The Atlantic}}</ref> In December 2000, Assad married [[Asma al-Assad|Asma Akhras]], a British citizen of Syrian origin from [[Acton, London]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1630134.stm |work=BBC News |title=The road to Damascus (all the way from Acton) |date=31 October 2001 |access-date=14 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1400296/Syria-factfile-Key-figures.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1400296/Syria-factfile-Key-figures.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |title=Syria factfile: Key figures |date=24 February 2003 |access-date=14 March 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In 2001, Asma gave birth to their first child, a son named [[Hafez Bashar al-Assad|Hafez]] after the child's grandfather Hafez al-Assad. Bashar al-Assad's son Hafez graduated from [[Moscow State University]] in the summer of 2023 with a master's thesis in number theory.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2023 |title=Сын Башара Асада с отличием окончил МГУ |url=https://www.rbc.ru/society/29/06/2023/649dd3249a79470f8edd25b2 |website=Rbc.ru |language=ru}}</ref> Their daughter Zein was born in 2003, followed by their second son Karim in 2004.<ref name=New_Republic_2013/> In January 2013, Assad stated in an interview that his wife was pregnant.<ref>{{cite news|last=Fisher|first=Max|date=28 January 2013|title=Syria's Bashar al-Assad says his wife is pregnant|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/01/28/syrias-bashar-al-assad-says-his-wife-is-pregnant/|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Black|first=Ian|date=29 January 2013|title=Bashar al-Assad's wife Asma 'pregnant with fourth child'|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/29/bashar-al-assad-wife-asma-pregnant|work=The Guardian|access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref> Bashar al-Assad is an [[Alawites|Alawite]] Muslim.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baltacioglu-Brammer |first1=Ayse |title=Alawites and the Fate of Syria |journal=Current Events in Historical Perspective |date=January 2014 |volume=7 |issue=4 |page=2 |url=https://origins.osu.edu/article/alawites-and-fate-syria |access-date=30 September 2021 |publisher=[[Ohio State University]]}}</ref> Bashar performed the ''[[hajj]]'' pilgrimage twice, in 1999 and in 2000.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Litvak |first=Meir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_cpjrIcHoQkC&pg=PA67 |title=Middle Eastern Societies and the West: Accommodation of Clash of Civilizations? |date=2006 |publisher=The Moshe Dayan Center |isbn=978-965-224-073-6 |language=en}}</ref> Assad's sister, [[Bushra al-Assad]], and mother, [[Anisa Makhlouf]], left Syria in 2012 and 2013, respectively, to live in the [[United Arab Emirates]].<ref name="New_Republic_2013">{{cite magazine |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/114630/bashar-al-assad-syria-family-guide |title=Think Bashar al Assad Is Brutal? Meet His Family |last1=Dwyer |first1=Mimi |magazine=The New Republic |date=8 September 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> Makhlouf died in [[Damascus]] in 2016.<ref name=aje>{{cite news |title=Syrian president's mother Anissa Assad dies aged 86 |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/02/syrian-president-mother-anissa-assad-dies-aged-86-160206210505879.html |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |date=6 February 2016 |access-date=2 March 2016}}</ref> ==Awards and honours== {{color box|#f99}} Revoked and returned awards and honours. {{Clear}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left;" |- ! style="width:90px;" | Ribbon ! style="width:250px;" | Distinction ! style="width:120px;" | Country ! style="width:100px;" | Date ! style="width:100px;" | Location ! style="width:250px;" | Notes ! Reference |- | [[File:Legion Honneur GC ribbon.svg|80px]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | Grand Cross of the National Order of the [[Legion of Honour]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | {{flag|France}} | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 25 June 2001 | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Paris]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | Highest rank in the Order of the Legion of Honor in the Republic of France. Returned by Assad on 20 April 2018<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/20/world/europe/assad-france-legion-of-honor.html |title = A French Honor Not Always for the Honorable; Assad Returns His|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 20 April 2018|last1 = Pérez-Peña|first1 = Richard}}</ref> after the opening of a revocation process by the [[President of France|President of the Republic]], [[Emmanuel Macron]], on 16 April 2018. | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2018/04/16/la-france-engage-la-procedure-pour-retirer-sa-legion-d-honneur-a-bachar-al-assad_5286264_823448.html |title=La France engage la procédure pour retirer sa Légion d'honneur à Bachar Al-Assad |publisher=Le Monde |language=fr |date=16 April 2018|newspaper=Le Monde.fr }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.leparisien.fr/politique/bachar-al-assad-rend-sa-legion-d-honneur-a-la-france-esclave-des-etats-unis-19-04-2018-7673658.php |title=Bachar al-Assad rend sa Légion d'honneur à la France, "esclave des Etats-Unis" |newspaper=Le Parisien |language=fr |date=19 April 2018}}</ref> |- | [[File:Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise 1st 2nd and 3rd Class of Ukraine.png|80px]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | [[Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Ukraine}} | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 21 April 2002 | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Kyiv]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | Revoked on 18 March 2023, as part of sanctions issued by [[Ukrainian President]] [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] which revoked all previous Ukrainian state awards to members of the Assad government.<ref name="The New Arab"/> | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | <ref name="rada">{{cite web |url=http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/362/2002 |title=Про нагородження орденом князя Ярослава Мудрого – від 20 April 2002 № 362/2002 |publisher=rada.gov.ua}}</ref><ref name="The New Arab"/> |- | [[File:Reale ordine di francesco I.png|80px]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | [[Knight]] [[Grand Cross]] of the [[Royal Order of Francis I]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Two Sicilies}} | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 21 March 2004 | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Damascus]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | [[Dynastic order of knighthood|Dynastic order]] of the [[House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies]]; Revoked several years later{{When|date=July 2024|reason=This is wildly unclear}} by [[Prince Carlo, Duke of Castro]]. | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | <ref name="Two_Sicilies_awards_1">{{cite news |url=http://www.mediafaxfoto.ro/Preview.aspx?Id=256111 |title=SYRIA-ASSAD-BOURBON |last1=Beshara |first1=Louai |publisher=mediafaxfoto.ro |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=21 March 2004 |access-date=15 March 2015 |language=ro}}</ref><ref name="Two_Sicilies_awards_2">{{cite news |url=http://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-presents-prince-carlo-of-news-photo/181414500 |title=181414500 |last1=Beshara |first1=Louai |publisher=[[Getty Images]] |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=21 March 2004 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> |- | [[File:Ribbon bar of the Order of Zayed.svg|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Order of Zayed]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|United Arab Emirates}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 31 May 2008 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Abu Dhabi]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Highest civil decoration in the United Arab Emirates. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.alwatanvoice.com/arabic/news/2008/06/01/129056.html |script-title=ar:رئيس دولة الامارات يقلد الرئيس السوري وسام زايد تعبيرا عن عمق العلاقات التي تربط البلدين|publisher=Al Watan Voice |date=1 June 2008 |access-date=16 September 2018 |language=ar}}</ref> |- | [[File:FIN Order of the White Rose Grand Cross BAR.svg|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Order of the White Rose of Finland]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Finland}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 5 October 2009 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Damascus]] | style="font-size:90%;" | One of three [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Finland|official orders in Finland]]. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.savonsanomat.fi/kotimaa/IS-Syyrian-sotarikoksista-syytetyll%C3%A4-presidentill%C3%A4-Suomen-korkein-kunniamerkki/427627 |title=Syyrian sotarikoksista syytetyllä presidentillä Suomen korkein kunniamerkki |publisher=savonsanomat.fi |date=20 October 2013 |access-date=25 October 2016 |language=fi}}</ref> |- | [[File:Spange des König-Abdulaziz-Ordens.png|85px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Order of King Abdulaziz]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Saudi Arabia}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 8 October 2009 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Damascus]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Highest Saudi state order. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |url=http://thawra.sy/_print_veiw.asp?FileName=63107819420091008022531 |script-title=ar:القمــــــــــة الســـــــــورية الســـــــــعودية... الرئيس الأسد وخادم الحرمين الشريفين يبحثان آفاق التعاون ويتبادلان أرفع وسامين وطنيين.. تعزيز العمل العربي المشترك – رفع الحصار عن الفلسطينيين|publisher=Al Thawra |date=8 October 2009 |access-date=16 September 2018 |language=ar}}</ref> |- | [[File:ITA OMRI 2001 GC-GCord BAR.svg|80px]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | Knight Grand Cross with [[Collar (order)|Collar]] of the [[Order of Merit of the Italian Republic]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Italy}} | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 11 March 2010 | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Damascus]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | Highest ranking honour of the Republic of Italy. Revoked by the [[President of Italy|President of the Republic]], [[Giorgio Napolitano]], on 28 September 2012 for "indignity". | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |title=Dettaglio decorato: Al-Assad S.E. Bashar Decorato di Gran Cordone |publisher=quirinale.it |url=http://www.quirinale.it/elementi/DettaglioOnorificenze.aspx?decorato=311336 |date=29 June 2010 |access-date=14 March 2015 |language=it}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://banchedati.camera.it/sindacatoispettivo_16/showXhtml.asp?highLight=0&idAtto=57321&stile=8 ATTO CAMERA INTERROGAZIONE A RISPOSTA SCRITTA 4/17085] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://banchedati.camera.it/sindacatoispettivo_16/showXhtml.asp?highLight=0&idAtto=57321&stile=8 |date=18 October 2015 }} Banchedati.camera.it {{in lang|it}}</ref> |- | [[File:VEN Order of the Liberator - Grand Cordon BAR.png|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Collar of the [[Order of the Liberator]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Venezuela}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 28 June 2010<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.aporrea.org/actualidad/n160308.html |title= Gaceta Oficial 39.454 lunes 28 de junio 2010 |language=es |trans-title= Official Gazette 39.454 Monday 28 June 2010 |date= 28 June 2010 |access-date= 25 October 2023 |publisher= [[Aporrea]]}}</ref> | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Caracas]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Highest Venezuelan state order. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/03/05/venezuela-chavezs-authoritarian-legacy |publisher= Human Rights Watch |title= Venezuela: Chávez's Authoritarian Legacy |date= 5 March 2013 |access-date= 25 October 2023}}</ref> |- | [[File:BRA - Order of the Southern Cross - Grand Cross BAR.svg|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Grand Collar of the [[Order of the Southern Cross]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Brazil}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 30 June 2010 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Brasília]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Brazil's highest order of merit. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.antt.gov.br/html/objects/_downloadblob.php?cod_blob=3231 |title=Diário Oficial da União – Seção |publisher=Superintenência de Seguros Privados |issn=1677-7042 |format=PDF |date=13 July 2010 |access-date=15 March 2015 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402091010/http://www.antt.gov.br/html/objects/_downloadblob.php?cod_blob=3231 |archive-date=2 April 2015 }}</ref> |- | [[File:LBN National Order of the Cedar - Grand Cordon BAR.svg|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Grand Cordon]] of the [[National Order of the Cedar]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Lebanon}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 31 July 2010 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Beirut]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Second highest honour of Lebanon. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |title=President Michel Suleiman hosts Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and Saudi King Abdullah bin Abdel Aziz |url=http://www.marada-news.org/?q=node/3338 |publisher=Marada-news.org |date=31 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429080726/http://www.marada-news.org/?q=node%2F3338 |archive-date=29 April 2014}}</ref> |- | [[File:Orden al Mérito IRI.png|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Order of the Islamic Republic of Iran]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Iran}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 2 October 2010 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Tehran]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Highest national medal of Iran. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |title=Iran Awards Syrian Leader Highest Medal of Honor |url=http://www.voanews.com/content/assad-in-iran-to-discuss-iraq-104203254/127153.html |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |date=1 October 2010 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429052040/http://www.voanews.com/content/assad-in-iran-to-discuss-iraq-104203254/127153.html |archive-date=29 April 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Syrian President Awarded Iran's Medal of Honor |url=http://www.cbn.com/cbnnews/insideisrael/2010/October/Syrian-President-Awarded-Irans-Medal-of-Honor/ |publisher=[[CBN News]] |date=4 October 2010 |access-date=14 March 2015}}</ref> |- | [[File:Лента Ордена Уацамонга.png|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Uatsamonga Order]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|South Ossetia}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 2018 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Damascus]] | style="font-size:90%;" | State award of South Ossetia. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |title=Syrian president Bashar al-Assad to visit South Ossetia|url=https://oc-media.org/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-to-visit-south-ossetia/ |publisher=OC Media|date=31 July 2018 |access-date=4 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804000533/https://oc-media.org/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-to-visit-south-ossetia/ |archive-date=4 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> |} ==See also== {{Portal|Middle East|Biography|Politics}} * [[List of international presidential trips made by Bashar al-Assad]] * [[Presidency of Hafez al-Assad]] * [[Foreign Policy of Bashar al-Assad]] == Explanatory notes == {{Notelist}} == References == === Citations === {{Reflist|30em}} === General and cited references === {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book |last=Blanford |first=Nicholas |title=Killing Mr Lebanon: The Assassination of Rafik Hariri and Its Impact on the Middle East |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84511-202-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/killingmrlebanon00blan }} * {{Cite book |last=Bronner |first=Stephen Eric |title=Peace Out of Reach: Middle Eastern Travels and the Search for Reconciliation |publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8131-2446-9 }} * {{Cite book |editor1-last=Hashemi |editor1-first=Nader |editor2-last=Postel |editor2-first=Danny |title=The Syria Dilemma |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-262-02683-3 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Heydemann |first1=Steven |last2=Leenders |first2=Reinoud |title=Middle East Authoritarianisms: Governance, Contestation, and Regime Resilience in Syria and Iran |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8047-9333-9 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Leverett |first=Flynt L. |title=Inheriting Syria: Bashar's Trial By Fire |publisher=[[Brookings Institution]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8157-5204-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/inheritingsyria00flyn }} * {{Cite book |last=Lesch |first=David W. |title=Syria: The Fall of the House of Assad |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-300-18651-2 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Mammone |editor1-first=Andrea |editor2-last=Godin |editor2-first=Emmanuel |editor3-last=Jenkins |editor3-first=Brian |date=2012 |title=Mapping the Extreme Right in Contemporary Europe: From Local to Transnational |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-50265-8 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Ma'oz |first1=Moshe |last2=Ginat |first2=Joseph |last3=Winckler |first3=Onn |title=Modern Syria: From Ottoman Rule to Pivotal Role in the Middle East |publisher=[[Sussex Academic Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=1-898723-83-4 }} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Mikaberidze |editor1-first=Alexander |title=Atrocities, Massacres, and War Crimes: An Encyclopedia |location=Santa Barbara, California |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-59884-925-7 }} * {{Cite book |last=Minahan |first=James |title=Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: A–C |year=2002 |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |isbn=978-0-313-32109-2 }} * {{Cite book |last=Moosa |first=Matti |title=Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-8156-2411-0 }} * {{Cite book |last=Pierret |first=Thomas |title=Religion and State in Syria: The Sunni Ulama from Coup to Revolution |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-107-60990-7 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Sadiki |first=Larbi |title=Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring: Rethinking Democratization |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-415-52391-2 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Seale |first1=Patrick |last2=McConville |first2=Maureen |title=Asad of Syria: The Struggle for the Middle East |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-520-06976-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/asadofsyriastrug00seal }} * {{Cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |last2=Roberts |first2=Priscilla |edition= |title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-85109-841-5 }} * {{Cite book |last=Zisser |first=Eyal |title=Commanding Syria: Bashar Al-Asad And the First Years in Power |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84511-153-3 }} {{refend}} == Further reading == * {{Cite book |last=Abboud |first=Samer |title=Syria (Hot Spots in Global Politics) |publisher=Polity |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-7456-9797-0|ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Belhadj |first=Souhaïl |date=2013 |title=La Syrie de Bashar Al-Asad : Anatomie d'un régime autoritaire |trans-title=Bashar's Syria: Anatomy of an Authoritarian Regime |language=fr |publisher=Belin |isbn=978-2-7011-6467-0|ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last1=Hinnebusch |first1=Raymond |title=Syria: Revolution From Above |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-28568-1|ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last1=Perthes |first1=Volker |title=Syria Under Bashar Al-Asad: Modernisation and the Limits of Change |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-856750-9|ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Tabler |first=Andrew |title=In the Lion's Den: An Eyewitness Account of Washington's Battle with Syria |publisher=Zephyr Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-56976-843-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/inlionsdeneyewit00tabl |ref=none}} '''Reports''' * {{Cite report |author=Yossi Baidatz |date=August 2001 |title=Bashar's First Year: From Ophthalmology to a National Vision |url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/PolicyFocus41.pdf |publisher=Washington Institute for Near East Policy |asin=B0006RVLNM |access-date=12 March 2015 |ref=none |archive-date=25 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225095843/http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/PolicyFocus41.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{Cite report |author=Annette Büchs |date=March 2009 |title=The Resilience of Authoritarian Rule in Syria under Hafez and Bashar Al-Asad |url=http://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/system/files/publications/wp97_buechs.pdf |publisher=German Institute of Global and Area Studies |docket=97 |access-date=12 March 2015 |ref=none |archive-date=9 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009210705/https://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/system/files/publications/wp97_buechs.pdf |url-status=dead }} '''Articles''' * {{cite web |url=http://www.meforum.org/meib/articles/0304_s2.htm |first=Ziad K. |last=Abdelnour |title=Syria's Proxy Forces in Iraq |publisher=[[Al-Hayat]] |date=12 April 2003|ref=none}} * {{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2579331.stm |title=Profile: Syria's Bashar al-Assad |work=[[BBC News]] |date=10 March 2005|ref=none}} * {{cite journal |url=http://www.meforum.org/article/730 |first=William |last=Harris |title=Bashar al-Assad's Lebanon Gamble |journal=[[Middle East Quarterly]] |date=Summer 2005|ref=none}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/9085/syrias_leaders.html |first=Esther |last=Pan |title=Syria's Leaders |publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |date=10 March 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060719135235/http://www.cfr.org/publication/9085/syrias_leaders.html |archive-date=19 July 2006|ref=none}} * {{cite web |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703833204576114712441122894 |title=Interview With Syrian President Bashar al-Assad |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date=31 January 2011|ref=none}} * {{cite web |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2007/07/200852518514154964.html |title=Profile: Bashar al-Assad |publisher=[[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al Jazeera]] |date=25 March 2011|ref=none}} * {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9gyTXO_xIg |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118094013/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9gyTXO_xIg |archive-date=18 November 2016 |url-status=live |first=Charlie |author-link=Charlie Rose |last=Rose |title=Interview with Bashar Hafez al-Assad |publisher=[[PBS]] |date=9 September 2013 |ref=none |access-date=5 November 2016 }} ==External links== {{sister project links|c=Category: Bashar al-Assad|d=yes|q=yes|n=yes|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}} * {{Official website|sana.sy/en/}} ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110811101337/http://www.sana.sy/eng/article/123.htm Biography] ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529042116/http://sana.sy/section.html?&req=shownews&topicid=13&newlang=eng Decrees] ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529042110/http://sana.sy/section.html?&req=shownews&topicid=11&newlang=eng Speeches] ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529041500/http://sana.sy/section.html?&req=shownews&topicid=12&newlang=eng Interviews] ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529042829/http://sana.sy/section.html?&req=shownews&topicid=10&newlang=eng Press releases] * {{C-SPAN|93150}} * {{Guardian topic}} * {{NYTtopic|people/a/bashar_al_assad}} * {{IMDb name|1519747}} {{s-start}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[Abdul Halim Khaddam]] <br /><small>Acting</small>}} {{s-ttl|title=[[President of Syria]] | years=2000–2024}} {{s-aft|after=TBD}} |- {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Hafez al-Assad]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Secretary of the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Syrian Regional Command]] of the [[Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party]]|years=2000–2024}} {{s-aft|after=TBD}} |- {{s-end}} {{Presidents of Syria}} {{Ba'ath Party}} {{Syria topics}} {{Arab Spring}} {{Syrian Civil War}} {{Arab nationalism}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Assad, Bashar Al-}} [[Category:Bashar