Wikipedia tumwiki https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jani_likulu MediaWiki 1.46.0-wmf.26 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 26564 115756 109157 2026-05-03T21:31:00Z ~2026-26556-99 11542 115756 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Study of the past}} {{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}{{About|the academic discipline|a general history of human beings|Human history|other uses}} [[File:Marble_bust_of_Herodotos_MET_DT11742_(cropped).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marble_bust_of_Herodotos_MET_DT11742_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Ivyo Herodotus wakalemba (c. 425 B.C.E.), uyo kanandi wakuwoneka kuti ni "wiske wa mdauko" ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi]] '''History''' (derived {{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|ἱστορία}}'' ({{grc-transl|ἱστορία}})|inquiry; knowledge acquired by investigation}})<ref name="JosephJanda">{{Cite book|editor1-last=Joseph|editor1-first=Brian|editor2-last=Janda|editor2-first=Richard|orig-year=2004|title=The Handbook of Historical Linguistics|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|page=163|isbn=978-1405127479|year=2008}}</ref> ni kusambira na kulemba vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita. Nyengo iyo vinthu vikacitikiranga pambere ŵanthu ŵandambe kulemba Baibolo yikucemeka kuti nyengo ya kutayikapo. Mazgu ghakuti "mbiri" ghakung'anamura vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale, ivyo ŵanthu ŵakukumbuka, ivyo ŵakasanga, ivyo ŵakuwunjika, ivyo ŵakuchita, na umo ŵakuviyowoyera. Ŵanthu ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakukhumba kumanya ivyo vikachitika kumasinda, ndipo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mabuku, mabuku, vinthu vyakuzengeka, na vinthu vinyake. Mbiri njambura kukwana ndipo yichali na vyakusisi. Mbiri ni sayansi iyo yikugwiliskira nchito nkhani kuti yilongosore, kusanda, kufumba, na kusanda vinthu ivyo vikacitika kale, kweniso kuti yamanye umo vikacitikira. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakudumbiskana nkhani iyo yikulongosora makora ivyo vikachitika kweniso chifukwa icho vikachitikira. Ŵakumanya vya mdauko ŵakususkana na umo mdauko uliri, kweniso kuti ngwakuzirwa pa nkhani ya masuzgo gha mazuŵa ghano. Nkhani izo zikukolerana na mitheto yinyake, kweni zikukolerana yayi na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya (nga ni nkhani izo zikuyowoya vya Themba Arthur), kanandi zikulongosoreka kuti ni nthano. Mbiri yikupambana na vidokoni pakuti yikukhozgeka na ukaboni. Ndipouli, mitheto yakale yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵapulikiskenge makora nkhani za mu Baibolo izo zasintha mu vyaka vinandi ndipo zikulutilira kusintha mazuŵa ghano. Kafukufuku wamakono wa mbiriyakale ndiwakutali, ndipo amaphatikizapo kuphunzira madera enaake ndi kuphunzira zinthu zina zapadera kapena zowunikira za kafukufuku wakale. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakusambira mdauko mu masukulu gha pulayimale na sekondare. Herodotus, uyo wakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 B.C.E., wakuchemeka "wiske wa mdauko" (pakuti ndiyo wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira kumanya mdauko) nangauli ŵanthu ŵakumususka kuti ni "wiske wa utesi". Iyo pamoza na Thucydides, uyo wakaŵako mu nyengo yake, ndiwo ŵakambiska kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale. Ŵanthu ŵakulutilira kuŵazga mabuku ghawo m'paka sono, ndipo mphambano pakati pa Herodotus na Thucydides, awo ŵakalembanga vya mitheto. Ku East Asia, mabuku gha boma ghakuchemeka Spring and Autumn Annals, ghakalembeka mu 722 B.C.E., nangauli ni mabuku gha mu vyaka vya m'ma 200 B.C.E. pera agho ghachalipo. == Viyowoyero == [[File:History-Dielman-Highsmith.jpeg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:History-Dielman-Highsmith.jpeg|thumb|Mbiri ya Frederick Dielman (1896)]] TLizgu lakuti mdauko likufuma ku historía ({{lang-grc|ἱστορία|translit=historíā|lit=inquiry, knowledge from inquiry, or judge}}<ref>{{LSJ|i(stori/a|ἱστορία}}</ref>). Ndico cifukwa cake Aristotle wakalemba mazgu agha mu buku lake lakuti History of Animals. Lizgu lakwamba lakuti, ?? στωρ likusangika kale mu sumu za Homer, Heraclitus, chilapo cha Ŵaateni, na mu malemba gha Boeotic (mu dango, "mweruzgi" panji "kaboni", panji ghanyake ghakuyana waka). Lizgu Lachigiriki ili likang'anamulika kufuma ku Chilatini kuti historia, kung'anamura "kupenjerezga, kupenjerezga, kupenda, kulongosora, kulongosora vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale, kulemba mbiri, kulongosora vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale". Mbiri inachokera ku Chilatini (mwina kudzera ku Old Irish kapena Old Welsh) kupita ku Old English monga stær ("mbiri, nkhani, nkhani"), koma liwu ili silinagwiritsidwe ntchito kumapeto kwa nyengo ya Old English. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, apo Chilatini chikazgokanga Chifurenchi chakale (na Anglo-Norman), historia yikamba kuwoneka nga ni istorie, estoire, na historie, ndipo yikamba kumanyikwa kuti: "mbiri ya vinthu ivyo vikachitika mu umoyo wa munthu (kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200), chikhwangwani, nkhani ya vinthu ivyo vikachitika mu gulu la ŵanthu panji ŵanthu wose (1155), vyakuchitika vya mdauko (c. 1240), umo ŵanthu ŵakasinthira, sayansi (c. 1265), nkhani ya vinthu vyaunenesko panji vyakubisika, nkhani (c. 1462)".<ref name="OED Online. Oxford University Press 2014">"history, n". OED Online. Oxford University Press, December 2014. 9 March 2015.</ref> Mbiri ya ŵanthu yikafuma mu chiyowoyero cha Anglo-Norman ndipo yikaŵa mu Chingelezi chapakati. Lizgu ili likusangika mu buku la Ancrene Wisse ilo likalembeka mu 1300, kweni likuwoneka kuti likaŵa lizgu lakupharazgika comene m'ma 1400. Mu Chingelezi chapakati, ng'anamuro la mbiri ni "mbiri". Mazgu agha ghakung'anamura kuti "mulimo wa kumanya vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale; kulemba panji kusambira vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale, chomenechomene nkhani za ŵanthu". Mu nyengo ya Renaissance, mazgu agha ghakaŵaso na ng'anamuro linyake, ndipo Francis Bacon wakagwiliskira ntchito lizgu ili mu Chigiriki m'ma 1500 apo wakalembanga vya mdauko. Kwa iyo, historia yikaŵa "kumanya vinthu ivyo vikulongosoreka na malo na nyengo", ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamanyanga vinthu ivi chifukwa cha ivyo ŵakakumbukanga (apo sayansi yikaŵa na vinjeru, ndipo sumu zikaŵanga na maghanoghano ghakupambanapambana). Mu chiyowoyero cha Chingelezi, chiyowoyero cha ku China (史 vs. (Tumbuka) sono ni mazgu ghapadera agho ghakung'anamura mbiri ya ŵanthu kweniso nkhani izo zikuyowoyeka. Mu viyowoyero vya mazuŵa ghano nga ni Chijeremani, Chifurenchi, kweniso viyowoyero vinandi vya Chijeremani na Chigiriki, mazgu agha ghakung'anamulika kuti "mbiri". Munthu wakumanya mdauko wakuzunulika kuti "wakusanda mdauko" mu 1531. Mu viyowoyero vyose vya ku Europe, mazgu ghakuti "mbiri" ghakung'anamura "ivyo vikachitikira ŵanthu" kweniso "kusanda ivyo vikachitika".<ref name="Ferrater-Mora">Ferrater-Mora, José. ''Diccionario de Filosofia''. Barcelona: Editorial Ariel, 1994.</ref> Lizgu lakuti historical likusangika mu Baibolo kufuma mu 1661, ndipo historic likusangika mu Baibolo kufuma mu 1669.<ref name="Whitney">Whitney, W.D. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=wrACAAAAIAAJ The Century dictionary; an encyclopedic lexicon of the English language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202174044/https://books.google.com/books?id=wrACAAAAIAAJ|date=2 February 2021}}''. New York: The Century Co, 1889.</ref> == Kuyowoya == [[File:The_Historians'_History_of_the_World_-_Title_Page.