User talk:Tumbuka Arch

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{{Tumbuka Arch Talk 2}}
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'''ALL TUMBUKA HISTORY BOOKS'''
[https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1XgLgzF3vyXF9NMdLiymx5weR5twXJ4pB?usp=sharing Here]

== Growth News #35 ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
[[File:Growth team logo - Icon only.svg|right|frameless|class=skin-invert]]

''A quarterly update from the Growth team on our work to improve the new editor experience.''

=== New releases ===

==== English Wikipedia gets &quot;Add a Link&quot; Structured Task ====

We [[w:Wikipedia_talk:Growth_Team_features#&quot;Add_a_link&quot;_experiment_and_next_steps|released]] the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Personalized first day/Structured tasks/Add a link|&quot;Add a Link&quot; Structured Task]] to 100% of accounts at English Wikipedia on Tuesday, September 2nd (before then it was available to 20% of accounts).

==== Growth features for Wikidata ====
After examining if the Growth features and Mentorship could be adapted to Wikidata, we activated the Growth features on [https://www.wikidata.beta.wmcloud.org/wiki/Wikidata:Main_Page Beta Wikidata] to allow for testing and discussion ([[phab:T400937|T400937]]).
Although some features, like Suggested Edits, are Wikipedia-specific, the Growth team designed most features to be more wiki-agnostic.

=== Work in progress ===

==== Revise Tone Structured Task ====
The Growth team is making progress on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Revise Tone|the technical architecture, onboarding design, and early user testing]].
We are targeting an A/B test before the end of this year, with constructive edits by newcomers as the primary success metric.

==== Add a link to more wikis ====

The machine learning team has been working on a new model that can suggest links to more languages, including Urdu, Chinese, and Japanese Wikipedias. [[phab:T404460|We are starting to release]] the “Add a Link” feature to Wikipedias that weren’t supported by the previous model.

[[mw:Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]], which can be [[mw:Help:Growth/Tools/Add_a_link#Configuration|configured by the community locally]], increases the chance that a new contributor will make their first edit and then continue to participate in Wikipedia.

=== Research ===

The Growth team is involved in several research initiatives to help guide our future work: 

[[mw:Growth/Progression System|Progression System]] – We have [[mw:Growth/Progression_System#Design_Research|published]] initial findings from interviews with 10 English and French Wikipedia newcomers.
The research examined motivations, challenges, and feedback on a prototype system intended to help editors build confidence, develop skills, and contribute more constructively over time.

[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Contributors/Mobile Web Editing Research|Mobile Web Editing Research]] – This project combines quantitative and qualitative data, community feedback, and user journey analysis to identify possible ways to enhance the mobile editing experience.

[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Research:Successful Newcomers Survey 2025|Newcomers Survey]] – This project surveys successful newcomers on English Wikipedia to understand their early editing experiences, tool use, and community interactions.

=== Community events ===

The Growth team participated in several community events to listen, share, and collaborate on improving newcomer experiences across Wikimedia projects.

'''Wikimania - [https://wikimedia.eventyay.com/talk/wikimania2025/talk/RPBSEF/ Organizers as key partners to support newcomers' growth in our movement]'''

This session invited organizers to share how they introduce newcomers to Growth features and the challenges they encounter. The discussion focused on common newcomer questions and opportunities to strengthen collaboration in supporting new editors.

'''Wikimania - [https://wikimedia.eventyay.com/talk/wikimania2025/talk/review/VCSCUVJCGFRNY89TTKXRVFMGYMWPMSXT Lightning Talk: Structured Tasks]'''

This talk demonstrated how Structured Tasks help newcomers take their first successful steps on Wikipedia. It shared impact data, community configurations, and a demo of “Add a Link,” illustrating how these tasks make editing more accessible and sustainable, particularly for mobile contributors.

'''Wikimania - [https://wikimedia.eventyay.com/talk/wikimania2025/talk/TVCVAB/ Building a Sustainable Future for Wikimedia Contributors]'''

With active editor numbers declining, the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Contributors/Strategy|Contributors Strategy]] aims to create a clearer, more engaging path for participation. This session, led by the WMF Contributors group with involvement from the Editing, Growth, Moderator Tools, and Connection (formerly Campaigns) teams, highlighted efforts to streamline contributor experiences, offer structured and mobile-friendly workflows, and foster meaningful engagement. Participants learned about ongoing initiatives and shared feedback to help shape a more inclusive and sustainable future for Wikimedia contributors.

'''CEE Meeting - [[metawiki:Wikimedia_CEE_Meeting_2025/Submissions/Retaining_beginners_and_improving_content_moderation:_an_inclusive_and_sustainable_future_for_Wikipedia_contributors|Retaining beginners and improving content moderation: an inclusive and sustainable future for Wikipedia contributors]]'''

Many communities face a decline in volunteer engagement. Newcomers often leave soon after joining, while experienced editors struggle to manage increasingly complex workflows and overwhelming backlogs. We presented the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Contributors/Strategy|Contributors Strategy]] and the different features and workflows that can help communities to address these challenges. We listened to the specific needs of the CEE communities to help guide the Contributors teams' work.

''&lt;small&gt;'''[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Newsletters|Growth team's newsletter]]''' prepared by [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth|the Growth team]] and posted by [[m:User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[mw:Talk:Growth|Give feedback]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/Growth team updates|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].&lt;/small&gt;''
&lt;/div&gt; 10:23, 22 Okutobala 2025 (UTC)
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== Update request ==

Hello, Tumbuka Arch. 

Can you rename [[Prince Andrew, Fumu ya York]] into [[Andrew Mountbatten Windsor]] (without the hyphen)? 

After all his titles, honours and styles were stripped of him on 30 October 2025, he became plain (Mr.) Andrew Mountbatten Windsor (with no hyphen). 

Here is the official statement from Buckingham Palace: 

https://www.royal.uk/news-and-activity/2025-10-30/a-statement-from-buckingham-palace 

Yours sincerely, [[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]] ([[User talk:Kurcke|pakuchezgela]]) 06:25, 2 Novembala 2025 (UTC)

:@[[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]] Thank you for this.I have moved it to current proper name. :) [[user:Tumbuka Arch|&lt;span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'&gt;'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''&lt;/span&gt;]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''&lt;span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'&gt;&lt;sup&gt;★&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;★&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;★&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;''']] 07:38, 2 Novembala 2025 (UTC)
::Thank you very much. [[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]] ([[User talk:Kurcke|pakuchezgela]]) 07:40, 2 Novembala 2025 (UTC)

== AI-generated articles on tumwiki ==

Hi Tumbuka Arch, it's been a while. I thought I'd just let you know that Jon Gua/Caro de Segeda has been found to be dumping AI translations of articles crosswiki, you can refer to evidence at [[:m:Steward requests/Miscellaneous#Mass machine translations/AI-generated pages]] or [[:m:User:Ferien/Chabi]] (which is more of a work in progress). I wanted to let you know, as this is a wiki with active admins, the articles here won't be being deleted by stewards, so I would recommend you thoroughly review the articles and consider deletions. Best, [[User:Ferien|Ferien]] ([[User talk:Ferien|pakuchezgela]]) 22:16, 26 Malichi 2026 (UTC)</text>
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      <comment>Removing [[:c:File:VOA_Arrott_-_A_View_of_Syria,_Under_Government_Crackdown_05.jpg|VOA_Arrott_-_A_View_of_Syria,_Under_Government_Crackdown_05.jpg]], it has been deleted from Commons by [[:c:User:Krd|Krd]] because: [[:c:Commons:Deletion requests/File:VOA</comment>
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      <text bytes="298942" sha1="d1h6kotmvbue26odvngtzyova39214y" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|President of Syria from 2000 to 2024}}
{{Family name hatnote|[[Al-Assad family|Assad]]|lang=Arabic}}
{{Current related|date=December 2024|2=Fall of the Assad regime}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific-prefix    = 
| name                = Bashar al-Assad
| native_name         = {{nobold|بشار الأسد}}
| native_name_lang    = ar
| image               = Bashar al-Assad in May 2024.png
| image_upright       = 
| alt                 = 
| caption             = Assad in 2024
| order               = 19th
| office              = President of Syria
| primeminister       = {{clist|title=''See list''|[[Muhammad Mustafa Mero]]|[[Muhammad Naji al-Otari]]|[[Adel Safar]]|[[Riyad Farid Hijab]]|[[Omar Ibrahim Ghalawanji]]|[[Wael Nader al-Halqi]]|[[Imad Khamis]]|[[Hussein Arnous]]|[[Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali]]}}
| vicepresident       = {{clist|title=''See list''| 
Abdul Halim Khaddam&lt;br /&gt;(2000–2005)|[[Zuhair Masharqa]]&lt;br /&gt;(2000–2006)|[[Farouk al-Sharaa]]&lt;br /&gt;(2006–2014)|[[Najah al-Attar]]&lt;br /&gt;(2006–2024)|[[Faisal Mekdad]]&lt;br /&gt;(Sep–Dec 2024)}}
| term_start          = 17 July 2000
| term_end            = 8 December 2024
| predecessor         = {{ubl|[[Hafez al-Assad]]|[[Abdul Halim Khaddam]] (acting)}}
| successor           = 
| office1             = General Secretary of the [[Central Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Central Command]] of the [[Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party]]
| deputy1             = {{ubl|[[Abdullah al-Ahmar]]|[[Hilal Hilal]]|[[Ibrahim al-Hadid]]}}
| term_start1         = 24 June 2000
| term_end1           = 8 December 2024
| predecessor1        = Hafez al-Assad
| successor1          = Ibrahim al-Hadid
| birth_name          = Bashar Hafez al-Assad
| birth_date          = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1965|9|11}}
| birth_place         = [[Damascus]], [[Ba'athist Syria|Syrian Arab Republic]]
| death_date          = 
| death_place         = 
| death_cause         = 
| residence           = {{ubl|[[Presidential Palace, Damascus|The People's Palace]], [[Damascus]] (until 2024)| [[Moscow]], Russia (since 2024)}}
| party               = [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party]]
| otherparty          = [[National Progressive Front (Syria)|National Progressive Front]]
| spouse              = {{marriage|[[Asma al-Assad]]|2000}}
| children            = 3, including [[Hafez Bashar al-Assad|Hafez]]
| father              = [[Hafez al-Assad]]
| mother              = [[Anisa Makhlouf]]
| relatives           = [[al-Assad family]]
| signature           = Bashar al-Assad Signature.png
| allegiance          = Syria
| branch              = [[Syrian Armed Forces]]
| serviceyears        = 1988–2024
| rank                = [[File:Syria Army - OF10.svg|15px]] [[Field marshal]]
| unit                = [[Republican Guard (Syria)|Republican Guard]] (until 2000)
| commands            = [[Syrian Armed Forces]]
| battles             = [[Syrian civil war]]
| citizenship         = 
| education           = [[Damascus University]] ([[Medical degree|MD]])
}}
{{Bashar al-Assad series}}
{{Ba'athism sidebar}} 

'''Bashar al-Assad''' (wakababika pa 11 Seputembala 1965) ndi wandale wa ku Syria ndipo ndi msilikari uyo wakaba 19th president wa Syria kufuma 2000 mpaka kuwa kwa boma la Assad mu 2024. Apo wakaŵa pulezidenti, Assad wakaŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa Siriya kweniso wakaŵa mulembi wa ŵasilikari ŵa chipani cha Ba'ath. Iyo ni mwana wa Hafez al-Assad, uyo wakaŵa pulezidenti kufuma mu 1971 mpaka apo wakafwira mu 2000.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=September 2022 |title=Civilian Death Toll |url=https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305114908/https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-date=5 March 2022 |website=SNHR}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;* {{Cite news|date=6 March 2023|title=Security Council Deems Syria's Chemical Weapon's Declaration Incomplete|work=United Nations: Meetings Coverage and Press Releases|url=https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314022057/https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm|archive-date=14 March 2023}}
* {{Cite web |date=15 May 2023 |title=Fifth Review Conference of the Chemical Weapons Convention |url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515121348/https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-date=15 May 2023 |website=European Union External Action}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

M'ma 1980, Assad wakazgoka dokotala, ndipo kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1990 wakasambizganga vya maso ku London. Mu 1994, mukuru wake Bassel al-Assad wakafwa pa ngozi ya galimoto, ndipo Assad wakacemeka ku Syria kuti wakapokere udindo wa Bassel. Assad wakanjira sukulu ya usilikali na kwamba kulongozga ŵasilikari ŵa Siriya mu Lebanoni mu 1998. Pa 17 July 2000, Assad wakazgoka pulezidenti, ndipo wakawelera mu malo gha adada ŵake, awo ŵakafwa pa 10 June 2000.Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikacitika mu 2001-2002 vikawovwira kuti Damascus Spring yimare, nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵe palipose kweniso kuti paŵe demokilase.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;

Ŵasayansi na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakulongosora kuti muwuso wa Assad ukaŵa wa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵayendere makora, ndipo boma la Syria likaŵa nga ni boma la ŵapolisi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakaŵasuzganga na kuŵatambuzga chomene. Apo boma la Assad likati ni la ŵanthu ŵa visopa vinyake yayi, ŵasayansi na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakayowoya kuti boma ili likagwiliskiranga nchito ŵanthu ŵa visopa vinyake mu caru ici. Nangauli Asad wakahara mazaza na nkharo ya wiske, kweni ŵanthu ŵakamutemwanga yayi nga umo ŵakachitiranga ŵadada ŵake. Pa cifukwa ici, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu muwuso wa ŵawiske ŵakaleka nchito panji ŵakathereskeka, ndipo ŵamazaza ŵa mu muwuso ŵakasuskika na ŵanthu ŵakugomezgeka ŵa fuko la Alawite. Mapulogiramu ghakwambilira gha Assad gha kuwunjikira chuma ghakawunjikira mpambano ndipo ghakawunjikira nkhongono ŵanthu ŵa ku Damascus awo ŵakagomezgekanga ku mbumba ya Assad, ndipo ghakaŵachimbizga ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi, mu misumba, ŵamalonda, ŵamalonda, na ŵanthu ŵa ku Ba'ath. Mu Febuluwale 2005, ŵanthu ŵa ku Lebanon ŵakacita nkhondo ya Cedar Revolution, iyo yikamba cifukwa ca kukoma Rafic Hariri, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya caru ca Lebanon.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

Mu 2011, United States, European Union, na vigaŵa vinandi vya Arab League vikacema Assad kuti wafumeko pa udindo wake cifukwa ca kuyuzga ŵanthu awo ŵakakhuŵiliranga mu nyengo ya Arab Spring. Nkhondo iyi yikoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 580,000, ndipo ŵanthu 306,000 awo ŵakafwa ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari yayi. Boma la Assad lapanga milandu yinandi ya nkhondo mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya chalo cha Syria, apo ŵasilikari ŵake ŵacita nkhondo zinandi na vilwero vya mankhwala (makamaka, bomba la sarin ku Ghouta pa 21 August 2013). Wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu wa UN, ukayowoya kuti ivyo ukawona vikavumbura kuti Assad wali na mulandu wa nkhondo, ndipo boma la vyaru vinyake likamufumba na kumususka.

Mu Novembala 2024, gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Syria likawukira boma na chilato chakuti likhizge Assad. Pa Disembala 8, ŵasilikari ŵakugaluka ŵakati ŵanjira mu Damascus, Assad wakacimbilira ku Moscow ndipo boma la Russia likamupa ciphokwero. Pamanyuma pa zuŵa lenelira, ŵasilikari ŵakagalukira boma la Damaseko, ndipo boma la Assad likamara..&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=7 December 2024 |title=Syrian rebels topple President Assad, prime minister calls for free elections |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-celebrate-captured-homs-set-sights-damascus-2024-12-07/ |access-date=7 December 2024 |work=[[Reuters]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=9 December 2024 |title=Assad flees to Moscow after rebels take Syrian capital, Russian state media report |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/syria-damascus-falls-to-rebels-1.7404700 |access-date=9 December 2024 |work=[[CBC News]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|date=8 December 2024|title=Syria's President Bashar al Assad is in Moscow and has been granted asylum, confirms Russian state media|url=https://uk.news.yahoo.com/syrias-president-bashar-al-assad-175000548.html}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Umoyo wakwamba, mbumba na masambiro ==
{{Further|Al-Assad family}}

Bashar al-Assad wakababikira ku Damascus pa 11 September 1965, mwana wachiŵiri wa Anisa Makhlouf na Hafez al-Assad. Mu Ciarabu, zina lakuti &quot;Al-Assad&quot; likung'anamura kuti &quot;nkhalamu&quot;. Ali al-Assad, uyo wakaŵa sekuru wa Assad, wakasintha zina lake kufuma pa kuŵa mulimi na kuŵa munthu wakuzirwa, ndipo mu 1927, wakasintha zina la mbumba yake kufuma pa &quot;Wahsh&quot; (kung'anamura kuti &quot;Chikavu&quot;) na kuŵa &quot;Al-Assad&quot;.

Dada wa Assad, Hafez al-Assad, wakababikira mu mbumba yambura ndalama, iyo yikaŵa ya ku mizi ndipo yikaŵa ya chigaŵa cha Alawite. Hafez wakakwezga ŵanthu awo ŵakamulondezganga mu chipani cha Ba'ath, ndipo ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko la Alawite. Pamanyuma pa cipanduko ici, ŵasilikari ŵa Alawite ŵakamba kuwusa, ndipo ŵa Sunni, ŵa Druze, na ŵa Ismaili ŵakafumiskika mu gulu la ŵasilikari na gulu la Ba'ath. Muwuso wa ŵasilikari wa Hafez al-Assad wa vilimika 30, ukazgora Siriya kuŵa muwuso waciŵembu. Ndondomeko yiphya ya ndyali yikalongozgekanga na ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa ŵa gulu la Ba'ath, awo ŵakaŵa ŵakugomezgeka comene ku mbumba ya Assad, ndipo ŵakalongozganga ŵasilikari, ŵasilikari ŵa boma, na ŵapolisi.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allam, Saber 2019 26–27&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2= Salah Saber |title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=26–27 |chapter=The domestic structure of the regime}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Cole |first=Robert |title=The Encyclopaedia of Propaganda |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=9781317471981 |pages=760–761 |chapter=Syria}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mubali Assad wakaŵa na ŵabali ŵake ŵankhondi, ndipo ŵatatu ŵali kufwa. Mudumbu munyake zina lake Bushra wakafwa apo wakaŵa bonda. Mudumbu wa Assad, Majd, wakaŵa munthu wakumanyikwa yayi, ndipo pali vinandi yayi ivyo tikumanya vya iyo padera pa fundo yakuti wakaŵa wakupendera maghanoghano, ndipo wakafwa mu 2009 pamanyuma pa &quot;kulwara kwa nyengo yitali&quot;.

Mwakupambana na ŵanung'una ŵake Bassel na Maher, na mudumbu wake Bushra, Bashar wakaŵa wakuzika, wakudemelera, ndipo wakakhumbanga yayi kunjira ndyali panji usilikari. Ŵana ŵa Assad ŵakatemwanga yayi kucezga na adada ŵawo, ndipo Bashar wakayowoya kuti wakanjira mu ofesi ya adada ŵake kamoza pera apo ŵakaŵa pulezidenti. Munthu munyake uyo wakasambiranga nayo ku yunivesite wakayowoya kuti wakaŵa na soni, wakakhumbanga yayi kulaŵiskana na munthu, ndipo wakayowoyanga mwakuzika.

Assad wakasambira sukulu ya pulayimale na sekondare ku sukulu ya Al-Hurriya ku Damascus. Mu 1982, wakamalizga masambiro gha ku sekondare ndipo wakasambira udokotala pa yunivesite ya Damascus.{{sfn|Leverett|2005|p=59}}

== Medical career and rise to power ==
[[File:Basil assad.JPG|thumb|upright=0.95|Chithunzithunzi cha Bassel al-Assad (1962–1994), mubali mulara wa Bashar, uyo pakwamba wakakhumbikwiranga kuzakatora malo gha ŵawiske pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa Syria, kweni wakafwa pa ngozi ya galimoto mu 1994.]]
Mu 1988, Assad wakamalizga masambiro ghake gha udokotala ndipo wakamba kugwira nchito ya udokotala ku chipatala cha Tishrin ku Damascus. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vinayi, wakasamira ku London kuti wakambe masambiro gha ku chipatala cha Western Eye. Mu nyengo iyo wakaŵa ku London, ŵanthu ŵakamuzunuranga kuti ni &quot;munthu wakucita vya makompyuta&quot;. Bashar wakaŵa na vilato vichoko waka vya ndyali, ndipo adada ŵake ŵakasambizganga Bassel, mukuru wa Bashar kuti waŵe mulongozgi wa caru. Mu 1994, Bassel wakafwa pa ngozi ya galimoto, ndipo nyengo yicoko waka, Bashar wakacemeka kuti wakambe usilikari. Boma likamba kuphalira ŵanthu kuti Bashar ni &quot;chigomezgo cha ŵanthu wose&quot; kuti ŵalutilire kuwusa mu muwuso wa Assad.

Ŵakati ŵafwa waka, Hafez al-Assad wakasankha Bashar kuti ndiyo waŵe themba. Kwa vyaka 6 na hafu, mpaka apo wakafwira mu 2000, Hafez wakanozganga Bashar kuti wapokere mazaza. General Bahjat Suleiman, uyo wakaŵa msilikari mu gulu la ŵasilikari, wakapika mulimo wa kulongozga kunozgekera kuti vinthu viŵe makora, ndipo mulimo uwu ukachitika mu vigaŵa vitatu. Cakwamba, ŵasilikari na ŵasilikari ŵakamovwira comene Bashar. Caciŵiri, ŵanthu ŵakamba kumumanya makora Bashar. Paumaliro, Bashar wakamanyikwa makora umo boma likwendera.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ladno&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Ladno.ru|script-title=ru:Асад Башар : биография|trans-title=Bashar Assad: A Biography|url=http://www.ladno.ru/person/asad/bio/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150441/http://ladno.ru/person/asad/bio/|archive-date=18 October 2015|access-date=23 September 2011|newspaper=Ladno|language=ru}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Kuti waŵe msilikari, Bashar wakaluta ku sukulu ya usilikali ku Homs mu 1994 ndipo wakaluta ku gulu la ŵasilikari la Syrian Republican Guard mu Janyuwale 1999. Kuti Bashar waŵe na mazaza pa ŵasilikari, ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ŵakaŵachimbizga kuti ŵaleke kunjira usilikari, ndipo ŵapya, ŵawukirano, ŵasilikari ŵa chigaŵa cha Alawite awo ŵakaŵa ŵakugomezgeka kwa Bashar ndiwo ŵakanjira m'malo mwawo.

Mu 1998, Bashar wakatora udindo wa Syria ku Lebanon, uwo kufuma mu 1970 ukaŵa wa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti Abdul Halim Khaddam, uyo m'paka pa nyengo iyi wakaŵa kuti wangakhumbikwira kuŵa pulezidenti. Pakwamba kulamulira ku Lebanon, Bashar wakathereska Khaddam na kukhazikiska boma lake ku Lebanon. Mu chaka chenechichi, pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana na ŵanthu ŵa ndyali ŵa ku Lebanoni, Bashar wakimika Emile Lahoud, uyo wakaŵa mubwezi wake wakugomezgeka, kuŵa pulezidenti wa ku Lebanoni ndipo wakathereska Rafic Hariri, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya ku Lebanoni. Kuti watimbanizge boma la Syria ku Lebanon, Bashar wakasora Rustum Ghazaleh, uyo wakakhala kwa nyengo yitali nga ni High Commissioner wa Syria ku Lebanon, Ghazi Kanaan.{{sfn|Blanford|2006|p=88}}

Kuyana waka na ntchito yake ya usilikari, Bashar wakachitanga ntchito za boma. Wakapika mazaza ghanandi ndipo wakazgoka mulara wa ofesi yakupokelera madandaulo na mapemphero gha ŵantu, ndipo wakalongozga kampeni yakulimbana na vimbundi. Chifukwa cha kampeni iyi, ŵanandi awo ŵangaŵa ŵakususkana na Bashar pakuŵa pulezidenti ŵakazengeka mulandu chifukwa cha vimbundi. Bashar wakazgokaso Pulezidenti wa wupu wa ŵamakompyuta ŵa ku Syria ndipo wakawovwira kuti paŵe intaneti ku Syria, ndipo ivi vikamovwira kuti ŵawoneke kuti ni munthu uyo ​​wakusintha vinthu mazuŵa ghano ndiposo wakusintha vinthu. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezgeka ŵa Ba'athist mu chipani, ŵasilikari na gulu la Alawite ŵakakhozgeranga Bashar al-Assad, ndipo ivi vikamovwira kuti waŵe mulongozgi wa ŵawiske.&lt;ref name=&quot;facing down rebellion&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/10338256 |title=Syrian President Bashar al-Assad: Facing down rebellion |work=BBC News |date=21 October 2015 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=11 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411120901/https://www.bbc.com/news/10338256 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Presidency ==
{{Main|Presidency of Bashar al-Assad}}

=== Early leadership (2000–2011) ===
[[File:TlassBashar.webp|thumb|Pa nyengo iyo, Nduna ya Chitetezo Mustafa Tlass pamoza na Bashar al-Assad, pa 1 Ogasiti 2000. Pamanyuma Tlass na mwana wake Manaf Tlass ŵakafumapo pa gulu ili pamanyuma pakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Syria ŵasintha boma.]]
[[File:AlAsssad2004 militaryuniform.jpg|thumb|Assad mu 2004]]
Hafez al-Assad wakati wafwa pa 10 June 2000, Constitution ya Syria yikasinthika. Ŵakachepeska vyaka vya munthu uyo wangaŵa pulezidenti kufuma pa 40 kufika pa 34, apo Bashar wakaŵa pa nyengo iyo. Asad ndiyo yekha wakakhalapo pa mpikisano uwu ndipo pa 10 Julayi 2000, wakazomerezgeka kuŵa pulezidenti. Mwakuyana na udindo wake wa pulezidenti wa Syria, wakasoleka kuŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa Syria kweniso kuŵa mulembi wa chipani cha Ba'ath. Pa vyaka 7 vilivyose kukaŵanga visankho ndipo Assad ndiyo wakawusanga. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuwona umo vinthu viliri pa caru ŵakuwona kuti ivyo vikucitika pa visora ni vyautesi ndipo ŵakususka ŵakuvilekeska. Masankho ghaŵiri ghaumaliro agho ghakachitika mu 2014 na 2021 ghakachitikira mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa mu mawoko gha boma la Syria.&lt;ref name=&quot;theguardian.com&quot;&gt;{{cite news |date=28 May 2014 |title=Syrians in Lebanon battle crowds to vote for Bashar al-Assad |website=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/28/syrians-lebaanon-vote-assad-embassies-refugees-boycott |access-date=9 November 2017 |archive-date=20 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320122744/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/28/syrians-lebaanon-vote-assad-embassies-refugees-boycott |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;telegraph.co.uk&quot;&gt;{{cite news |date=16 July 2014 |title=Bashar al-Assad sworn in for a third term as Syrian president |website=The Daily Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10970476/Bashar-al-Assad-sworn-in-for-a-third-term-as-Syrian-president.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=17 December 2016 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10970476/Bashar-al-Assad-sworn-in-for-a-third-term-as-Syrian-president.html |archive-date=11 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Kossaify&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Kossaify |first=Ephrem |date=22 April 2021 |title=UN reiterates it is not involved in Syrian presidential election |work=Arab News |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/%7B%7B |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422181511/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/middle-east |archive-date=22 April 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Damascus Spring ====
{{See also|Damascus Spring}}
Wakati wamba waka kuwusa, gulu linyake lakucemeka Damascus Spring, ilo likalongozgekanga na ŵalembi, ŵanthu ŵavinjeru, ŵakususka, na ŵanthu ŵakutemwa vinthu vyautesi, likacita vinthu mwamahara, ndipo ŵakamalizga kujalira jele la Mezzeh na kufumiska ŵakayidi ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa mu gulu la Muslim Brotherhood. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakambaso kutimbana na ŵasilikari, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti vinthu viŵe nga ni umo vikaŵira ku Damascus mu nyengo ya chiwuvi. Ŵanandi ŵakaŵakora, kuŵatimba, kuŵatumizga ku wuzga, panji kuŵakaka, ndipo boma likalutilira kuŵapa wanangwa wa kuyowoya. Vinthu ivyo ŵakacita pakwamba vikawelerapo kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na mazaza pa vinthu, ndipo boma likakanizga mulimo wa Damascus Spring na chilato chakuti &quot;ŵanthu ŵaŵe ŵakukolerana kweniso ŵakhazikike&quot;. Ndondomeko ya boma ya &quot;kukolerana pa vinthu vya ŵanthu na vya malonda&quot; yikazgoka chimanyikwiro cha vimbundi, ndipo awo ŵakakolerananga na Assad ndiwo ŵakasanganga chandulo. Maofesi ghanandi ghakakanizgika, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵavinjeru ŵakakoleka na ŵapolisi ŵa Mukhabarat, ŵakakomeka na kutambuzgika. Ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ivyo boma likalayizga pakwamba vikaŵa vigaŵa vya nthowa iyo boma likagwiliskiranga nchito kuti lisange Ŵasiriya awo ŵakakolerananga yayi na boma liphya.

Pa ulendo wa nduna yikuru ya Britain Tony Blair ku Syria mu Okutobala 2001, Bashar wakususka pakweru kuwukira kwa United States ku Afghanistan pa ungano wa wupu wa ŵapharazgi, wakati &quot;tikutondeka kuzomera ivyo tikuwona zuŵa lililose pa TV kwithu - kukomeka kwa ŵanthu ŵambura mulandu. Ŵanandi ŵakufwa zuŵa lililose&quot;. Pa ungano uwu, Asad wakalumba gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Palestina kuti ni &quot;ŵasilikari awo ŵakurwa nkhondo ya wanangwa&quot; ndipo wakasuska Israyeli na vyaru vya ku Europe. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma la Britain ŵakayowoya kuti ivyo Assad wakacitanga pakusopa vikaŵa vyakukolerana yayi na ŵanthu ŵanyake. Ŵakatenge wakususka ivyo vikacitika pa Seputembala 11, ndipo wakuzomerezga kuti boma la Israyeli ndakuzomerezgeka.