al-Assad| ]] [[Category:1965 births]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:20th-century presidents in Asia]] [[Category:20th-century Syrian politicians]] [[Category:21st-century Syrian politicians]] [[Category:Presidents of Syria]] [[Category:Anti-Americanism]] [[Category:Anti-Zionism in the Arab world]] [[Category:Al-Assad family|Bashar Al]] [[Category:Ba'athism]] [[Category:Children of presidents of Syria]] [[Category:Damascus University alumni]] [[Category:Exiled politicians]] [[Category:Far-left politics in Asia]] [[Category:Fugitives wanted by France]] [[Category:Fugitives wanted on crimes against humanity charges]] [[Category:Fugitives wanted on war crimes charges]] [[Category:Grand Cordons of the National Order of the Cedar]] [[Category:Holocaust deniers]] [[Category:Homs Military Academy alumni]] [[Category:Leaders of political parties]] [[Category:Members of the National Command of the Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)]] [[Category:Members of the Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region]] [[Category:Muslim socialists]] [[Category:People of the Syrian civil war]] [[Category:People stripped of honorary degrees]] [[Category:Politicians from Damascus]] [[Category:Politicide perpetrators]] [[Category:Recipients of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 1st class]] [[Category:Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List]] [[Category:Syrian Alawites]] [[Category:Syrian Arab nationalists]] [[Category:Syrian exiles]] [[Category:Syrian expatriates in Russia]] [[Category:Syrian expatriates in the United Kingdom]] [[Category:Syrian mass murderers]] [[Category:Syrian nationalists]] [[Category:Syrian male writers]] [[Category:Syrian male boxers]] [[Category:Syrian ophthalmologists]] [[Category:Totalitarianism]] 27h546pcumwzu4atsptro5wek62b259 JavaScript 0 46904 112788 2025-06-15T16:19:16Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295129472|JavaScript]]" 112788 wikitext text/x-wiki '''JavaScript''' kanandi kufupikiskika kuti '''JS''', ni chiyowoyero cha mapulogiramu ndiposo tekinoloje yikuru ya World Wide Web, pamoza na HTML na CSS. Mawebusaiti 99 pa 100 ghakugwiriskira ntchito JavaScript pa cigaŵa cha wakulomba pa umo webusayiti yikuchitira. <ref name="deployedstats">{{Cite web |title=Usage Statistics of JavaScript as Client-side Programming Language on Websites |url=https://w3techs.com/technologies/details/cp-javascript |access-date=2024-02-27 |website=W3Techs}}</ref> Chakuwonela vya pa mahamba gha intaneti chikuŵanga na chendeski cha JavaScript icho chikukhazikiska malembo gha malayizgo gha wakulomba. Injini izi zikugwiriskirikaso nchito mu milamuli ya ntchito yinyakhe na mapulogiramu gha ŵagwiliski ghakupambanapambana . Nthowa yakumanyikwa chomene yakugwiriskira ntchito kwambura browser ni Node.js . JavaScript ni chiyowoyero chapachanya, kanandi Chiyowoyero icho chikunozgeka nyengo yeneyiyo chikukhumbikwa. ndipo chikukolerana na muyezo wa ECMAScript . <ref name="tc39">{{Cite web |title=ECMAScript 2020 Language Specification |url=https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-overview |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508053013/https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-overview |archive-date=2020-05-08 |access-date=2020-05-08}}</ref> Lili na kulemba kwakusintha, kuwoneska vinthu vyakuyana na chiyelezgero, na milimo ya kilasi lakwamba . Ni viyerezgero vinandi, kukhozgera ivyo vikuchitika, vyakugwira ntchito, na masitayilo ghakukhumbikwa gha mapulogalamu . Lili na chipata cha kuyowoyiskana cha mapulogalamu ghakugwiriskira ntchito (APIs) ghakugwilira ntchito na malemba, mazuŵa, mazgu gha nyengo zose, kapangikiro ka data kakumanyikwa, na Document Object Model (DOM). Muyezo wa ECMAScript ukusazgapo chara vyakunjilirapo/vyakufumamo (I/O), nthe [[Mkwawo wa mrangura|Kwendeska kwa mikwawo ya mirangura]], kusungirako, panji malo ghakuwoneskera. Mukuchita, burauza panji pulogiramu yinyake iyo yikuchitika yikupereka nthowa za JavaScript zakuchitira ntchito ya kunjizga na kufumiska. Nangauli Java na JavaScript vikuyana waka pa zina na umo vikulembekera, kweni viyowoyero viŵiri vyeneivi ni vyakupambana ndipo vikupambana chomene pa umo vili kupangikira. == Mbiri == === Kupanga ku Netscape === Webusayiti yakwamba yakumanyikwa chomene iyo yili na vithuzithuzi vyakugwiriskira ntchito, Mosaic, yikafumiskika mu 1993. Ŵanthu awo ŵakalongozganga pa kupanga Mosaic ŵakambiska kampani ya Netscape, iyo yikafumiska pulogiramu yakutowa chomene, Netscape Navigator, mu 1994. Ici cikaŵa cakugwiriskirika ncito mwaluŵiro mwaluŵiro. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Enzer |first=Larry |date=August 31, 2018 |title=The Evolution of the Web Browsers |url=https://www.mwdwebsites.com/nj-web-design-web-browsers.