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Historians'_History_of_the_World_-_Title_Page.jpg|thumb|The title page to ''[[:en:The_Historians'_History_of_the_World|The Historians' History of the World]]'']] Ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakulemba mu nyengo yawo, ndipo ŵakughanaghanira chomene maghanoghano agho ŵanthu ŵali nagho pa nkhani ya umo ŵangalongosolera ivyo vikachitika kale. Mu mazgu gha Benedetto Croce, "mbiri yose nja sono". Mbiri yikuŵa yipusu cifukwa ca kupanga "mazgu ghaunenesko gha ivyo vikacitika kale" kwizira mu nkhani na kusanda vinthu ivyo vikacitika kumanyuma vyakukhwaskana na ŵanthu. Sayansi yasono ya mdauko yikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye makora nkhani iyi. Vyose ivyo vikucitika ivyo vikukumbukika na kusungika mu nthowa yinyake, ni mbiri. Ntchito ya nkhani za m'mbiri njakuti tisange ivyo vingatovwira kuti tisange nkhani zaunenesko. Chifukwa chake, malamulo a mbiriyakale ya wolemba mbiri ndi chifukwa chozungulira mbiriyakale wamba poletsa kugwiritsa ntchito malemba ena ndi zikalata (mwa kunyenga zonena zawo kuti zikuyimira "zakale zenizeni"). Ntchito yinyake ya munthu wakusanda mdauko ni kugwiliskira ntchito makora na mwamahara vinthu vinandi ivyo vikalembeka kale. Para ŵanthu ŵakulemba mbiri ŵakukumbuka panji kulongosora vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikachitika kale, ŵakuŵa chete. Kaŵirikaŵiri maphunziro a mbiriyakale amagawidwa monga gawo la maphunziro a zaumunthu ndipo nthawi zina monga gawo la sayansi ya chikhalidwe. Kweniso tingawona kuti ni nthowa yakukumanira pakati pa vigaŵa viŵiri ivi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakukolerana na fundo iyi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, sukulu ya Annales yikasintha chomene umo ŵanthu ŵakusambilira mdauko wa charu chapasi. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakulemba vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale, kwali ŵakulemba panji kuphalirako ŵanthu, ndipo ŵakuyezga kusanga mazgoro gha mafumbo agha. Kwamba kale, ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakugwiliskira nchito vinthu nga ni vikhwangwani, malemba, na vithuzithuzi. Kanandi, ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakumanya vingagaŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu: ivyo vili kulembeka, ivyo vikuyowoyeka, na ivyo vili kusungika. Kweni kulemba ndiko kukupatura mdauko ku ivyo vikaŵako pambere ivi vindacitike. Ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakovwira chomene pa kusanda malo na vinthu ivyo vili kusungika. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakusanga vikusangika bweka yayi, ndipo nkhani izo ŵanthu ŵakulemba zikovwira chomene pa ivyo ŵasanga. Nthowa izo ŵasayansi ŵakusangira vinthu vyakale ŵakugwiliskira ntchito zikuyana yayi na umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera vinthu vyakale. "Vinthu vyakale vyakumasinda" ni munthavi unyake wa vinthu vyakale uwo kanandi ukususkana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mazuŵa ghano. Mwachiyelezgero, Mark Leone, uyo wakafukura na kung'anamulira vinthu mu msumba wa Annapolis, ku Maryland, U.S.A., wakayezga kupulikiska mphindano iyo yilipo pakati pa malemba agho ghakuyowoya vya "ufulu" na mabuku ghanyake agho ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakaŵa ŵazga kweniso kuti vinthu vikaŵa vyambura kuyana. Pali nthowa zakupambanapambana izo tingalongosolera mdauko, kusazgapo nyengo, mitheto, vigaŵa, na nkhani. Vinthu ivi vikupambana yayi, ndipo kanandi vikupambana. Ŵanthu awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵangasanda nkhani zakupambanapambana, nangauli mazuŵa ghano ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene nkhani zakupambanapambana. Malo agho ghakuchemeka Big History ghakususkana na fundo iyi, ndipo ghakukhumba kuti vinthu vichitikenge mu charu chose. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakusambira mdauko na chilato chakuti ŵamanye vinandi, kweni nyengo zinyake ŵakusambiraso chifukwa cha kukhumba kumanya waka.<ref name="graham-ch1">{{cite book|title=The Shape of the Past|author=Graham, Gordon|publisher=[[University of Oxford]]|year=1997|chapter=Chapter 1}}</ref> == Mbili yapakwambilila == {{Human history and prehistory|250}} {{Further|Protohistory}} Mdauko wa ŵanthu ni ivyo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens ŵakacita kumasinda pa caru cose capasi, ndipo vyose ivi vili kusungika mu mabuku. Pakuyowoya za "mbiri yakale", awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakung'anamura kumanya vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale chomene mu malo agho mulije maukaboni panji umo ŵanthu ŵakupulikiskira yayi umo vinthu vikalembekera. Para munthu wakusanda vithuzithuzi, vyakujambura, na vinthu vinyake, wangasanga fundo zinyake nangauli palije ivyo vili kulembeka. Kwambira mu ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti para munthu wakusambira vya mdauko wakwamba wakwenera yayi kuzomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵalutilire kukhala mu vyaru vinyake, nga ni vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa na America. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakususka kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi ndiwo ŵakulemba chomene mdauko. Mu 1961, E. H. Carr wakalemba kuti: {{blockquote|Para ŵanthu ŵaleka kughanaghanira waka vya mazuŵa ghano, ŵakwamba kughanaghana vya ivyo vikaŵachitikira kumasinda ndiposo ivyo viŵachitikirenge munthazi. Mbiri yikwamba na kuphalirana mitheto; ndipo mitheto yikung'anamura kuphalirana mitheto na masambiro gha ivyo vikacitika kale. Mabuku agho ghakalembeka kumasinda ghakwamba kusungika kuti ghazakovwire miwiro yakunthazi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Carr|first=Edward H.|year=1961|title=What is History?|page=108|isbn=0140206523}}</ref>}} Fundo iyi yikusazgapo ivyo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Australia na New Zealand Māori, kweniso ivyo ŵanthu ŵakalemba pambere ŵandafike ku Europe. == Kulemba mbiri == {{Main|Historiography}} [[File:Guicciardini_M_Francesco_La_Historia_dItalia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Guicciardini_M_Francesco_La_Historia_dItalia.jpg|right|thumb|Pa peji lakwamba la La Historia d'Italia]] Mu Baibolo ili, mazgu agha ghakung'anamura vinandi. Chakwamba, likung'anamura umo mbiri yikapangikira: umo nthowa na vyakuchita vikasinthira (kufuma pa nkhani zakudumura za umoyo wa munthu kuya pa nkhani zakudumura). Chachiŵiri, lingang'anamura ivyo vyalembeka: mabuku ghakulongosora mdauko (kuyelezgera kuti, "mdauko wa m'ma 1960" kung'anamura "Mdauko wa m'ma 1960"). Chachitatu, lingang'anamura chifukwa icho ŵanthu ŵakupangira mdauko. Pakuwona umo vinthu vikaŵira kumanyuma, fundo yachitatu iyi yikukolerana na fundo ziŵiri zakwambilira, chifukwa kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya chomene vya nkhani, umo ŵanthu ŵakulongosolera vinthu, umo charu chikuwonekera, umo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ukaboni, panji umo ŵakulongosolera vinthu. Ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakufumbaso usange tingasambizga mdauko nga ni nkhani yimoza yakukolerana panji nkhani zinandi zakupambanapambana.<ref>Ernst Breisach, ''Historiography: Ancient, medieval, and modern'' (University of Chicago Press, 2007).</ref><ref>Georg G. Iggers, ''Historiography in the twentieth century: From scientific objectivity to the postmodern challenge'' (2005).</ref> == Methods == {{Further|Historical method}} {{very long section|reason=The long intro needs further refactoring into subsection, or child articles.|date=November 2022}} {| class="toccolours" |[[File:Ancientlibraryalex.