Pamanyuma pa vilengo vya pa 11 Seputembala, ndipo pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku America ya kulimbana na vigeŵenga, &quot;Syria yikaŵa yimoza mwa vyaru ivyo CIA yikagwiliskiranga nchito pa nkhondo yakwimikana na al-Qaeda&quot;, ndipo &quot;makhaliro na unandi wa uthenga uwo ukafumanga ku Syria [ukaŵa] ukuru comene kuluska ivyo CIA yikaghanaghananga&quot;. 8] Syria yikakolerana chomene na CIA pakukaka ŵanthu na kuŵafumba mafumbo. Mu majele gha ku Syria ndimo mukaŵanga ŵanthu ŵanandi awo CIA yikaŵapharazgiranga kuti mba al-Qaeda. Kuyana na lipoti la 2013 la gulu la Open Society Foundations, ku Syria ndiko kukaŵanga ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya CIA.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/05/cia-rendition-countries-covert-support|title=CIA rendition: more than a quarter of countries 'offered covert support': Report finds at least 54 countries co-operated with global kidnap, detention and torture operation mounted after 9/11 attacks|last=Cobain|first=Ian|date=5 February 2013|work=The Guardian|access-date=10 October 2024|archive-date=19 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190519103259/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/05/cia-rendition-countries-covert-support|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Killing of Rafic Hariri and Cedar Revolution ====
{{See also|Assassination of Rafic Hariri|Cedar Revolution|Syrian occupation of Lebanon}}
{{quote box|&quot;It will be [[Emile Lahoud|Lahoud]].. opposing him is tantamount to opposing [[Assad dynasty|Assad]] himself.. I will break [[Lebanon]] over your head and over [[Walid Jumblatt]]'s head. So you had better return to [[Beirut]] and arrange the matter on that basis.&quot;
| source = — Assad's threats to [[Rafic Hariri]] in August 2004, over the issue of tenure extension of Syrian ally Emile Lahoud&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Coughlin |first=Con |title=Assad: The Triumph of Tyranny |publisher=Pan Macmillan |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-5290-7490-1 |location=London |pages=80–97 |chapter=5: First Blood}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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[[File:Hariri Scene-of-crime View-from-east.jpg|thumb|left|The crime-scene in [[Beirut]] where Hariri and 21 others were killed in a terrorist attack in February 2005. The area was cordoned off to conduct an international investigation.]]
On 14 February 2005, [[Rafic Hariri]], the former prime minister of Lebanon, was [[Assassination of Rafic Hariri|assassinated]] in a massive truck-bomb explosion in [[Beirut]], killing 22 people. ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]'' reported that &quot;Syria was widely blamed for Hariri's murder. In the months leading to the assassination, relations between Hariri and Syrian President Bashar al-Assad plummeted amid an atmosphere of threats and intimidation.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0214/Rafik-Hariri-In-Lebanon-assassination-reverberates-10-years-later |title=Rafik Hariri: In Lebanon, assassination reverberates 10 years later |journal=The Christian Science Monitor |access-date=20 April 2015 |date=14 February 2015 |archive-date=20 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420011320/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0214/Rafik-Hariri-In-Lebanon-assassination-reverberates-10-years-later |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Bashar promoted his brother-in-law [[Assef Shawkat]], a key figure suspected of orchestrating the terrorist attack, as the chief of [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|Syrian Military Intelligence Directorate]] immediately after Hariri's death.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=20 July 2012 |title=Comeback kid of Assad regime was a feared figure |work=Sydney Morning Herald |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/comeback-kid-of-assad-regime-was-a-feared-figure-20120719-22d5g.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120721080802/https://www.smh.com.au/world/comeback-kid-of-assad-regime-was-a-feared-figure-20120719-22d5g.html |archive-date=21 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Cedar Revolution Demonstrators.jpg|thumb|Protesters take to the streets during Lebanon's &quot;Independence Intifada&quot;, also known as the [[Cedar Revolution]].]]
The killings caused massive uproar, triggering an ''[[intifada]]'' in [[Lebanon]] and hundreds of thousands of protestors poured on the streets to demand total withdrawal of Syrian military forces. After mounting international pressure that called Syria to implement the [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559|UNSC Resolution 1559]], Bashar al-Assad declared on 5 March that he would order the departure of Syrian soldiers. On 14 March 2005, more than a million [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]] protestors – Muslims, Christians, and Druze – demonstrated in Beirut, marking the monthly anniversary of Hariri's murder. UN Resolution 1595, adopted on 7 April, sent an [[Assassination of Rafic Hariri#Investigation|international commission]] to investigate the assassination of Hariri. By 5 May 2005, United Nations had officially confirmed the total departure of all Syrian soldiers, ending the 29-year old [[Syrian occupation of Lebanon|military occupation]]. The uprisings that occurred in these months came to be known as Lebanon's &quot;independence intifada&quot; or the &quot;[[Cedar Revolution]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Rudy Jaafar and [[Maria Stephan|Maria J. Stephan]]. (2009). &quot;Lebanon's Independence Intifada: How an Unarmed Insurrection Expelled Syrian Forces&quot;, in Maria J. Stephan (ed.), ''Civilian Jihad: Nonviolent Struggle, Democratization, and Governance in the Middle East'', New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp.&amp;nbsp;169–185.&lt;/ref&gt;

UN investigation commission's report published on 20 October 2005 revealed that high-ranking members of [[Syrian intelligence]] and [[Assad family]] had directly supervised the killing.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=21 October 2005 |title=UN Harīrī probe implicates Syria |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4362698.stm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051107092900/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4362698.stm |archive-date=7 November 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |author1=John Kifner |author2= Warren Hoge |date=21 October 2005 |title=Top Syrian Seen as Prime Suspect in Assassination |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/21/world/middleeast/top-syrian-seen-as-prime-suspect-in-assassination.html |access-date=21 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529190850/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/21/world/middleeast/top-syrian-seen-as-prime-suspect-in-assassination.html |archive-date=29 May 2015 |issn=0362-4331}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Mehlis |first=Detlev |date=19 October 2005 |title=Report of the International Independent Investigation Commission Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1595 (2005) |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/21_10_05_mehlisreport.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051021233807/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/21_10_05_mehlisreport.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2005 |journal=}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[BBC]] reported in December 2005 that &quot;Damascus has strongly denied involvement in the car bomb which killed Hariri in February&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4519346.stm |title=Middle East – New Hariri report 'blames Syria' |access-date=20 April 2015 |date=11 December 2005 |archive-date=26 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326082247/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4519346.stm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Pratibha Devisingh Patil and the Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh at the ceremonial reception of the President of Syrian Arab Republic, Dr. Bashar al – Assad and his wife Mrs. Asma al-Assad, in New Delhi on June 18, 2008.jpg|thumb|Assad with Indian Prime Minister  [[Manmohan Singh]] in New Delhi, India, 18 June 2008]]
On 27 May 2007, Assad was [[2007 Syrian presidential election|approved for another seven-year term]] in a referendum on his presidency, with 97.6% of the votes supporting his continued leadership.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm |title=Syria |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |date=26 January 2012 |access-date=4 March 2012 |archive-date=21 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121022641/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=29 May 2007 |title=Syria's Assad wins another term |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6700021.stm |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-date=5 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505061141/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6700021.stm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=28 May 2007 |title=Democracy Damascus style: Assad the only choice in referendum |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |access-date=9 October 2016 |archive-date=20 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420124315/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Opposition parties were not allowed in the country and Assad was the only candidate in the referendum.&lt;ref name=&quot;CBS %&quot;&gt;Klatell, James (27 May 2007). [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ &quot;Syrians Vote in Presidential Referendum&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134454/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ |date=6 April 2017 }}. CBS News.&lt;/ref&gt; Syria's opposition parties under the umbrella of [[Damascus Declaration]] denounced the elections as illegitimate and part of the regime's strategy to sustain the &quot;[[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] system&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;WaPo %2&quot;&gt;{{cite news |date=28 May 2007 |title=Syrians Vote For Assad in Uncontested Referendum |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |location=Damascus |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052701117.html |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180511075416/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052701117.html |archive-date=11 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Reuters %2&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Yacoub Oweis |first=Khaleb |date=17 May 2007 |title=Syria's opposition boycotts vote on Assad |work=[[Reuters]] |location=Damascus |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-vote-opposition-idUSOWE75174320070517 |access-date=11 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134644/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-vote-opposition-idUSOWE75174320070517 |archive-date=6 April 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Elections in Syria are officially designated as the event of &quot;renewing the pledge of allegiance&quot; to the [[Assad dynasty|Assads]] and voting is enforced as a compulsory duty for every citizen. Announcement of the results are followed by pro-government rallies conducted across the country extolling the regime, wherein citizens declare their &quot;devotion&quot; to the President and celebrate &quot;the virtues&quot; of the Assad dynasty.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Klatell |first=James |date=27 May 2007 |title=Syrians Vote in Presidential Referendum |work=CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134454/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ |archive-date=6 April 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Black |first=Ian |date=28 May 2007 |title=Democracy Damascus style: Assad the only choice in referendum |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134014/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |archive-date=6 April 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Chulov |first=Martin |date=13 April 2014 |title=The one certainty about Syria's looming election – Assad will win |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2014/apr/13/certainty-syria-election-assad-will-win |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621100122/https://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2014/apr/13/certainty-syria-election-assad-will-win |archive-date=21 June 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Syria began developing a covert [[Syria and weapons of mass destruction#Nuclear program|nuclear weapons programme]] with assistance of [[North Korea]] during the 2000s, but its suspected [[nuclear reactor]] was destroyed by the [[Israeli Air Force]] during [[Operation Orchard|Operation Outside the Box]] in September 2007.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite magazine |title=The Silent Strike |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/09/17/the-silent-strike |url-status=live |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118235708/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/09/17/the-silent-strike |archive-date=18 November 2017 |access-date=18 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ifimes.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Syria: Between oppression and freedom |url=https://www.ifimes.org/en/researches/syria-between-oppression-and-freedom/3325 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410215253/https://www.ifimes.org/en/researches/syria-between-oppression-and-freedom/3325 |archive-date=10 April 2022 |website=Ifimes}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=28 April 2008 |title=N.Koreans may have died in Israel raid in Syria: NHK |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-korea-north-syria/n-koreans-may-have-died-in-israel-raid-in-syria-nhk-idUSL271480120080428 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424091316/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-korea-north-syria/n-koreans-may-have-died-in-israel-raid-in-syria-nhk-idUSL271480120080428 |archive-date=24 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Syrian Civil War (2011–2024) ===
==== Leadership until 2015 ====
{{See also|Arab Spring|2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian civil war|Sanctions against Syria}}
[[File:Syrian Demonstration Douma Damascus 08-04-2011.jpg|thumbnail|Anti-Assad demonstrations in [[Douma, Syria|Douma]], 8 April 2011]]
[[Civil uprising phase of the Syrian Civil War|Protests in Syria]] began on 26 January 2011 following the [[Arab Spring]]
protests that called for political reforms and the reinstatement of civil rights, as well as an end to the [[state of emergency]] which had been in place since 1963.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/2011/02/201129135657367367.html |title=Q&amp;A: Syrian activist Suhair Atassi |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=9 February 2011 |access-date=13 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110212112539/http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/2011/02/201129135657367367.html |archive-date=12 February 2011 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; One attempt at a &quot;day of rage&quot; was set for 4–5 February, though it ended uneventfully.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna41400687 |title='Day of rage' protest urged in Syria |work=[[NBC News]] |date=3 February 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-date=13 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913054615/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna41400687 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Protests on 18–19 March were the largest to take place in Syria for decades, and the Syrian authority responded with violence against its protesting citizens.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/19/world/middleeast/19syria.html |title=In Syria, Crackdown After Protests |work=The New York Times |date=18 March 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322061301/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/19/world/middleeast/19syria.html |archive-date=22 March 2011 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; In his first public response to the protests delivered on 30 March 2011, Assad blamed the unrest on &quot;conspiracies&quot; and accused the Syrian opposition and protestors of seditious &quot;''[[Fitna (word)|fitna]]''&quot;, toeing the party-line of framing the [[Ba'athist Syria|Ba'athist state]] as the victim of an international plot. He also derided the [[Arab Spring]] movement, and described those participating in the protests as &quot;germs&quot; and [[Fifth column|fifth-columnists]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Sadiki |first1=Larbi |title=Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring |last2=Abbas |first2=Akeel |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-52391-2 |location=New York |pages=412, 413 |chapter=31: Deconstructing Despotic Legacies in the Arab Spring|quote=In the nearly 50-minute speech, President al-Assad gave his interpretation to the protests in Syria and other Arab countries, almost mocking the Arab Spring, invoking the outside regional and international conspirators and their inside 'agents' as the evil 'them'.. Resorting to conspiratorial attribution to explain the 'real' reasons behind the protests in Syria, al-Assad bestowed a pathological inevitability on the actions of political opposition, where the oppressive political system he heads turns into a noble victim, recipient of foreign illnesses. [Assad speech] &quot;Conspiracies are like germs: They procreate at every moment everywhere; they cannot be annihilated, but the immunity of the body can be strengthened against them.&quot; … dissent loses its political meaning, or moral justification, acquiring 'othering' essence when the president places it in the dismissive context of the 'fitna'.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Farge&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Farge |first=Emma |date=28 June 2022 |title=War has killed 1.5% of Syria's population: UN estimate |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-civilian-death-toll-over-306000-since-2011-un-2022-06-28/ |url-status=live |access-date=28 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628101243/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-civilian-death-toll-over-306000-since-2011-un-2022-06-28/ |archive-date=28 June 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=UN Human Rights Office estimates more than 306,000 civilians were killed over 10 years in Syria conflict |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/06/un-human-rights-office-estimates-more-306000-civilians-were-killed-over-10 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701075327/https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/06/un-human-rights-office-estimates-more-306000-civilians-were-killed-over-10 |archive-date=1 July 2022 |access-date=1 July 2022 |website=Ohchr.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{quote box|&quot;Throughout the speech, al-Assad remained faithful to the basic ideological line of [[neo-Ba'athism|Syrian Baathism]]: the binary opposition of a devilishly determined, conspiring 'outside' bent on hurting a heroically defending and essentially good 'inside'... consistent with [[Baathist]] dualism, [the speech] makes the sparing, if not grudging, mention of supposedly minor dissent in this 'inside'. This dissent loses its political meaning, or moral justification, acquiring 'othering' essence when the president places it in the dismissive context of the '''fitna'''... Following this hard-line speech, the protesters' demands moved from reforming to overthrowing the regime.&quot;| source = — Professor Akeel Abbas on Assad's first public speech after the outbreak of [[2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian Revolution protests]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Sadiki |first1=Larbi |title=Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring |last2=Abbas |first2=Akeel |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-52391-2 |location=New York |pages=412, 413 |chapter=31: Deconstructing Despotic Legacies in the Arab Spring}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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The U.S. imposed limited sanctions against the Assad government in April 2011, followed by [[Barack Obama]]'s executive order as of 18 May 2011 targeting Bashar Assad specifically and six other senior officials.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Administration Takes Additional Steps to Hold the Government of Syria Accountable for Violent Repression Against the Syrian People |url=http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1181.aspx |work=[[United States Department of the Treasury]] |access-date=18 May 2011 |quote=Today, President Obama signed an Executive Order ([[s:Executive Order 13573|E.O. 13573]]) imposing sanctions against Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and six other senior officials of the Government of Syria in an effort to increase pressure on the Government of Syria to end its use of violence against its people and to begin a transition to a democratic system that protects the rights of the Syrian people. |archive-date=22 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522122023/http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1181.aspx |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=ussanct&gt;{{cite news |title=How the U.S. message on Assad shifted |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/checkpoint-washington/post/how-the-us-message-on-assad-shifted/2011/08/18/gIQAfPZxNJ_blog.html |access-date=23 November 2015 |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=18 August 2011 |archive-date=15 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415104022/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/checkpoint-washington/post/how-the-us-message-on-assad-shifted/2011/08/18/gIQAfPZxNJ_blog.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Oweis |first=Khaled Yacoub |title=U.S. imposes sanctions on Syria's Assad |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-idUSLDE73N02P20110518 |access-date=12 March 2015 |work=[[Reuters]] |date=18 May 2011 |quote=The U.S. move, announced by the Treasury Department, freezes any of the Syrian officials' assets that are in the United States or otherwise fall within U.S. jurisdiction and generally bars U.S. individuals and companies from dealing with them. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518111248/https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/18/us-syria-idUSLDE73N02P20110518 |archive-date=18 May 2011 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 23 May 2011, the EU foreign ministers agreed at a meeting in Brussels to add Assad and nine other officials to a list affected by travel bans and asset freezes.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13500395 |work=BBC News |title=EU imposes sanctions on President Assad |date=23 May 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-date=1 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401032222/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13500395 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; On 24 May 2011, Canada imposed sanctions on Syrian leaders, including Assad.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-13533833 |work=BBC News |title=Canada imposes sanctions on Syrian leaders |date=24 May 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402085604/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-13533833 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 20 June, in response to the demands of protesters and international pressure, Assad promised a national dialogue involving movement toward reform, [[2012 Syrian parliamentary election|new parliamentary elections]], and greater [[Civil and political rights|freedoms]]. He also urged [[refugee]]s to return home from Turkey, while assuring them [[amnesty]] and blaming all unrest on a small number of saboteurs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Speech of H.E. President Bashar al-Assad at Damascus University on the situation in Syria |url=http://sana.sy/eng/337/2011/06/21/pr-353686.htm |date=21 June 2011 |agency=[[Syrian Arab News Agency]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525170047/http://sana.sy/eng/337/2011/06/21/pr-353686.htm |archive-date=25 May 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Anti-government protest in Assi square of Hama.ogg|right|thumb|275px|Hundreds of thousands of anti-Assad protesters parade the Syrian flag and shout the [[Arab Spring]] slogan [[Ash-shab yurid isqat an-nizam]] (''the people want to bring down the regime!'') in the Assi square, during the [[Siege of Hama (2011)|Siege of Hama]], 22 July 2011.]]
In July 2011, U.S. Secretary of State [[Hillary Clinton]] said Assad had &quot;lost legitimacy&quot; as president.&lt;ref name=&quot;ussanct&quot;/&gt; On 18 August 2011, Barack Obama issued a written statement that urged Assad to &quot;step aside&quot;.&lt;ref name=mustgo&gt;{{cite news |title=Assad must go, Obama says |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/assad-must-go-obama-says/2011/08/18/gIQAelheOJ_story.html |access-date=23 November 2015 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=18 August 2011 |archive-date=13 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513065624/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/assad-must-go-obama-says/2011/08/18/gIQAelheOJ_story.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/assad-must-go-the-world-unites-against-syria-s-tyrant-2340307.html|title=Assad must go: the world unites against Syria's tyrant|work=[[The Independent]]|date=19 August 2011|access-date=25 November 2024|archive-date=18 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241118232120/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/assad-must-go-the-world-unites-against-syria-s-tyrant-2340307.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=whstatem&gt;[https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/08/18/president-obama-future-syria-must-be-determined-its-people-president-bashar-al-assad President Obama: &quot;The future of Syria must be determined by its people, but President Bashar al-Assad is standing in their way.&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123020409/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/08/18/president-obama-future-syria-must-be-determined-its-people-president-bashar-al-assad |date=23 January 2017 }} The White House website, 18 August 2011.&lt;/ref&gt; In August, the cartoonist [[Ali Farzat]], a critic of Assad's government, was attacked. Relatives of the humourist told media outlets that the attackers threatened to break Farzat's bones as a warning for him to stop drawing cartoons of government officials, particularly Assad. Farzat was hospitalised with fractures in both hands and blunt force trauma to the head.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |author=Nour Ali |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/25/syria-cartoonist-ali-ferzat-beaten |title=Syrian forces beat up political cartoonist Ali Ferzat |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=4 March 2012 |date=25 August 2011 |location=London |archive-date=19 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419133157/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/25/syria-cartoonist-ali-ferzat-beaten |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/Syrian-Activists-Anti-Regime-Cartoonist-Attacked-Beaten-128385448.html |title=Prominent Syrian Cartoonist Attacked, Beaten |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |date=25 August 2011 |access-date=4 March 2012 |archive-date=3 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203183255/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/Syrian-Activists-Anti-Regime-Cartoonist-Attacked-Beaten-128385448.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Since October 2011, Russia, as a [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent member]] of the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]], repeatedly [[United Nations Security Council veto power|vetoed]] Western-sponsored draft resolutions in the UN Security Council that would have left open the possibility of UN sanctions, or even military intervention, against the Assad government.&lt;ref name=guardunlegit&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/23/russian-vetoes-putting-un-security-council-legitimacy-at-risk-says-us |title=Russian vetoes are putting UN security council's legitimacy at risk, says US |work=The Guardian |access-date=10 January 2016 |date=23 September 2015 |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517013841/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/23/russian-vetoes-putting-un-security-council-legitimacy-at-risk-says-us |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Itar-Tass27-1-12&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-russia-idUSTRE80Q0I620120127 |title=Russia won't back U.N. call for Syria's Assad to go |date=27 January 2012 |access-date=12 January 2016 |work=[[Reuters]] |archive-date=28 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128064627/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/01/27/us-syria-russia-idUSTRE80Q0I620120127 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39935 Russia and China veto draft Security Council resolution on Syria] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629175424/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39935 |date=29 June 2017 }} UN website, 4 October 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;

By the end of January 2012, it was reported by [[Reuters]] that over 5,000 civilians and protesters (including armed militants) had been killed by the Syrian army, security agents and militia ([[Shabiha]]), while 1,100 people had been killed by &quot;terrorist armed forces&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/syria-idINDEE7BC00720111213 |work=Reuters |title=Syria death toll hits 5,000 as insurgency spreads |date=13 December 2011 |author=Khaled Yacoub Oweis |access-date=5 July 2021 |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807040746/https://in.reuters.com/article/syria-idINDEE7BC00720111213 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 10 January 2012, Assad gave a speech in which he maintained the uprising was engineered by foreign countries and proclaimed that &quot;victory [was] near&quot;. He also said that the [[Arab League]], by suspending Syria, revealed that it was no longer Arab. However, Assad also said the country would not &quot;close doors&quot; to an Arab-brokered solution if &quot;national sovereignty&quot; was respected. He also said a referendum on a new constitution could be held in March.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16483548 |work=BBC News |title=Syria's Assad blames 'foreign conspiracy' |date=10 January 2012 |access-date=10 January 2012 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402193447/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16483548 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Bombed out vehicles Aleppo.jpg|thumb|Destroyed vehicle on a devastated [[Aleppo]] street, 6 October 2012]]
On 27 February 2012, Syria claimed that a proposal that a new constitution be drafted received 90% support during the [[2012 Syrian constitutional referendum|relevant referendum]]. The referendum introduced a fourteen-year cumulative term limit for the president of Syria. The referendum was pronounced meaningless by foreign nations including the U.S. and Turkey; the EU announced fresh sanctions against key regime figures.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |author=Martin Chulov |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/27/syria-bashar-al-assad |title=Syria claims 90% of voters backed reforms in referendum |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=4 March 2012 |date=27 February 2012 |location=London |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517014625/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/27/syria-bashar-al-assad |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; In July 2012, Russian Foreign Minister [[Sergey Lavrov]] denounced Western powers for what he said amounted to blackmail thus provoking a civil war in Syria.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article3646362.ece |title=Russia backs Assad as fighting in Damascus escalates |date=17 July 2012 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |first=Atul |last=Aneja |location=Chennai |access-date=17 July 2012 |archive-date=18 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article3646362.ece |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; On 15 July 2012, the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] declared Syria to be in a state of civil war,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18849362 |work=BBC News |title=Syria in civil war, Red Cross says |date=15 July 2012 |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620110230/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18849362 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; as the nationwide death toll for all sides was reported to have neared 20,000.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/22/syria-death-toll-tops-19000 |newspaper=The Guardian |title=Syrian death toll tops 19,000, say activists |date=22 July 2012 |access-date=31 July 2012 |location=London |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517014621/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/22/syria-death-toll-tops-19000 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 6 January 2013, Assad, in his first major speech since June, said that the conflict in his country was due to &quot;enemies&quot; outside of Syria who would &quot;go to Hell&quot; and that they would &quot;be taught a lesson&quot;. However, he said that he was still open to a political solution saying that failed attempts at a solution &quot;does not mean we are not interested in a political solution.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/01/06/world/meast/syria-civil-war/?hpt=hp_t1 |title=Al-Assad: Enemies of Syria 'will go to hell' |work=CNN |date=6 January 2013 |access-date=25 January 2013 |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019103510/http://edition.cnn.com/2013/01/06/world/meast/syria-civil-war/?hpt=hp_t1 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |work=Listening Post |url=http://blogs.aljazeera.com/liveblog/topic/syria-153 |title=Syrian Live Blog |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=6 January 2012 |access-date=25 January 2013 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071334/http://blogs.aljazeera.com/liveblog/topic/Syria-153 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; In July 2014, Assad renewed his third term of presidency after voting process conducted in pro-regime territories which were boycotted by the opposition and condemned by the [[UN|United Nations]].&lt;ref name=&quot;theguardian.com&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;telegraph.co.uk&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Kossaify&quot;/&gt; According to [[Joshua Landis]]: &quot;He's (Assad) going to say: 'I am the state, I am Syria, and if the West wants access to Syrians, they have to come through me.'&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;telegraph.co.uk&quot;/&gt;
After the fall of four military bases in September 2014,&lt;ref name=&quot;AssadWeak&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21625865-bashar-assad-may-be-weaker-he-thinks-tough-bowing |title=Bashar Assad may be weaker than he thinks |newspaper=The Economist |date=16 October 2014 |access-date=16 October 2014 |quote=In Latakia and Tartus, two coastal cities near the Alawite heartland, posters of missing soldiers adorn the walls. When IS took over four government bases in the east of the country this summer, slaughtering dozens of soldiers and displaying some of their heads on spikes in Raqqa, IS's stronghold, families started to lose faith in the government. A visitor to the region reports hearing one man complain: 'We're running out of sons to give them.' |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019131748/https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21625865-bashar-assad-may-be-weaker-he-thinks-tough-bowing |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; which were the last government footholds in the [[Raqqa Governorate]], Assad received significant criticism from his Alawite base of support.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dissent2014&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-dissent-idUSKBN0GW2GQ20140901 |last1=Dziadosz |first1=Alexander |last2=Heneghan |first2=Tom |title=Pro-government Syrian activist arrested after rare public dissent |work=Reuters |access-date=23 September 2014 |date=September 2014 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924204007/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/01/us-syria-crisis-dissent-idUSKBN0GW2GQ20140901 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; This included remarks made by Douraid al-Assad, cousin of Bashar al-Assad, demanding the resignation of the Syrian Defence Minister, [[Fahd Jassem al-Freij]], following the massacre by the [[Islamic State]] of hundreds of government troops captured after the IS victory at [[Battle for Tabqa Air base|Tabqa Airbase]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-military-idUKKBN0HD0LW20140918 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180419222514/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-military-idUKKBN0HD0LW20140918 |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 April 2018 |last=Westhall |first=Syliva |title=Assad's army stretched but still seen strong in Syria's war |work=Reuters |access-date=23 September 2014|date=18 September 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt; This was shortly followed by Alawite protests in [[Homs]] demanding the resignation of the governor,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/kurdish-fighters-group-nearing-syrian-town-25911163 |last1=Hadid |first1=Diaa |title=Activists Say Assad Supporters Protest in Syria |website=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |agency=Associated Press |access-date=3 October 2014 |archive-date=2 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141002102336/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/kurdish-fighters-group-nearing-syrian-town-25911163 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; and the dismissal of Assad's cousin [[Hafez Makhlouf]] from his security position leading to his subsequent exile to Belarus.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/change-leadership-damascus-syria-regime.html |title=Assad dismisses security chief of powerful 'Branch 40' |first1=Jean |last1=Aziz |publisher=Al Monitor |date=16 October 2014 |access-date=16 October 2014 |archive-date=18 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018101938/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/change-leadership-damascus-syria-regime.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Growing resentment towards Assad among Alawites was fuelled by the disproportionate number of soldiers killed in fighting hailing from Alawite areas,&lt;ref name=&quot;BurySons&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/syrias-alawites-pay-heavy-price-bury-sons-26598184 |title=Syria's Alawites Pay Heavy Price as They Bury Sons |first1=Diaa |last1=Hadid |agency=Associated Press |date=1 November 2014 |access-date=1 November 2014 |archive-date=31 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031172047/http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/syrias-alawites-pay-heavy-price-bury-sons-26598184 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; a sense that the Assad regime has abandoned them,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/mideast-crisis-homs-blast-idUSL5N0SO3GI20141029 |title=Car bomb wounds 37 in government-held area of Syria's Homs |work=Reuters |date=29 October 2014 |access-date=9 November 2014 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924210033/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/29/mideast-crisis-homs-blast-idUSL5N0SO3GI20141029 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; as well as the failing economic situation.&lt;ref name=&quot;AlawitesVoice&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/syria-tartous-alawites-pro-regime-protests.html |title=Alawites find their voice against Assad |publisher=Al Monitor |date=29 October 2014 |access-date=1 November 2014 |archive-date=2 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102024626/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/syria-tartous-alawites-pro-regime-protests.html? |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Figures close to Assad began voicing concerns regarding the likelihood of its survival, with one saying in late 2014; &quot;I don't see the current situation as sustainable ... I think Damascus will collapse at some point.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;AssadWeak&quot; /&gt;

[[File:Syrian civil war 01 12 2015.png|thumb|Military situation in December 2015]]
In 2015, several members of the Assad family died in [[Latakia]] under unclear circumstances.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11518232/In-Syrias-war-Alawites-pay-heavy-price-for-loyalty-to-Bashar-al-Assad.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11518232/In-Syrias-war-Alawites-pay-heavy-price-for-loyalty-to-Bashar-al-Assad.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=In Syria's war, Alawites pay heavy price for loyalty to Bashar al-Assad |work=The Daily Telegraph |last=Sherlock |first=Ruth |date=7 April 2015 |access-date=7 April 2015}}{{cbignore}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 14 March, an influential cousin of Assad and founder of the [[shabiha]], Mohammed Toufic al-Assad, was assassinated with five bullets to the head in a dispute over influence in [[Qardaha]]{{snd}}the [[ancestral home]] of the Assad family.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2015/Mar-14/290802-assad-relative-assassinated-in-syria-activists.ashx |title=Assad relative assassinated in Syria: activists |work=The Daily Star |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=15 March 2015 |access-date=15 March 2015 |archive-date=31 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531205717/http://www.dailystar.com.lb//News/Middle-East/2015/Mar-14/290802-assad-relative-assassinated-in-syria-activists.ashx |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; In April 2015, Assad ordered the arrest of his cousin Munther al-Assad in Alzirah, Latakia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/syria-bashar-al-assad-arrests-own-cousin-munther-kidnapping-links-1496410 |title=Syria: Bashar al-Assad arrests own cousin Munther 'for kidnapping links' |last1=Alajlan |first1=Anas |work=International Business Times |date=14 April 2015 |access-date=15 April 2015 |archive-date=17 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417073648/http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/syria-bashar-al-assad-arrests-own-cousin-munther-kidnapping-links-1496410 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; It remains unclear whether the arrest was due to actual crimes.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0421/Can-Syria-s-Assad-withstand-latest-battlefield-setbacks-video |title=Can Syria's Assad withstand latest battlefield setbacks? (+video) |work=The Christian Science Monitor |last=Blanford |first=Nicholas |date=21 August 2015 |access-date=22 April 2015 |archive-date=21 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621060446/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0421/Can-Syria-s-Assad-withstand-latest-battlefield-setbacks-video |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