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831174847/https://www.mwdwebsites.com/nj-web-design-web-browsers.html |archive-date=August 31, 2018 |access-date=August 31, 2018 |website=Monmouth Web Developers}}</ref> 695huziae9u7fdh55g0osjdp72yh363 112789 112788 2025-06-15T20:30:34Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 112789 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chiyowoyero cha mapulogalamu ghapachanya}} {| class="wikitable" |+ JavaScript - Vimanyikwiro vyakuzirwa |- ! Field !! Value |- | Zina|| JavaScript |- | Chithuzithuzi pa makina || [[File:JavaScript code.png|thumb|Chithunzithunzi cha khodi ya JavaScript]] |- | nthowa || Likugwiriskira ncito nthowa zinandi zakughanaghanira na kugwira nchito: kuzgora ku ivyo vikucitika, kugwira nchito na milimo, kupeleka malango ghakudunjika, kulondezga malango gha pa sitepe na sitepe, na kuŵika nchito mu magulu mu vinthu. |- | Kasungiliro || Garbage collected |- | Mbumba || [[ECMAScript]] |- | Ŵopanga|| [[Brendan Eich]] (Netscape), Ŵanyake ŵakawovwirapo pa ECMAScript |- | Kadofyero|| Kakupambanapambana, yitechi, baka |- | Skope || Leskiko |- | Kufunyika|| 4 vula 1995 |- | Mtundu wasonosono || {{wikidata|property|edit|reference|P548=Q2804309|P348}} |- | Zuŵa lasonosono lakufumiskika || {{start date and age|{{wikidata|qualifier|single|P548=Q2804309|P348|P577}}}} |- | Mtundu wasonosono wakuwoneka pambele kufumiskika || {{wikidata|property|edit|reference|P548=Q51930650|P348}} |- | Zuŵa lasonosono lakuwona pambele kufumiskika || {{start date and age|{{wikidata|qualifier|single|P548=Q51930650|P348|P577}}}} |- | Mitandazgo ya Fayilo || <code>.js</code>, <code>.mjs</code>, <code>.cjs</code> |- | Hamba || [https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-262/ ECMA-262 Standard] |- | Migwilisko|| [[V8 (JavaScript engine)|V8]], [[JavaScriptCore]], [[SpiderMonkey]], [[Chakra (JavaScript engine)|Chakra]] (deprecated) |- | Kuŵindika na || [[Java (programming language)|Java]], [[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]], [[Self (programming language)|Self]], [[AWK]], [[HyperTalk]] |- | Yaŵinda|| [[ActionScript]], [[ArkTS]], [[AssemblyScript]], [[CoffeeScript]], [[Dart (programming language)|Dart]], [[Haxe]], [[JS++]], [[Opa (programming language)|Opa]], [[TypeScript]] |- | Wikibooks || [[Wikibooks:JavaScript|JavaScript]] |} '''JavaScript''' kanandi kufupikiskika kuti '''JS''', ni chiyowoyero cha mapulogiramu ndiposo tekinoloje yikuru ya World Wide Web, pamoza na HTML na CSS. Mawebusaiti 99 pa 100 ghakugwiriskira ntchito JavaScript pa cigaŵa cha wakulomba pa umo webusayiti yikuchitira. <ref name="deployedstats">{{Cite web |title=Usage Statistics of JavaScript as Client-side Programming Language on Websites |url=https://w3techs.com/technologies/details/cp-javascript |access-date=2024-02-27 |website=W3Techs}}</ref> Chakuwonela vya pa mahamba gha intaneti chikuŵanga na chendeski cha JavaScript icho chikukhazikiska malembo gha malayizgo gha wakulomba. Injini izi zikugwiriskirikaso nchito mu milamuli ya ntchito yinyakhe na mapulogiramu gha ŵagwiliski ghakupambanapambana . Nthowa yakumanyikwa chomene yakugwiriskira ntchito kwambura browser ni Node.js . JavaScript ni chiyowoyero chapachanya, kanandi Chiyowoyero icho chikunozgeka nyengo yeneyiyo chikukhumbikwa. ndipo chikukolerana na muyezo wa ECMAScript . <ref name="tc39">{{Cite web |title=ECMAScript 2020 Language Specification |url=https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-overview |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508053013/https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-overview |archive-date=2020-05-08 |access-date=2020-05-08}}</ref> Lili na kulemba kwakusintha, kuwoneska vinthu vyakuyana na chiyelezgero, na milimo ya kilasi lakwamba . Ni viyerezgero vinandi, kukhozgera ivyo vikuchitika, vyakugwira ntchito, na masitayilo ghakukhumbikwa gha mapulogalamu . Lili na chipata cha kuyowoyiskana cha mapulogalamu ghakugwiriskira ntchito (APIs) ghakugwilira ntchito na malemba, mazuŵa, mazgu gha nyengo zose, kapangikiro ka data kakumanyikwa, na Document Object Model (DOM). Muyezo wa ECMAScript ukusazgapo chara vyakunjilirapo/vyakufumamo (I/O), nthe [[Mkwawo wa mrangura|Kwendeska kwa mikwawo ya mirangura]], kusungirako, panji malo ghakuwoneskera. Mukuchita, burauza panji pulogiramu yinyake iyo yikuchitika yikupereka nthowa za JavaScript zakuchitira ntchito ya kunjizga na kufumiska. Nangauli Java na JavaScript vikuyana waka pa zina na umo vikulembekera, kweni viyowoyero viŵiri vyeneivi ni vyakupambana ndipo vikupambana chomene pa umo vili kupangikira. == Mbiri == === Kupanga ku Netscape === Webusayiti yakwamba yakumanyikwa chomene iyo yili na vithuzithuzi vyakugwiriskira ntchito, Mosaic, yikafumiskika mu 1993. Ŵanthu awo ŵakalongozganga pa kupanga Mosaic ŵakambiska kampani ya Netscape, iyo yikafumiska pulogiramu yakutowa chomene, Netscape Navigator, mu 1994. Ici cikaŵa cakugwiriskirika ncito mwaluŵiro mwaluŵiro. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Enzer |first=Larry |date=August 31, 2018 |title=The Evolution of the Web Browsers |url=https://www.mwdwebsites.com/nj-web-design-web-browsers.