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ancientlibraryalex.jpg|none|thumb|A depiction of the ancient [[:en:Library_of_Alexandria|Library of Alexandria]]]]<div>Historical method basics</div>The following questions are used by historians in modern work. # ''When was'' the source, written or unwritten, produced ([[:en:Calendar_date|date]])? # Where was it produced ([[wiktionary:localize|localization]])? # By whom was it produced ([[:en:Author|authorship]])? # From what pre-existing material was it produced ([[wiktionary:analysis|analysis]])? # In what original form was it produced ([[wiktionary:integrity|integrity]])? # What is the evidential value of its contents ([[:en:Credibility|credibility]])? The first four are known as [[:en:Historical_criticism|historical criticism]]; the fifth, [[:en:Textual_criticism|textual criticism]]; and, together, external criticism. The sixth and final inquiry about a source is called internal criticism. |} Nthowa ya mdauko yikusazgapo nthowa na fundo izo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakusanda nkhani na vinthu vinyake. Herodotus wa ku Halicarnassus (484 B.C.E. 425 B.C.E.) wakumanyikwa kuti ni "wiske wa mdauko". Ndipouli, Thucydides (c. 460 B.C.E. 400 B.C.E.) ndiyo wakambiska nkhani za mdauko mu buku lake la History of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides wakawonanga kuti mdauko ukufuma ku ivyo ŵanthu ŵasankha na kuchita, ndipo wakawonanga kuti pali chifukwa na umaliro wake m'malo mwa Chiuta (nangauli Herodotus nayo wakagomezganga fundo iyi yayi). Thucydides wakalongosora umo vinthu vikachitikiranga mu nyengo iyo vikachitikiranga. Ŵakumanya vya mdauko ŵa ku Greece nawo ŵakawonanga kuti mdauko ukucitika nyengo zose. Ku China kukaŵa mitheto ya mdauko kweniso nthowa zakugwiliskira ntchito mdauko. Mulimo wa kulemba mbiri ya ŵanthu ku East Asia ukambika na Sima Qian (145-90 B.C.E.), uyo wakalemba buku lakuti Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji). Chifukwa cha ivyo wakalemba, Sima Qian wakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Dada wa mbiri ya ku China. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku China awo ŵakalembako mbiri ya mafumu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito buku lake la Shiji pakulemba mabuku gha mdauko. Augustine wakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi chomene mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira. Mu nyengo za ku Middle Ages na Renaissance, ŵanthu ŵakasambiranga vya mdauko kufuma ku vinthu vyakupatulika. Cha m'ma 1800, nkhwantha ya vya mdauko ya ku Germany, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, yikiza na vinjeru vya ŵanthu mu nkhani ya mdauko. Mu mazgu ghakwambilira gha mu buku lake la Muqaddimah (1377), Ibn Khaldun, uyo wakaŵa Muarabu, wakachenjezga za maubudi ghankhondi na ghaŵiri agho ŵanthu ŵakulemba mbiri ŵakacitanga. Mu nkhani iyi, wakawonanga vinthu vyamunthazi nga ni vyakuzizika ndipo vikukhumbikwira kung'anamulika. Ivyo Ibn Khaldun wakalemba vikulongora kuti mphambano ya mitheto ya mu nyengo yinyake yikwenera kulongozga umo vinthu vya mdauko vikweruzgikira, kuti munthu wapambaniskenge fundo izo wangayezgera kughanaghanirapo, kweniso kuti wamanye kuti ntchakukhumbikwa kuŵa na vinjeru. Kanandi Ibn Khaldun wakasuskanga "maluso ghambura ntchito na kuzomera waka vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale". Lekani wakambiska masambiro ghakukhwaskana na mdauko, ndipo kanandi wakaghacemanga kuti "sayansi yiphya". Nthowa yake ya kusanda mdauko yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye udindo wa boma, umo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoyeskana, umo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoyera, kweniso umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira pa nkhani za mdauko. Ntheura ŵanthu ŵakumuwona kuti ni "wiske wa mbiri" panji "wiske wa vinjeru vya mdauko". Ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, ŵanthu ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakamba kulemba mdauko mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1800, chomenechomene ku France na Germany. Mu 1851, Herbert Spencer wakalongosora nthowa izi: {{blockquote|From the successive strata of our historical deposits, they [Historians] diligently gather all the highly colored fragments, pounce upon everything that is curious and sparkling and chuckle like children over their glittering acquisitions; meanwhile the rich veins of wisdom that ramify amidst this worthless debris, lie utterly neglected. Cumbrous volumes of rubbish are greedily accumulated, while those masses of rich ore, that should have been dug out, and from which golden truths might have been smelted, are left untaught and unsought<ref>Cited in [[Robert Carneiro]], ''The Muse of History and the Science of Culture'', New York: Kluwer Publishers, 2000, p 160.</ref>}} By the "rich ore" Spencer meant scientific theory of history. Meanwhile, [[:en:Henry_Thomas_Buckle|Henry Thomas Buckle]] expressed a dream of history becoming one day science: {{blockquote|In regard to nature, events apparently the most irregular and capricious have been explained and have been shown to be in accordance with certain fixed and universal laws. This have been done because men of ability and, above all, men of patient, untiring thought have studied events with the view of discovering their regularity, and if human events were subject to a similar treatment, we have every right to expect similar results<ref>Cited in ''Muse of History'', pp. 158–159.</ref>}} Contrary to Buckle's dream, the 19th-century historian with greatest influence on methods became [[:en:Leopold_von_Ranke|Leopold von Ranke]] in Germany. He limited history to "what really happened" and by this directed the field further away from science. For Ranke, historical data should be collected carefully, examined objectively and put together with critical rigor. But these procedures "are merely the prerequisites and preliminaries of science. The heart of science is searching out order and regularity in the data being examined and in formulating generalizations or laws about them."<ref>''Muse of History'', p 147.</ref> {{blockquote|As Historians like Ranke and many who followed him have pursued it, ''no'', history is not a science. Thus if Historians tell us that, given the manner in which he practices his craft, it cannot be considered a science, we must take him at his word. If he is not doing science, then, whatever else he is doing, he is not ''doing'' science. The traditional Historian is thus no scientist and history, as conventionally practiced, is not a science.<ref>''Muse of History'', p 150.</ref>}} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakusambira mdauko ŵakaŵikanga chomene mahara yayi pa nkhani za kutemwera charu, izo kanandi zikalumbanga mtundu panji ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwona kuti mdauko ni sayansi yayi, kweni ni luso. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakasambizganga chomene vya mdauko wa ŵanthu ŵakaŵa ŵasambizgi ŵanandi, kusazgapo Fernand Braudel, E. H. Carr, Fritz Fischer, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Bruce Trigger, Marc Bloch, Karl Dietrich Bracher, Peter Gay, Robert Fogel, Lucien Febvre, na Lawrence Stone. Ŵanandi awo ŵakasambizganga vya mdauko wa ŵanthu ŵakamanyikwanga chomene chifukwa cha umo ŵakenderanga. Braudel wakasazga mdauko na geography, mdauko wa Bracher na political science, mdauko wa Fogel na economics, mdauko wa Gay na psychology, mdauko wa Trigger na archeology, uku Wehler, Bloch, Fischer, Stone, Febvre, na Le Roy Ladurie ŵakasazga mdauko na sociology, geography, anthropology, na economics. Ndipouli, nthowa izi zikatondeka kupanga fundo ya mdauko. Mpaka sono pali fundo yimoza pera ya mdauko iyo yikayowoyeka na munthu munyake wakulemba mdauko. Ivyo tikugomezga pa nkhani ya mdauko vikalembeka na ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya vinandi pa nkhani iyi. Sonosono apa, sayansi ya nkhani za mu digito yamba kuwona umo ŵangagwiliskira ntchito kompyuta kuti ŵafumbisiske mafumbo ghakukhwaskana na mdauko kweniso umo ŵangasambilira vya mu digito. Pakususkana na fundo yakuti mdauko ni sayansi, ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya mdauko nga ni Hugh Trevor-Roper, John Lukacs, Donald Creighton, Gertrude Himmelfarb, na Gerhard Ritter ŵakayowoya kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakughanaghana kuti mdauko ni luso. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku France awo ŵakasambizganga vya mdauko ŵakamba kulemba vya mdauko wa ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵako kale. Ŵanthu ŵakumanya vya mdauko nga ni Herbert Butterfield, Ernst Nolte na George Mosse ŵakayowoyapo kuti fundo za mu mdauko ni zakuzirwa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku America awo ŵakasanda mdauko ŵakawona kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake, mitundu yinyake, na ŵanthu ŵamitundu yinyake ŵakaŵa ŵambura kuzirwa. Nkhani yinyake iyo yikayowoyeka pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose yikaŵa yakuti Alltagsgeschichte. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake nga ni Martin Broszat, Ian Kershaw, na Detlev Peukert, ŵakayezga kuwona umo umoyo ukaŵira mu nyengo ya Nazi. Ŵakumanya mdauko ŵa Marx, nga ni Eric Hobsbawm, E. P. Thompson, Rodney Hilton, Georges Lefebvre, Eugene Genovese, Isaac Deutscher, C. L. Wakayama R. James, Timothy Mason, Herbert Aptheker, Arno J. Mayer, na Christopher Hill ŵayezga kuti ŵasimikizge fundo za Karl Marx mwa kusanda mbiri kufuma ku fundo za Marx. Pakuzgora ng'anamuro la Marxist la mdauko, ŵa mbiri nga ni François Furet, Richard Pipes, J. C. Kuŵa wakukondwa. D. Kuŵa wakukondwa. Clark, Roland Mousnier, Henry Ashby Turner, na Robert Conquest ŵakulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera mdauko. Ŵasayansi ŵa mbiri ya ŵanakazi nga ni Joan Wallach Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda Lerner, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, na Lynn Hunt, ŵayowoyapo kuti nchakuzirwa kusambira ivyo ŵanakazi ŵakakumana navyo kumanyuma. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ŵanthu awo ŵakugomezga kuti vinthu vyasintha kufuma ku vinyake ŵakukayikira usange ivyo ŵanthu ŵakusambira mu mbiri yakale ni vyaunenesko. Mu buku lake la mu 1997, Richard J. Evans wakavikilira mbiri. Buku linyake ilo wakalemba mu 1994 (The Killing of History) likayowoyaso umo ŵanthu ŵakasuzgikira pa nkhani ya mdauko. Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakwamba kupenjerezga nkhani mu mabuku gha mdauko. Kanandi ŵakughanaghana fundo yinyake ndipo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ivyo ŵasanga. John H. Arnold wakayowoya kuti mdauko ni fundo iyo yikovwira kuti vinthu visinthe. Makampani gha vinthu vya digito, nga ni Google, ghapangiska kuti paŵe mphindano pa nkhani ya umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera Intaneti.<ref>{{Cite book|last=King|first=Michelle T.|title=Research Methods for History|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2016|edition=2nd|location=Edinburgh|chapter=Working With/In the Archives}}</ref> === Marxian theory === {{Main|Marx's theory of history}} Fundo ya Marx yakuti vinthu vyakuthupi ni vyakuzirwa yikulongora kuti vinthu vikwenda makora pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakukhala. Pa vyose, Marx na Engels ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakamanya vigaŵa vinkhondi ivyo vinthu vikaŵa makora mu vyaru vya ku Europe. Mu nyengo ya Soviet Union, ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga chomene nkhani za Marx, kweni kufuma waka apo boma la Communist likamalira mu 1991, Mikhail Krom wakati nkhani izi zili kuchepa chomene..<ref>Mikhail M. Krom, "From the Center to the Margin: the Fate of Marxism in Contemporary Russian Historiography," ''Storia della Storiografia'' (2012) Issue 62, pp. 121–130</ref> === Potential shortcomings in the production of history === Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakugomezga kuti para ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakuŵa na maghanoghano ghakupambanako chifukwa vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mu mdauko vikung'anamulika munthowa zakupambanapambana. Constantin Fasolt wakati mdauko ukuyana waka na ndyali chifukwa cha kukhala chete. Wakayowoyaso kuti: "Ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya pa nkhani ya umo mbiri na ndyali vikukolerana vikuthemba pa fundo yakuti ŵanthu awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakukhwaskika na ndyali". Kuyana na Michel-Rolph Trouillot, ndondomeko ya mdauko yili kufuma mu mabuku gha mdauko, ntheura para ŵanthu ŵakhala chete panji ŵakuluwa vinthu vinyake vya mdauko, ŵangaŵa kuti ŵakumanya makora umo ŵanthu ŵakukumbukirana. Vinthu ivyo vikaleka kulembeka mu Baibolo vingachitika munthowa zinandi ndipo vingatimbanizga chomene mbiri. Kweniso munthu wangataya mwadala panji mwangozi. Ŵanthu ŵakumanya mdauko ŵali kulemba mazgu ghanandi agho ghakulongosora umo munthu wakuchitira para waleka kupulika nkhani za mu Baibolo. Mulembi wa mdauko wa m'ma 1900, zina lake Gerda Lerner, wakalongosora umo ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵakakhwaskikira na ivyo ŵanakazi ŵakachita. Munthu munyake wakumanya mdauko wakwendakwenda, William Cronon, wakayowoya nthowa zitatu zakumazgira kusankhana maghanoghano na kuvikilira nkhani zaunenesko na zakugomezgeka..<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Cronon|first=William|date=1992|title=A Place for Stories: Nature, History, and Narrative|journal=The Journal of American History|volume=78|issue=4|pages=1347–1376|doi=10.2307/2079346|jstor=2079346}}</ref> == Vigaŵa vya masambiro == {| class="toccolours" !Particular studies and fields |- |These are approaches to history; not listed are histories of other fields, such as [[:en:History_of_science|history of science]], [[:en:History_of_mathematics|history of mathematics]] and [[:en:History_of_philosophy|history of philosophy]]. * [[:en:Ancient_history|Ancient history]]: the study of history from the beginning of human history until the Early Middle Ages. * [[:en:Atlantic_history|Atlantic history]]: the study of the history of people living on or near the Atlantic Ocean. * [[:en:History_of_art|Art history]]: the study of changes in and the social context of art. * [[:en:Comparative_history|Comparative history]]: the historical analysis of social and cultural entities not confined to national boundaries. * [[:en:Contemporary_history|Contemporary history]]: the study of recent historical events. * [[:en:Counterfactual_history|Counterfactual history]]: the study of historical events as they might have happened in different causal circumstances. * [[:en:Cultural_history|Cultural history]]: the study of culture in the past. * [[:en:Digital_history|Digital history]]: the use of computing technologies to do massive searches in published sources. * [[:en:Economic_history|Economic history]]: the use of economic models fitted to the past. * [[:en:Intellectual_history|Intellectual history]]: the study of ideas in the context of the cultures that produced them and their development over time. * [[:en:Maritime_history|Maritime history]]: the study of maritime transport and all connected subjects. * [[:en:Material_history|Material history]]: the study of objects and the stories they can tell. * [[:en:Modern_history|Modern history]]: the study of Modern Times, the era after the [[:en:Middle_Ages|Middle Ages]]. * [[:en:Military_history|Military history]]: the study of warfare, historical wars, and [[:en:Naval_history|Naval history]], which is sometimes considered to be a sub-branch of military history. * [[:en:Oral_history|Oral history]]: the collection and study of historical information by utilizing spoken interviews with people who have lived past events. * [[:en:Palaeography|Palaeography]]: the study of ancient texts. * [[:en:People's_history|People's history]]: historical work from the perspective of common people. * [[:en:Political_history|Political history]]: the study of politics in the past. * [[:en:Psychohistory|Psychohistory]]: the study of the psychological motivations for historical events. * [[:en:Pseudohistory|Pseudohistory]]: studies about the past that fall outside the domain of mainstream history (sometimes equivalent to [[:en:Pseudoscience|pseudoscience]]). * [[:en:Social_history|Social history]]: the study of the process of social change throughout history. * [[:en:Women's_history|Women's history]]: the history of female human beings. [[:en:Gender_history|Gender history]] is related and covers the perspective of gender. * [[:en:World_history_(field)|World history]]: the study of history from a global perspective, with special attention to non-Western societies. |} === Periods === {{Main|Periodization}} Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular blocks of time. Historians give these [[:en:Periodization|periods of time]] names in order to allow "organising ideas and classificatory generalisations" to be used by historians.