After a string of government defeats in northern and southern Syria, analysts noted growing government instability coupled with continued waning support for the Assad government among its core Alawite base of support,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/flash-points-syria-assad-losing-power/ |title=Flash Points: Is Syria's Assad losing power? |work=CBS News |last=Flores |first=Reena |date=2 May 2015 |access-date=3 May 2015 |quote='a lot of suspicion within the regime itself about who's doing what and if folks are leaving.' [...] 'These are signs that I think demonstrate a bit of weakness and instability in the regime that you haven't seen in recent months,' he said. He cites the waning support from the nation's minority Alawite community as one of these important shifts. |archive-date=4 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504064305/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/flash-points-syria-assad-losing-power/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; and that there were increasing reports of Assad relatives, Alawites, and businessmen fleeing Damascus for Latakia and foreign countries.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/.premium-1.655153 |title=Syrian rebel victories stretch Assad's forces |work=Haaretz |last1=Harel |first1=Amos |last2=Cohen |first2=Gili |last3=Khoury |first3=Jack |date=6 May 2015 |access-date=6 May 2015 |quote=There have also been increasing reports of Assad relatives, businessmen and high-ranking members of the Alawite community fleeing Damascus for the coastal city of Latakia, or other countries, after transferring large sums of money to banks in Lebanon, eastern Europe and the United Arab Emirates. |archive-date=18 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/.premium-1.655153 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.gulfnews.com/opinion/time-to-reconsider-life-after-al-assad-1.1507735 |title=Time to reconsider 'Life after Al Assad' |work=Gulf News |last=Karkouti |first=Mustapha |date=9 May 2015 |access-date=10 May 2015 |quote=[The] reality on the ground can't be more clear as the population in the regime-controlled parts of Syria are preparing for life after the Al Assad dynasty. According to information received by this author, many businessmen and financiers who flourished under the regime have successfully moved huge amounts of money and capital to neighbouring Lebanon. Some of these funds are now known to have been secretly deposited in Europe.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Intelligence chief [[Ali Mamlouk]] was placed under house arrest sometime in April and stood accused of plotting with Assad's exiled uncle [[Rifaat al-Assad]] to replace Bashar as president.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11596142/Bashar-al-Assads-spy-chief-arrested-over-Syria-coup-plot.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11596142/Bashar-al-Assads-spy-chief-arrested-over-Syria-coup-plot.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Bashar al-Assad's spy chief arrested over Syria coup plot |work=The Daily Telegraph |last1=Sherlock |first1=Ruth |last2=Malouf |first2=Carol |date=11 May 2015 |access-date=12 May 2015 |quote=Mamlouk had also used a businessman from Aleppo as an intermediary to contact Rifaat al-Assad, Bashar's uncle, who has lived abroad exile since he was accused of seeking to mount a coup in Syria in the 1980s.}}{{cbignore}}&lt;/ref&gt; Further high-profile deaths included the commanders of the Fourth Armoured Division, the Belli military airbase, the army's special forces and of the First Armoured Division, with an errant air strike during the [[Palmyra offensive (May 2015)|Palmyra offensive]] killing two officers who were reportedly related to Assad.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Kaileh |first=Salameh |url=http://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/comment/2015/5/22/the-syrian-regime-is-slowly-being-liquidated |title=The Syrian regime is slowly being liquidated |website=Al-Araby Al-Jadeed |date=22 May 2015 |access-date=28 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== After Russian intervention (from 2015) ====
{{See also|Russian involvement in the Syrian civil war|Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war}}
[[File:Ali Khamenei and Bashar al-Assad05.jpg|thumb|Bashar al-Assad meets with Iran's supreme leader [[Ali Khamenei]], 25 February 2019.]]
[[File:Sergey Shoigu and Bashar al-Assad (2017-09-12).jpg|thumb|Assad with former Russian defense minister [[Sergei Shoigu]], 9 September 2017]]
On 4 September 2015, when prospects of Assad's survival looked bleak, Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] said that Russia was providing the Assad government with sufficiently &quot;serious&quot; help: with both logistical and military support.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Oliphant|first1=Roland|last2=Loveluck|first2=Louisa|date=4 September 2015|title=Vladimir Putin confirms Russian military involvement in Syria's civil war|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/11845635/Vladimir-Putin-confirms-Russian-military-involvement-in-Syrias-civil-war.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/11845635/Vladimir-Putin-confirms-Russian-military-involvement-in-Syrias-civil-war.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=14 January 2016}}{{cbignore}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Naylor|first=Hugh|date=4 September 2015|title=Putin says Syria's president is ready for elections, compromise|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|location=Beirut|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/putin-says-syrias-president-is-ready-for-elections-compromise-with-rebels/2015/09/04/9dfa818b-92c2-4012-b956-1784189b8ab7_story.html|access-date=11 October 2021|issn=0190-8286}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Borshchevskaya 2022 69–88&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Borshchevskaya |first=Anna |title=Putin's War in Syria |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-7556-3463-7 |location=London |pages=69–88 |chapter=6: The Military Campaign }}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after the start of [[Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War|direct military intervention by Russia]] on 30 September 2015 at the formal request of the Syrian government, Putin stated the military operation had been thoroughly prepared in advance and defined Russia's goal in Syria as &quot;stabilising the legitimate power in Syria and creating the conditions for political compromise&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;goalstabilis&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.interfax.ru/russia/472593 |script-title=ru:Путин назвал основную задачу российских военных в Сирии |agency=[[Interfax]] |date=11 October 2015 |language=ru |access-date=12 January 2016 |archive-date=21 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221040027/http://www.interfax.ru/russia/472593 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Putin's intervention saved the Assad regime at a time when it was on the verge of a looming collapse. It also enabled Moscow to achieve its key geo-strategic objectives such as total control of Syrian airspace, naval bases that granted permanent martial reach across the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] and easier access to intervene in Libya.&lt;ref name=&quot;Borshchevskaya 2022 69–88&quot;/&gt;

In November 2015, Assad reiterated that a diplomatic process to bring the country's civil war to an end could not begin while it was occupied by &quot;terrorists&quot;, although it was considered by [[BBC News]] to be unclear whether he meant only [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIL]] or Western-supported rebels as well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34867215 |title=Syria crisis: Assad says no transition while 'terrorists' remain |newspaper=BBC News |date=19 November 2015 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=11 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811133244/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34867215 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; On 22 November, Assad said that within two months of its air campaign Russia had achieved more in its fight against ISIL than the [[American-led intervention in Syria|U.S.-led coalition]] had achieved in a year.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine |url=http://kommersant.ru/doc/2860324 |script-title=ru:ВКС РФ за два месяца добились большего прогресса в Сирии, чем альянс США за год |trans-title=Russian air force have in two months achieved more progress in Syria that the U.S. alliance in a year |magazine=Kommersant |date=22 November 2015 |access-date=22 November 2015 |language=ru |archive-date=15 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415104020/https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2860324 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; In an interview with [[Czech Television]] on 1 December, he said that the leaders who demanded his resignation were of no interest to him, as nobody takes them seriously because they are &quot;shallow&quot; and controlled by the United States.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Rozhovor s Bašárem Asadem|url=http://www.ceskatelevize.cz/ivysilani/10997918455-mimoradne-porady-ct24/215411034000172-rozhovor-s-basarem-asadem/|website=Czech Television|access-date=1 December 2015|language=cs|archive-date=19 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160119001015/http://www.ceskatelevize.cz/ivysilani/10997918455-mimoradne-porady-ct24/215411034000172-rozhovor-s-basarem-asadem|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |script-title=ru:Асад обвинил Турцию, Саудовскую Аравию и Катар в поддержке террористов в Сирии |url=https://www.newsru.com/world/02dec2015/assad.html |website=newsru.com |language=ru |date=2 December 2015 |access-date=8 September 2019 |archive-date=11 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811163204/https://www.newsru.com/world/02dec2015/assad.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; At the end of December 2015, senior U.S. officials privately admitted that Russia had achieved its central goal of stabilising Syria and, with the expenses relatively low, could sustain the operation at this level for years to come.&lt;ref name=&quot;reutersstabilis&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-russia-syria-idUSKBN0UB0BA20151229 |title=U.S. sees bearable costs, key goals met for Russia in Syria so far |work=Reuters |date=28 December 2015 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=15 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415104043/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-russia-syria-idUSKBN0UB0BA20151229 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In December 2015, Putin stated that Russia was supporting Assad's forces and was ready to back anti-Assad rebels in a joint fight against IS.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/putin-claims-support-to-syrian-rebels/a-18913306|title=Putin claims support to Syrian rebels|work=[[DW News]]|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]|date=11 December 2015|access-date=19 November 2022|archive-date=8 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408032500/https://amp.dw.com/en/putin-claims-support-to-syrian-rebels/a-18913306|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Syrian President Bashar al-Assad meets Iran's special representative on Syrian affairs Ali Akbar Velayati.jpg|thumb|Bashar al-Assad meets with Iran's representative on Syrian affairs, [[Ali Akbar Velayati]], 6 May 2016.]]
On 22 January 2016, the ''[[Financial Times]]'', citing anonymous &quot;senior western intelligence officials&quot;, claimed that Russian general [[Igor Sergun]], the director of [[GRU (Russian Federation)|GRU]], the Main Intelligence Directorate of the General Staff of the [[Armed Forces of the Russian Federation]], had shortly before his sudden death on 3 January 2016 been sent to Damascus with a message from Vladimir Putin asking that President Assad step aside.&lt;ref name=&quot;ftresign&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/735b4746-c01f-11e5-9fdb-87b8d15baec2.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/735b4746-c01f-11e5-9fdb-87b8d15baec2.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |title=Vladimir Putin asked Bashar al-Assad to step down |newspaper=Financial Times |date=22 January 2016 |access-date=22 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; The ''Financial Times''' report was denied by Putin's spokesman.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=22 January 2016|title=Putin Requested Assad Step Aside, But Syrian Leader Refused|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2016/01/22/putin-requested-assad-step-aside-but-syrian-leader-refused-a51558|access-date=11 October 2021|website=[[The Moscow Times]]|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029174859/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2016/01/22/putin-requested-assad-step-aside-but-syrian-leader-refused-a51558|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It was reported in December 2016 that Assad's forces had retaken half of rebel-held [[Aleppo]], ending a 6-year stalemate in the city.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2016/12/03/Assads-forces-retake-half-of-rebel-held-Aleppo/3411480810004/ |first=Eric |last=DuVall |title=Assad's forces retake half of rebel-held Aleppo |work=[[United Press International]] |date=3 December 2016 |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-date=11 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211201105/http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2016/12/03/Assads-forces-retake-half-of-rebel-held-Aleppo/3411480810004/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-38194136|title=Aleppo siege: Syria rebels lose 50% of territory|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=3 December 2016|access-date=21 June 2018|archive-date=13 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413140020/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-38194136|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 15 December, as it was reported government forces were on the brink of retaking all of Aleppo{{snd}}a &quot;turning point&quot; in the civil war, Assad celebrated the &quot;liberation&quot; of the city, and stated, &quot;History is being written by every Syrian citizen.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://fox6now.com/2016/12/17/evacuation-agreement-reached-in-aleppo-rebel-group-says/ |title=Evacuation agreement reached in Aleppo, rebel group says|website=Fox 6 Now|publisher=Fox News|date=17 December 2016 |access-date=21 December 2016 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220125836/http://fox6now.com/2016/12/17/evacuation-agreement-reached-in-aleppo-rebel-group-says/ |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

After the election of [[Donald Trump]], the priority of the U.S. concerning Assad was unlike the priority of the [[Presidency of Barack Obama#Syrian civil war|Obama administration]], and in March 2017, [[United States Ambassador to the United Nations|U.S. Ambassador to the UN]] [[Nikki Haley]] stated the U.S. was no longer focused on &quot;getting Assad out&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=U.S. priority on Syria no longer focused on &quot;getting Assad out&quot;: Haley |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-usa-haley-idUSKBN1712QL |work=Reuters |date=30 March 2017 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=2 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502174900/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-usa-haley-idUSKBN1712QL |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but this position changed in the wake of the [[2017 Khan Shaykhun chemical attack]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.axios.com/tillerson-u-s-will-lead-coalition-to-oust-assad-2348075513.html |title=Tillerson: U.S. will lead coalition to oust Assad |first=Alayna |last=Treene |date=6 April 2017 |access-date=7 April 2017 |archive-date=23 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023192349/https://www.axios.com/tillerson-u-s-will-lead-coalition-to-oust-assad-2348075513.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Following the [[2017 Shayrat missile strike|missile strikes on a Syrian airbase]] on the orders of President Trump, Assad's spokesperson described the U.S.' behaviour as &quot;unjust and arrogant aggression&quot; and stated that the missile strikes &quot;do not change the deep policies&quot; of the Syrian government.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine |title=Syria's Assad Calls U.S. Airstrikes an Outrageous Act |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2017-04-07/syrias-assad-calls-us-airstrikes-an-outrageous-act |magazine=U.S. News &amp; World Report |access-date=7 April 2017 |archive-date=24 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124220516/https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2017-04-07/syrias-assad-calls-us-airstrikes-an-outrageous-act |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; President Assad also told the [[Agence France-Presse]] that Syria's military had given up all its chemical weapons in 2013, and would not have used them if they still retained any, and stated that the chemical attack was a &quot;100 percent fabrication&quot; used to justify a U.S. airstrike.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad says Idlib chemical attack 'fabrication': AFP interview |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-assad-idUSKBN17F1NE |work=Reuters |date=13 April 2017 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=7 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207132915/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-assad-idUSKBN17F1NE |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; In June 2017, Russian President Putin said &quot;Assad didn't use the [chemical weapons]&quot; and that the chemical attack was &quot;done by people who wanted to blame him for that.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Putin: Syria chemical attack was provocation against Assad |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News United States]]|publisher=[[American Broadcasting Company]]|date=2 June 2017 |first1=Ian |last1=Phillips |first2=Vladimir |last2=Isachenkov |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/putin-syria-chemical-attack-provocation-assad-47790720 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170602223827/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/putin-syria-chemical-attack-provocation-assad-47790720 |archive-date=2 June 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; UN and international chemical weapons inspectors from the [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]] (OPCW) found the attack was the work of the Assad regime.&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN sarin report&quot;/&gt;

[[File:Vladimir Putin visited Khmeimim Air Base in Syria (2017-12-11) 41.jpg|thumb|Assad and Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] at the [[Khmeimim Air Base]] in Syria, 11 December 2017]]
On 7 November 2017, the Syrian government announced that it had signed the [[Paris Climate Agreement]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/07/climate/syria-joins-paris-agreement.html|title=Syria Joins Paris Climate Accord, Leaving Only U.S. Opposed|last=Friedman|first=Lisa|date=7 November 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=12 December 2017|archive-date=13 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413160706/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/07/climate/syria-joins-paris-agreement.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; In May 2018, it recognized the independence of Russian-occupied separatist republics of [[Abkhazia|Abhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]] in Georgia, leading to backlash from the [[European Union]], [[United States]], [[Canada]] and other countries.&lt;ref name=&quot;Deutsche Welle&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |date=30 May 2018 |title=Syria recognizes Georgia's breakaway regions |work=[[Deutsche Welle]] |url=https://www.dw.com/en/syria-recognizes-georgias-breakaway-regions-in-nod-to-russia/a-43988153 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530092144/https://www.dw.com/en/syria-recognizes-georgias-breakaway-regions-in-nod-to-russia/a-43988153 |archive-date=30 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=29 May 2018 |title=Georgia Severs Relations With Syria For Recognizing Abkhazia, South Ossetia |work=rferl.org |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530034717/https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |archive-date=30 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2 June 2018 |title=Canada concerned by Syria's recognition of Georgian breakaway regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/global-affairs/news/2018/06/canada-concerned-by-syrias-recognition-of-georgian-breakaway-regions-of-abkhazia-and-south-ossetia.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180605131719/https://www.canada.ca/en/global-affairs/news/2018/06/canada-concerned-by-syrias-recognition-of-georgian-breakaway-regions-of-abkhazia-and-south-ossetia.html |archive-date=5 June 2018 |website=Government of Canada}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 30 August 2020, the [[First Hussein Arnous government]] was formed, which included a new [[Council of Ministers (Syria)|Council of Ministers]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|agency=AFP|date=30 August 2020|title=Syria's Assad designates new government headed by PM Arnous|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/world/syrian-crisis/syrias-assad-designates-new-government-headed-by-pm-arnous|access-date=8 March 2021|website=Daily Sabah|archive-date=30 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200830231314/https://www.dailysabah.com/world/syrian-crisis/syrias-assad-designates-new-government-headed-by-pm-arnous|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the [[2021 Syrian presidential election|2021 presidential elections]] held on 26 May, Assad secured his fourth 7-year tenure; by winning 95.2% of the eligible votes. The elections were boycotted by the [[Syrian opposition|opposition]] and [[Syrian Democratic Forces|SDF]]; while the refugees and internally displaced citizens were disqualified to vote; enabling only 38% of Syrians to participate in the process. Independent international observers as well as representatives of Western countries described the elections as a farce. [[United Nations]] condemned the elections for directly violating Resolution 2254; and announced that it has &quot;no mandate&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Kossaify |first=Ephrem |date=22 April 2021 |title=UN reiterates it is not involved in Syrian presidential election |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/%7B%7B |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425141450/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/middle-east |archive-date=25 April 2021 |website=Arab News}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Walker |first=Nigel |date=9 June 2021 |title=Syria: 2021 presidential election and future prospects |url=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-9250/CBP-9250.pdf |journal=House of Commons Library |pages=4–15 |via=UK Parliament |access-date=4 January 2023 |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815074550/https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-9250/CBP-9250.pdf |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=28 May 2021 |title=Syria's Assad wins 4th term with 95% of vote, in election the West calls fraudulent |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-president-bashar-al-assad-wins-fourth-term-office-with-951-votes-live-2021-05-27/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127122709/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-president-bashar-al-assad-wins-fourth-term-office-with-951-votes-live-2021-05-27/ |archive-date=27 November 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Syria Events of 2021 |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103070540/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/syria |archive-date=3 January 2023 |website=Human Rights Watch|date=14 December 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Lister |first=Charles |date=10 May 2021 |title=US policy in Syria in 2021 |work=Asharq al-Awsat |url=https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/2965846/charles-lister/us-policy-syria-2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813233750/https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/2965846/charles-lister/us-policy-syria-2021 |archive-date=13 August 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:AssadRaisi2023 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Assad with Iranian President [[Ebrahim Raisi]] in Damascus, 3 May 2023]]
On 10 August 2021, the [[Second Hussein Arnous government]] was formed.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=1 August 2021|title=Syria's Assad asks PM Arnous to form new cabinet|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-asks-pm-hussein-arnous-form-new-cabinet-2021-08-01/|access-date=5 October 2021|archive-date=5 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005033010/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-asks-pm-hussein-arnous-form-new-cabinet-2021-08-01/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Under Assad, Syria became a strong supporter of the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]] and was one of the five countries that opposed the [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] resolution denouncing the invasion, which called upon Russia to pull back its troops. Three days prior to the invasion, Foreign Minister [[Faisal Mekdad]] was dispatched to Moscow to affirm Syria's recognition of [[Donetsk People's Republic|Donetsk]] and [[Luhansk People's Republic|Luhansk]] separatist republics. A day after the invasion, Bashar al-Assad praised the invasion as &quot;a correction of history and a restoration of balance in the [[International order|global order]] after the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|fall of the Soviet Union]]&quot; in a phone call with [[Vladimir Putin]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |title=Syria's Assad says Russia's Ukraine invasion a 'correction of history' |work=Al-Arabiya News |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2022/02/25/Syria-s-Assad-says-Russia-s-Ukraine-invasion-a-correction-of-history- |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225144651/https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2022/02/25/Syria-s-Assad-says-Russia-s-Ukraine-invasion-a-correction-of-history- |archive-date=25 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2 March 2022 |title=General Assembly Overwhelmingly Adopts Resolution Demanding Russian Federation Immediately End Illegal Use of Force in Ukraine, Withdraw All Troops |url=https://press.un.org/en/2022/ga12407.doc.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807161917/https://press.un.org/en/2022/ga12407.doc.htm |archive-date=7 August 2022 |website=United Nations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Makki |first=Danny |date=9 March 2022 |title=Syria's role in Putin's invasion of Ukraine |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/syrias-role-putins-invasion-ukraine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309133840/https://www.mei.edu/publications/syrias-role-putins-invasion-ukraine |archive-date=9 March 2022 |website=Middle East Institute}}&lt;/ref&gt; Syria became the first country after Russia to officially recognize the &quot;independence and sovereignty&quot; of the two breakaway regions in June 2022.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=29 June 2022 |title=Syria to recognize Ukraine's Luhansk and Donetsk regions |work=[[Associated Press]] |url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-middle-east-syria-moscow-c5505e965d7d354b2b1f408385197829 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702012411/https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-middle-east-syria-moscow-c5505e965d7d354b2b1f408385197829 |archive-date=2 July 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=29 July 2022 |title=Syria recognizes independence, sovereignty of Donetsk, Luhansk – state news agency |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-recognizes-independence-sovereignty-donetsk-luhansk-state-news-agency-2022-06-29/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703150251/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-recognizes-independence-sovereignty-donetsk-luhansk-state-news-agency-2022-06-29/ |archive-date=3 July 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=29 June 2022 |title=Syria first country other than Russia to recognise Ukraine separatist republics of Donetsk and Lugansk |work=WIO News |url=https://www.wionews.com/world/syria-first-country-other-than-russia-to-recognise-ukraine-separatist-republics-of-donetsk-and-lugansk-493080 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220629211244/https://www.wionews.com/world/syria-first-country-other-than-russia-to-recognise-ukraine-separatist-republics-of-donetsk-and-lugansk-493080 |archive-date=29 June 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On the 12th anniversary of beginning of the protests of [[2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian Revolution]], Bashar al-Assad held a meeting with [[Vladimir Putin]] during an official visit to Russia. In a televised broadcast with Putin, Assad defended Russia's &quot;special military operation&quot; as a war against &quot;[[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazis]] and [[Banderite|old Nazis]]&quot; of Ukraine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=15 March 2023 |title=Assad meets Putin in Moscow as Syrians mark 12 years since anti-regime uprising |work=France 24 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20230315-assad-meets-putin-in-moscow-as-syrians-mark-12-years-since-anti-regime-uprising |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315170723/https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20230315-assad-meets-putin-in-moscow-as-syrians-mark-12-years-since-anti-regime-uprising |archive-date=15 March 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;rferl.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=19 March 2023 |title=Zelenskiy Announces Sanctions On Hundreds Of Individuals, Including Syrian President, Iranian Drone Makers |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/zelenskiy-ukraine-sanctions-syria-iran/32324885.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319093053/https://www.rferl.org/a/zelenskiy-ukraine-sanctions-syria-iran/32324885.html |archive-date=19 March 2023 |website=rferl.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; He recognised the [[Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts|Russian annexation of four Ukrainian oblasts]] and ratified the new Russian borders, claiming that the territories were &quot;historically Russian&quot;. Assad also urged Russia to expand its [[Russian military intervention in the Syrian civil war|military presence in Syria]] by establishing new bases and deploying more boots on the ground, making its military role permanent.{{Efn|Sources:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=16 March 2023 |title=Assad welcomes new Russian bases in Syria after Putin meeting |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/16/assad-will-welcome-new-russian-military-bases-in-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316094529/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/16/assad-will-welcome-new-russian-military-bases-in-syria |archive-date=16 March 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |author1=Guy Faulconbridge |author2=Caleb Davis |date=16 March 2023 |title=Syria's Assad would like more Russian bases and troops |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-says-would-welcome-more-russian-troops-2023-03-16/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316070448/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-says-would-welcome-more-russian-troops-2023-03-16/ |archive-date=16 March 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 March 2023 |title=Assad: Syria recognizes Russia's new borders |url=https://www.teletrader.com/assad-syria-recognizes-russia-s-new-borders/news/details/59649372?ts=1679546104895 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323052728/https://www.teletrader.com/assad-syria-recognizes-russia-s-new-borders/news/details/59649372?ts=1679549248213 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |website=teletrader.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=16 March 2023 |title=Assad Welcomes New Russian Bases in Syria, Recognizes Russian Annexations in Ukraine |work=Havana Times |url=https://havanatimes.org/news/assad-welcomes-new-russian-bases-in-syria-recognizes-russian-annexations-in-ukraine/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323053657/https://havanatimes.org/news/assad-welcomes-new-russian-bases-in-syria-recognizes-russian-annexations-in-ukraine/ |archive-date=23 March 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Minal |date=16 March 2023 |title=Assad Says Syria Recognizes New Russian Borders Following Accession Of New Regions |work=Pakistan Point |url=https://www.pakistanpoint.com/en/story/1659999/assad-says-syria-recognizes-new-russian-borders-followi.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323053926/https://www.pakistanpoint.com/en/story/1659999/assad-says-syria-recognizes-new-russian-borders-followi.html |archive-date=23 March 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
[[File:Syrian Civil War map (November 29, 2024).svg|thumb|Military situation before the [[2024 Syrian opposition offensives|opposition offensives]] in late 2024.&lt;br /&gt;Territories held by the [[Syrian Democratic Forces|SDF]] (yellow), [[Islamic State|IS]] (grey), the [[Syrian Army]] (red), the [[Syrian National Army|SNA]] and [[Turkey]] (light green), [[Tahrir al-Sham]] (white), the [[Revolutionary Commando Army|SFA]] and the [[United States]] (teal).]]

In March 2023, he visited the [[United Arab Emirates]] and met with UAE's President [[Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad in UAE as Second Post-Quake Gulf Visit Signals Growing Arab Outreach |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/syria-s-assad-arrives-in-uae-for-official-visit-/7011966.html |work=VOA News |date=19 March 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; In May 2023, he attended the [[2023 Arab League summit|Arab League summit in Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]], where he was welcomed by Saudi Crown Prince [[Mohammed bin Salman]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad wins warm welcome at Arab summit after years of isolation |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-attend-arab-summit-bringing-regional-isolation-an-end-2023-05-19/ |work=Reuters |date=19 May 2023 |access-date=24 September 2023 |archive-date=20 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020102358/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-attend-arab-summit-bringing-regional-isolation-an-end-2023-05-19/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; He met with Egyptian President [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]] and other Arab leaders.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad shakes hands, kisses cheeks with onetime foes at Arab League summit |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-shakes-hands-kisses-cheeks-with-onetime-foes-arab-league-summit-2023-05-19/ |work=Reuters |date=19 May 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; In September 2023, Assad attended the [[Asian Games]] opening ceremony in [[Hangzhou]] and met with Chinese President [[Xi Jinping]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Syria's Bashar al Assad and wife laugh and wave at Asian Games opening ceremony amid China talks |url=https://news.sky.com/story/syrias-bashar-al-assad-and-wife-laugh-and-wave-at-asian-games-opening-ceremony-amid-china-talks-12968127 |work=Sky News |date=23 September 2023 |access-date=24 September 2023 |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928010235/https://news.sky.com/story/syrias-bashar-al-assad-and-wife-laugh-and-wave-at-asian-games-opening-ceremony-amid-china-talks-12968127 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; They announced the establishment of a China–Syria strategic partnership.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Leaders of Syria and China announce strategic partnership as part of Asian Games diplomacy |url=https://apnews.com/article/china-syria-asian-games-diplomacy-assad-xi-cce801eaa586fe5db82d28df79b0f91f |work=Associated Press |date=22 September 2022 |access-date=24 September 2023 |archive-date=8 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108022849/https://apnews.com/article/china-syria-asian-games-diplomacy-assad-xi-cce801eaa586fe5db82d28df79b0f91f |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In November 2023, Assad attended the [[2023 Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit|Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit]] in Riyadh.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/saudi-arabia-host-extraordinary-joint-islamic-arab-summit-riyadh-saturday-2023-11-10/|title=Arab and Muslim leaders call for immediate end to Gaza war|publisher=[[Reuters]]|date=11 November 2023|author=Aziz El Yaakoubi, Nayera Abdallah}}&lt;/ref&gt; In May 2024, he attended the Arab League summit in [[Bahrain]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2024/05/assad-sisi-gulf-leaders-bahrain-arab-league-summit-gaza-war-rages|title=Assad, Sisi, Gulf leaders in Bahrain for Arab League summit as Gaza war rages|date=16 May 2024|publisher=Al Monitor}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Rebel offensive, regime collapse and exile in Russia (2024) ===
{{See also|2024 Syrian opposition offensives|Fall of the Assad regime}}
[[File:Northwestern Syria offensive (2024).jpg|thumb|right|[[2024 Syrian opposition offensives|Syrian opposition offensives]] that overthrew Assad's regime in 11 days]]
In December 2024, the United States, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom urged for de-escalation in Syria as violence flared up once again. Rebel factions, led by the Islamist group [[Tahrir al-Sham|Hayat Tahrir al-Sham]] (HTS), had [[Battle of Aleppo (2024)|taken control of Aleppo]], prompting a retaliatory airstrike campaign by President Assad and his Russian allies. The strikes, which targeted population centers and several hospitals in the [[Insurgency in Idlib|rebel-held]] city of [[Idlib]], resulted in at least 25 deaths, according to the [[White Helmets (Syrian civil war)|White Helmets]] rescue group. [[NATO]] countries issued a joint statement calling for the protection of civilians and critical infrastructure to prevent further displacement and ensure humanitarian access. They stressed the urgent need for a Syrian-led political solution, in accordance with [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 2254]], which advocates for dialogue between the Syrian government and opposition forces. The [[2024 Syrian opposition offensives|rebel offensive]], which had begun on 27 November 2024, continued its [[2024 Hama offensive|advance into Hama Governorate]] following their capture of Aleppo.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Syria: US, Germany, France, UK call for de-escalation |date=2 December 2024 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/syria-us-germany-france-uk-call-for-de-escalation/a-70933512 |website=DW News |access-date=2 December 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=4 December 2024 |title=Fighting Worsens Already Dire Conditions in Northwestern Syria |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/12/03/world/middleeast/syria-civil-war-rebels-aleppo.html |website=The New York Times}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Syrian hospital hit in air attack on opposition-held Idlib |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/program/newsfeed/2024/12/3/syrian-hospital-hit-in-air-attack-on-opposition-held-idlib |access-date=5 December 2024 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 4 December 2024, fierce clashes erupted in [[Hama Governorate]] as the Syrian army engaged Islamist-led insurgents in a bid to halt their advance on the key city of [[Hama]]. Government forces claimed to have launched a counteroffensive with air support, pushing back rebel factions, including Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), around six miles from the city. However, despite reinforcements, the rebels captured the city on 5 December.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Syria rebels capture major city of Hama after military withdraws |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cql5r2px4yyo |access-date=5 December 2024 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; The fighting led to widespread displacement, with nearly 50,000 people fleeing the area and over 600 casualties reported, including 104 civilians.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Syrian army launches counterattack as rebels push towards Hama |date=4 December 2024 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20241204-syrian-army-launches-counterattack-as-rebels-push-towards-hama |website=France24 |access-date=4 December 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 6 December, rebels began encircling the capital Damascus.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=7 December 2024 |title=Syrian rebels seize Damascus, ending decades of brutal Assad dynasty rule |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/syrian-rebels-control-south-approaching-damascus |access-date=10 December 2024 |publisher=[[Middle East Eye]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 7 December, Assad fled the city just before [[Fall of Damascus|its fall to the rebels]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Syrian army command tells officers that Assad's rule has ended, officer says |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-celebrate-captured-homs-set-sights-damascus-2024-12-07/ |website=Reuters |access-date=8 December 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; ending 54 years of the Assad family's rule.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/article/syria-bashar-assad-war-1468a97ff95bb782f5933856d99c9a8d|work=Associated Press News|title=The fall of Bashar Assad after 13 years of war in Syria brings to an end a decades-long dynasty|date=8 December 2024|author=Zeina Karam &amp; Abby Sewell}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Russian government said that Assad had &quot;stepped down&quot; as president following a personal decision and had left Syria.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Where is Bashar al-Assad? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cqx89reeevgo |website=BBC |access-date=8 December 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=10 December 2024 |title=Assad Chose to Resign From Syrian Presidency, Kremlin Says |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/12/10/assad-chose-to-resign-from-syrian-presidency-kremlin-says-a87282 |access-date=10 December 2024 |publisher=[[The Moscow Times]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Interfax]], quoting an unnamed source at the [[Kremlin]], said that Assad and his family had arrived in Moscow and that the Russian government had granted them [[Political asylum|asylum]] &quot;on humanitarian grounds.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last1=Gebeily |first1=Maya |last2=Azhari |first2=Timour |date=8 December 2024 |title=Syria's Assad and his family are in Moscow after Russia granted them asylum, say Russian news agencies |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-his-family-are-moscow-after-russia-granted-them-asylum-say-russian-2024-12-08/ |access-date=8 December 2024 |website=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversies ==
=== Corruption ===
{{Main|Corruption in Syria}}
{{See also|Economy of Syria}}