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831174847/https://www.mwdwebsites.com/nj-web-design-web-browsers.html |archive-date=August 31, 2018 |access-date=August 31, 2018 |website=Monmouth Web Developers}}</ref> mij8c103uskwputymprwmtsn4arewdk 112790 112789 2025-06-15T20:31:54Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 112790 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chiyowoyero cha mapulogalamu ghapachanya}} {| class="wikitable" |+ JavaScript - Vimanyikwiro vyakuzirwa |- ! Field !! Value |- | Zina|| JavaScript |- | Chithuzithuzi pa makina || [[File:JavaScript code.png|thumb|Chithunzithunzi cha khodi ya JavaScript]] |- | nthowa || Likugwiriskira ncito nthowa zinandi zakughanaghanira na kugwira nchito: kuzgora ku ivyo vikucitika, kugwira nchito na milimo, kupeleka malango ghakudunjika, kulondezga malango gha pa sitepe na sitepe, na kuŵika nchito mu magulu mu vinthu. |- | Kasungiliro || Garbage collected |- | Mbumba || [[ECMAScript]] |- | Ŵopanga|| [[Brendan Eich]] (Netscape), Ŵanyake ŵakawovwirapo pa ECMAScript |- | Kadofyero|| Kakupambanapambana, yitechi, baka |- | Skope || Leskiko |- | Kufunyika|| 4 vula 1995 |- | Mtundu wasonosono || {{wikidata|property|edit|reference|P548=Q2804309|P348}} |- | Zuŵa lasonosono lakufumiskika || |- | Mtundu wasonosono wakuwoneka pambele kufumiskika || {{wikidata|property|edit|reference|P548=Q51930650|P348}} |- | Zuŵa lasonosono lakuwona pambele kufumiskika || |- | Mitandazgo ya Fayilo || <code>.js</code>, <code>.mjs</code>, <code>.cjs</code> |- | Hamba || [https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-262/ ECMA-262 Standard] |- | Migwilisko|| [[V8 (JavaScript engine)|V8]], [[JavaScriptCore]], [[SpiderMonkey]], [[Chakra (JavaScript engine)|Chakra]] (deprecated) |- | Kuŵindika na || [[Java (programming language)|Java]], [[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]], [[Self (programming language)|Self]], [[AWK]], [[HyperTalk]] |- | Yaŵinda|| [[ActionScript]], [[ArkTS]], [[AssemblyScript]], [[CoffeeScript]], [[Dart (programming language)|Dart]], [[Haxe]], [[JS++]], [[Opa (programming language)|Opa]], [[TypeScript]] |- | Wikibooks || [[Wikibooks:JavaScript|JavaScript]] |} '''JavaScript''' kanandi kufupikiskika kuti '''JS''', ni chiyowoyero cha mapulogiramu ndiposo tekinoloje yikuru ya World Wide Web, pamoza na HTML na CSS. Mawebusaiti 99 pa 100 ghakugwiriskira ntchito JavaScript pa cigaŵa cha wakulomba pa umo webusayiti yikuchitira. <ref name="deployedstats">{{Cite web |title=Usage Statistics of JavaScript as Client-side Programming Language on Websites |url=https://w3techs.com/technologies/details/cp-javascript |access-date=2024-02-27 |website=W3Techs}}</ref> Chakuwonela vya pa mahamba gha intaneti chikuŵanga na chendeski cha JavaScript icho chikukhazikiska malembo gha malayizgo gha wakulomba. Injini izi zikugwiriskirikaso nchito mu milamuli ya ntchito yinyakhe na mapulogiramu gha ŵagwiliski ghakupambanapambana . Nthowa yakumanyikwa chomene yakugwiriskira ntchito kwambura browser ni Node.js . JavaScript ni chiyowoyero chapachanya, kanandi Chiyowoyero icho chikunozgeka nyengo yeneyiyo chikukhumbikwa. ndipo chikukolerana na muyezo wa ECMAScript . <ref name="tc39">{{Cite web |title=ECMAScript 2020 Language Specification |url=https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-overview |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508053013/https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-overview |archive-date=2020-05-08 |access-date=2020-05-08}}</ref> Lili na kulemba kwakusintha, kuwoneska vinthu vyakuyana na chiyelezgero, na milimo ya kilasi lakwamba . Ni viyerezgero vinandi, kukhozgera ivyo vikuchitika, vyakugwira ntchito, na masitayilo ghakukhumbikwa gha mapulogalamu . Lili na chipata cha kuyowoyiskana cha mapulogalamu ghakugwiriskira ntchito (APIs) ghakugwilira ntchito na malemba, mazuŵa, mazgu gha nyengo zose, kapangikiro ka data kakumanyikwa, na Document Object Model (DOM). Muyezo wa ECMAScript ukusazgapo chara vyakunjilirapo/vyakufumamo (I/O), nthe [[Mkwawo wa mrangura|Kwendeska kwa mikwawo ya mirangura]], kusungirako, panji malo ghakuwoneskera. Mukuchita, burauza panji pulogiramu yinyake iyo yikuchitika yikupereka nthowa za JavaScript zakuchitira ntchito ya kunjizga na kufumiska. Nangauli Java na JavaScript vikuyana waka pa zina na umo vikulembekera, kweni viyowoyero viŵiri vyeneivi ni vyakupambana ndipo vikupambana chomene pa umo vili kupangikira. == Mbiri == === Kupanga ku Netscape === Webusayiti yakwamba yakumanyikwa chomene iyo yili na vithuzithuzi vyakugwiriskira ntchito, Mosaic, yikafumiskika mu 1993. Ŵanthu awo ŵakalongozganga pa kupanga Mosaic ŵakambiska kampani ya Netscape, iyo yikafumiska pulogiramu yakutowa chomene, Netscape Navigator, mu 1994. Ici cikaŵa cakugwiriskirika ncito mwaluŵiro mwaluŵiro. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Enzer |first=Larry |date=August 31, 2018 |title=The Evolution of the Web Browsers |url=https://www.mwdwebsites.com/nj-web-design-web-browsers.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831174847/https://www.mwdwebsites.com/nj-web-design-web-browsers.html |archive-date=August 31, 2018 |access-date=August 31, 2018 |website=Monmouth Web Developers}}</ref> 2uhpook6xqky3fj7fai96g0s48gueax User talk:KiranBOT 3 46905 112794 2025-06-16T10:25:39Z KiranBOT 9970 soft redirect to [[:en:user talk:sernamekiran]] 112794 wikitext text/x-wiki {{soft redirect|en:User talk:Usernamekiran}} qr0mf2vw16c27hfhur0f0o18ckxriwd User talk:Usernamekiran 3 46906 112795 2025-06-16T10:25:43Z KiranBOT 9970 soft redirect to [[:en:user talk:sernamekiran]] 112795 wikitext text/x-wiki {{soft redirect|en:User talk:Usernamekiran}} qr0mf2vw16c27hfhur0f0o18ckxriwd