<ref name="Marwick-p169">{{cite book|title=The Nature of History|author=Marwick, Arthur|publisher=The Macmillan Press LTD|year=1970|page=169}}</ref> The names given to a period can vary with geographical location, as can the dates of the beginning and end of a particular period. [[:en:Century|Centuries]] and [[:en:Decade|decades]] are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the [[:en:Calendar_era|dating system]] used. Most periods are constructed retrospectively and so reflect value judgments made about the past. The way periods are constructed and the names given to them can affect the way they are viewed and studied.<ref name="Tosh-p168-169">{{cite book|title=The Pursuit of History|author=Tosh, John|publisher=Pearson Education Limited|year=2006|pages=168–169}}</ref> ==== Prehistoric periodization ==== The field of history generally leaves prehistory to archeologists, who have entirely different sets of tools and theories. In [[:en:Archeology|archeology]], the usual method for periodization of the distant [[:en:Prehistory|prehistoric]] past is to rely on changes in material culture and technology, such as the [[:en:Stone_Age|Stone Age]], [[:en:Bronze_Age|Bronze Age]], and [[:en:Iron_Age|Iron Age]], with subdivisions that are also based on different styles of material remains. Here prehistory is divided into a series of "chapters" so that periods in history could unfold not only in a relative chronology but also narrative chronology.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Archaeology of Time|last=Lucas|first=Gavin|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=0415311977|location=Oxon|pages=50}}</ref> This narrative content could be in the form of functional-economic interpretation. There are periodizations, however, that do not have this narrative aspect, relying largely on relative chronology, and that are thus devoid of any specific meaning. Despite the development over recent decades of the ability through [[:en:Radiocarbon_dating|radiocarbon dating]] and other scientific methods to give actual dates for many sites or artefacts, these long-established schemes seem likely to remain in use. In many cases neighboring cultures with writing have left some history of cultures without it, which may be used. Periodization, however, is not viewed as a perfect framework, with one account explaining that "cultural changes do not conveniently start and stop (combinedly) at periodization boundaries" and that different trajectories of change need to be studied in their own right before they get intertwined with cultural phenomena.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Living Landscape: Bronze Age Settlement Sites in the Dutch River Area (c. 2000–800 BC)|last=Arnoldussen|first=Stijn|publisher=Sidestone Press|year=2007|isbn=978-9088900105|location=Leiden|pages=468}}</ref> === Geographical locations === Particular [[:en:Geography|geographical]] locations can form the basis of historical study, for example, [[:en:Continent|continents]], [[:en:Country|countries]], and [[:en:City|cities]]. Understanding why historic events took place is important. To do this, historians often turn to [[:en:Geography|geography]]. According to [[:en:Jules_Michelet|Jules Michelet]] in his book ''Histoire de France'' (1833), "without geographical basis, the people, the makers of history, seem to be walking on air".<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States|last=Darby|first=Henry Clifford|author-link=Clifford Darby|publisher=University of Exeter Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0859896993|location=Exeter|page=14}}</ref> Weather patterns, the water supply, and the landscape of a place all affect the lives of the people who live there. For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying the [[:en:Geography_of_Egypt|geography of Egypt]] is essential. Egyptian civilization was built on the banks of the Nile River, which flooded each year, depositing soil on its banks. The rich soil could help farmers grow enough crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant everyone did not have to farm, so some people could perform other jobs that helped develop the civilization. There is also the case of [[:en:Environmental_determinism|climate]], which historians like [[:en:Ellsworth_Huntington|Ellsworth Huntington]] and [[:en:Ellen_Churchill_Semple|Ellen Churchill Semple]] cited as a crucial influence on the course of history. Huntington and Semple further argued that climate has an impact on racial temperament.<ref>{{Cite book|title=World history from early times to AD 2000|last=Rao|first=B.V.|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|year=2007|isbn=978-8120731882|location=New Delhi|page=5}}</ref> ==== Regions ==== * [[:en:History_of_Africa|History of Africa]] begins with the first emergence of modern human beings on the continent, continuing into its modern present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing nation states. * [[:en:History_of_the_Americas|History of the Americas]] is the collective history of North and South America, including Central America and the Caribbean. ** [[:en:History_of_North_America|History of North America]] is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's northern and western hemisphere. ** [[:en:History_of_Central_America|History of Central America]] is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's western hemisphere. ** [[:en:History_of_the_Caribbean|History of the Caribbean]] begins with the oldest evidence where 7,000-year-old remains have been found. ** [[:en:History_of_South_America|History of South America]] is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's southern and western hemisphere. [[File:Pedro_I_of_Brazil_and_Charles_Stuart_.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pedro_I_of_Brazil_and_Charles_Stuart_.jpg|thumb|Allegory of the recognition of the [[:en:Empire_of_Brazil|Empire of Brazil]] and [[:en:Independence_of_Brazil|its independence]]. The painting depicts British diplomat [[:en:Charles_Stuart,_1st_Baron_Stuart_de_Rothesay|Sir Charles Stuart]] presenting his letter of credence to Emperor [[:en:Pedro_I_of_Brazil|Pedro I of Brazil]], who is flanked by his wife [[:en:Maria_Leopoldina_of_Austria|Maria Leopoldina]], their daughter Maria da Glória (later Queen [[:en:Maria_II_of_Portugal|Maria II of Portugal]]), and other dignitaries. At right, a winged figure, representing History, carving the "great event" on a stone tablet.<ref>{{Cite book|title=''As barbas do imperador : D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos ''|last1=Schwarcz|first1=Lilia Moritz|date=1998|pages=181|publisher=Companhia das Letras|isbn=85-7164-837-9|edition=|location=São Paulo|oclc=}}</ref>]] * [[:en:History_of_Antarctica|History of Antarctica]] emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent, known as Terra Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe. * [[:en:History_of_Eurasia|History of Eurasia]] is the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions: the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe of Central Asia and Eastern Europe. ** [[:en:History_of_Europe|History of Europe]] describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European continent to the present day. ** [[:en:History_of_Asia|History of Asia]] can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe. *** [[:en:History_of_East_Asia|History of East Asia]] is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in East Asia. *** [[:en:History_of_the_Middle_East|History of the Middle East]] begins with the earliest civilizations in the region now known as the Middle East that were established around 3000 BC, in Mesopotamia (Iraq). *** [[:en:History_of_India|History of India]] is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in the sub-Himalayan region. *** [[:en:History_of_Southeast_Asia|History of Southeast Asia]] has been characterized as interaction between regional players and foreign powers. * [[:en:History_of_Oceania|History of Oceania]] is the collective history of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. ** [[:en:History_of_Australia|History of Australia]] starts with the documentation of the Makassar trading with Indigenous Australians on Australia's north coast. ** [[:en:History_of_New_Zealand|History of New Zealand]] dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture centered on kinship links and land. ** [[:en:History_of_the_Pacific_Islands|History of the Pacific Islands]] covers the history of the islands in the Pacific Ocean. === Political === {{Main|Political history|Political history in the United States}} Political history covers the type of government, the branches of government, leaders, legislation, political activism, political parties, and voting. === Military === {{Main|Military history}} [[:en:Military_history|Military history]] concerns warfare, strategies, battles, weapons, and the psychology of combat.