At the onset of the [[Syrian Revolution of Dignity|Syrian revolution]], corruption in Syria was endemic, and the country was ranked 129th in the 2011 [[Corruption Perceptions Index]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2011|title=2011 – CPI|year=2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002112428/https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2011|archive-date=2 October 2020|website=Transparency.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since the 1970s, Syria's economy has been dominated by the patronage networks of Ba'ath party elites and [[Alawite]] loyalists of the Assad family, who established control over Syria's public sectors based on kinship and nepotism. The pervasive nature of corruption had been a source of controversy within the Ba'ath party circles and the wider public; as early as the 1980s.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=M. Sadowski |first=Yahya |date=1987 |title=Patronage and the Ba'th: Corruption and Control in Contemporary Syria |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41857946 |journal=Arab Studies Quarterly |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=442–461 |jstor=41857946 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Bashar al-Assad's economic liberalization program during the 2000s became a symbol of corruption and nepotism, as the scheme's beneficiaries were Alawite loyalists who seized a significant portion of the privatized sectors and business assets. The government's actions alienated the vast majority of the Syrian public, particularly the rural and urban working classes, who strongly disliked the resulting economic disparities that became overtly visible.&lt;ref name=&quot;Allam, Saber 2019 26–27&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;France 24&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|date=9 July 2020|title=Assad's 20-year rule, from Damascus Spring to pariah|work=France 24|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20200609-assad-s-20-year-rule-from-damascus-spring-to-pariah|access-date=21 May 2023|archive-date=14 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514182340/https://www.france24.com/en/20200609-assad-s-20-year-rule-from-damascus-spring-to-pariah|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Assad's cousin [[Rami Makhlouf]] was the regime's most favored oligarch during this period, marked by the institutionalization of corruption, handicapping of small businesses and casting down private [[entrepreneurship]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=30 July 2012 |title=Bashar al-Assad's inner circle |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13216195 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327062345/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13216195 |archive-date=27 March 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; The persistence of corruption, sectarian bias towards Alawites, nepotism and widespread bribery that existed in party, bureaucracy and military led to popular anger that resulted in the eruption of the 2011 Syrian Revolution. The protests were the most fierce in working-class neighbourhoods, which had long bore the brunt of the regime's exploitation policies that privileged its own loyalists.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Gersh |first=Nick |date=6 February 2017 |title=The Role of Corruption in the Syrian Civil War |url=https://globalanticorruptionblog.com/2017/02/06/the-role-of-corruption-in-the-syrian-civil-war/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219152118/https://globalanticorruptionblog.com/2017/02/06/the-role-of-corruption-in-the-syrian-civil-war/ |archive-date=19 February 2017 |website=GAB}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2=Salah Saber |title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=26–27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to [[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]], as a result of the Syrian civil war, &quot;government-controlled Syria is truncated in size, battered and impoverished.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/assads-syria-truncated-battered-defiant-26633429 |title=Assad's Syria Truncated, Battered, but Defiant |work=Abc News |first=Diaa |last=Hadid |date=2 November 2014 |access-date=2 November 2014 |archive-date=2 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102205346/http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/assads-syria-truncated-battered-defiant-26633429 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Economic sanctions (the [[Syria Accountability Act]]) were applied long before the Syrian civil war by the U.S. and were joined by the EU at the outbreak of the civil war, causing disintegration of the Syrian economy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17088270 |title=Syria 'disintegrating under crippling sanctions' |work=BBC News |date=19 February 2012 |access-date=2 November 2014 |archive-date=15 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150515091458/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17088270 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; These sanctions were reinforced in October 2014 by the EU and U.S.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-eu-idUSKCN0IA1AF20141021 |title=EU targets ministers, UAE firm in latest Syria sanctions |work=Reuters |first=Adrian |last=Croft |date=21 October 2014 |access-date=2 November 2014 |archive-date=7 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007014415/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/21/us-mideast-crisis-syria-eu-idUSKCN0IA1AF20141021 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2014/10/16/treasury-syrian-sanctions-qusay-mihoub/17354081/ |title=Tightened sanctions target Syrian human rights abuses |work=USA Today |first=Gregory |last=Korte |date=16 October 2014 |access-date=9 November 2014 |archive-date=11 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811132431/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2014/10/16/treasury-syrian-sanctions-qusay-mihoub/17354081/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Industry in parts of the country that are still held by the government is heavily state-controlled, with [[economic liberalisation]] being reversed during the current conflict.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-economy-socialist-idUSBRE8630FA20120704 |title=Syria reverts to socialist economic policies to ease tension |first1=Suleiman |last1=Al-Khalidi |work=Reuters |date=4 July 2012 |access-date=19 October 2014 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020124949/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/07/04/us-syria-economy-socialist-idUSBRE8630FA20120704 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[London School of Economics]] has stated that as a result of the Syrian civil war, a [[war economy]] has developed in Syria.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKCN0IU10Z20141110?irpc=932 |title=Local ceasefires best way to ease Syrians' suffering: researchers |work=Reuters |date=10 November 2014 |access-date=10 November 2014 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308161119/https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKCN0IU10Z20141110?irpc=932 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; A 2014 [[European Council on Foreign Relations]] report also stated that a war economy has formed:

{{blockquote|Three years into a conflict that is estimated to have killed at least 140,000 people from both sides, much of the Syrian economy lies in ruins. As the violence has expanded and sanctions have been imposed, assets and infrastructure have been destroyed, economic output has fallen, and investors have fled the country. Unemployment now exceeds 50 percent and half of the population lives below the poverty line ... against this backdrop, a war economy is emerging that is creating significant new economic networks and business activities that feed off the violence, chaos, and lawlessness gripping the country. This war economy – to which Western sanctions have inadvertently contributed – is creating incentives for some Syrians to prolong the conflict and making it harder to end it.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.ecfr.eu/page/-/ECFR97_SYRIA_BRIEF_AW.pdf |title=Syria's War Economy |first1=Jihad |last1=Yazigi |publisher=European Council on Foreign Relations |date=7 April 2014 |access-date=19 October 2014 |archive-date=9 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009205851/http://www.ecfr.eu/page/-/ECFR97_SYRIA_BRIEF_AW.pdf |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

A [[United Nations|UN]] commissioned report by the Syrian Centre for Policy Research states that two-thirds of the Syrian population now lives in &quot;extreme poverty&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-economy-idUSKBN0E81WL20140528 |title=Syria's economy heads into ruin: U.N. sponsored report |first1=Suleiman |last1=Al-Khalidi |work=Reuters |date=28 May 2014 |access-date=19 October 2014 |archive-date=24 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824204400/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/05/28/us-syria-economy-idUSKBN0E81WL20140528 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Unemployment stands at 50 percent.&lt;ref name=&quot;SurvivalMode&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-regime-cuts-subsidies-focuses-ailing-economy-on-war-effort/2014/11/29/5f830894-719c-11e4-a2c2-478179fd0489_story.html |title=Syria's Assad regime cuts subsidies, focuses ailing economy on war effort |newspaper=The Washington Post |first1=Hugh |last1=Naylor |date=29 November 2014 |access-date=6 December 2014 |archive-date=3 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103114216/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-regime-cuts-subsidies-focuses-ailing-economy-on-war-effort/2014/11/29/5f830894-719c-11e4-a2c2-478179fd0489_story.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; In October 2014, a $50 million mall opened in [[Tartus]] which provoked criticism from government supporters and was seen as part of an Assad government policy of attempting to project a sense of normalcy throughout the civil war.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Oct-17/274357-glitzy-mall-sparks-anger-from-assad-backers.ashx |title=Glitzy mall sparks anger from Assad backers |first1=Rita |last1=Daou |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=17 October 2014 |access-date=19 October 2014 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022183913/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Oct-17/274357-glitzy-mall-sparks-anger-from-assad-backers.ashx |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; A government policy to give preference to families of slain soldiers for government jobs was cancelled after it caused an uproar&lt;ref name=&quot;BurySons&quot;/&gt; while rising accusations of corruption caused protests.&lt;ref name=&quot;AlawitesVoice&quot;/&gt; In December 2014, the EU banned sales of jet fuel to the Assad government, forcing the government to buy more expensive uninsured jet fuel shipments in the future.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11290437/EU-tries-to-ground-Bashar-al-Assads-warplanes-by-banning-fuel-supplies.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11290437/EU-tries-to-ground-Bashar-al-Assads-warplanes-by-banning-fuel-supplies.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=EU tries to ground Bashar al-Assad's warplanes by banning fuel supplies |work=The Telegraph |first1=David |last1=Blair |date=12 December 2014 |access-date=13 December 2014}}{{cbignore}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Taking advantage of the increased role of the state as a result of the civil war, Bashar and his wife Asma have begun annexing Syria's economic assets from their loyalists, seeking to displace the old business elites and monopolize their direct control of the economy. [[Maher al-Assad]], the brother of Bashar, has also become wealthy by overseeing the operations of Syria's state-sponsored [[captagon]] drug industry and seizing much of the spoils of war. The ruling couple currently owns vast swathes of Syria's shipping, real estate, telecommunications and banking sectors.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=15 November 2022 |title=Changes to Syria's Business Elite Concentrates Wealth in Hands of Presidential Couple |work=The Syria Report |url=https://syria-report.com/analysis-changes-to-syrias-business-elite-concentrates-wealth-in-hands-of-presidential-couple-open-access/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202222632/https://syria-report.com/analysis-changes-to-syrias-business-elite-concentrates-wealth-in-hands-of-presidential-couple-open-access/ |archive-date=2 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |author1=Chloe Cornish |author2=Asser Khattab |date=25 July 2019 |title=Syria's Assad puts pressure on business elite |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/a7a75e4c-a95d-11e9-984c-fac8325aaa04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727060100/https://www.ft.com/content/a7a75e4c-a95d-11e9-984c-fac8325aaa04 |archive-date=27 July 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Significant changes have been happening to Syrian economy since the government's confiscation campaigns launched in 2019, which involved major economic assets being transferred to the Presidential couple to project their power and influence. Particularly noteworthy dynamic has been the rise of [[Asma al-Assad]], who heads Syria's clandestine economic council and is thought to have become &quot;a central funnel of economic power in Syria&quot;. Through her Syria Trust NGO, the backbone of her financial network, Asma vets the foreign aid coming to Syria; since the government authorizes UN organizations only if it works under state agencies.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Jalabi |first=Raya |date=2023 |title=Syria's state capture: the rising influence of Mrs Assad |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/a51c6227-0c93-4fe1-aca7-25783a43708f |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405013209/https://www-ft-com.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/content/a51c6227-0c93-4fe1-aca7-25783a43708f |archive-date=5 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Corruption has been rising sporadically in recent years, with Syria being considered the most corrupt country in the [[Arab World]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=31 January 2023 |title=Middle East corruption rankings: Syria most corrupt, UAE least, Turkey slipped |work=Al-Monitor |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/01/middle-east-corruption-rankings-syria-most-corrupt-uae-least-turkey-slipped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203201215/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/01/middle-east-corruption-rankings-syria-most-corrupt-uae-least-turkey-slipped |archive-date=3 February 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=31 January 2023 |title=Syria, Yemen and Libya among 'lowest in the world' for corruption perceptions |work=The New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-yemen-and-libya-rank-among-lowest-corruption-index?amp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208070207/https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-yemen-and-libya-rank-among-lowest-corruption-index?amp |archive-date=8 February 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of 2022, Syria is the ranked second worst globally in the [[Corruption Perceptions Index]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022 |title= Corruption Perceptions Index |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204001659/https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2022 |archive-date=4 February 2023 |website=[[Transparency International]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Sectarianism ===
{{See also|Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian civil war}}
Hafez al-Assad's government was widely counted amongst the most repressive Arab [[dictatorship]]s of the 20th century. As Bashar inherited his father's mantle, he sought to implement &quot;authoritarian upgrading&quot; by purging those from his father's generation and staffing the party and military with loyalist Alawite officers, further entrenching the sectarianism within the system.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2=Salah Saber |title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=27–30 |chapter=The domestic structure of the regime |quote=Because he lacks his father's leadership skills... Bashar may settle for consensus among his junta of Alawi officers... When Bashar assumed office he attempted to consolidate power through 'authoritarian upgrading'.. However, the conservative military establishment and senior members of the regime were not favorable to Bashar's reforms, which forced Bashar to retire such senior personnel in order to further consolidate his power. But Bashar struggled to appoint new and loyal staff, his Ba'athist regime became increasingly like a sectarian family clan}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto2&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Ker-Lindsay |first=James |date=27 April 2023 |title=Is Syria No Longer a Pariah State? |work=World Politics Review |url=https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/syria-pariah-state/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602100607/https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/syria-pariah-state/ |archive-date=2 June 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; While officially the Ba'athist government adheres to a strict secularist doctrine, in practice it has implemented sectarian engineering policies in the society to suppress dissent and monopolize its absolute power.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |title=Flight of Icarus? The PYD's Precarious Rise in Syria |publisher=International Crisis Group |date=8 May 2014 |access-date=4 October 2014 |page=23 |quote=The regime aims to compel people to take refuge in their sectarian and communitarian identities; to split each community into competing branches, dividing those who support it from those who oppose it |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220181554/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2016 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{quote box|&quot;During Hafez-al-Assad's reign, he resorted to emphasising the sectarian identities that the previous [[Ba'ath Party]] rejected; believing the only way to ensure stability was through building a trusted security force... Hafez pursued a strategy to &quot;make the Alawite community a loyal monolith while keeping Syria's Sunni majority divided&quot;.  Yet Syria became a [[police state]], enforcing stability through threat of brute force repression... Bashar had already followed in his father's footsteps, carefully manoeuvring his most loyal allies into the military-security apparatus, government ministries and the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'ath party]].&quot;
| source = — Antonia Robson&lt;ref name=&quot;Robson&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=3 May 2021 |last=Robson| first=Antonia |title=The Mobilisation of Sectarian Identities in the Syrian Civil War  |url=https://www.e-ir.info/2021/05/03/the-mobilisation-of-sectarian-identities-in-the-syrian-civil-war/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130180133/https://www.e-ir.info/2021/05/03/the-mobilisation-of-sectarian-identities-in-the-syrian-civil-war/ |archive-date=30 November 2022 |website=E-International Relations}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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The regime has attempted to portray itself to the outside world as &quot;the protector of minorities&quot; and instills the fear of the majority rule in the society to mobilize loyalists from minorities.&lt;ref name=&quot;NPR_APRIL_2015&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Meuse |first=Alison |date=18 April 2015 |title=Syria's Minorities: Caught Between Sword Of ISIS And Wrath of Assad |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2015/04/18/400360836/syrias-minorities-caught-between-sword-of-isis-and-wrath-of-assad |access-date=19 April 2015 |publisher=NPR |quote=Karim Bitar, a Middle East analyst at Paris think tank IRIS [...] says [...] 'Minorities are often used as a shield by authoritarian regimes, who try to portray themselves as protectors and as a bulwark' |archive-date=19 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150419125016/http://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2015/04/18/400360836/syrias-minorities-caught-between-sword-of-isis-and-wrath-of-assad |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Assad loyalist figures like [[Michel Samaha]] have advocated sectarian mobilization to defend the regime from what he labelled as the &quot;sea of [[Sunnis]]&quot;. Assad regime has unleashed sectarian violence through private Alawite militias like the ''[[Shabiha]]'', particularly in Sunni areas. Alawite religious iconography and communal sentiments are common themes used by [[Alawites|Alawite]] warrior-shaykhs who lead the Alawite militias; as justification to commit massacres, abductions and torture in opposition strongholds.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Ümit Üngör|first=Uğur |date=9 February 2022 |title=The Specter of Sectarian Violence in Syria |url=https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/the-specter-of-sectarian-violence-in-syria/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704031407/https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/the-specter-of-sectarian-violence-in-syria/ |archive-date=4 July 2022 |access-date=19 April 2015 |publisher=NPR}}&lt;/ref&gt; Various development policies adopted by the regime had followed a sectarian pattern. An urbanization scheme implemented by the government in the city of Homs led to expulsions of thousands of Sunni residents during the 2000s, while Alawite majority areas were left intact.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=24 August 2016 |last=Hokayem| first=Emile|title=Assad or We Burn the Country|url=https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323074045/https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-date=23 March 2022 |website=War on the rocks}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Even as [[Syrian Ba'athism]] absorbed diverse communal identities into the homogenous unifying discourse of the state; socio-political power became monopolized by Alawite loyalists. Despite officially adhering to non-confessionalism, [[Syrian Armed Forces]] have also been institutionally sectarianized. While the conscripts and lower-ranks are overwhelmingly non-Alawite, the higher ranks are packed by Alawite loyalists who effectively control the logistics and security policy. Elite units of the Syrian military such as the [[Tiger Forces]], [[Republican Guard (Syria)|Republican Guard]], [[4th Armoured Division (Syria)|4th Armoured Division]], etc. regarded by the government as crucial for its survival; are composed mostly of Alawites. Sunni officers are under constant surveillance by the secret police, with most of them being assigned with Alawite assistants who monitor their movements. Pro-regime [[paramilitary]] groups such as the [[National Defense Force (Syria)|National Defense Force]] are also organized around sectarian loyalty to the Ba'athist government. During the [[2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian Revolution]] uprisings, the [[Ba'athist Syria|Ba'athist government]] deployed a securitization strategy that depended on sectarian mobilization, unleashing violence on protestors and extensive crackdowns across the country, prompting opposition groups to turn to armed revolt. Syrian society was further sectarianized following the [[Iranian involvement in the Syrian civil war|Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war]], which witnessed numerous [[Khomeinism|Khomeinist]] militant groups sponsored by Iran fight in the side of the Assad government.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=24 August 2016 |last=Hokayem| first=Emile|title=Assad or We Burn the Country|url=https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323074045/https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-date=23 March 2022 |website=E-International Relations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Robson&quot;/&gt;

=== Human rights ===
{{See also|Human rights in Syria}}
The Ba'athist government has been ruling Syria as a totalitarian state, policing every aspect of Syrian society for decades. Commanders of government's security forces – consisting of [[Syrian Arab Army]], [[secret police]], Ba'athist paramilitaries – directly implement the executive functions of the state, with scant regard for legal processes and [[bureaucracy]]. The surveillance system of the ''[[Mukhabarat]]'' is pervasive, with the total number of agents working for its various branches estimated to be as high as 1:158 ratio with the civilian population. Security services shut down civil society organizations, curtail freedom of movement within the country and bans non-Ba'athist political literature and symbols.&lt;ref name=&quot;ifimes.org&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Hill&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Hill |first=Evan |date=16 July 2010 |title=Syria slammed on human rights |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2010/7/16/syria-slammed-on-human-rights |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521182156/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2010/7/16/syria-slammed-on-human-rights |archive-date=21 May 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2010, [[Human Rights Watch]] published the report &quot;''A Wasted Decade''&quot; documenting repression during Assad's first decade of [[emergency rule]]; marked by arbitrary arrests, censorship and discrimination against [[Kurds in Syria|Syrian Kurds]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Hill&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;hrw.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 July 2010 |title=A Wasted Decade: Human Rights in Syria during Bashar al-Asad's First Ten Years in Power |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2010/07/16/wasted-decade/human-rights-syria-during-bashar-al-asads-first-ten-years-power |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713084607/https://www.hrw.org/report/2010/07/16/wasted-decade/human-rights-syria-during-bashar-al-asads-first-ten-years-power |archive-date=13 July 2015 |website=Human Rights Watch}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Syria.BasharAlAssad.02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Billboard with a portrait of Bashar al-Assad and the text 'Syria is protected by God' on the [[Damascus#Walls and gates of Damascus|old city wall of Damascus]] in 2006]]

Throughout the 2000s, the dreaded ''[[Mukhabarat]]'' agents carried out routine [[Forced abduction|abductions]], [[arbitrary detention]]s and [[torture]] of civilians. Numerous [[show trial]]s were conducted against dissidents, filling Syrian prisons with journalists and human rights activists. Members of Syria's [[General Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|General Intelligence Directorate]] had long enjoyed broad privileges to carry out extrajudicial actions and they have immunity from criminal offences. In 2008, Assad extended this immunity to other departments of security forces.&lt;ref name=&quot;hrw.org&quot;/&gt; Human Rights groups, such as [[Human Rights Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]], have detailed how the Assad government's [[secret police]] tortured, imprisoned, and killed political opponents, and those who speak out against the government.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=A Wasted Decade |url=https://www.hrw.org/en/node/91580/section/4 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |pages=4, 8 |date=16 July 2010 |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-date=16 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416235023/http://www.hrw.org/en/node/91580/section/4 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2010 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Syria |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,,SYR,,4da56d83a2,0.html |publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |date=8 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019171745/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country%2C%2C%2C%2CSYR%2C%2C4da56d83a2%2C0.html |archive-date=19 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; In addition, some 600 Lebanese political prisoners are thought to be held in government prisons since the [[Syrian occupation of Lebanon]], with some held for as long as over 30 years.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.mmedia.me/lb/en/reportsfeatures/565320-syrias-secret-prisoners |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171009185724/https://m.media/Pages/NotFoundPage.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 October 2017 |title=Syria's secret prisoners |publisher=NOW News |last1=Luca |first1=Ana Maria |date=21 May 2015 |access-date=22 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since 2006, the Assad government has expanded the use of [[Persona non grata|travel bans]] against political dissidents.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/17155868 |title=How Syria controls its dissidents – Banning travel |date=30 September 2010 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=8 March 2011 |archive-date=30 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120830231102/http://www.economist.com/node/17155868 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;!-- The Syrian [[General Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|General Intelligence Directorate]] is Alawite dominated.{{sfn|Pierret|2013|p=204}}--&gt; In an interview with [[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] in 2007, Assad stated: &quot;We don't have such [things as] political prisoners,&quot; though ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported the arrest of 30 Syrian political dissidents who were organising a joint opposition front in December 2007, with 3 members of this group considered to be opposition leaders being remanded in custody.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/14/world/middleeast/14syria.html |work=The New York Times |title=Challenged, Syria Extends Crackdown on Dissent |first=Thanassis |last=Cambanis |date=14 December 2007 |access-date=26 April 2010 |archive-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605051853/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/14/world/middleeast/14syria.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The government also denied permission for human rights organizations and independent NGOs to work in the country.&lt;ref name=&quot;hrw.org&quot;/&gt; In 2010, Syria banned [[Veil|face veils]] at universities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-10684359 |title=Syria bans face veils at universities |newspaper=BBC News |date=19 July 2010 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=5 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405215836/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-10684359 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2010/0720/Veil-ban-Why-Syria-joins-Europe-in-barring-the-niqab |title=Veil ban: Why Syria joins Europe in barring the niqab |journal=The Christian Science Monitor |date=20 July 2010 |access-date=13 November 2014 |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517215400/https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2010/0720/Veil-ban-Why-Syria-joins-Europe-in-barring-the-niqab |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Following the protests of Syrian Revolution in 2011, Assad partially relaxed the veil ban.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/apr/06/syria-relax-veil-ban-teacher |title=Syria relaxes veil ban for teachers |newspaper=The Guardian |date=6 April 2011 |agency=Associated Press |access-date=14 December 2016 |archive-date=8 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190908080959/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/apr/06/syria-relax-veil-ban-teacher |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:(5)_Montreal_Syrian_solidarity_demonstration_March_27.jpg|thumb|Demonstration in [[Montreal]] in solidarity with the people of Syria. The sign reads: &quot;Stop torture and inhumane treatment of prisoners in Syria!&quot;]]
''[[Foreign Affairs]]'' journal released an editorial on the Syrian situation in the wake of the 2011 protests:&lt;ref name=&quot;The Sturdy House That Assad Built&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Michael Bröning |date=7 March 2011 |title=The Sturdy House That Assad Built |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67561/michael-broening/the-sturdy-house-that-assad-built |journal=[[Foreign Affairs]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119093700/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2011-03-07/sturdy-house-assad-built |archive-date=19 January 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{blockquote|During its decades of rule... the Assad family developed a strong political safety net by firmly integrating the military into the government. In 1970, Hafez al-Assad, Bashar's father, seized power after rising through the ranks of the [[Syrian armed forces]], during which time he established a network of loyal [[Alawites]] by installing them in key posts. In fact, the military, ruling elite, and [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|ruthless secret police]] are so intertwined that it is now impossible to separate the [[Assad regime]] from the security establishment. Bashar al-Assad's threat to use force against protesters would be more plausible than Tunisia's or Egypt's were. So, unlike in Tunisia and Egypt, where a professionally trained military tended to play an independent role, the regime and its loyal forces have been able to deter all but the most resolute and fearless oppositional activists... At the same time, it is significantly different from [[Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1977–2011)|Libya]], where the military, although brutal and loyal to the regime, is a more disorganized group of militant thugs than a trained and disciplined army.}}

Between 2011 and 2013; the state security apparatus is believed to have tortured and killed over 10,000 [[civil activist]]s, [[political dissidents]], [[Independent journalists|journalists]], [[Civil defense|civil defense volunteers]] and those accused of treason and terror charges, as part of a campaign of deadly crackdown ordered by Assad.&lt;ref name=&quot;Entous, Nissenbaum&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |author1=Adam Entous |author2=Dion Nissenbaum |date=25 July 2014 |title=10,000 Bodies: Inside Syrian President Bashar al-Assad's Crackdown |work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/10-000-bodies-inside-syrian-president-bashar-al-assads-crackdown-1406315472 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103162318/https://www.wsj.com/articles/10-000-bodies-inside-syrian-president-bashar-al-assads-crackdown-1406315472 |archive-date=3 January 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; In June 2023, [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] voted in favour of establishing an independent body to investigate the whereabouts of hundreds of thousands of missing civilians who have been forcibly disappeared, killed or languishing in Assad regime's [[Human rights in Syria#Detention Centres|dungeons]] and [[torture chamber]]s. The vote was condemned by Russia, North Korea and Iran.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=30 June 2023 |title=UN votes to establish independent body to clarify fate of over 130,000 Syrians missing in conflict |work=The Week |url=https://www.theweek.in/wire-updates/international/2023/06/30/fgn2-un-syria.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630045225/https://www.theweek.in/wire-updates/international/2023/06/30/fgn2-un-syria.amp.html |archive-date=30 June 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Kossaify |first=Ephrem |date=30 June 2023 |title=In milestone decision, UN creates institution for Syria's missing and disappeared |work=Arab News |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/2330286/middle-east |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630045427/https://www.arabnews.com/node/2330286/middle-east |archive-date=30 June 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=M. Lederer |first=Edith |date=30 June 2023 |title=UN votes to establish independent body to clarify fate of over 130,000 Syrians missing in conflict |work=AP News |url=https://apnews.com/article/un-syria-conflict-missing-people-75ab620d2ab939b54152a3f1ded5a156 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630163007/https://apnews.com/article/un-syria-conflict-missing-people-75ab620d2ab939b54152a3f1ded5a156 |archive-date=30 June 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2023, [[Canada]] and Netherlands [[Canada and the Netherlands v. Syrian Arab Republic|filed a lawsuit against Syria]] at the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ), charging the latter with violating the [[United Nations Convention Against Torture]]. The joint petition accused the Syrian regime of organizing &quot;unimaginable physical and mental pain and suffering&quot; as a strategy to collectively punish the Syrian population.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=12 June 2023 |title=Joint statement by Canada and the Kingdom of the Netherlands on instituting proceedings at the International Court of Justice to hold Syria to account for torture |url=https://www.government.nl/documents/diplomatic-statements/2023/06/12/joint-statement-by-canada-and-the-netherlands-on-instituting-proceedings-at-the-international-court-of-justice-to-hold-syria-to-account-for-torture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613135748/https://www.government.nl/documents/diplomatic-statements/2023/06/12/joint-statement-by-canada-and-the-netherlands-on-instituting-proceedings-at-the-international-court-of-justice-to-hold-syria-to-account-for-torture |archive-date=13 June 2023 |website=Government of Netherlands}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=12 June 2023 |title=Canada and the Kingdom of the Netherlands jointly institute proceedings against the Syrian Arab Republic and request the Court to indicate provisional measures |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/188/188-20230612-PRE-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613135950/https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/188/188-20230612-PRE-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-date=13 June 2023 |website=International Court of Justice.org |pages=1, 2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=8 June 2023 |title=Canada and the Kingdom of Netherlands vs. the Syrian Arab Republic |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/188/188-20230608-REQ-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612142054/https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/188/188-20230608-REQ-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-date=12 June 2023 |website=International Court of Justice.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Russia vetoed [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] efforts to prosecute Bashar al-Assad at the International Criminal Court.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=12 June 2023 |title=Canada and Netherlands take Syria to ICJ over alleged torture |work=The National |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/2023/06/12/canada-and-netherlands-take-syria-to-icj-over-alleged-torture/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613135519/https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/2023/06/12/canada-and-netherlands-take-syria-to-icj-over-alleged-torture/ |archive-date=13 June 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Repression of Kurds ===
{{Further|Arab Belt|Arabization#Arabization in Syria|Qamishli massacre|label 1=Arab Belt Project|label 2=Arabization in Syria}}
[[Ba'athist Syria]] had long banned [[Kurdish language]] in schools and public institutions; and discrimination against [[Syrian Kurds|Kurds]] steadily increased during the rule of Bashar al-Assad. State policy officially suppressed Kurdish culture; with more than 300,000 Syrian Kurds being rendered stateless. Kurdish grievances against state persecution eventually culminated in the [[2004 Qamishli riots|2004 Qamishli Uprisings]], which were crushed down violently after sending Syrian military forces. The ensuing crackdown resulted in the killings of more than 36 Kurds and injuring at least 160 demonstrators. More than 2000 civilians were arrested and tortured in government detention centres. Restrictions on Kurdish activities has been further tightened following the Qamishli massacre, with the [[Assad regime]] virtually banning all Kurdish cultural gatherings and political activism under the charges of &quot;inciting strife&quot; or &quot;weakening national sentiment.&quot; During 2005–2010, [[Human Rights Watch]] verified security crackdowns on at least 14 [[Kurdish population|Kurdish]] political and cultural gatherings.&lt;ref name=&quot;hrw.org&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Hill&quot;/&gt; In March 2008, Syrian military opened fire at a Kurdish gathering in Qamishli that marked Nowruz, killing three and injuring five civilians.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=23 March 2008 |title=Syria: Investigate Killing of Kurds |work=Human RIghts Watch |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2008/03/23/syria-investigate-killing-kurds |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505183620/https://www.hrw.org/news/2008/03/23/syria-investigate-killing-kurds |archive-date=5 May 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Censorship ===
{{Main|Censorship in Syria|Internet censorship in Syria}}

On 22 September 2001, Assad decreed a Press Law that tightened government control over all literature printed or published in Syria; ranging from newspapers to books, pamphlets and periodicals. Publishers, writers, editors, distributors, journalists and other individuals accused of violating the Press Law are imprisoned or fined. Censorship has also been expanded into the [[cyberspace]], and various websites are banned. Numerous bloggers and content creators have been arrested under various &quot;national security&quot; charges.&lt;ref name=&quot;hrw.org&quot;/&gt;

A 2007 law requires [[internet cafés]] to record all the comments users post on chat forums.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Bashar Al-Assad, President, Syria |url=http://en.rsf.org/spip.php?page=predateur&amp;id_article=42411 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716102326/http://en.rsf.org/spip.php?page=predateur&amp;id_article=42411 |archive-date=16 July 2012 |access-date=26 October 2012 |publisher=[[Reporters Without Borders]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Another decree in 2008 obligated internet cafes to keep records of their customers and report them routinely to the police.&lt;ref name=&quot;10 Worst Countries to be a Blogger&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=30 April 2009 |title=10 Worst Countries to be a Blogger |url=https://cpj.org/reports/2009/04/10-worst-countries-to-be-a-blogger/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202201109/https://cpj.org/reports/2009/04/10-worst-countries-to-be-a-blogger/ |archive-date=2 February 2023 |website=Committee to Protect Journalists}}&lt;/ref&gt; Websites such as [[Arabic Wikipedia]], [[YouTube]], and [[Facebook]] were [[Internet censorship in Syria|blocked intermittently between 2008 and February 2011]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=24 July 2008 |title=Red lines that cannot be crossed – The authorities don't want you to read or see too much |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=http://www.economist.com/node/11792330 |access-date=10 March 2011 |archive-date=11 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511054714/http://www.economist.com/node/11792330 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |author=Jennifer Preston |date=9 February 2011 |title=Syria Restores Access to Facebook and YouTube |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/world/middleeast/10syria.html |access-date=21 February 2017 |archive-date=10 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110210033047/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/world/middleeast/10syria.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Internet Enemies – Syria |url=http://en.rsf.org/internet-enemie-syria,39779.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518055039/http://en.rsf.org/internet-enemie-syria%2C39779.html |archive-date=18 May 2011 |access-date=29 April 2011 |publisher=Reporters Without Borders}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Committee to Protect Journalists]] (CPJ) ranked Syria as the third dangerous country to be an online blogger in 2009. Individuals are arrested based on a wide variety of accusations; ranging from undermining &quot;national unity&quot; to posting or sharing &quot;false&quot; content.&lt;ref name=&quot;hrw.org&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;10 Worst Countries to be a Blogger&quot;/&gt;

Syria was ranked as the third most censored country in CPJ's 2012 report. Apart from restrictions for international journalists that prohibit their entry, domestic press is controlled by state agencies that promote Ba'athist ideology. From 2011, the Syrian government has issued a complete [[media blackout]] and foreign correspondents were quickly detained, abducted or tortured. As a result, the outside world is able to know of situations happening inside Syria only through videos of independent civilian journalists. The Assad government has shut down internet coverage, [[Cellular network|mobile networks]] as well as telephone lines in areas under its control to prevent any news that has its attempts to monopolize information related to Syria.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=2 May 2012 |title=10 Most Censored Countries |url=http://cpj.org/reports/2012/05/10-most-censored-countries.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725103343/http://www.cpj.org/reports/2012/05/10-most-censored-countries.php |archive-date=25 July 2012 |access-date=14 August 2012 |work=Committee to Protect Journalists}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Crackdowns, ethnic cleansing, and forced disappearances ===
{{Further|Casualties of the Syrian civil war|Syrian refugee crisis}}
The [[2011 Syrian revolution#Crackdown|crackdown]] ordered by Bashar al-Assad against Syrian protesters was the most ruthless of all military clampdowns in the entire [[Arab Spring]]. As violence deteriorated and death toll mounted to the thousands; the European Union, Arab League and United States began imposing wide range of sanctions against Assad regime. By December 2011, [[United Nations]] had declared the situation in Syria to be a &quot;[[civil war]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |author1=Elizabeth A. Kennedy |author2=Frank Jordans |date=2 December 2011 |title=UN: Syria now in a civil war |work=MSNBC |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna45514855 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726024135/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna45514855 |archive-date=26 July 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; By this point, all the protestors and armed [[Resistance movement|resistance]] groups had viewed the unconditional resignation of Bashar al-Assad as part of their core demands. In July 2012, [[Arab League]] held an emergency session demanding the &quot;swift resignation&quot; of Assad and promised &quot;safe exit&quot; if he accepted the offer.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |author=Bassem Mroue |date=18 April 2011 |title=Bashar Assad Resignation Called For By Syria Sit-In Activists |work=[[HuffPost]] |agency=Associated Press |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/04/18/bashar-assad-resignation-syria-protest_n_850657.html |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512045222/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/04/18/bashar-assad-resignation-syria-protest_n_850657.html |archive-date=12 May 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=23 July 2012 |title=Arab League to offer 'safe exit' if Assad resigns |work=CNN|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/07/22/world/meast/syria-unrest |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514043736/http://www.cnn.com/2012/07/22/world/meast/syria-unrest |archive-date=14 May 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Assad rebuffed the offers, instead seeking foreign military support from Iran and Russia to defend his embattled regime through [[Scorched earth|scorched-earth tactics]], massacres, sieges, forced starvations, ethnic cleansing, etc.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Yacoubian |first=Mona |date=1 January 2021 |title=Syria Timeline: Since the Uprising Against Assad |url=https://www.usip.org/syria-timeline-uprising-against-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224072630/https://www.usip.org/syria-timeline-uprising-against-assad |archive-date=24 February 2021 |website=United States Institute of Peace}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The crackdowns and extermination campaigns of Assad regime resulted in the [[Syrian refugee crisis]]; causing the [[forced displacement]] of 14 million Syrians, with around 7.2 million refugees.&lt;ref name=&quot;Syria Refugee Crisis Explained&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=14 March 2023 |title=Syria Refugee Crisis Explained |url=https://www.unrefugees.org/news/syria-refugee-crisis-explained/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329091756/https://www.unrefugees.org/news/syria-refugee-crisis-explained/ |archive-date=29 March 2023 |website=UNHCR: The UN Refugee Agency}}&lt;/ref&gt; This has made the Syrian refugee crisis the largest [[refugee crisis]] in the world; and [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]] High Commissioner [[Filippo Grandi]] has described it as &quot;the biggest humanitarian and refugee crisis of our time and a continuing cause for suffering.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Syria Refugee Crisis Explained&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Syria Refugee Crisis |url=https://www.unrefugees.org/emergencies/syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518033038/https://www.unrefugees.org/emergencies/syria/ |archive-date=18 May 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ethnic cleansing ===
[[File:Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg|thumb|Wounded civilians getting rushed to a hospital in [[Aleppo]]]]
Eva Koulouriotis has described Bashar al-Assad as the &quot;master of [[ethnic cleansing]] in the 21st century&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;J. Koulouriotis&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=J. Koulouriotis |first=Eva |date=22 May 2022 |title=Assad: Master of ethnic cleansing in the 21st century |url=https://www.syriawise.com/opinion-assad-master-of-ethnic-cleansing-in-the-21st-century/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702072830/https://www.syriawise.com/opinion-assad-master-of-ethnic-cleansing-in-the-21st-century/ |archive-date=2 July 2022 |website=Syria Wise}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the course of the civil war, Assad ordered depopulation campaigns throughout the country to re-shape its demography in favor of his regime and the military tactics have been compared to the [[Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War|persecutions of the Bosnian war]]. Between 2011 and 2015, [[Ba'athism|Ba'athist]] militias are reported to have committed 49 ethno-sectarian [[massacre]]s for the purpose of implementing its social engineering agenda in the country. [[Alawites|Alawite]] loyalist militias known as the ''[[Shabiha]]'' have been launched into [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] villages and towns, perpetrating numerous [[Anti-Sunnism|anti-Sunni]] massacres. These include the [[Houla massacre|Houla]], [[Bayda and Baniyas massacres]], [[Al-Qubeir massacre]], Al-Hasawiya massacre, and others which have resulted in hundreds of deaths with hundreds of thousands of residents fleeing under threats of regime persecution and [[sexual violence]]. Pogroms and deportations were pronounced in central Syrian regions and Alawite majority coastal areas where the Syrian military and Hezbollah prioritize the establishment of strategic control by expelling Sunni residents and bringing in Iran-backed Shia militants.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |author1=Martin Chulov |author2=Mona Mahmood |date=22 July 2013 |title=Syrian Sunnis fear Assad regime wants to 'ethnically cleanse' Alawite heartland |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/22/syria-sunnis-fear-alawite-ethnic-cleansing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505110349/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/22/syria-sunnis-fear-alawite-ethnic-cleansing |archive-date=5 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Nakhoul |first=Samia |date=12 June 2012 |title=Insight: Syria massacres, ethnic cleansing that may backfire |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-massacres-idUSBRE85A1DY20120611 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222180327/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-massacres-idUSBRE85A1DY20120611 |archive-date=22 December 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;J. Koulouriotis&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Hamad |first=Sam |date=30 June 2017 |title=Daraa 'de-escalation' masks Assad's ethnic cleansing in Syria |work=New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/opinion/daraa-de-escalation-masks-assads-ethnic-cleansing-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207165354/https://www.newarab.com/opinion/daraa-de-escalation-masks-assads-ethnic-cleansing-syria |archive-date=7 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2016, UN officials criticized Bashar al-Assad for pursuing demographic engineering and ethnic cleansing in [[Darayya District|Darayya district]] in Damascus under the guise of de-escalation deals.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=El-Bar |first=Karim |date=5 September 2016 |title='Ethnic cleansing on an unprecedented scale': Rebels, UN criticise Assad tactics |work=Middle East Eye |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/ethnic-cleansing-unprecedented-scale-rebels-un-criticise-assad-tactics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015105258/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/ethnic-cleansing-unprecedented-scale-rebels-un-criticise-assad-tactics |archive-date=15 October 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Syrian government forces have pursued mass-killings of civilian populations as part of its war strategy throughout the conflict and is responsible for inflicting more than 90% of the [[Casualties of the Syrian civil war|total civilian deaths in the Syrian civil war]].&lt;ref name=&quot;auto1&quot;&gt;*{{Cite news |date=20 June 2022 |title=Assad, Iran, Russia committed 91% of civilian killings in Syria |work=Middle East Monitor |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220620-assad-iran-russia-committed-91-of-civilian-killings-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104153837/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220620-assad-iran-russia-committed-91-of-civilian-killings-in-syria/ |archive-date=4 January 2023 }}
* {{Cite web |date=September 2022 |title=Civilian Death Toll |url=https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305114908/https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-date=5 March 2022 |website=SNHR }}
* {{Cite news |date=19 June 2022 |title=91 percent of civilian deaths caused by Syrian regime and Russian forces: rights group |work=The New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-regime-and-russia-caused-91-deaths-report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105112752/https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-regime-and-russia-caused-91-deaths-report |archive-date=5 January 2023 }}
* {{Cite web |title=2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Syria |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702114009/https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/syria/ |archive-date=2 July 2022 |website=U.S Department of State }}
* {{Cite web |last=Roth |first=Kenneth |date=9 January 2017 |title=Barack Obama's Shaky Legacy on Human Rights |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/01/09/barack-obamas-shaky-legacy-human-rights |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202082511/https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/01/09/barack-obamas-shaky-legacy-human-rights |archive-date=2 February 2021 |website=Human Rights Watch }}
* {{Cite web |title=The Regional War in Syria: Summary of Caabu event with Christopher Phillips |url=https://www.caabu.org/news/news/regional-war-syria-summary-caabu-event-christopher-phillips |website=Council for Arab-British Understanding |access-date=21 May 2023 |archive-date=9 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209022611/https://www.caabu.org/news/news/regional-war-syria-summary-caabu-event-christopher-phillips |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The UN estimates a minimum of 306,000 civilian deaths occurred between 2011 and 2021.&lt;ref name=&quot;Farge&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ohchr.org&quot;/&gt; As of 2022, the total death toll has risen to approximately 580,000.&lt;ref name=&quot;GCR2P2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=1 December 2022 |title=Syria |url=https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128063728/https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/syria/ |archive-date=28 January 2023 |website=Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect}}&lt;/ref&gt; An additional 154,000 civilians have been [[forcibly disappeared]] or subject to [[Arbitrary arrest and detention|arbitrary detentions]] across Syria between 2011 and 2023. As of 2023, more than 135,000 individuals are being [[torture]]d, incarcerated or dead in [[Human rights in Syria#Detention Centers|Ba'athist prison networks]], including thousands of [[Woman|women]] and [[child]]ren.&lt;ref&gt;* {{Cite news |date=March 2023 |title=Record of Arbitrary Arrests |work=SNHR |url=https://snhr.org/blog/2021/08/14/record-of-arbitrary-arrests1/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513172453/https://snhr.org/blog/2021/08/14/record-of-arbitrary-arrests1/ |archive-date=13 May 2023}}
* {{Cite web |date=15 March 2023 |title=On the 12th Anniversary of the Popular Uprising |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/12th-anniversary-popular-uprising-total-230224-civilians-documented-dead-including-15275-who-died-due-torture-154871-arrested-andor-forcibly-disappeared-and-roughly-14-million-syrians-displaced#:~:text=The%20report%20reveals%20that%20no,March%202011%20and%20March%202023. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316062415/https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/12th-anniversary-popular-uprising-total-230224-civilians-documented-dead-including-15275-who-died-due-torture-154871-arrested-andor-forcibly-disappeared-and-roughly-14-million-syrians-displaced |archive-date=16 March 2023 |website=[[ReliefWeb]]}}
* {{Cite news |last=Mustafa |first=Wafa |date=18 May 2023 |title=Assad's regime took my father. Normalising relations feels like an attempt to rewrite history |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2023/may/18/assads-regime-took-my-father-normalising-relations-feels-like-an-attempt-to-rewrite-history |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519021625/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2023/may/18/assads-regime-took-my-father-normalising-relations-feels-like-an-attempt-to-rewrite-history |archive-date=19 May 2023}}
* {{Cite web |date=9 June 2021 |title=Humans not Numbers |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/humans-not-numbers-case-international-mechanism-address-detainees-and |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411115616/https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/humans-not-numbers-case-international-mechanism-address-detainees-and |archive-date=11 April 2023 |website=[[ReliefWeb]]}}
* {{Cite web |date=18 May 2023 |title=Seven reasons why normalizing with Assad is a shameful, terrible move |url=https://diary.thesyriacampaign.org/assad-normalization-arab-league/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518154642/https://diary.thesyriacampaign.org/assad-normalization-arab-league/ |archive-date=18 May 2023 |website=The Syria campaign}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Since 2011, the Assad regime has arrested and detained children without trial until the age of 18, after which they are transferred to Syrian military field courts and killed. A 2024 investigative report by the Syrian Investigative Journalism Unit (SIRAJ) identified 24 Syrian children who were forcibly disappeared, had their assets confiscated, detained and later killed after they reached the age of 18. The report, based on inside sources within the Assad government, interviews with victims' families, and public sources, estimated that more than 6,000 detainees under the age of 18 were sentenced to death in the [[Sednaya Prison]] and an Assadist military field court in [[Al-Dimas]] between 2014 and 2017, citing eyewitness accounts of an insider within the Ba'athist military police.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |author1=Ali Al Ibrahim |author2=Mohamad Skaf |date= 28 October 2024|title=Delayed Execution: The Syrian Regime Detains Minors in Prisons to Execute Them Upon Reaching 18 |url=https://sirajsy.net/the-syrian-regime-detains-minors/ |website=SIRAJ |access-date=31 October 2024 |archive-date=21 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241121052540/https://sirajsy.net/the-syrian-regime-detains-minors/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=29 October 2024 |title=Syria regime detained children until 18 before executing them under 'terrorism' law, investigation reveals |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20241029-syria-regime-detained-children-until-18-before-executing-them-under-terrorism-law-investigation-reveals/#comment-6582201907 |work=Middle East Monitor |access-date=31 October 2024 |archive-date=21 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241121052320/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20241029-syria-regime-detained-children-until-18-before-executing-them-under-terrorism-law-investigation-reveals/#comment-6582201907 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== War crimes ===
{{Further|Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war|Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war}}
{{quote box|&quot;The nature and extent of Assad's violence is strategic in design and effect. He is pursuing a [[state terrorism|strategy of terror]], [[siege]], and [[Ethnic cleansing|depopulation]] in key areas, calculating that winning back the loyalty of much of the [[Sunni]] middle class and underclass is highly unlikely and certainly not worth the resources and political capital. Better to level half the country than to give it over to the [[Syrian opposition|opposition]].&quot;
| source = — Emile Hokayem, Senior Fellow at [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=24 August 2016 |last=Hokayem| first=Emile|title=&quot;Assad or We Burn the Country&quot; |url=https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323074045/https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-date=23 March 2022 |website=War on the rocks}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| align = right
| width = 25em
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Numerous politicians, dissidents, authors and journalists have nicknamed Assad as the &quot;butcher&quot; of Syria for his war-crimes, [[Anti-Sunnism|anti-Sunni]] sectarian mass-killings, [[Chemical warfare|chemical weapons attacks]] and [[ethnic cleansing]] campaigns.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Holland |first=Jack |title=Selling War and Peace: Syria and the Anglosphere |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9781108489249 |location=New York |page=211 |chapter=7: Proxy War}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Dagher |first=Sam |title=Assad Or We Burn the Country: How One Family's Lust for Power Destroyed Syria |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-316-55670-5 |location=New York|chapter=15: Don't Stay with the Butcher}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Tibi |first=Bassam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uXAdAAAAQBAJ |title=The Shari'a State: Arab Spring and Democratization |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-66216-1 |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Warrick |first=Jobby |title=Red Line |publisher=Doubleday |year=2021 |isbn=9780385544467 |location=New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] has stated that at least 10 European citizens were tortured by the Assad government while detained during the Syrian civil war, potentially leaving Assad open to prosecution by individual European countries for [[war crime]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2014-12-15/us-says-europeans-tortured-by-assads-death-machine |title=U.S. says Europeans killed by Assad's death machine |work=Chicago Tribune |agency=Bloomberg News |first1=Josh |last1=Rogin |date=15 December 2014 |access-date=4 January 2015 |archive-date=13 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413082059/http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2014-12-15/us-says-europeans-tortured-by-assads-death-machine |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN sarin report&quot; /&gt; [[UN High Commissioner for Human Rights]] Navi Pillay stated in December 2013 that UN investigations directly implicated Bashar al-Assad guilty of [[crimes against humanity]] and pursuing an extermination strategy developed &quot;at the highest level of government, including the [[President of Syria|head of state]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=2 December 2013 |title=UN implicates Bashar al-Assad in Syria war crimes |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-25189834 |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331104230/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-25189834 |archive-date=31 March 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Stephen Rapp]], the [[United States Ambassador-at-Large for War Crimes Issues|U.S. Ambassador-at-Large for War Crimes Issues]], stated in 2014 that the crimes committed by Assad are the worst seen since those of [[Nazi Germany]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/fbi-says-europeans-tortured-by-assad-regime |title=FBI says Europeans tortured by Assad regime |first1=Tamar |last1=Pileggi |date=15 December 2014 |access-date=4 January 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150114063429/http://www.timesofisrael.com/fbi-says-europeans-tortured-by-assad-regime/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; In March 2015, Rapp further stated that the case against Assad is &quot;much better&quot; than those against [[Slobodan Milošević]] of Serbia or [[Charles Taylor (Liberian politician)|Charles Taylor]] of Liberia, both of whom were indicted by international tribunals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/us-war-crimes-case-assad-milosevic-29542721 |title=US: War Crimes Case Vs. Assad Better Than One for Milosevic |work=ABC News |first1=Cara |last1=Anna |agency=Associated Press |date=11 March 2015 |access-date=11 March 2015 |archive-date=23 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150323132342/http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/us-war-crimes-case-assad-milosevic-29542721 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Charles Lister, Director of the Countering Terror and Extremism Program at [[Middle East Institute]], describes Bashar al-Assad as &quot;21st century's biggest war criminal&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;/&gt;
[[File:Bombing_of_Darayya.png|thumb|240x240px|Bombing of [[Darayya]] suburb of [[Damascus]] by the [[Syrian Air Force|Syrian Arab Air Force]], 17 June 2016]]
In a February 2015 interview with the [[BBC]], Assad dismissed accusations that the [[Syrian Arab Air Force]] used [[barrel bomb]]s as &quot;childish&quot;, claiming that his forces have never used these types of &quot;barrel&quot; bombs and responded with a joke about not using &quot;cooking pots&quot; either.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.channel4.com/news/assad-syria-interview-bbc-barrel-bombs-facts-video |title='There are no barrel bombs': Assad's Syria 'facts' |publisher=Channel Four News |date=10 February 2015 |access-date=12 February 2015 |archive-date=12 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212212426/http://www.channel4.com/news/assad-syria-interview-bbc-barrel-bombs-facts-video |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; The ''[[BBC]] Middle East'' editor conducting the interview, [[Jeremy Bowen]], later described Assad's statement regarding barrel bombs as &quot;patently not true&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-31438916 |title=What does Assad really think about Syria's civil war? |work=BBC News |date=15 February 2014 |access-date=15 February 2015 |last=Bowen |first=Jeremy |archive-date=15 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215040413/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-31438916 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;!--The Syrian Arab Air Force's use of barrel bombs is well documented.--&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.pri.org/stories/2014-02-04/what-are-barrel-bombs-and-why-syrian-military-using-them |title=What are 'barrel bombs' and why is the Syrian military using them? |publisher=PRI |date=4 February 2014 |access-date=14 February 2015 |last=Bell |first=Matthew |archive-date=15 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215185404/http://www.pri.org/stories/2014-02-04/what-are-barrel-bombs-and-why-syrian-military-using-them |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; As soon as [[Civil uprising phase of the Syrian civil war|demonstrations arose in 2011–2012]], Bashar al-Assad opted to implement the &quot;[[Samson Option|Samson option]]&quot;, the characteristic approach of the [[Neo-ba'athist]] regime since the era of Hafez al-Assad; wherein protests were violently suppressed and demonstrators were shot and fired at directly by the armed forces. However, unlike Hafez; Bashar had even less loyalty and was politically fragile, exacerbated by alienation of the majority of the population. As a result, Bashar chose to crack down on dissent far more comprehensively and harshly than his father; and a mere allegation of collaboration was reason enough to get assassinated.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2=Salah Saber|title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=29–38 |chapter=The domestic structure of the regime}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Nadim Shehadi]], the director of [[The Fares Center for Eastern Mediterranean Studies]], stated that &quot;In the early 1990s, Saddam Hussein was massacring his people and we were worried about the weapons inspectors,&quot; and claimed that &quot;Assad did that too. He kept us busy with chemical weapons when he massacred his people.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2015/Jun-11/301349-iran-spends-billions-to-prop-up-assad.ashx |title=Iran spends billions to prop up Assad |publisher=TDA |agency=Bloomberg |date=11 June 2015 |access-date=11 June 2015 |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517021040/http://www.dailystar.com.lb//News/Middle-East/2015/Jun-11/301349-iran-spends-billions-to-prop-up-assad.ashx |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/06/19/a-damning-indictment-of-syrian-president-assad-s-systematic-massacres.html |title=A Damning Indictment of Syrian President Assad's Systematic Massacres |newspaper=The Daily Beast |last1=Dettmer |first1=Jamie |date=19 June 2015 |access-date=21 June 2015 |archive-date=18 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418223422/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/06/19/a-damning-indictment-of-syrian-president-assad-s-systematic-massacres.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Contrasting the policies of Hafez al-Assad and that of his son Bashar, former [[Vice President of Syria|Syrian vice-president]] and [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'athist]] dissident [[Abdul Halim Khaddam]] states: &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The Father had a mind and the Son has a loss of reason. How could the army use its force and the security apparatus with all its might to destroy Syria because of a protest against the mistakes of one of your security officials. The father would act differently. Father Hafez hit Hama after he encircled it, warned and then hit Hama after a long siege... But his son is different. On the subject of Daraa, Bashar gave instructions to open fire on the demonstrators.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2=Salah Saber |title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=33–34 |chapter=The domestic structure of the regime}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Human rights organizations and criminal investigators have documented Assad's war crimes and sent it to the [[International Criminal Court]] for indictment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Nebehay |first1=Stephanie |date=10 June 2014 |title=Assad tops list of Syria war crimes suspects handed to ICC: former prosecutor |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN0EL25020140610?irpc=932 |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129194851/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/06/10/us-syria-crisis-warcrimes-idUSKBN0EL25020140610?irpc=932 |archive-date=29 November 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since Syria is not a party to the [[Rome Statute]], [[International Criminal Court]] requires authorization from the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] to send Bashar al-Assad to tribunal. As this gets consistently [[veto]]ed by Assad's primary backer [[Russia]], ICC prosecutions have not transpired. On the other hand, courts in various European countries have begun prosecuting and convicting senior Ba'ath party members, [[Syrian Armed Forces|Syrian military]] commanders and ''[[Mukhabarat]]'' officials charged with war crimes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Swart |first=Mia |date=15 March 2021 |title=National courts lead the way in prosecuting Syrian war crimes |work=Al Jazeera News |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/15/national-courts-lead-the-way-in-prosecuting-syrian-war-crimes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303174028/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/15/national-courts-lead-the-way-in-prosecuting-syrian-war-crimes |archive-date=3 March 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; In September 2015, France began an inquiry into Assad for [[crimes against humanity]], with French Foreign Minister [[Laurent Fabius]] stating &quot;Faced with these crimes that offend the human conscience, this bureaucracy of horror, faced with this denial of the values of humanity, it is our responsibility to act against the impunity of the killers&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/france-opens-war-crimes-inquiry-against-assad-regime-222026549.html |title=France opens probe into Assad regime for crimes against humanity |work=Yahoo News |agency=Agence France-Presse |last1=Talagrand |first1=Pauline |date=30 September 2015 |access-date=1 October 2015 |archive-date=30 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930084126/http://news.yahoo.com/france-opens-war-crimes-inquiry-against-assad-regime-222026549.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In February 2016, head of the UN Commission of Inquiry on Syria, [[Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro|Paulo Pinheiro]], told reporters: &quot;The mass scale of deaths of detainees suggests that the government of Syria is responsible for acts that amount to extermination as a crime against humanity.&quot; The UN Commission reported finding &quot;unimaginable abuses&quot;, including women and children as young as seven perishing while being held by Syrian authorities. The report also stated: &quot;There are reasonable grounds to believe that high-ranking officers{{snd}}including the heads of branches and directorates{{snd}}commanding these detention facilities, those in charge of the military police, as well as their civilian superiors, knew of the vast number of deaths occurring in detention facilities ... yet did not take action to prevent abuse, investigate allegations or prosecute those responsible&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/un-probe-accuses-damascus-extermination-detainees-131405484.html |title=UN probe accuses Syria govt of 'exterminating' detainees |work=Yahoo News |agency=Agence France-Presse |last1=Larson |first1=Nina |date=8 February 2016 |access-date=11 February 2016 |archive-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160209093447/http://news.yahoo.com/un-probe-accuses-damascus-extermination-detainees-131405484.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In March 2016, the [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs|U.S. House Committee on Foreign Affairs]] led by [[New Jersey]] Rep. [[Chris Smith (New Jersey politician)|Chris Smith]] called on the Obama administration to create a war crimes [[tribunal]] to investigate and prosecute violations &quot;whether committed by the officials of the Government of Syria or other parties to the civil war&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/02/assad-war-crimes-russia-us-congress-persecution-cholera.html |title=Congress goes after Assad for war crimes |publisher=Al Monitor |last1=Pecquet |first1=Julian |date=1 March 2016 |access-date=1 March 2016 |archive-date=29 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160229102201/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/02/assad-war-crimes-russia-us-congress-persecution-cholera.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In June 2018, Germany's chief prosecutor issued an international arrest warrant for one of Assad's most senior military officials, [[Jamil Hassan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/germany-seeks-arrest-of-leading-syrian-general-on-war-crimes-charges/2018/06/08/2fa025d0-6b21-11e8-a335-c4503d041eaf_story.html |title=Germany seeks arrest of leading Syrian general on war crimes charges |last=Loveluck |first=Louisa |date=8 June 2018 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=12 June 2018 |issn=0190-8286 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612163014/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/germany-seeks-arrest-of-leading-syrian-general-on-war-crimes-charges/2018/06/08/2fa025d0-6b21-11e8-a335-c4503d041eaf_story.html |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hassan is the head of Syria's powerful [[Air Force Intelligence Directorate]]. Detention centers run by Air Force Intelligence are among the most notorious in Syria, and thousands are believed to have died because of [[torture]] or neglect. Charges filed against Hassan claim he had command responsibility over the facilities and therefore knew of the abuse. The move against Hassan marked an important milestone of prosecutors trying to bring senior members of Assad's inner circle to trial for war crimes.