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Howard|first1=Michael|last2=Bond|first2=Brian|last3=Stagg|first3=J. C. A.|last4=Chandler|first4=David|last5=Best|first5=Geoffrey|last6=Terrine|first6=John|title=What is Military History ... ?|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_2|website=What is History Today ... ?|publisher=Macmillan Education UK|access-date=20 January 2021|pages=4–17|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_2|date=1988|isbn=978-0333422267|s2cid=156592827|archive-date=9 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180609030334/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-349-19161-1_2|url-status=live}}</ref> The "new military history" since the 1970s has been concerned with soldiers more than generals, with psychology more than tactics, and with the broader impact of warfare on society and culture.<ref name="Pavkovic">{{Cite book|last1=Pavkovic|first1=Michael|last2=Morillo|first2=Stephen|title=What is Military History?|location=Oxford|publisher=Polity Press|pages=3–4|isbn=978-0745633909|year=2006}}</ref> === Religious === {{Main|History of religion}} The history of religion has been a main theme for both secular and religious historians for centuries, and continues to be taught in seminaries and academe. Leading journals include ''[[:en:Church_History_(journal)|Church History]]'', ''[[:en:The_Catholic_Historical_Review|The Catholic Historical Review]]'', and ''[[:en:History_of_Religions_(journal)|History of Religions]]''. Topics range widely from political and cultural and artistic dimensions, to theology and liturgy.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Eric|last=Cochrane|title=What Is Catholic Historiography?|journal=Catholic Historical Review|volume=61|issue=2|year=1975|pages=169–190|jstor=25019673}}</ref> This subject studies religions from all regions and areas of the world where humans have lived.<ref>For example, see {{cite journal|first1=Sofia Boesch|last1=Gajano|first2=Tommaso|last2=Caliò|title=Italian Religious Historiography in the 1990s|journal=Journal of Modern Italian Studies|year=1998|volume=3|issue=3|pages=293–306|doi=10.1080/13545719808454982}}</ref> === Social === {{Main|Social history}} ''Social history'', sometimes called the ''new social history'', is the field that includes history of ordinary people and their strategies and institutions for coping with life.<ref>Peter Stearns, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Social History'' (1994)</ref> In its "golden age" it was a major growth field in the 1960s and 1970s among scholars, and still is well represented in history departments. In two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%.<ref>Diplomatic dropped from 5% to 3%, economic history from 7% to 5%, and cultural history grew from 14% to 16%. Based on full-time professors in U.S. history departments. {{cite journal|at=p. 42|jstor=2539326|title=Brothers under the Skin: Diplomatic History and International Relations|journal=International Security|volume=22|issue=1|last1=Haber|first1=Stephen H.|last2=Kennedy|first2=David M.|last3=Krasner|first3=Stephen D.|year=1997|doi=10.1162/isec.22.1.34|s2cid=57570041}}</ref> In the history departments of British universities in 2007, of the 5723 faculty members, 1644 (29%) identified themselves with social history while [[:en:Political_history|political history]] came next with 1425 (25%).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Teachers of History in the Universities of the UK 2007 – listed by research interest |url=http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Resources/Teachers/a27.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060530073940/http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Resources/Teachers/a27.html |archive-date=30 May 2006}}</ref> The "old" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism, that were "social" in the sense of being outside the elite system. Social history was contrasted with [[:en:Political_history|political history]], [[:en:Intellectual_history|intellectual history]] and the history of [[:en:Great_Man_theory|great men]]. English historian [[:en:G._M._Trevelyan|G. M. Trevelyan]] saw it as the bridging point between economic and political history, reflecting that, "Without social history, economic history is barren and political history unintelligible."<ref>{{cite book|title=English Social History: A Survey of Six Centuries from Chaucer to Queen Victoria|author=G.M. Trevelyan|publisher=Book Club Associates|year=1973|chapter=Introduction|page=i|isbn=978-0582484887|author-link=G.M. Trevelyan}}</ref> While the field has often been viewed negatively as history with the politics left out, it has also been defended as "history with the people put back in".<ref>{{cite book|title=The People's State: East German Society from Hitler to Honecker|author=Mary Fulbrook|location=London|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=2005|chapter=Introduction: The people's paradox|page=17|isbn=978-0300144246}}</ref> ==== Subfields ==== The chief subfields of social history include: * [[:en:Black_history_(disambiguation)|Black history]]<!--Intentional link to DAB page--> * [[:en:Demographic_history|Demographic history]] * [[:en:Ethnic_history|Ethnic history]] * [[:en:Gender_history|Gender history]] * [[:en:History_of_childhood|History of childhood]] * [[:en:History_of_education|History of education]] * [[:en:History_of_the_family|History of the family]] * [[:en:Labor_history_(discipline)|Labor history]] * [[:en:LGBT_history|LGBT history]] * [[:en:Rural_history|Rural history]] * [[:en:Urban_history|Urban history]] ** [[:en:American_urban_history|American urban history]] * [[:en:Women's_history|Women's history]] === Cultural === {{Main|Cultural history}} Cultural history replaced [[:en:Social_history|social history]] as the dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s. It typically combines the approaches of anthropology and history to look at language, popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people. How peoples constructed their memory of the past is a major topic. Cultural history includes the study of [[:en:History_of_art|art in society]] as well is the study of images and human visual production ([[:en:Iconography|iconography]]).<ref>The first World Dictionary of Images: Laurent Gervereau (ed.), "Dictionnaire mondial des images", Paris, Nouveau monde, 2006, 1120 p. {{ISBN|978-2847361858}}. (with 275 specialists from all continents, all specialities, all periods from Prehistory to nowadays); Laurent Gervereau, "Images, une histoire mondiale", Paris, Nouveau monde, 2008, 272 p. {{ISBN?}}</ref> === Diplomatic === {{Main|Diplomatic history}} [[:en:Diplomatic_history|Diplomatic history]] focuses on the relationships between nations, primarily regarding diplomacy and the causes of wars.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Watt|first1=D. C.