In an investigative report about the [[Tadamon Massacre]], Professors [[Uğur Ümit Üngör]] and Annsar Shahhoud, found witnesses who attested that Assad gave orders for the [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|Syrian Military Intelligence]] to direct the [[Shabiha]] to kill civilians.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news | url=https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/how-a-massacre-of-nearly-300-in-syria-was-revealed/ | title=How a Massacre of Nearly 300 in Syria Was Revealed | newspaper=New Lines Magazine | date=27 April 2022 | first1=Annsar | last1=Shahhoud | first2=Uğur | last2=Ümit Üngör | access-date=1 May 2022 | archive-date=27 April 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427195055/https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/how-a-massacre-of-nearly-300-in-syria-was-revealed/ | url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 2023–2024 arrest warrant and legal proceedings ===
On 15 November 2023, France issued an arrest warrant against Syrian President Bashar Assad over the use of banned chemical weapons against civilians in Syria.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite news |date=15 November 2023 |title=France issues arrest warrant for Syria's President Assad – source |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/france-issues-arrest-warrants-against-syrias-president-assad-source-2023-11-15/ |work=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt; In May 2024, French anti-terrorism prosecutors requested the Paris appeals court to consider revoking Assad's arrest warrant, asserting his absolute immunity as a serving head of state.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last1=Surk  |first1=Barbara  |last2=Turnbull  |first2=Alex  |date=26 June 2024 |title=Paris court upholds validity of France's arrest warrant for Syrian President Bashar Assad |url=https://apnews.com/article/syria-france-assad-war-crimes-arrest-warrant-d64d25b39801dafdcbe031558b52b81b |work=Associated Press}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 26 June 2024, the Paris appeals court determined that the international arrest warrant issued by France against Assad for alleged complicity in war crimes during the Syrian civil war remains valid. This decision was confirmed by attorneys involved in the case.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

According to the lawyers, this ruling marked the first instance where a national court acknowledged that the personal immunity of a serving head of state is not absolute, as reported by The Associated Press.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

===Chemical attacks===
{{Main|Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war}}
{{See also|Syria and weapons of mass destruction}}
The [[Syrian Arab Armed Forces|Syrian military]] has deployed chemical warfare as a systematic military strategy in the [[Syrian civil war]], and is estimated to have committed over 300 [[Chemical warfare|chemical attacks]], targeting civilian populations throughout the course of the conflict.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Loveluck |first=Louisa |date=17 February 2019 |title=Syrian army responsible for Douma chemical weapons attack, watchdog confirms |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrian-military-linked-to-more-than-300-chemical-attacks-report-says/2019/02/16/c6e128de-31d4-11e9-ac6c-14eea99d5e24_story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301032936/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrian-military-linked-to-more-than-300-chemical-attacks-report-says/2019/02/16/c6e128de-31d4-11e9-ac6c-14eea99d5e24_story.html |archive-date=1 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Burke |first=Michael |date=17 February 2019 |title=Syria used chemical weapons more than 300 times, researchers say |work=The Hill |url=https://thehill.com/policy/international/430414-syria-used-chemical-weapons-more-than-300-times-researchers-say/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190219014216/https://thehill.com/policy/international/430414-syria-used-chemical-weapons-more-than-300-times-researchers-say/ |archive-date=19 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Investigation conducted by the [[Global Public Policy Institute (GPPi)|GPPi]] research institute documented 336 confirmed attacks involving chemical weapons in Syria between 23 December 2012 and 18 January 2019. The study attributed 98% of the total verified chemical attacks to the Assad's regime. Almost 90% of the attacks had occurred after the [[Ghouta chemical attack]] in August 2013.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |author1=Tobias Schneider |author2=Theresa Lutkefend |date=February 2019 |title=Nowhere to Hide: The Logic of Chemical Weapons Use in Syria |url=https://www.gppi.net/media/GPPi_Schneider_Luetkefend_2019_Nowhere_to_Hide_Web.pdf |journal= |pages=1–47 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216060712/https://www.gppi.net/media/GPPi_Schneider_Luetkefend_2019_Nowhere_to_Hide_Web.pdf |archive-date=16 December 2022 |via=GPPi}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Lombardo |first=Clare |date=17 February 2019 |title=More Than 300 Chemical Attacks Launched During Syrian Civil War, Study Says |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/02/17/695545252/more-than-300-chemical-attacks-launched-during-syrian-civil-war-study-says |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107103943/https://www.npr.org/2019/02/17/695545252/more-than-300-chemical-attacks-launched-during-syrian-civil-war-study-says |archive-date=7 January 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Ghouta massacre4 (cropped).JPG|thumb|Children killed by pro-[[Syrian military|Assad military forces]] in the Ghouta chemical attack, the deadliest [[chemical warfare|chemical weapons attack]] in the 21st century]]
Syria joined the Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW member state in October 2013, and there are currently three OPCW missions with UN mandates to investigate chemical weapons issues in Syria. These are the Declaration Assessment Team (DAT) to verify Syrian [[Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons|declarations of CW Programme]]; [[OPCW Fact-Finding Mission in Syria|OPCW Fact-Finding Mission]] (FFM) tasked to identify the chemical attacks and type of weapons used; and the Investigation and Identification Team (IIT) which investigates the perpetrators of the chemical attacks. The conclusions are submitted to the [[United Nations|United Nations bodies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Syria and the OPCW |url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/featured-topics/opcw-and-syria#:~:text=As%20a%20result%20of%20a,completeness%20of%20Syria's%20declaration%20remain. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230506165127/https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/featured-topics/opcw-and-syria |archive-date=6 May 2023 |website=OPCW| date=27 January 2023 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In April 2021, Syria was suspended from OPCW through the public vote of member states, for not co-operating with the body's Investigation Identification Team (IIT) and violating the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Corder |first=Mike |date=21 April 2021 |title=States suspend Syria's OPCW rights over chemical attacks |work=AP News |url=https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524194220/https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276 |archive-date=24 May 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=22 April 2021 |title=Conference of the States Parties adopts Decision to suspend certain rights and privileges of the Syrian Arab Republic under the CWC |url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2021/04/conference-states-parties-adopts-decision-suspend-certain-rights-and |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303125905/https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2021/04/conference-states-parties-adopts-decision-suspend-certain-rights-and |archive-date=3 March 2022 |website=OPCW}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=22 April 2021 |title=Decision addressing the Possession and Use of Chemical Weapons by the Syrian Arab Republic |url=https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021/04/c25dec09%28e%29.pdf |journal= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319223356/https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021/04/c25dec09(e).pdf |archive-date=19 March 2022 |via=OPCW}}&lt;/ref&gt; Findings of another investigation report published the OPCW-IIT in July 2021 concluded that the Syrian regime had engaged in confirmed chemical attacks at least 17 times, out of the reported 77 chemical weapon attacks attributed to Assadist forces.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=July 2021 |title=OPCW Confirms Chemical Weapons Use in Syria |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-07/news-briefs/opcw-confirms-chemical-weapons-use-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401005907/https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-07/news-briefs/opcw-confirms-chemical-weapons-use-syria |archive-date=1 April 2022 |website=Arms Control Association}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=4 June 2021 |title=Syria has likely used chemical weapons 17 times: International chemical weapons watchdog |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/syria-has-likely-used-chemical-weapons-17-times-international-chemical-weapons-watchdog/article34724203.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606111350/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/syria-has-likely-used-chemical-weapons-17-times-international-chemical-weapons-watchdog/article34724203.ece |archive-date=6 June 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of March 2023, independent United Nations inquiry commissions have confirmed at least nine chemical attacks committed by forces loyal to the [[Assad Government|Assad government]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=6 March 2023 |title=Security Council Deems Syria's Chemical Weapon's Declaration Incomplete |work=United Nations: Meetings Coverage and Press Releases |url=https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314022057/https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm |archive-date=14 March 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=15 May 2023 |title=Fifth Review Conference of the Chemical Weapons Convention |url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515121348/https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-date=15 May 2023 |website=European Union External Action}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:2015-08-21 Gedenken am Ernst-August-Platz in Hannover an die Giftgas-Opfer von Ghouta in Syrien, (14).JPG|thumb|Members of the Syrian community in [[Hannover]] protest against Bashar al-Assad on the second anniversary of [[Ghouta chemical attacks]], 21 August 2015.]]
The deadliest chemical attack have been the Ghouta chemical attacks, when Assad government forces launched the [[nerve agent]] [[sarin]] into civilian areas during its brutal [[Siege of Eastern Ghouta]] in early hours of 21 August 2013. Thousands of infected and dying victims flooded the nearby hospitals, showing symptoms such as foaming, body convulsions and other neurotoxic symptoms. An estimated 1,100–1,500 civilians; including  women and children, are estimated to have been killed in the attacks.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Ashraf |first=Sareta |date=22 August 2022 |title=Nine Years Since Ghouta: Reflecting on the Use of Chemical Weapons in Syria |url=https://www.ushmm.org/genocide-prevention/blog/nine-years-since-ghouta-chemical-weapons-in-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822152939/https://www.ushmm.org/genocide-prevention/blog/nine-years-since-ghouta-chemical-weapons-in-syria |archive-date=22 August 2022 |website=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |author1=Ben Hubbard |author2=Mark Mazzetti |author3=Mark Landler|date=26 August 2013 |title=Blasts in the Night, a Smell, and a Flood of Syrian Victims |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/27/world/middleeast/blasts-in-the-night-a-smell-and-a-flood-of-syrian-victims.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117184248/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/27/world/middleeast/blasts-in-the-night-a-smell-and-a-flood-of-syrian-victims.html |archive-date=17 November 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=10 September 2013 |title=Attacks on Ghouta |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2013/09/10/attacks-ghouta/analysis-alleged-use-chemical-weapons-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102104640/https://www.hrw.org/report/2013/09/10/attacks-ghouta/analysis-alleged-use-chemical-weapons-syria |archive-date=2 November 2022 |website=Human Rights Watch}}&lt;/ref&gt; The attack was internationally condemned and represented the deadliest use of chemical weapons since the [[Iran–Iraq War|Iran-Iraq war]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |author=S.B. |date=21 August 2013 |title=Syria's war: If this isn't a red line, what is? |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2013/08/syria-s-war |url-status=live |access-date=15 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220174814/http://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2013/08/syria-s-war |archive-date=20 December 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 August 2013 |title=Syria gas attack: death toll at 1,400 worst since Halabja |url=http://www.theweek.co.uk/world-news/syria-uprising/54759/syria-gas-attack-death-toll-1400-worst-halabja |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825115627/http://www.theweek.co.uk/world-news/syria-uprising/54759/syria-gas-attack-death-toll-1400-worst-halabja |archive-date=25 August 2013 |access-date=24 August 2013 |work=The Week}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 21 August 2022, United States government marked the ninth anniversary of Ghouta Chemical attacks stating: &quot;[[United States]] remembers and honors the victims and survivors of the Ghouta attack and the many other chemical attacks we assess the Assad regime has launched. We condemn in the strongest possible terms any use of chemical weapons anywhere, by anyone, under any circumstances... The United States calls on the Assad regime to fully declare and destroy its [[Syria chemical weapons program|chemical weapons program]]... and for the regime to allow the [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]]' Declaration Assessment Team.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=21 August 2022 |title=Ninth Anniversary of the Ghouta, Syria Chemical Weapons Attack |url=https://www.state.gov/ninth-anniversary-of-the-ghouta-syria-chemical-weapons-attack/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526194512/https://www.state.gov/ninth-anniversary-of-the-ghouta-syria-chemical-weapons-attack/ |archive-date=26 May 2023 |website=U.S. Department of State}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In April 2017, a [[sarin]] [[Khan Shaykhun chemical attack|chemical attack on Khan Sheikhoun]] killed more than 80 people.{{sfn|Bronner|2007|p=63}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=8 May 2014 |title=Flight of Icarus? The PYD's Precarious Rise in Syria |page=23 |publisher=International Crisis Group |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |url-status=dead |access-date=4 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220181554/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2016 |quote=The regime aims to compel people to take refuge in their sectarian and communitarian identities; to split each community into competing branches, dividing those who support it from those who oppose it}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Entous, Nissenbaum&quot; /&gt; In response, U.S. president [[Donald Trump]] ordered an [[2017 Shayrat missile strike|missile strike against the Syrian Shayrat base]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/04/05/middleeast/syria-airstrike-idlib-how-it-unfolded/index.html |title=Airstrike to US intervention: How attack unfolded |author1=Lauren Said-Moorhouse |author2=Sarah Tilotta |work=CNN|access-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612165854/https://edition.cnn.com/2017/04/05/middleeast/syria-airstrike-idlib-how-it-unfolded/index.html |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WhyWasSharyatAirbaseBombed&quot;&gt;{{cite news |date=7 April 2017 |title=Syria war: Why was Shayrat airbase bombed? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-39531045 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=30 April 2024 |archive-date=30 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240430182855/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-39531045 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; A joint report from the UN and international chemical weapons inspectors concluded that Assad regime perpetrated the sarin attack.&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN sarin report&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/10/26/middleeast/syria-khan-sheikhoun-chemical-attack-sarin/index.html |title=UN: Syria responsible for sarin attack that killed scores |author1=Steve Almasy |author2=Richard Roth |work=CNN|access-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612174315/https://edition.cnn.com/2017/10/26/middleeast/syria-khan-sheikhoun-chemical-attack-sarin/index.html |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ReutersSyriaChemicalWeaponsKhanSheikhoun&quot;&gt;{{cite news |last=Campos |first=Rodrigo |date=27 October 2017 |title=Syrian government to blame for April sarin attack: U.N. report |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN1CV3GF/ |work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=30 April 2024 |archive-date=24 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240424151004/https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN1CV3GF/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In April 2018, a [[Douma chemical attack|chemical attack occurred in Douma]], prompting the U.S. and its allies to accuse Assad of violating international law and initiated joint [[2018 bombing of Damascus and Homs|missile strikes at chemical weapons facilities in Damascus and Homs]]. Both Syria and Russia denied involvement.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/13/world/middleeast/un-syria-haley-chemical-weapons.html|title=U.S. Says Syria Has Used Chemical Weapons at Least 50 Times During War|work=The New York Times|date=13 April 2018|last1=Gladstone|first1=Rick|access-date=16 April 2018|archive-date=2 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802140836/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/13/world/middleeast/un-syria-haley-chemical-weapons.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Cooper|first1=Helene|last2=Gibbons-Neff|first2=Thomas|last3=Hubbard|first3=Ben|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/13/world/middleeast/trump-strikes-syria-attack.html|title=U.S., Britain and France Strike Syria Over Suspected Chemical Weapons Attack|work=The New York Times|date=13 April 2018|access-date=27 November 2020|archive-date=14 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414012221/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/13/world/middleeast/trump-strikes-syria-attack.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The third report published  on 27 January 2023  by the OPCW-IIT concluded that the Assad regime was responsible for the [[2018 Douma chemical attack]] which killed at least 43 civilians.{{Efn|Sources:
* {{Cite web |date=27 January 2023 |title=OPCW Releases Third Report by Investigation and Identification Team |url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2023/01/opcw-releases-third-report-investigation-and-identification-team |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127111421/https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2023/01/opcw-releases-third-report-investigation-and-identification-team |archive-date=27 January 2023}}
* {{Cite web |date=27 January 2023 |title=Third Report by the OPCW Investigation and Identification Team |url=https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2023/01/s-2125-2023%28e%29.pdf |journal= |pages=2–139 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127111959/https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2023/01/s-2125-2023(e).pdf |archive-date=27 January 2023 |via=OPCW}}
* {{Cite web |date=27 January 2023 |title=Joint Statement on OPCW Report Finding Syrian Regime Responsible for Chemical Weapons Attack in Douma, Syria on April 7, 2018 |url=https://www.state.gov/joint-statement-on-opcw-report-finding-syrian-regime-responsible-for-chemical-weapons-attack-in-douma-syria-on-april-7-2018/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128024629/https://www.state.gov/joint-statement-on-opcw-report-finding-syrian-regime-responsible-for-chemical-weapons-attack-in-douma-syria-on-april-7-2018/ |archive-date=28 January 2023 |website=U.S Department of State}}
*  {{Cite news |date=27 January 2023 |title=OPCW blames Syria gov't for 2018 chlorine gas attack in Douma |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/1/27/opcw-blames-syria-government-forces-for-2018-douma-chlorine-gas-attack}}
* {{Cite news |date=27 January 2023 |title=Watchdog blames Syria for 2018 Douma chemical attack |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-64424831 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128025152/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-64424831 |archive-date=28 January 2023}}
* {{Cite news |last=Chulov |first=Martin |date=27 January 2023 |title=Syrian regime found responsible for Douma chemical attack |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/27/syrian-regime-found-responsible-for-douma-chemical-weapons-attack |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127200237/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/27/syrian-regime-found-responsible-for-douma-chemical-weapons-attack |archive-date=27 January 2023}}
* {{Cite news |last=Loveluck |first=Louisa |date=27 January 2023 |title=Syrian army responsible for Douma chemical weapons attack, watchdog confirms |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/01/27/syria-chemical-weapons-douma-opcw/}}}}

=== Comments on the Holocaust ===
{{See also|Holocaust denial}}
In a speech delivered at the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'ath party]]'s central committee meeting in December 2023, Bashar al-Assad claimed that there was &quot;no evidence&quot; of the killings of six million Jews during [[the Holocaust]]. Emphasizing that Jews were not the sole [[Holocaust victims|victims of Nazi extermination campaigns]], Assad alleged that the Holocaust was &quot;politicized&quot; by [[Allied Powers (World War II)|Allied powers]] to facilitate the mass-deportation of [[European Jews]] to Palestine, and that it was used as an excuse to justify the creation of Israel. Assad also accused the U.S. government of financially and militarily sponsoring the [[rise of Nazism]] during the [[Interwar period|inter-war period]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Silkoff |first=Shira |date=20 December 2023 |title=Syria's Assad claims Holocaust was a lie fabricated to justify creation of Israel |work=The Times of Israel |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrias-assad-claims-holocaust-was-a-lie-fabricated-to-justify-creation-of-israel/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231220150406/https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrias-assad-claims-holocaust-was-a-lie-fabricated-to-justify-creation-of-israel/ |archive-date=20 December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=20 December 2023 |title=Syrian President Assad denies Holocaust and accuses U.S. of funding Nazis in controversial speech |work=i24news |url=https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/israel/diplomacy/1703081866-syrian-president-assad-denies-holocaust-and-accuses-u-s-of-funding-nazis-in-controversial-speech |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231220142407/https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/israel/diplomacy/1703081866-syrian-president-assad-denies-holocaust-and-accuses-u-s-of-funding-nazis-in-controversial-speech |archive-date=20 December 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Public image==
=== Domestic opposition and support ===
{{Further|Syrian opposition}}
[[File:Syrian_Civil_War_map_(March_15_2013).svg|thumb|[[Syrian opposition]] in March 2013]]
The secular resistance to Assad rule is mainly represented by the [[Syrian National Council]] and [[National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces]], two political bodies that constitute a coalition of [[Centre-left politics|centre-left]] and [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] [[Conservatism|conservative]] factions of the [[Syrian opposition]]. Military commanders and civilian leaders of [[Free Syrian Army]] militias are represented in these councils. The coalition represents the political wing of the [[Syrian Interim Government]] and seeks the [[democratic transition]] of Syria through grass-roots activism, protests and armed [[Resistance movement|resistance]] to overthrow the Ba'athist dictatorship.&lt;ref name=&quot;nahex&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=31 May 2013 |title=Syria Opposition Expands, Closes Meeting |url=http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/85113-syria-opposition-expands-closes-meeting |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625042548/http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/85113-syria-opposition-expands-closes-meeting |archive-date=25 June 2013 |work=Naharnet}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;cnn&quot;&gt;{{cite news|date=23 August 2011 |title=Syrian activists form a 'national council' |work=CNN|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/08/23/syria.un.resolution/index.html?eref=mrss_igoogle_cnn |url-status=live |access-date=24 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107012915/http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/08/23/syria.un.resolution/index.html?eref=mrss_igoogle_cnn |archive-date=7 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Sayigh |first=Yezid |date=April 2013 |title=The Syrian Opposition's Leadership Problem |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/files/syrian_leaderiship_problem.pdf|location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |pages=1–31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220916020532/https://carnegieendowment.org/files/syrian_leaderiship_problem.pdf |archive-date=16 September 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; A less influential faction within the Syrian opposition is the [[National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change]] (NCC), a coalition of [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] [[Socialism|socialist]] parties that seek to end the rule of [[Al-Assad family|Assad family]] but without [[Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war|foreign involvement]]. Established in June 2011, major parties in the NCC coalition are the [[Democratic Arab Socialist Union]], [[Syrian Democratic People's Party]] and the [[Communist Labour Party (Syria)|Communist Labour Party]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Guide to the Syrian opposition&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |date=17 October 2013 |title=Guide to the Syrian opposition |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15798218  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104105606/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-15798218 |archive-date=4 January 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[National Democratic Rally (Syria)|National Democratic Rally]] (NDR) was an older left-wing opposition coalition of [[Socialism|socialist]] parties formed in 1980, but banned by the Baathist government. NDR was active during the nationwide protests of the 1980s and the [[Damascus Spring]] of the 2000s.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Daher |first=Joseph |date=30 October 2020 |title=Syria's Labor Communist Party, a rich political history |url=https://syriauntold.com/2020/10/30/syrias-labor-communist-party-a-rich-political-history-2/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104175433/https://syriauntold.com/2020/10/30/syrias-labor-communist-party-a-rich-political-history-2/ |archive-date=4 January 2023 |website=Syria Untold}}&lt;/ref&gt; During the early years of the civil war, the [[Druze in Syria]] primarily sought to remain neutral, &quot;seeking to stay out of the conflict&quot;. [[Druze-Israeli]] politician Majalli Wahabi claimed in 2016 that over half support the Assad government despite its relative weakness in Druze areas.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Druse-ex-MK-Syrian-brethren-not-abandoned-by-Assad-441879 |title=Druse ex-MK: Syrian brethren not abandoned by Assad |date=21 January 2016 |work=The Jerusalem Post}}&lt;/ref&gt; The &quot;Sheikhs of Dignity&quot; movement, which had sought to remain neutral and to defend Druze areas,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/features/2015/2/7/the-neutral-druze-sheikh-angering-syrias-regime |title=The 'neutral' Druze sheikh angering Syria's regime |publisher=The New Arab |date=7 February 2015 |access-date=2 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; blamed the government after its leader [[Sheikh Wahid al-Balous]] was assassinated and organized large scale protests which left six government security personnel dead.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/six-syria-regime-loyalists-killed-after-druze-cleric-assassinated/ |title=Six Syria regime loyalists killed after Druze cleric assassinated |work=The Times of Israel |agency=AFP and AP |date=5 September 2015 |access-date=2 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; Druze community became fervently opposed to the Assad government over time and has been vocal about its opposition to increasing Iranian interference in Syria.&lt;ref name=&quot;Abdulhamid&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Abdulhamid |first=Ammar |date=5 February 2024 |title=The Syrian Conflict |url=https://www.cjlpa.org/post/the-syrian-conflict-the-myth-of-containment-and-the-realities-of-accountability |journal=The Cambridge Journal of Law, Politics, and Art |via=cjlpa.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; In August 2023, mass protests against Assad regime erupted in the Druze-majority city of [[As-Suwayda|Suweida]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=17 August 2023 |title=Protests in southern Syria as economy worsens |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/08/protests-southern-syria-economy-worsens |access-date=29 August 2023 |website=Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sinjab&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Sinjab |first=Lina |date=24 August 2023 |title=Syria: Protests over growing economic hardship spread in south |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-66607118 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825090905/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-66607118 |archive-date=25 August 2023 |access-date=26 August 2023 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; which eventually spread to other [[Southern Syria protests (2023 – present)|regions of Southern Syria]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Sinjab&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=29 August 2023 |title=Syria Protests Spurred by Economic Misery Stir Memories of the 2011 Anti-Government Uprising |url=https://english.aawsat.com/features/4514386-syria-protests-spurred-economic-misery-stir-memories-2011-anti-government-uprising |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829122111/https://english.aawsat.com/features/4514386-syria-protests-spurred-economic-misery-stir-memories-2011-anti-government-uprising |archive-date=29 August 2023 |work=Asharq al-Awsat}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=al-Mahmoud |first=Hussam |date=12 February 2024 |title=Six months into As-Suwayda uprising, What is the future of street protests? |url=https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2024/02/six-months-into-as-suwayda-uprising-what-is-the-future-of-street-protests/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240212161419/https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2024/02/six-months-into-as-suwayda-uprising-what-is-the-future-of-street-protests/ |archive-date=12 February 2024 |work=Enab Baladi}}&lt;/ref&gt; Druze cleric Hikmat al-Hajiri, religious leader of Syrian Druze community, has declared war against &quot;Iranian invasion of the country&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Abdulhamid&quot;/&gt; Syrian [[Sufism|Sufi]] scholar [[Muhammad al-Yaqoubi]], a fervent opponent of both the Ba'athist regime and [[Islamic State]] group, has described Assad's rule as a &quot;reign of terror&quot; that wreaked havoc and enormous misery on the Syrian populace.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=al-Yaqoubi |first=Muhammad |date=5 December 2014 |title=To defeat the Islamic State we must first remove Bashar al-Assad |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/defeating-the-islamic-state-requires-first-ousting-bashar-al-assad/2014/12/05/8097b9f8-7c05-11e4-9a27-6fdbc612bff8_story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816235657/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/defeating-the-islamic-state-requires-first-ousting-bashar-al-assad/2014/12/05/8097b9f8-7c05-11e4-9a27-6fdbc612bff8_story.html |archive-date=16 August 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
The regime's support base consisted of [[Ba'athism|Ba'athist]] loyalists who dominate Syrian politics, [[trade union]]s, youth organizations, [[Students' union|students unions]], [[bureaucracy]] and [[Syrian Armed Forces|armed forces]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Awad |first=Ziad |title=The 2022 Syrian Local Elections: A Leadership Rooted in Regime Networks |date= 2023 |publisher=European University Institute |isbn=978-92-9466-358-0 |location=San Domenico di Fiesole (FI) Italy |pages=5–20 |doi=10.2870/52247 |issue=1}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'ath party]] institutions and its political activities form the &quot;vital pillars of regime survival&quot;. Family networks of politicians in the Ba'ath party-led [[National Progressive Front (Syria)|National Progressive Front]] (NPF) and businessmen loyal to the Assad family form another pole of support. Electoral listing is supervised by Ba'ath party leadership which expels candidates not deemed &quot;sufficiently loyal&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |author1=Carl Yonker |author2=Christopher Solomon |title=The Banality of Authoritarian Control: Syria's Ba'ath Party Marches On |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/83906 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202101520/https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/83906 |archive-date=2 December 2022 |website=carnegieendowment.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Al-Assad: The Presidency That Never Ends |url=https://crd.org/al-assad/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226152530/https://crd.org/al-assad/ |archive-date=26 February 2023 |website=[[Civil Rights Defenders]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Awad |first=Ziad |title=The 2022 Syrian Local Elections: A Leadership Rooted in Regime Networks |year=2023 |publisher=European University Institute |isbn=978-92-9466-358-0 |location= San Domenico di Fiesole (FI) Italy |pages=5–20 |doi=10.2870/52247 |issue=1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although it has been reported at various stages of the Syrian civil war that [[Religion in Syria|religious minorities]] such as the [[Alawites]] and [[Christianity in Syria|Christians in Syria]] favour the Assad government because of its secularism,&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Security-Watch/2014/0122/Loyalty-to-Assad-runs-deep-on-Syrian-coast Loyalty to Assad runs deep on Syrian coast] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627151953/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Security-Watch/2014/0122/Loyalty-to-Assad-runs-deep-on-Syrian-coast|date=27 June 2015}}&quot;. ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]''. 22 January 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrias-christians-stand-by-assad/ |title=Syria's Christians stand by Assad |work=[[CBS News]] |date=6 February 2012 |access-date=13 January 2016 |archive-date=11 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111004508/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503543_162-57372175-503543/syrias-christians-stand-by-assad/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; opposition exists among [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] Christians who have claimed that the Assad government seeks to use them as &quot;puppets&quot; and deny their distinct ethnicity, which is non-Arab.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.yourmiddleeast.com/culture/a-glifmpse-into-the-world-of-syrias-christian-sutoro-fighters-video_24956 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150407135145/http://www.yourmiddleeast.com/culture/a-glifmpse-into-the-world-of-syrias-christian-sutoro-fighters-video_24956 |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 April 2015 |last=Ahmad |first=Rozh |title=A glimpse into the world of Syria's Christian &quot;Sutoro&quot; fighters (video) |publisher=Your Middle East |date=23 September 2014 |access-date=17 March 2015 |quote=The regime wants us to be puppets, deny our ethnicity and demand an Arab-only state. }}&lt;/ref&gt; Although Syria's [[Alawites|Alawite]] community forms Bashar al-Assad's core support base and dominate the [[Syrian Military|military]] and [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|security apparatus]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/10/20111010122434671982.html |title=Assad's Alawites: The guardians of the throne |first=Nir |last=Rosen |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=8 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/articles/syrias-alawites-the-people-behind-assad-1435166941 Syria's Alawites: The People Behind Assad] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226142611/https://www.wsj.com/articles/syrias-alawites-the-people-behind-assad-1435166941 |date=26 February 2017 }} ''The Wall Street Journal'', 25 June 2015.&lt;/ref&gt; in April 2016, [[BBC News]] reported that Alawite leaders released a document seeking to distance themselves from Assad.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-35941679 |title=Syrian Alawites distance themselves from Assad |work=BBC News |last=Wyatt |first=Caroline |date=4 April 2016 |access-date=10 April 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Syrian Civil War map (November 24, 2023).svg|thumb|Military situation, November 2023 – November 2024]]
[[Kurdish Supreme Committee]] was a coalition of 13 Kurdish political parties opposed to Assad regime. Before its dissolution in 2015, the committee consisted of [[Kurdish National Council|KNC]] and [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|PYD]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Guide to the Syrian opposition&quot;/&gt; [[Circassians in Syria]] have also become strong opponents of the regime as Ba'athist crackdowns and massacres across Syria intensified viciously; and members of Circassian ethnic minority have attempted to escape Syria, fearing persecution.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Richmond |first=Walter |title=The Circassian Genocide |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8135-6068-7 |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey |page=170 |chapter=8: The Road to Sochi}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2014, the Christian [[Syriac Military Council]], the largest Christian organization in Syria, allied with the Free Syrian Army opposed to Assad,&lt;ref name=&quot;SyriacMilitaryCouncil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/09/25/world/meast/us-syria-rebel-agreement/ |last1=Bronstein |first1=Scott |last2=Griffin |first2=Drew |title=Syrian rebel groups unite to fight ISIS |work=CNN|date=26 September 2014 |access-date=1 October 2014 |quote=Under the agreement, moderate Muslim rebel groups fighting under the Supreme Military Council of Syria agreed to form an alliance with the predominantly Christian Syriac Military Council.}}&lt;/ref&gt; joining other Syrian Christian militias such as the [[Sutoro]] who had joined the Syrian opposition against the Assad government.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2014/12/21/syria-christian-islamic-state/18915275 |title=Remaining Christians in Syria fight to save their land |work=USA Today |first1=Sophie |last1=Cousins |date=22 December 2014 |access-date=9 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Abu Mohammad al-Julani]], commander of the [[Tahrir al-Sham]] rebel militia, condemned Assad regime for converting Syria &quot;into an ongoing earthquake the past 12 years&quot;, in the context of the [[2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |author1=Ruth Michaelson |author2=Lorenzo Tondo |date=13 February 2023 |title=Syrian rebel leader pleads for outside help a week on from earthquakes |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/13/syria-earthquake-rebel-leader-pleas-for-outside-help |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214012142/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/13/syria-earthquake-rebel-leader-pleas-for-outside-help |archive-date=14 February 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;In June 2014, Assad won a disputed [[2014 Syrian presidential election|presidential election]] held in government-controlled areas (and boycotted in opposition-held areas&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/03/syria-presidential-electi_n_5435706.html |title=Syria's 2014 Presidential Election Ignored in Opposition-Held Areas |work=HuffPost |date=2 August 2014 |access-date=2 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; and Kurdish areas governed by the [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|Democratic Union Party]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |author=Wladimir van Wilgenburg |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/06/syria-kurds-assad-presidential-elections-pyd.html |title=Syria's Kurdish region to boycott presidential elections |work=Al-Monitor |access-date=8 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607230545/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/06/syria-kurds-assad-presidential-elections-pyd.html |archive-date=7 June 2014 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;) with 88.7% of the vote. Turnout was estimated to be 73.42% of eligible voters, including those in rebel-controlled areas.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=4 June 2014 |title=Supreme Constitutional Court: Number of participants in Presidential elections reached at 11.634.412 with 73.42% |url=http://sana.sy/eng/393/2014/06/04/548612.htm |agency=Syrian Arab News Agency |location=Damascus |access-date=4 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607000918/http://sana.sy/eng/393/2014/06/04/548612.htm |archive-date=7 June 2014 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; The regime's electoral commission also disqualified millions of Syrian citizens displaced outside the country from voting.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Evans |first=Dominic |date=28 April 2014 |title=Assad seeks re-election as Syrian civil war rages |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-assad-idUKKBN0DE0UY20140428 |access-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104163541/https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-assad-idUKKBN0DE0UY20140428 |archive-date=4 January 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; Independent observers and academic scholarship unanimously describe the event as a [[sham election]] organized to legitimise Assad's rule.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Cheeseman |first=Nicholas |title=How to Rig an Election |date=2019 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-24665-0 |pages=140–141 |oclc=1089560229}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Norris |first1=Pippa |last2=Martinez i Coma |first2=Ferran |last3=Grömping |first3=Max |date=2015 |title=The Year in Elections, 2014 |url=https://sites.google.com/site/electoralintegrityproject4/projects/expert-survey-2/the-year-in-elections-2015 |journal=Election Integrity Project |language=en |quote=The Syrian election ranked as worst among all the contests held during 2014. |access-date=21 May 2020 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415091339/https://sites.google.com/site/electoralintegrityproject4/projects/expert-survey-2/the-year-in-elections-2015 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Mark P. |date=2018 |editor1-last=Herron |editor1-first=Erik S |editor2-last=Pekkanen |editor2-first=Robert J |editor3-last=Shugart |editor3-first=Matthew S |title=Presidential and Legislative Elections |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190258658.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190258658-e-23 |access-date=21 May 2020 |website=The Oxford Handbook of Electoral Systems |language=en |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190258658.001.0001 |isbn=978-0190258658 |quote=&quot;unanimous agreement among serious scholars that... al-Assad's 2014 election... occurred within an authoritarian context.&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt; In his inauguration ceremony, Bashar denounced the opposition as &quot;terrorists&quot; and &quot;traitors&quot;; while attacking the [[Western world|West]] for backing what he described as the &quot;fake [[Arab Spring|Arab spring]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Makdisi |first=Marwan |date=16 July 2014 |title=Confident Assad launches new term in stronger position |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-assad-idUSKBN0FL0NN20140717 |access-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903040841/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-assad-idUSKBN0FL0NN20140717 |archive-date=3 September 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''[[The Times of Israel|Times of Israel]]'' reported that although various individuals interviewed in a &quot;Sunni-dominated, middle-class neighborhood of central Damascus&quot; exhibited fealty for Assad; it was not possible to discern the actual support for the regime due to the ubiquitous influence of the [[Syrian intelligence|secret police]] in the society.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.timesofisrael.com/assad-wins-syria-presidency-with-88-7-of-vote/ Syria's Assad reelected with 88.7% of vote] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126192515/http://www.timesofisrael.com/assad-wins-syria-presidency-with-88-7-of-vote/|date=26 January 2016}}&quot;. [[The Times of Israel]]. 4 June 2014.&lt;/ref&gt; Ba'athist dissident [[Abdul Halim Khaddam]] who had served as [[Vice President of Syria|Syrian Vice President]] during the tenures of both Hafez and Bashar, disparaged Bashar al-Assad as a pawn in Iran's [[Shia crescent|imperial scheme]]. Contrasting the power dynamics that existed under both the autocrats, Khaddam stated: &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;[Bashar] is not like his father.. He never allowed the Iranians to intervene in Syrian affairs.. During Hafez Assad's time, an Iranian delegation arrived in Syria and attempted to convert some of the Muslim Alawite Syrians to Shia Islam... Assad ordered his minister of foreign Affairs to summon the Iranian ambassador to deliver an ultimatum: The delegation has 24 hours to exit Syria.... They had no power [during Hafez's rule], unlike Bashar who gave them [Iranians] power and control.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=10 October 2017 |title=Interview with Former Syrian Vice President Abdul Halim Khaddam |url=https://newsweekme.com/exclusive-interview-former-syrian-vice-president-abdul-halim-khaddam/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005013940/http://newsweekme.com/exclusive-interview-former-syrian-vice-president-abdul-halim-khaddam/ |archive-date=5 October 2016 |website=NewsWeek}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=6 October 2016 |title=Daesh was nurtured by Iran, says former Syrian vice president |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/994396/middle-east |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006075951/http://www.arabnews.com/node/994396/middle-east |archive-date=6 October 2016 |website=Arab News}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== International opposition ===
[[File:Manifestation_pro_révolution_syrienne_contre_Assad_et_Poutine_-_Paris,_14-12-2016-5.jpg|thumb|Anti-Assad demonstrations held in [[Paris]], 14 December 2016]]
Foreign journalists and political observers who travelled to Syria have described it as the most &quot;ruthless [[police state]]&quot; in the [[Arab world|Arab World]]. Assad's violent repression of [[Damascus Spring]] of the early 2000s and the publication of a UN report that implicated him in the [[Assassination of Rafic Hariri|assassination]] of [[Lebanese Prime Minister]] [[Rafic Hariri]], exacerbated Syria's [[Post–Cold War era|post-Cold War]] isolation.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bowen |first=Jeremy |title=The Arab Uprisings: The People Want the Fall of the Regime |publisher=[[Simon &amp; Schuster]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-1471129827 |pages=14, 15, 118 |chapter=Prologue: Before the Spring}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fisher&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Fisher |first=Marc |date=16 June 2012 |title=Syria's Assad has embraced pariah status |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-has-embraced-pariah-status/2012/06/16/gJQAsY9shV_story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618133455/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-has-embraced-pariah-status/2012/06/16/gJQAsY9shV_story.html |archive-date=18 June 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Following global outrage against Assad regime's deadly crackdown on the [[Arab Spring|Arab Spring protestors]] which led to the Syrian civil war, [[Scorched earth|scorched-earth policy]] against the civilian populations resulting in more than half a million deaths, [[mass murder]]s and systematic deployment of [[chemical warfare]] throughout the conflict; Bashar al-Assad became an international [[Pariah state|pariah]] and numerous world leaders have urged him to resign.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Jung|last3=Beck|last2=Seeberg |first1=Dietrich|first3=Martin|first2=Peter |title=The Levant in Turmoil: Syria, Palestine, and the Transformation of Middle Eastern Politics|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-349-57628-9 |location= New York|pages=101–102 |chapter=5: The Crisis in Syria, International and Regional Sanctions, and the Transformation of the Political Order in the Levant}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fisher&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Khan |first=Hamzah |date=24 November 2021 |title=Focus on Pariah Leaders: Bashar al-Assad |url=https://blogs.shu.edu/thediplomaticenvoy/2021/11/24/focus-on-pariah-leaders-bashar-al-assad/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208152331/http://blogs.shu.edu/thediplomaticenvoy/2021/11/24/focus-on-pariah-leaders-bashar-al-assad/ |archive-date=8 December 2022 |website=The Diplomatic Envoy}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=C. Tucker |first=Spencer |title=U.S Conflicts in The 21st Centiry (Volume 1) |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4408-3878-1 |location=Santa Barbara, California |pages=834, 835}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Since 2011, Bashar al-Assad has lost recognition from several international organizations such as the [[Arab League]] (in 2011),&lt;ref name=&quot;NYT Arab League&quot;&gt;{{cite news |last=MacFarquhar |first=Neil |date=12 November 2011 |title=Arab League Votes to Suspend Syria |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/13/world/middleeast/arab-league-votes-to-suspend-syria-over-its-crackdown-on-protesters.html |access-date=12 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Union for the Mediterranean]] (in 2011)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=1 December 2012 |title=Syria suspends its membership in Mediterranean union |publisher=Xinhua News Agency |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-12/01/c_131282989.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111206201635/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-12/01/c_131282989.htm |archive-date=6 December 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; and [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|Organization of Islamic Co-operation]] (in 2012).&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN OIC&quot;&gt;{{cite news |date=14 August 2012 |title=Regional group votes to suspend Syria; rebels claim downing of jet |work=CNN|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/13/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=hp_t1 |access-date=14 August 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=16 August 2012 |title=OIC Suspends Syria Over Crackdown |work=RFE/RL |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208075035/https://www.rferl.org/amp/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html |archive-date=8 February 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[United States]], [[European Union]], [[Turkey]], [[Arab League]] and various countries began enforcing broad sets of sanctions against Syrian regime from 2011, with the objective of forcing Assad to resign and assist in a political solution to the crisis.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Jung|last3=Beck|last2=Seeberg |first1=Dietrich|first3=Martin|first2=Peter |title=The Levant in Turmoil: Syria, Palestine, and the Transformation of Middle Eastern Politics |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-349-57628-9 |location=New York |pages=101–122 |chapter=5: The Crisis in Syria, International and Regional Sanctions, and the Transformation of the Political Order in the Levant}}&lt;/ref&gt;  International bodies have criticized one-sided elections organized by Assad government  during the conflict. In the 2014 London conference of countries of the [[Friends of Syria Group|Friends of Syria group]], [[Foreign Secretary|British Foreign Secretary]] [[William Hague]] characterized Syrian elections as a &quot;parody of democracy&quot; and denounced the regime's &quot;utter disregard for human life&quot; for perpetrating [[War crime|war-crimes]] and [[State terrorism|state-terror]] on the [[Syrians|Syrian population]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=15 May 2014 |title=UK's William Hague attacks Assad's Syria elections plan |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-27419552 |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026161021/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-27419552 |archive-date=26 October 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Assad's policy of holding elections under the circumstances of an ongoing civil war were also rebuked by the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|UN Secretary-General]] [[Ban Ki-moon]].&lt;ref name=&quot;UN&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSBREA3K0ST20140421?irpc=932 |title=Syrian election will undermine political solution: U.N.'s Ban |work=Reuters |date=21 April 2014 |access-date=2 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Ted_Kaufman_with_al-Assad.jpg|thumb|Assad meets with U.S. Senator [[Ted Kaufman]] in 2009]]
[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] suspended all relations with Syria following Bashar al-Assad's [[International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia|recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia]], condemning his government as a &quot;Russian-manipulated regime&quot; that supported [[Russian-occupied territories in Georgia|Russian occupation]] and &quot;[[ethnic cleansing]]&quot;.{{Efn|Sources:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=30 May 2018 |title=US Condemns Syria for Recognizing Georgia's Breakaway Regions |work=[[Voice of America]] |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/us-condemns-syria-for-recognizing-georgia-s-breakaway-regions/4416097.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323062308/https://www.voanews.com/a/us-condemns-syria-for-recognizing-georgia-s-breakaway-regions/4416097.html |archive-date=23 March 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Deutsche Welle&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=29 May 2018 |title=Georgia Severs Relations With Syria For Recognizing Abkhazia, South Ossetia |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530034717/https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |archive-date=30 May 2018 |website=rferl.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=29 May 2018 |title=Syria recognises Russian-backed Georgia regions |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-44291091 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529144450/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-44291091 |archive-date=29 May 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} Following Assad's strong backing of [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] and recognition of the breakaway separatist republics, [[Ukraine]] cut off all diplomatic relations with Syria in June 2022. Describing Assad's policies as &quot;worthless&quot;, [[Ukrainian President]] [[Volodimir Zelensky]] pledged to expand further [[sanctions against Syria]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=30 June 2022 |title=Ukraine's Zelenskyy cuts ties with Syria after it recognized separatist republics |work=[[Al Arabiya]] |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/world/2022/06/30/Ukraine-s-Zelenskyy-cuts-ties-with-Syria-after-it-recognized-separatist-republics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630120322/https://english.alarabiya.net/News/world/2022/06/30/Ukraine-s-Zelenskyy-cuts-ties-with-Syria-after-it-recognized-separatist-republics |archive-date=30 June 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=30 June 2022 |title=Ukraine Cuts Diplomatic Ties With Syria After It Recognizes Eastern Regions As Independent |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine-syria-diplomatic-ties-russia-assad/31922447.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701050748/https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine-syria-diplomatic-ties-russia-assad/31922447.html |archive-date=1 July 2022 |website=rferl.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; In March 2023, [[National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine]] put into effect a range of sanctions targeting 141 firms and 300 individuals linked to Assad regime, Russian weapons manufacturers and Iranian dronemakers. This was days after Assad's visit to [[Moscow]], wherein he justified [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] as a fight against &quot;old and new Nazis&quot;. Bashar al-Assad, Prime Minister [[Hussein Arnous]] and Foreign Minister [[Faisal Mekdad|Faisal Mikdad]] were amongst the individuals who were sanctioned.{{Efn|&lt;ref name=&quot;rferl.org&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=18 March 2023 |title=Zelensky imposes sanctions against Syrian dictator Bashar Al-Assad, other officials |work=The Kyiv Independent |url=https://kyivindependent.com/news-feed/zelensky-imposes-sanctions-against-syrian-dictator-bashar-al-assad-other-officials |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318134326/https://kyivindependent.com/news-feed/zelensky-imposes-sanctions-against-syrian-dictator-bashar-al-assad-other-officials |archive-date=18 March 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=18 March 2023 |title=Decree of the President of Ukraine No. 163/2023 |url=https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/1632023-46149 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319043836/https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/1632023-46149 |archive-date=19 March 2023 |website=Office of the President of Ukraine}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=18 March 2023 |title=Zelenskyy introduces sanctions against Syria's Assad |work=[[Anadolu Agency]] |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/russia-ukraine-war/zelenskyy-introduces-sanctions-against-syrias-assad/2849658 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318212055/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/russia-ukraine-war/zelenskyy-introduces-sanctions-against-syrias-assad/2849658 |archive-date=18 March 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The New Arab&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |date=19 March 2023 |title=Ukraine's Zelensky imposes sanctions on Syria's Assad, other officials |work=[[The New Arab]] |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/ukraines-zelensky-imposes-sanctions-syrias-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320201806/https://www.newarab.com/news/ukraines-zelensky-imposes-sanctions-syrias-assad |archive-date=20 March 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=18 March 2023 |title=Ukraine sanctions Syrian dictator Assad, hundreds of other individuals and entities |work=TVP World |url=https://tvpworld.com/68572144/ukraine-sanctions-syrian-dictator-assad-hundreds-of-other-individuals-and-entities |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319121913/https://tvpworld.com/68572144/ukraine-sanctions-syrian-dictator-assad-hundreds-of-other-individuals-and-entities |archive-date=19 March 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} Sanctions also involved freezing of all Syrian state properties in Ukraine, curtailment of monetary transactions, termination of economic commitments and recision of all official Ukrainian awards.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New Arab&quot;/&gt; Syria formally broke its diplomatic ties to Ukraine on 20 July, citing the [[Reciprocity (international relations)|principle of reciprocity]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=20 July 2022 |title=Syria, a close Russia ally, breaks diplomatic ties with Ukraine |work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/7/20/syria-formally-breaks-diplomatic-ties-with-ukraine}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Rückschrittskoalition_stoppen_protest_and_protest_against_Assad_in_Berlin_2023-03-18_01_(cropped)3.jpg|thumb|Anti-Assad demonstrations in [[Berlin]], 18 March 2023]]

In April 2023, a French court declared three high-ranking Ba'athist security officials guilty of [[crimes against humanity]], [[torture]], and various war-crimes against French-Syrian citizens. These included [[Ali Mamlouk]], director of [[National Security Bureau of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|National Security Bureau of Syrian Ba'ath party]] and [[Jamil Hassan]], former head of the [[Air Force Intelligence Directorate|Syrian Air Force Intelligence Directorate]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=4 April 2023 |title=France to try senior Assad allies for crimes against humanity in Syria |work=France 24 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20230404-france-to-try-senior-assad-allies-for-crimes-against-humanity-in-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405004515/https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20230404-france-to-try-senior-assad-allies-for-crimes-against-humanity-in-syria |archive-date=5 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=5 April 2023 |title=France to try Syrian regime officials for crimes against humanity |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/4/5/france-to-try-syrian-regime-officials-for-crimes-against-humanity |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415214212/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/4/5/france-to-try-syrian-regime-officials-for-crimes-against-humanity |archive-date=15 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; France had issued [[international arrest warrant]]s against the three officers over the case in 2018.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Jarry |first=Emmanuel |date=5 November 2018 |title=France issues arrest warrants for senior Syrian officials |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-france/france-issues-arrest-warrants-for-senior-syrian-officials-idUSKCN1NA11L |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406162922/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-france/france-issues-arrest-warrants-for-senior-syrian-officials-idUSKCN1NA11L |archive-date=6 April 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; In May 2023, [[French Foreign Minister]] Catherine Colonna publicly demanded the prosecution of Bashar al-Assad for engaging in [[Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war|chemical warfare]] and killing [[Casualties of the Syrian civil war|hundreds of thousands of people]]; branding him as &quot;the enemy of his own people&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=23 May 2023 |title=Syria's Assad should be put on trial, says French foreign minister |work=France 24 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20230523-syria-s-assad-should-be-put-on-trial-says-french-foreign-minister |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524023150/https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20230523-syria-s-assad-should-be-put-on-trial-says-french-foreign-minister |archive-date=24 May 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=23 May 2023 |title=French minister demands Assad trial |work=Daily Tribune |url=https://tribune.net.ph/2023/05/24/french-minister-demands-assad-trial/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524013433/https://tribune.net.ph/2023/05/24/french-minister-demands-assad-trial/ |archive-date=24 May 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 15 November 2023, France issued an arrest warrant against Assad for use of chemical weapons against civilians in Syria.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

==== Left-wing ====
[[File:Madrid - Acampada Sol 2011 39.JPG|thumb|Billboards of the [[Anti-austerity movement in Spain|Spanish Indignados Movement]] with denouncements of Bashar al-Assad's crackdown against [[Syrian revolution]] in [[Puerta del Sol]] square, [[Madrid]] (29 May 2011)]]
Bashar al-Assad is widely criticised by left-wing activists and intellectuals world-wide for appropriating leftist ideologies and its [[socialist]], [[Progressivism|progressive]] slogans as a cover for his own family rule and to empower a loyalist clique of elites at the expense of ordinary Syrians.  His close alliance with clergy-ruled [[Khomeinism|Khomeinist]] [[Iran]] and its sectarian militant networks; while simultaneously pursuing a policy of locking up left-wing critics of [[Al-Assad family|Assad family]] has been subject to heavy criticism.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Harkin |first=Juliette |date=1 May 2018 |title='Assadism' Is Destroying Syria – Here's Where It Came From |url=https://thewire.in/world/assadism-is-destroying-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410213629/https://thewire.in/world/assadism-is-destroying-syria |archive-date=10 April 2021 |website=The Wire}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Egypt Region|Egyptian branch]] of the [[Iraqi Ba'ath movement]] has declared its strong support to the [[2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian revolution]]; denouncing Ba'athist Syria as a repressive dictatorship controlled by the &quot;Assad gang&quot;. It has attacked Assad family's Ba'athist credentials, accusing the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Syrian Ba'ath party]] of acting as the borderguards of [[Israel]] ever since its overthrowal of the [[National Command of the Ba'ath Party|Ba'athist National Command]] during the [[1966 Syrian coup d'état|1966 coup d'état]]. Describing Bashar al-Assad as a disgraceful person for inviting hostile powers like [[Iran]] to Syria, Egyptian Ba'athists have urged the [[Free Syrian Army|Syrian revolutionaries]] to unite in their efforts to overthrow the Assad regime and resist foreign imperialism.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=7 May 2013 |title=The statement of the Arab Baath Socialist Party of Egyptian on the aggression against Syria |url=http://www.aladhwaa.net/?ac=3&amp;no=6445&amp;d_f=10&amp;t_f=0&amp;t=5&amp;lang_in=Ar |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216203242/http://www.aladhwaa.net/?ac=3&amp;no=6445&amp;d_f=10&amp;t_f=0&amp;t=5&amp;lang_in=Ar |archive-date=16 December 2014 |access-date=30 July 2018 |newspaper=Aladhwaa}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Describing Assad's regime as a [[mafia state]] that thrives on corruption and sectarianism, [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]] socialist academic [[Gilbert Achcar]] stated: &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Bashar Assad's cousin became the richest man in the country, controlling – it is widely believed – over half of the economy. And that's only one member of the ruling clan... The clan functions as a real mafia, and has been ruling the country for several decades. This constitutes the deep root of the explosion, in combination with the fact that the Syrian regime is one of the most despotic in the region. Compared to Assad's Syria, [[History of Egypt under Hosni Mubarak|Mubarak's Egypt]] was a beacon of democracy and political freedom!... What is specific to this regime is that Assad's father has reshaped and reconstructed the state apparatus, especially its hard nucleus – the armed forces – in order to create a Pretorian guard for itself. The army, especially its elite forces, is tied to the regime itself in various ways, most prominently through the use of sectarianism. Even people who had never heard of Syria before know now that the regime is based on one minority in the country – about 10% of the population; the [[Alawites]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Achcar |first=Gilbert |date=8 October 2013 |title=Syria between Revolutions and Counter-Revolutions |url=https://www.cetri.be/Syria-between-Revolution-and?lang=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602233849/http://www.cetri.be/Syria-between-Revolution-and |archive-date=2 June 2016 |website=CETRI}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The [[Progressive Socialist Party]] (PSP) in Lebanon has taken an anti-Assad stance and organised mass-protests in support of the Syrian revolution. In August 2012, PSP publicly denounced the Assad government as a &quot;killing machine&quot; engaged in slaughtering Syrian people. PSP leader Ayman Kamaleddine demanded the expulsion of the Syrian ambassador from Lebanon, describing him as &quot;the representative of the murderer regime in Lebanon&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

=== International support ===

==== Far-right ====
Bashar al-Assad's regime has received support from prominent [[white nationalist]], [[neo-Nazi]] and [[far-right]] figures in Europe, who were attracted by his &quot;[[war on terror]]&quot; discourse against [[Islamists]] during the period of [[European refugee crisis]]. Assad's bombings of Syrian cities are admired in the [[Islamophobic]] discourse of far-right circles, which considers Muslims as a civilizational enemy. American [[White-supremacists|white supremacists]] often praise Assad as an authoritarian bulwark against what they view as the forces of &quot;Islamic extremism&quot; and [[Globalist (epithet)|globalism]]; and several pro-Assad slogans were chanted in the neo-Nazi [[Unite the Right rally]] held in [[Charlottesville, Virginia|Charlottesville]] in 2017.{{Efn|sources:
* {{Cite news |last=Elba |first=Mariam |date=8 September 2017 |title=Mariam Elba |work=The Intercept |url=https://theintercept.com/2017/09/08/syria-why-white-nationalists-love-bashar-al-assad-charlottesville/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005175942/https://theintercept.com/2017/09/08/syria-why-white-nationalists-love-bashar-al-assad-charlottesville/ |archive-date=5 October 2017}}
* {{Cite news |last=Strickland |first=Patrick |date=14 February 2018 |title=Why do Italian fascists adore Syria's Bashar al-Assad? |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/2/14/why-do-italian-fascists-adore-syrias-bashar-al-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105164955/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/2/14/why-do-italian-fascists-adore-syrias-bashar-al-assad |archive-date=5 January 2023}}
* {{Cite news |last=Snell |first=James |date=17 August 2017 |title=Why Nazis from Charlottesville to Europe love Bashar al-Assad |work=New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/opinion/why-nazis-love-bashar-al-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227143504/https://www.newarab.com/opinion/why-nazis-love-bashar-al-assad |archive-date=27 December 2022}}
* {{Cite news |last=Ayoub |first=Joey |date=3 October 2022 |title=How the European far right coopted an Arabic letter |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2022/10/3/how-the-european-far-right-coopted-an-arabic-letter |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220215405/https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2022/10/3/how-the-european-far-right-coopted-an-arabic-letter |archive-date=20 December 2022}}
* {{Cite news |date=3 November 2022 |title=Western Far-right Worries Syrians and Delights Bashar al-Assad |work=The Syrian Observer |url=https://syrianobserver.com/news/79899/western-far-right-worries-syrians-and-delights-bashar-al-assad.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103015933/https://syrianobserver.com/news/79899/western-far-right-worries-syrians-and-delights-bashar-al-assad.html |archive-date=3 November 2022}}
* {{Cite news |last=Huetlin |first=Josephine |date=28 March 2018 |title=The European Far-Right's Sick Love Affair With Bashar al-Assad |work=The Daily Beast |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-european-far-rights-sick-love-affair-with-bashar-al-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116203833/https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-european-far-rights-sick-love-affair-with-bashar-al-assad |archive-date=16 November 2022}}}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Assad_far_right&quot;&gt;{{cite news |last1=MacDonald |first1=Alex |date=2 December 2014 |title=Europe's far-right activists continue to throw their weight behind Syria's Assad |publisher=Middle East Eye |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/in-depth/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad |access-date=6 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801045342/https://www.middleeasteye.net/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad |archive-date=1 August 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Nick Griffin]], the former leader of the [[British National Party]] (BNP), was formerly an official ambassador and guest of the Syrian government;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/mobile/1.629501 |title=Disgraced U.K. politician's visit to Syria raises eyebrows back home |work=Haaretz |date=1 December 2014 |access-date=3 December 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; due to public controversy, the Assad government publicly disassociated itself from him after his trip to Syria in 2014.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=MacDonald |first1=Alex |date=2 December 2014 |title=Europe's far-right activists continue to throw their weight behind Syria's Assad |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/in-depth/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801045342/https://www.middleeasteye.net/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad |archive-date=1 August 2020 |access-date=6 December 2014 |publisher=Middle East Eye |quote=...the Syrian government attempted to distance themselves from Nick Griffin last time he visited…}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Right-wing ====
In 2017, former [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] [[United States House of Representatives|congresswoman]] [[Tulsi Gabbard]] met with then-president Bashar al-Assad on an unannounced visit to Syria.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Tulsi Gabbard, Trump's top spy pick, faces fresh scrutiny over Syria and Russia positions |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c14l6jpykmjo |website=www.bbc.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; The visit was the first by a U.S. lawmaker since 2011,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Tulsi Gabbard's Trip to Meet Assad |url=https://www.sacouncil.com/aalert_gabbard_assad |website=Syrian American Council |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and made under a travel warning issued by the [[United States Department of State]], which continues to warn U.S. citizens against all travel to the country.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Congresswoman Gabbard makes unannounced trip to Syria |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/congresswoman-gabbard-makes-unannounced-trip-syria |website=PBS News |language=en-us |date=18 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; Gabbard did not consult with the [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|House speaker]] or State Department before meeting with Assad.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; The meeting came after Gabbard introduced legislation that would, in her words, &quot;end our country's illegal war to overthrow the Syrian government.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; She said that Assad is &quot;a brutal [[dictator]]. Just like [[Saddam Hussein]]. Just like [[Gadhafi]] in Libya. The reason that I’m so outspoken on this issue of ending these wasteful [[United States involvement in regime change|regime-change]] wars is because I have seen firsthand this high human cost of war and the impact that it has on my fellow brothers and sisters in uniform.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Tulsi Gabbard: Bashar Assad is 'a brutal dictator' |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/08/01/politics/tulsi-gabbard-assad-dictator-cnntv/index.html |work=CNN |date=1 August 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Following her visit to Syria, Gabbard expressed doubts that the Assad regime was behind chemical weapons attacks in Syria.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Manduley |first=Christina |date=8 April 2017 |title=Congresswoman 'skeptical' Assad regime behind gas attack {{!}} CNN Politics |url=https://www.cnn.com/2017/04/07/politics/tulsi-gabbard-assad-chemical-weapons-blitzer-cnntv/index.html |access-date=8 December 2024 |website=CNN |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Gabbard has continued to defend her comments, and in 2019 stated that Assad was &quot;not the enemy of the United States because Syria does not pose a direct threat to the United States&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

==== Left-wing ====
Left-wing support for Assad has been split since the start of the Syrian civil war;{{sfn|Hashemi|Postel|2013|pp=11–13}}{{update inline|date=April 2024}} the Assad government has been accused of cynically manipulating [[Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian Civil War|sectarian identity]] and [[anti-imperialism]] to continue its worst activities.{{sfn|Hashemi|Postel|2013|p=231}}

Some heads of state or governments have declared their support for Assad, including North Korean leader [[Kim Jong Un]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/north-korean-leader-offers-support-to-assad/a-16392804|title=North Korean leader offers support to Assad |date= 20 November 2012|website=Deutsche Welle|language=en-GB|access-date=20 August 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; After declaring victory in the 2014 elections, Assad received congratulations from [[President of Venezuela]] [[Nicolás Maduro]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://lainfo.es/en/2014/06/05/venezuela-congratulated-by-bashar-al-assad-in-syrian-presidential-victory/ |title=Venezuela congratulated by Bashar Al Assad in Syrian presidential victory |work=lainfo.es |access-date=25 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811131504/http://lainfo.es/en/2014/06/05/venezuela-congratulated-by-bashar-al-assad-in-syrian-presidential-victory/ |archive-date=11 August 2018 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[President of Algeria]] [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://syriatimes.sy/index.php/news/local/13361-president-assad-receives-congratulations-from-president-bouteflika-on-winning-elections |title=syriatimes.sy – President Assad Receives Congratulations from President Bouteflika on Winning Elections |work=syriatimes.sy |access-date=20 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[President of Guyana]] [[Donald Ramotar]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://sana.sy/eng/21/2014/06/21/551372.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140621123014/http://sana.sy/eng/21/2014/06/21/551372.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 June 2014 |title=الوكالة العربية السورية للأنباء |work=Syrian Arab News Agency |access-date=20 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[President of South Africa]] [[Jacob Zuma]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.sana.sy/en/?p=4016 |title=President al-Assad receives congratulatory cable from South African President Zuma |author=Hazem al-Sabbagh |access-date=20 April 2015|date=23 June 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt; President of [[Nicaragua]] [[Daniel Ortega]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://syriatimes.sy/index.php/presidential-elections/13206-nicaragua-s-ortega-congratulates-president-al-assad-on-winning-elections |title=Nicaragua's Ortega Congratulates President Al-Assad on Winning Elections |work=syriatimes.sy}}&lt;/ref&gt; and [[Mahmoud Abbas]], the leader of [[Fatah]] and [[President of the State of Palestine]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.sana.sy/en/?p=4246 |title=President al-Assad receives congratulatory letter from President Abbas |author=h.said |access-date=20 April 2015|date=25 June 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/news/middle-east/12365-abbas-congratulates-al-assad-for-re-election-as-syrian-president |title=Abbas congratulates Al-Assad for re-election as Syrian president |work=Middle East Monitor |access-date=20 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512105225/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/news/middle-east/12365-abbas-congratulates-al-assad-for-re-election-as-syrian-president |archive-date=12 May 2015 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/20320 |title=Abbas says he backs Syria's &quot;war against terrorism&quot; |work=Al Akhbar English |access-date=20 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503220223/http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/20320 |archive-date=3 May 2015 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Palestinian [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] militant group [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] (PFLP) supported Assad during the Syrian civil war. As a result of this stance, the Iranian government increased its military and financial funding to the PFLP.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Iran Increases Aid to PFLP Thanks to Syria Stance |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/09/iran-pflp-gaza-palestine-syria.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418132016/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/09/iran-pflp-gaza-palestine-syria.html |archive-date=18 April 2015 |access-date=20 April 2015 |work=Al-Monitor}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Pro-Assad Palestinians call for Yarmouk truce |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/01/201318143633928478.html |access-date=20 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== International public relations ===
[[File:Lula Al-Assad Itamaraty 2010.jpg|thumb|Bashar al-Assad wearing the &quot;Grand Collar&quot; of the ''[[National Order of the Southern Cross]]'', accompanied by Brazilian President [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] in [[Brasília]], 30 June 2010]]
[[File:Alexander Lukashenko in a meeting with Bashar al-Assad in December 2003 (1) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Belarusian president [[Alexander Lukashenko]] alongside Bashar al-Assad during a state-visit to Syria in December 2003]]
In order to promote their image and media-portrayal overseas, Bashar al-Assad and his wife [[Asma al-Assad]] hired U.S. and UK based [[Public relations|PR firms]] and consultants.&lt;ref name=turnedtowest&gt;{{cite news |title=Syria's Assads Turned to West for Glossy P.R. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/middleeast/syrian-conflict-cracks-carefully-polished-image-of-assad.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=10 June 2012 |last1=Carter |first1=Bill |last2=Chozick |first2=Amy}}&lt;/ref&gt; In particular, these secured photoshoots for Asma al-Assad with fashion and celebrity magazines, including ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]''{{'}}s March 2011 &quot;A Rose in the Desert&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/01/the-only-remaining-online-copy-of-vogues-asma-al-assad-profile/250753/ |title=The Only Remaining Online Copy of Vogue's Asma al-Assad Profile |author=Max Fisher |work=The Atlantic|date=3 January 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://gawker.com/asma-al-assad-a-rose-in-the-desert-1265002284 |title=Asma al-Assad: A Rose in the Desert |author=Joan Juliet Buck |work=Gawker |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150604013456/http://gawker.com/asma-al-assad-a-rose-in-the-desert-1265002284 |archive-date=4 June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; These firms included [[Bell Pottinger]] and [[Brown Lloyd James]], with the latter being paid $5,000 a month for their services.&lt;ref name=turnedtowest/&gt;&lt;ref name=PRcomeback/&gt;