|last2=Adams|first2=Simon|last3=Bullen|first3=Roger|last4=Brauer|first4=Kinley|last5=Iriye|first5=Akira|title=What is Diplomatic History ... ?|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_12|website=What is History Today ... ?|publisher=Macmillan Education UK|access-date=20 January 2021|pages=131–142|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_12|date=1988|isbn=978-0333422267|archive-date=28 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128015952/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_12|url-status=live}}</ref> More recently it looks at the causes of peace and human rights. It typically presents the viewpoints of the foreign office, and long-term strategic values, as the driving force of continuity and change in history. This type of ''political history'' is the study of the conduct of [[:en:International_relations#History_of_International_Relations|international relations]] between states or across state boundaries over time. Historian [[:en:Muriel_Chamberlain|Muriel Chamberlain]] notes that after the First World War, "diplomatic history replaced constitutional history as the flagship of historical investigation, at once the most important, most exact and most sophisticated of historical studies".<ref>Muriel E Chamberlain, ''Pax Britannica'? British Foreign Policy 1789–1914'' (1988) p. 1</ref> She adds that after 1945, the trend reversed, allowing social history to replace it. === Economic === {{main|Economic history|Business history}} Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in recent years academic studies have shifted more and more toward economics departments and away from traditional history departments.<ref>Robert Whaples, "Is Economic History a Neglected Field of Study?," Historically Speaking (April 2010) v. 11#2 pp. 17–20, with responses pp. 20–27</ref> [[:en:Business_history|Business history]] deals with the history of individual business organizations, business methods, government regulation, labour relations, and impact on society. It also includes biographies of individual companies, executives, and entrepreneurs. It is related to economic history. Business history is most often taught in business schools.<ref>Franco Amatori, and Geoffrey Jones, eds. ''Business History Around the World'' (2003) [https://web.archive.org/web/20090619213940/http://www.questia.com/read/114846992 online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619213940/http://www.questia.com/read/114846992|date=19 June 2009}}</ref> === Environmental === {{main|Environmental history}} Environmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to look at the history of the environment, especially in the long run, and the impact of human activities upon it.<ref>J.D. Hughes, ''What is Environmental History'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/What-Environmental-History/dp/0745631886/ excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422092807/http://www.amazon.com/What-Environmental-History/dp/0745631886|date=22 April 2016}}</ref> It is an offshoot of the environmental movement, which was kickstarted by Rachel Carson's ''Silent Spring'' in the 1960s. === World === {{main|World history (field)}} {{See also|Human history|Universal history}} World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. World history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in the United States,<ref>[[Ainslie Embree]] and Carol Gluck, eds., ''Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for Teaching'' (M.E. Sharpe, 1997)</ref> Japan<ref>Shigeru Akita, "World History and the Emergence of Global History in Japan,"''Chinese Studies in History'', Spring 2010, Vol. 43 Issue 3, pp. 84–96</ref> and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds. It has led to highly controversial interpretations by [[:en:Oswald_Spengler|Oswald Spengler]] and [[:en:Arnold_J._Toynbee|Arnold J. Toynbee]], among others. The World History Association publishes the ''Journal of World History'' every quarter since 1990.<ref>{{cite web |title=Journal of World History |url=http://www.historycooperative.org/jwhindex.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501050602/http://www.historycooperative.org/jwhindex.html |archive-date=1 May 2011 |access-date=7 February 2011}}</ref> The H-World discussion list<ref>{{cite web |title=H-World |url=http://www.h-net.org/~world/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310065155/http://www.h-net.org/%7Eworld/ |archive-date=10 March 2011 |access-date=7 February 2011 |website=www.h-net.org}}</ref> serves as a network of communication among practitioners of world history, with discussions among scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews. === People's === {{Main|People's history}} A [[:en:People's_history|people's history]] is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical events from the [[:en:Populism|perspective of common people]]. A people's history is the history of the world that is the story of mass movements and of the outsiders. Individuals or groups not included in the past in other types of writing about history are the primary focus, which includes the [[:en:Disfranchisement|disenfranchised]], the [[:en:Oppression|oppressed]], the [[:en:Poverty|poor]], the [[:en:Counterculture|nonconformists]], and the otherwise forgotten people. The authors are typically on the left and have a socialist model in mind, as in the approach of the [[:en:History_Workshop_Journal|History Workshop]] movement in Britain in the 1960s.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wade Matthews|title=The New Left, National Identity, and the Break-up of Britain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lfmZAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|year=2013|publisher=Brill|pages=20–21|isbn=978-9004253070|access-date=8 May 2016|archive-date=28 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928073152/https://books.google.com/books?id=lfmZAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|url-status=live}}</ref> === Intellectual === {{Main|Intellectual history}} Intellectual history and the history of ideas emerged in the mid-20th century, with the focus on the intellectuals and their books on the one hand, and on the other the study of ideas as disembodied objects with a career of their own.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Anthony|last=Grafton|title=The History of Ideas: Precept and Practice, 1950–2000 and beyond|journal=Journal of the History of Ideas|volume=67|issue=1|year=2006|pages=1–32|url=http://sydney.edu.au/intellectual-history/documents/grafton-history-ideas.pdf|doi=10.1353/jhi.2006.0006|s2cid=143746040|access-date=6 December 2015|archive-date=3 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603130940/http://sydney.edu.au/intellectual-history/documents/grafton-history-ideas.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-first=Maryanne Cline|editor-last=Horowitz|title=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas|volume=6|year=2004}}</ref> === Gender === {{Main|Gender history|LGBT history}} [[:en:Gender_history|Gender history]] is a subfield of History and [[:en:Gender_studies|Gender studies]], which looks at the past from the perspective of [[:en:Gender|gender]]. The outgrowth of gender history from [[:en:Women's_history|women's history]] stemmed from many non-[[:en:Feminism|feminist]] historians dismissing the importance of women in history. According to Joan W. Scott, "Gender is a constitutive element of social relationships based on perceived differences between the sexes, and gender is a primary way of signifying relations of power",<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wallach Scott|first=Joan|title=Gender and the Politics of History|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1988|isbn=0231188013|location=New York|pages=28–50|chapter=Gender: A Useful Category of Analysis}}</ref> meaning that gender historians study the social effects of perceived differences between the sexes and how all genders use allotted power in societal and political structures. Despite being a relatively new field, gender history has had a significant effect on the general study of history. Gender history traditionally differs from women's history in its inclusion of all aspects of gender such as masculinity and femininity, and today's gender history extends to include people who identify outside of that binary. [[:en:LGBT_history|LGBT history]] deals with the first recorded instances of same-sex love and sexuality of [[:en:Ancient_history|ancient civilizations]], and involves the history of [[:en:Lesbian|lesbian]], [[:en:Gay|gay]], [[:en:Bisexuality|bisexual]] and [[:en:Transgender|transgender]] ([[:en:LGBT|LGBT]]) peoples and cultures around the world.