At the outset of the Syrian civil war, Syrian government networks were hacked by the group [[Anonymous (group)|Anonymous]], revealing that an ex-[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] journalist had been hired to advise Assad on how to manipulate the public opinion of the U.S. Among the advice was the suggestion to compare the popular uprising against the regime to the [[Occupy Wall Street]] protests.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Anonymous exposes e-mails of Syrian presidential aides |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2012/02/anonymous-hackers-expose-emails-of-syrian-presidential-aides/ |website=Ars Technica |date=8 February 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015 |last=Gallagher |first=Sean}}&lt;/ref&gt; In a separate email leak several months later by the [[Supreme Council of the Syrian Revolution]], which were published by ''[[The Guardian]]'', it was revealed that Assad's consultants had coordinated with an Iranian government media advisor.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/14/assad-emails-lift-lid-inner-circle |title=Exclusive: secret Assad emails lift lid on life of leader's inner circle |first1=Robert |last1=Booth |first2=Mona |last2=Mahmood |first3=Luke |last3=Harding |work=The Guardian |quote=Before a speech in December his media consultant prepared a long list of themes, reporting that the advice was based on &quot;consultations with a good number of people in addition to the media and political adviser for the Iranian ambassador&quot;. |date=14 March 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In March 2015, an expanded version of the aforementioned leaks was handed to the Lebanese ''[[NOW News]]'' website and published the following month.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/AssadLeaks/565291-friends-in-the-media |last=Rowell |first=Alex |title=International relations |publisher=NOW News |date=18 May 2015 |access-date=23 May 2015 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022091657/https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/AssadLeaks/565291-friends-in-the-media |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

After the Syrian civil war began, the Assads started a [[social media]] campaign which included building a presence on Facebook, YouTube, and most notably [[Instagram]].&lt;ref name=&quot;PRcomeback&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/media/2013/09/14/Assad-makes-PR-comeback-targets-American-psyche-.html |title=Assad makes PR comeback, targets 'American psyche' |first=Mustapha |last=Ajbaili |publisher=Al Arabiya |quote=Assad's regime also activated its YouTube channel and multiple Facebook accounts. |date=14 September 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; A Twitter account for Assad was reportedly activated; however, it remained unverified.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/07/30/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-joined-instagram-here-are-his-first-photos/ |title=Syrian President Bashar al-Assad joined Instagram. Here are his first photos. |first=Caitlin |last=Dewey |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=30 July 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; This resulted in much criticism, and was described by ''[[The Atlantic Wire]]'' as &quot;a propaganda campaign that ultimately has made the [Assad] family look worse&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.thewire.com/politics/2013/08/bashar-al-assads-family/68915/ |title=The Failed Public Relations Campaign of Bashar al Assad's Family |first=Allie |last=Jones |work=The Wire |quote=a propaganda campaign that ultimately has made the family look worse |date=30 August 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015 |archive-date=8 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308212143/http://www.thewire.com/politics/2013/08/bashar-al-assads-family/68915/ |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; The Assad government has also allegedly arrested activists for creating Facebook groups that the government disapproved of,&lt;ref name=Dissent2014/&gt; and has appealed directly to Twitter to remove accounts it disliked.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/series/assad-emails-the-documents |title=Assad emails: 'Fares closed all your Twitter accounts' |work=The Guardian |date=14 March 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The social media campaign, as well as the previously leaked emails, led to comparisons with [[Hannah Arendt]]'s ''[[Eichmann in Jerusalem|A Report on the Banality of Evil]]'' by ''The Guardian'', ''The New York Times'' and the ''Financial Times''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/06/syrian-presidency-instagram-banality-evil |title=The Syrian presidency's Instagram account shows the banality of evil |first=Johnathan |last=Jones |work=The Guardian |date=6 September 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/15/syrias-first-couple-and-the-banality-of-e-mail/ |title=Syria's First Couple and the Banality of E-Mail |first1=Robert |last1=Mackey |work=The New York Times |date=15 March 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e0ce4102-710e-11e1-a7f1-00144feab49a.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e0ce4102-710e-11e1-a7f1-00144feab49a.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |title=Assad: faithful student of ruthlessness |first1=Roula |last1=Khalaf |work=Financial Times |date=18 March 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In October 2014, 27,000 photographs depicting torture committed by the Assad government were put on display at the [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/bashar-al-assad-s-syrian-torture-chambers-205323124.html |title=Inside Bashar Assad's Torture Chambers |first1=Michael Abdel |last1=Isikoff |work=Yahoo News |date=13 October 2014 |access-date=15 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/photo-gallery/syria-army-defectors-photos |title=Photos Presented to the House Foreign Affairs Committee by 'Caesar' at Briefing on 'Assad's Killing Machine Exposed: Implications for U.S. Policy'|publisher=House Committee on Foreign Affairs |date=30 July 2014 |access-date=15 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314211352/http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/photo-gallery/syria-army-defectors-photos |archive-date=14 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Lawyers were hired to write a report on the images by the British law firm [[Carter-Ruck]], which in turn was funded by the [[Government of Qatar]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/01/20/world/syria-torture-photos-amanpour/ |title=Gruesome Syria photos may prove torture by Assad regime |author1=Mick Krever |author2=Schams Elwazer|date=20 January 2014 |work=CNN|access-date=20 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:دیدار بشار اسد با سید علی خامنه‌ای، ۱۰ مهر ۱۳۸۹ (04).jpg|thumb|Assad with Iranian President [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]] and Ayatollah Ali Khamenei in Tehran, Iran, 2010]]
In November 2014, the [[Quilliam (think tank)|Quilliam Foundation]] reported that a propaganda campaign, which they claimed had the &quot;full backing of Assad&quot;, spread false reports about the deaths of Western-born jihadists in order to deflect attention from the government's alleged war crimes. Using a picture of a Chechen fighter from the [[Second Chechen War]], pro-Assad media reports disseminated to Western media outlets, leading them to publish a false story regarding the death of a non-existent British jihadist.&lt;ref name=&quot;Simpson 2014&quot;&gt;{{cite news | last=Simpson | first=John | title=Assad's allies invent British jihadi death | website=The Times | date=6 November 2014 | url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/assads-allies-invent-british-jihadi-death-0fstqsrn2zl | access-date=25 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2015, [[Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war|Russia intervened in the Syrian civil war]] in support of Assad, and on 21 October 2015, Assad flew to Moscow and met with Russian president Vladimir Putin, who said regarding the civil war: &quot;this decision can be made only by the Syrian people. Syria is a friendly country. And we are ready to support it not only militarily but politically as well.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/10/syria-assad-met-russia-putin-moscow-151021064340109.html |title=Syria's Assad in surprise visit to Moscow |publisher=Al Jazeera}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Personal life ==
[[File:Bashar and Asma al-Assad.jpg|thumb|Bashar al-Assad and his wife [[Asma al-Assad]]]]
Assad speaks fluent English and basic conversational French, having studied at the Franco-Arab al-Hurriyah school in [[Damascus]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/04/how-bashar-al-assad-became-so-hated/275058/ |title=How Bashar al-Assad Became So Hated |first1=Majid |last1=Rafizadeh |date=17 April 2013 |access-date=14 March 2015 |work=The Atlantic}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In December 2000, Assad married [[Asma al-Assad|Asma Akhras]], a British citizen of Syrian origin from [[Acton, London]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1630134.stm |work=BBC News |title=The road to Damascus (all the way from Acton) |date=31 October 2001 |access-date=14 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1400296/Syria-factfile-Key-figures.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1400296/Syria-factfile-Key-figures.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |title=Syria factfile: Key figures |date=24 February 2003 |access-date=14 March 2015}}{{cbignore}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2001, Asma gave birth to their first child, a son named [[Hafez Bashar al-Assad|Hafez]] after the child's grandfather Hafez al-Assad. Bashar al-Assad's son Hafez graduated from [[Moscow State University]] in the summer of 2023 with a master's thesis in number theory.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=29 June 2023 |title=Сын Башара Асада с отличием окончил МГУ |url=https://www.rbc.ru/society/29/06/2023/649dd3249a79470f8edd25b2 |website=Rbc.ru |language=ru}}&lt;/ref&gt; Their daughter Zein was born in 2003, followed by their second son Karim in 2004.&lt;ref name=New_Republic_2013/&gt; In January 2013, Assad stated in an interview that his wife was pregnant.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last=Fisher|first=Max|date=28 January 2013|title=Syria's Bashar al-Assad says his wife is pregnant|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/01/28/syrias-bashar-al-assad-says-his-wife-is-pregnant/|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=24 April 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last=Black|first=Ian|date=29 January 2013|title=Bashar al-Assad's wife Asma 'pregnant with fourth child'|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/29/bashar-al-assad-wife-asma-pregnant|work=The Guardian|access-date=24 April 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Bashar al-Assad is an [[Alawites|Alawite]] Muslim.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Baltacioglu-Brammer |first1=Ayse |title=Alawites and the Fate of Syria |journal=Current Events in Historical Perspective |date=January 2014 |volume=7 |issue=4 |page=2 |url=https://origins.osu.edu/article/alawites-and-fate-syria |access-date=30 September 2021 |publisher=[[Ohio State University]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Bashar performed the ''[[hajj]]'' pilgrimage twice, in 1999 and in 2000.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Litvak |first=Meir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_cpjrIcHoQkC&amp;pg=PA67 |title=Middle Eastern Societies and the West: Accommodation of Clash of Civilizations? |date=2006 |publisher=The Moshe Dayan Center |isbn=978-965-224-073-6 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Assad's sister, [[Bushra al-Assad]], and mother, [[Anisa Makhlouf]], left Syria in 2012 and 2013, respectively, to live in the [[United Arab Emirates]].&lt;ref name=&quot;New_Republic_2013&quot;&gt;{{cite magazine |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/114630/bashar-al-assad-syria-family-guide |title=Think Bashar al Assad Is Brutal? Meet His Family |last1=Dwyer |first1=Mimi |magazine=The New Republic |date=8 September 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Makhlouf died in [[Damascus]] in 2016.&lt;ref name=aje&gt;{{cite news |title=Syrian president's mother Anissa Assad dies aged 86 |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/02/syrian-president-mother-anissa-assad-dies-aged-86-160206210505879.html |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |date=6 February 2016 |access-date=2 March 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Awards and honours==
{{color box|#f99}} Revoked and returned awards and honours.
{{Clear}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;width:90px;&quot; | Ribbon
! style=&quot;width:250px;&quot; | Distinction
! style=&quot;width:120px;&quot; | Country
! style=&quot;width:100px;&quot; | Date
! style=&quot;width:100px;&quot; | Location
! style=&quot;width:250px;&quot; | Notes
! Reference
|-
| [[File:Legion Honneur GC ribbon.svg|80px]]
| style=&quot;background:#f99; font-size:90%;&quot; | Grand Cross of the National Order of the [[Legion of Honour]]
| style=&quot;background:#f99; font-size:90%;&quot; | {{flag|France}}
| style=&quot;background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | 25 June 2001
| style=&quot;background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Paris]]
| style=&quot;background:#f99; font-size:90%;&quot; | Highest rank in the Order of the Legion of Honor in the Republic of France. Returned by Assad on 20 April 2018&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/20/world/europe/assad-france-legion-of-honor.html |title = A French Honor Not Always for the Honorable; Assad Returns His|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 20 April 2018|last1 = Pérez-Peña|first1 = Richard}}&lt;/ref&gt; after the opening of a revocation process by the [[President of France|President of the Republic]], [[Emmanuel Macron]], on 16 April 2018.
| style=&quot;background:#f99; font-size:90%;&quot; | &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2018/04/16/la-france-engage-la-procedure-pour-retirer-sa-legion-d-honneur-a-bachar-al-assad_5286264_823448.html |title=La France engage la procédure pour retirer sa Légion d'honneur à Bachar Al-Assad |publisher=Le Monde |language=fr |date=16 April 2018|newspaper=Le Monde.fr }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.leparisien.fr/politique/bachar-al-assad-rend-sa-legion-d-honneur-a-la-france-esclave-des-etats-unis-19-04-2018-7673658.php |title=Bachar al-Assad rend sa Légion d'honneur à la France, &quot;esclave des Etats-Unis&quot; |newspaper=Le Parisien |language=fr |date=19 April 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[File:Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise 1st 2nd and 3rd Class of Ukraine.png|80px]]
| style=&quot;background:#f99; font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise]]
| style=&quot;background:#f99; font-size:90%;&quot; | {{flag|Ukraine}}
| style=&quot;background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | 21 April 2002
| style=&quot;background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Kyiv]]
| style=&quot;background:#f99; font-size:90%;&quot; | Revoked on 18 March 2023, as part of sanctions issued by [[Ukrainian President]] [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] which revoked all previous Ukrainian state awards to members of the Assad government.&lt;ref name=&quot;The New Arab&quot;/&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#f99; font-size:90%;&quot; | &lt;ref name=&quot;rada&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/362/2002 |title=Про нагородження орденом князя Ярослава Мудрого – від 20 April 2002 № 362/2002 |publisher=rada.gov.ua}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;The New Arab&quot;/&gt;
|-
| [[File:Reale ordine di francesco I.png|80px]]
| style=&quot;background:#f99; font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Knight]] [[Grand Cross]] of the [[Royal Order of Francis I]]
| style=&quot;background:#f99; font-size:90%;&quot; | {{flag|Two Sicilies}}
| style=&quot;background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | 21 March 2004
| style=&quot;background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Damascus]]
| style=&quot;background:#f99; font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Dynastic order of knighthood|Dynastic order]] of the [[House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies]]; Revoked several years later{{When|date=July 2024|reason=This is wildly unclear}} by [[Prince Carlo, Duke of Castro]].
| style=&quot;background:#f99; font-size:90%;&quot; | &lt;ref name=&quot;Two_Sicilies_awards_1&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.mediafaxfoto.ro/Preview.aspx?Id=256111 |title=SYRIA-ASSAD-BOURBON |last1=Beshara |first1=Louai |publisher=mediafaxfoto.ro |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=21 March 2004 |access-date=15 March 2015 |language=ro}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Two_Sicilies_awards_2&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-presents-prince-carlo-of-news-photo/181414500 |title=181414500 |last1=Beshara |first1=Louai |publisher=[[Getty Images]] |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=21 March 2004 |access-date=15 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[File:Ribbon bar of the Order of Zayed.svg|80px]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Order of Zayed]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | {{flag|United Arab Emirates}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | 31 May 2008
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Abu Dhabi]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | Highest civil decoration in the United Arab Emirates.
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.alwatanvoice.com/arabic/news/2008/06/01/129056.html |script-title=ar:رئيس دولة الامارات يقلد الرئيس السوري وسام زايد تعبيرا عن عمق العلاقات التي تربط البلدين|publisher=Al Watan Voice |date=1 June 2008 |access-date=16 September 2018 |language=ar}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[File:FIN Order of the White Rose Grand Cross BAR.svg|80px]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Order of the White Rose of Finland]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | {{flag|Finland}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | 5 October 2009
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Damascus]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | One of three [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Finland|official orders in Finland]].
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.savonsanomat.fi/kotimaa/IS-Syyrian-sotarikoksista-syytetyll%C3%A4-presidentill%C3%A4-Suomen-korkein-kunniamerkki/427627 |title=Syyrian sotarikoksista syytetyllä presidentillä Suomen korkein kunniamerkki |publisher=savonsanomat.fi |date=20 October 2013 |access-date=25 October 2016 |language=fi}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[File:Spange des König-Abdulaziz-Ordens.png|85px]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Order of King Abdulaziz]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | {{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | 8 October 2009
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Damascus]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | Highest Saudi state order.
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://thawra.sy/_print_veiw.asp?FileName=63107819420091008022531 |script-title=ar:القمــــــــــة الســـــــــورية الســـــــــعودية... الرئيس الأسد وخادم الحرمين الشريفين يبحثان آفاق التعاون ويتبادلان أرفع وسامين وطنيين.. تعزيز العمل العربي المشترك – رفع الحصار عن الفلسطينيين|publisher=Al Thawra |date=8 October 2009 |access-date=16 September 2018 |language=ar}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[File:ITA OMRI 2001 GC-GCord BAR.svg|80px]]
| style=&quot;background:#f99; font-size:90%;&quot; | Knight Grand Cross with [[Collar (order)|Collar]] of the [[Order of Merit of the Italian Republic]]
| style=&quot;background:#f99; font-size:90%;&quot; | {{flag|Italy}}
| style=&quot;background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | 11 March 2010
| style=&quot;background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Damascus]]
| style=&quot;background:#f99; font-size:90%;&quot; | Highest ranking honour of the Republic of Italy. Revoked by the [[President of Italy|President of the Republic]], [[Giorgio Napolitano]], on 28 September 2012 for &quot;indignity&quot;.
| style=&quot;background:#f99; font-size:90%;&quot; | &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Dettaglio decorato: Al-Assad S.E. Bashar Decorato di Gran Cordone |publisher=quirinale.it |url=http://www.quirinale.it/elementi/DettaglioOnorificenze.aspx?decorato=311336 |date=29 June 2010 |access-date=14 March 2015 |language=it}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://banchedati.camera.it/sindacatoispettivo_16/showXhtml.asp?highLight=0&amp;idAtto=57321&amp;stile=8 ATTO CAMERA INTERROGAZIONE A RISPOSTA SCRITTA 4/17085] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://banchedati.camera.it/sindacatoispettivo_16/showXhtml.asp?highLight=0&amp;idAtto=57321&amp;stile=8 |date=18 October 2015 }} Banchedati.camera.it {{in lang|it}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[File:VEN Order of the Liberator - Grand Cordon BAR.png|80px]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | Collar of the [[Order of the Liberator]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | {{flag|Venezuela}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | 28 June 2010&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= https://www.aporrea.org/actualidad/n160308.html |title= Gaceta Oficial 39.454 lunes 28 de junio 2010 |language=es |trans-title= Official Gazette 39.454 Monday 28 June 2010 |date= 28 June 2010 |access-date= 25 October 2023 |publisher= [[Aporrea]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Caracas]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | Highest Venezuelan state order.
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/03/05/venezuela-chavezs-authoritarian-legacy |publisher= Human Rights Watch |title= Venezuela: Chávez's Authoritarian Legacy |date= 5 March 2013 |access-date= 25 October 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[File:BRA - Order of the Southern Cross - Grand Cross BAR.svg|80px]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | Grand Collar of the [[Order of the Southern Cross]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | {{flag|Brazil}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | 30 June 2010
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Brasília]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | Brazil's highest order of merit.
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.antt.gov.br/html/objects/_downloadblob.php?cod_blob=3231 |title=Diário Oficial da União – Seção |publisher=Superintenência de Seguros Privados |issn=1677-7042 |format=PDF |date=13 July 2010 |access-date=15 March 2015 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402091010/http://www.antt.gov.br/html/objects/_downloadblob.php?cod_blob=3231 |archive-date=2 April 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[File:LBN National Order of the Cedar - Grand Cordon BAR.svg|80px]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Grand Cordon]] of the [[National Order of the Cedar]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | {{flag|Lebanon}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | 31 July 2010
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Beirut]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | Second highest honour of Lebanon.
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=President Michel Suleiman hosts Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and Saudi King Abdullah bin Abdel Aziz |url=http://www.marada-news.org/?q=node/3338 |publisher=Marada-news.org |date=31 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429080726/http://www.marada-news.org/?q=node%2F3338 |archive-date=29 April 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[File:Orden al Mérito IRI.png|80px]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Order of the Islamic Republic of Iran]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | {{flag|Iran}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | 2 October 2010
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Tehran]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | Highest national medal of Iran.
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Iran Awards Syrian Leader Highest Medal of Honor |url=http://www.voanews.com/content/assad-in-iran-to-discuss-iraq-104203254/127153.html |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |date=1 October 2010 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429052040/http://www.voanews.com/content/assad-in-iran-to-discuss-iraq-104203254/127153.html |archive-date=29 April 2014 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Syrian President Awarded Iran's Medal of Honor |url=http://www.cbn.com/cbnnews/insideisrael/2010/October/Syrian-President-Awarded-Irans-Medal-of-Honor/ |publisher=[[CBN News]] |date=4 October 2010 |access-date=14 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[File:Лента Ордена Уацамонга.png|80px]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Uatsamonga Order]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | {{flag|South Ossetia}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | 2018
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot; | [[Damascus]]
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | State award of South Ossetia.
| style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot; | &lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Syrian president Bashar al-Assad to visit South Ossetia|url=https://oc-media.org/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-to-visit-south-ossetia/ |publisher=OC Media|date=31 July 2018 |access-date=4 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804000533/https://oc-media.org/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-to-visit-south-ossetia/ |archive-date=4 August 2018 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Middle East|Biography|Politics}}
* [[List of international presidential trips made by Bashar al-Assad]]
* [[Presidency of Hafez al-Assad]]
* [[Foreign Policy of Bashar al-Assad]]

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== General and cited references ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Blanford |first=Nicholas |title=Killing Mr Lebanon: The Assassination of Rafik Hariri and Its Impact on the Middle East |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84511-202-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/killingmrlebanon00blan }}
* {{Cite book |last=Bronner |first=Stephen Eric |title=Peace Out of Reach: Middle Eastern Travels and the Search for Reconciliation |publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8131-2446-9 }}
* {{Cite book |editor1-last=Hashemi |editor1-first=Nader |editor2-last=Postel |editor2-first=Danny |title=The Syria Dilemma |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-262-02683-3 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Heydemann |first1=Steven |last2=Leenders |first2=Reinoud |title=Middle East Authoritarianisms: Governance, Contestation, and Regime Resilience in Syria and Iran |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8047-9333-9 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Leverett |first=Flynt L. |title=Inheriting Syria: Bashar's Trial By Fire |publisher=[[Brookings Institution]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8157-5204-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/inheritingsyria00flyn }}
* {{Cite book |last=Lesch |first=David W. |title=Syria: The Fall of the House of Assad |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-300-18651-2 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Mammone |editor1-first=Andrea |editor2-last=Godin |editor2-first=Emmanuel |editor3-last=Jenkins |editor3-first=Brian |date=2012 |title=Mapping the Extreme Right in Contemporary Europe: From Local to Transnational |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-50265-8 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Ma'oz |first1=Moshe |last2=Ginat |first2=Joseph |last3=Winckler |first3=Onn |title=Modern Syria: From Ottoman Rule to Pivotal Role in the Middle East |publisher=[[Sussex Academic Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=1-898723-83-4 }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Mikaberidze |editor1-first=Alexander |title=Atrocities, Massacres, and War Crimes: An Encyclopedia |location=Santa Barbara, California |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-59884-925-7 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Minahan |first=James |title=Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: A–C |year=2002 |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |isbn=978-0-313-32109-2 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Moosa |first=Matti |title=Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-8156-2411-0 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Pierret |first=Thomas |title=Religion and State in Syria: The Sunni Ulama from Coup to Revolution |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-107-60990-7 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sadiki |first=Larbi |title=Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring: Rethinking Democratization |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-415-52391-2 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Seale |first1=Patrick |last2=McConville |first2=Maureen |title=Asad of Syria: The Struggle for the Middle East |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-520-06976-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/asadofsyriastrug00seal }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |last2=Roberts |first2=Priscilla |edition= |title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-85109-841-5 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Zisser |first=Eyal |title=Commanding Syria: Bashar Al-Asad And the First Years in Power |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84511-153-3 }}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book |last=Abboud |first=Samer |title=Syria (Hot Spots in Global Politics) |publisher=Polity |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-7456-9797-0|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Belhadj |first=Souhaïl |date=2013 |title=La Syrie de Bashar Al-Asad : Anatomie d'un régime autoritaire |trans-title=Bashar's Syria: Anatomy of an Authoritarian Regime |language=fr |publisher=Belin |isbn=978-2-7011-6467-0|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Hinnebusch |first1=Raymond |title=Syria: Revolution From Above |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-28568-1|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Perthes |first1=Volker |title=Syria Under Bashar Al-Asad: Modernisation and the Limits of Change |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-856750-9|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tabler |first=Andrew |title=In the Lion's Den: An Eyewitness Account of Washington's Battle with Syria |publisher=Zephyr Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-56976-843-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/inlionsdeneyewit00tabl |ref=none}}

'''Reports'''
* {{Cite report |author=Yossi Baidatz |date=August 2001 |title=Bashar's First Year: From Ophthalmology to a National Vision |url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/PolicyFocus41.pdf |publisher=Washington Institute for Near East Policy |asin=B0006RVLNM |access-date=12 March 2015 |ref=none |archive-date=25 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225095843/http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/PolicyFocus41.pdf |url-status=dead }}
* {{Cite report |author=Annette Büchs |date=March 2009 |title=The Resilience of Authoritarian Rule in Syria under Hafez and Bashar Al-Asad |url=http://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/system/files/publications/wp97_buechs.pdf |publisher=German Institute of Global and Area Studies |docket=97 |access-date=12 March 2015 |ref=none |archive-date=9 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009210705/https://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/system/files/publications/wp97_buechs.pdf |url-status=dead }}

'''Articles'''
* {{cite web |url=http://www.meforum.org/meib/articles/0304_s2.htm |first=Ziad K. |last=Abdelnour |title=Syria's Proxy Forces in Iraq |publisher=[[Al-Hayat]] |date=12 April 2003|ref=none}}
* {{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2579331.stm |title=Profile: Syria's Bashar al-Assad |work=[[BBC News]] |date=10 March 2005|ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |url=http://www.meforum.org/article/730 |first=William |last=Harris |title=Bashar al-Assad's Lebanon Gamble |journal=[[Middle East Quarterly]] |date=Summer 2005|ref=none}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/9085/syrias_leaders.html |first=Esther |last=Pan |title=Syria's Leaders |publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |date=10 March 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060719135235/http://www.cfr.org/publication/9085/syrias_leaders.html |archive-date=19 July 2006|ref=none}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703833204576114712441122894  |title=Interview With Syrian President Bashar al-Assad |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date=31 January 2011|ref=none}}
* {{cite web |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2007/07/200852518514154964.html  |title=Profile: Bashar al-Assad |publisher=[[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al Jazeera]] |date=25 March 2011|ref=none}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9gyTXO_xIg |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118094013/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9gyTXO_xIg |archive-date=18 November 2016 |url-status=live |first=Charlie |author-link=Charlie Rose |last=Rose |title=Interview with Bashar Hafez al-Assad |publisher=[[PBS]] |date=9 September 2013 |ref=none |access-date=5 November 2016 }}

==External links==
{{sister project links|c=Category: Bashar al-Assad|d=yes|q=yes|n=yes|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}}
* {{Official website|sana.sy/en/}}
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110811101337/http://www.sana.sy/eng/article/123.htm Biography]
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529042116/http://sana.sy/section.html?&amp;req=shownews&amp;topicid=13&amp;newlang=eng Decrees]
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529042110/http://sana.sy/section.html?&amp;req=shownews&amp;topicid=11&amp;newlang=eng Speeches]
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529041500/http://sana.sy/section.html?&amp;req=shownews&amp;topicid=12&amp;newlang=eng Interviews]
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529042829/http://sana.sy/section.html?&amp;req=shownews&amp;topicid=10&amp;newlang=eng Press releases]
* {{C-SPAN|93150}}
* {{Guardian topic}}
* {{NYTtopic|people/a/bashar_al_assad}}
* {{IMDb name|1519747}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Abdul Halim Khaddam]] &lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;Acting&lt;/small&gt;}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[President of Syria]] | years=2000–2024}}
{{s-aft|after=TBD}}
|-
{{s-ppo}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Hafez al-Assad]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Secretary of the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Syrian Regional Command]] of the [[Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party]]|years=2000–2024}}
{{s-aft|after=TBD}}
|-
{{s-end}}

{{Presidents of Syria}}
{{Ba'ath Party}}
{{Syria topics}}
{{Arab Spring}}
{{Syrian Civil War}}
{{Arab nationalism}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Assad, Bashar Al-}}
[[Category:Bashar al-Assad| ]]
[[Category:1965 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century presidents in Asia]]
[[Category:20th-century Syrian politicians]]
[[Category:21st-century Syrian politicians]]
[[Category:Presidents of Syria]]
[[Category:Anti-Americanism]]
[[Category:Anti-Zionism in the Arab world]]
[[Category:Al-Assad family|Bashar Al]]
[[Category:Ba'athism]]
[[Category:Children of presidents of Syria]]
[[Category:Damascus University alumni]]
[[Category:Exiled politicians]]
[[Category:Far-left politics in Asia]]
[[Category:Fugitives wanted by France]]
[[Category:Fugitives wanted on crimes against humanity charges]]
[[Category:Fugitives wanted on war crimes charges]]
[[Category:Grand Cordons of the National Order of the Cedar]]
[[Category:Holocaust deniers]]
[[Category:Homs Military Academy alumni]]
[[Category:Leaders of political parties]]
[[Category:Members of the National Command of the Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)]]
[[Category:Members of the Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region]]
[[Category:Muslim socialists]]
[[Category:People of the Syrian civil war]]
[[Category:People stripped of honorary degrees]]
[[Category:Politicians from Damascus]]
[[Category:Politicide perpetrators]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 1st class]]
[[Category:Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List]]
[[Category:Syrian Alawites]]
[[Category:Syrian Arab nationalists]]
[[Category:Syrian exiles]]
[[Category:Syrian expatriates in Russia]]
[[Category:Syrian expatriates in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Syrian mass murderers]]
[[Category:Syrian nationalists]]
[[Category:Syrian male writers]]
[[Category:Syrian male boxers]]
[[Category:Syrian ophthalmologists]]
[[Category:Totalitarianism]]</text>
      <sha1>d1h6kotmvbue26odvngtzyova39214y</sha1>
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