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Social Movements |url=https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/history |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111182438/https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/history |archive-date=11 January 2021 |access-date=20 January 2021 |website=www.apa.org}}</ref> === Public === {{Main|Public history}} [[:en:Public_history|Public history]] describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with some training in the discipline of history who are generally working outside of specialized academic settings. Public history practice has quite deep roots in the areas of historic preservation, archival science, oral history, museum curatorship, and other related fields. The term itself began to be used in the U.S. and Canada in the late 1970s, and the field has become increasingly professionalized since that time. Some of the most common settings for public history are museums, historic homes and [[:en:Historic_site|historic sites]], parks, battlefields, archives, film and television companies, and all levels of government.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=3377910|title=Public History and the Study of Memory|journal=The Public Historian|volume=18|issue=2|pages=7–23|last1=Glassberg|first1=David|year=1996|doi=10.2307/3377910|doi-access=free}}</ref> == Historians == {{Main list|List of historians}} [[File:B.Croce.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:B.Croce.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Benedetto_Croce|Benedetto Croce]]]] [[File:Ban_Zhao.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ban_Zhao.jpg|alt=Ban Zhao, courtesy name Huiban, was the first known female Chinese historian.|thumb|[[:en:Ban_Zhao|Ban Zhao]], courtesy name Huiban, was the first known female Chinese historian.]] Professional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present information about past events. They discover this information through archeological evidence, written primary sources, verbal stories or oral histories, and other archival material. In [[:en:List_of_historians|lists of historians]], historians can be grouped by order of the historical period in which they were writing, which is not necessarily the same as the period in which they specialized. [[:en:Chronicle|Chroniclers]] and [[:en:Annals|annalists]], though they are not historians in the true sense, are also frequently included. == Judgement == {{see also|Ash heap of history}} Since the 20th century, Western historians have disavowed the aspiration to provide the "judgement of history".<ref name="Curran2000p413">Curran, Vivian Grosswald (2000) ''Herder and the Holocaust: A Debate About Difference and Determinism in the Context of Comparative Law'' in F.C. DeCoste, Bernard Schwartz (eds.) ''Holocaust's Ghost: Writings on Art, Politics, Law and Education'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=lLnBSq7YP0gC&pg=PA413 pp. 413–415] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912190241/https://books.google.com/books?id=lLnBSq7YP0gC&pg=PA413&lpg=PA413|date=12 September 2015}}</ref> The goals of historical judgements or interpretations are separate to those of [[:en:Judgment_(law)|legal judgements]], that need to be formulated quickly after the events and be final.<ref name="Curran2000p415">Curran, Vivian Grosswald (2000) ''Herder and the Holocaust: A Debate About Difference and Determinism in the Context of Comparative Law'' in F.C. DeCoste, Bernard Schwartz (eds.) ''Holocaust's Ghost: Writings on Art, Politics, Law and Education'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=lLnBSq7YP0gC&pg=PA415 p. 415] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912184555/https://books.google.com/books?id=lLnBSq7YP0gC&pg=PA415&lpg=PA415|date=12 September 2015}}</ref> A related issue to that of the judgement of history is that of [[:en:Collective_memory|collective memory]]. == Pseudohistory == {{Main|Pseudohistory}} [[:en:Pseudohistory|Pseudohistory]] is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature but which depart from standard [[:en:Historical_method|historiographical conventions]] in a way which undermines their conclusions. It is closely related to deceptive [[:en:Historical_negationism|historical revisionism]]. Works which draw controversial conclusions from new, speculative, or disputed historical evidence, particularly in the fields of national, political, military, and religious affairs, are often rejected as pseudohistory. == Teaching == === Scholarship vs teaching === A major intellectual battle took place in Britain in the early twentieth century regarding the place of history teaching in the universities. At Oxford and Cambridge, scholarship was downplayed. Professor [[:en:Charles_Harding_Firth|Charles Harding Firth]], Oxford's Regius Professor of history in 1904 ridiculed the system as best suited to produce superficial journalists. The Oxford tutors, who had more votes than the professors, fought back in defense of their system saying that it successfully produced Britain's outstanding statesmen, administrators, prelates, and diplomats, and that mission was as valuable as training scholars. The tutors dominated the debate until after the Second World War. It forced aspiring young scholars to teach at outlying schools, such as Manchester University, where [[:en:Thomas_Frederick_Tout|Thomas Frederick Tout]] was professionalizing the History undergraduate programme by introducing the study of original sources and requiring the writing of a thesis.<ref>Ivan Roots, "Firth, Sir Charles Harding (1857–1936)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/33137, Online; accessed 10 Nov 2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730035753/https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-33137;jsessionid=715D4DE77EF65011A2FFC9D5B4B69210|date=30 July 2022}}</ref><ref>Reba Soffer, "Nation, duty, character and confidence: history at Oxford, 1850–1914." ''Historical Journal'' (1987) 30#01 pp. 77–104.</ref> In the United States, scholarship was concentrated at the major PhD-producing universities, while the large number of other colleges and universities focused on undergraduate teaching. A tendency in the 21st century was for the latter schools to increasingly demand scholarly productivity of their younger tenure-track faculty. Furthermore, universities have increasingly relied on inexpensive part-time adjuncts to do most of the classroom teaching.<ref>Frank Donoghue, ''The Last Professors: The Corporate University and the Fate of the Humanities'' (2008)</ref> === Nationalism === From the origins of national school systems in the 19th century, the teaching of history to promote national sentiment has been a high priority. In the United States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe. In the U.S. after 1980, attention increasingly moved toward teaching [[:en:World_history_(field)|world history]] or requiring students to take courses in non-western cultures, to prepare students for life in a globalized economy.<ref>Jacqueline Swansinger, "Preparing Student Teachers for a World History Curriculum in New York," ''History Teacher'', (November 2009), 43#1 pp. 87–96</ref> At the university level, historians debate the question of whether history belongs more to social science or to the humanities. Many view the field from both perspectives. The teaching of history in French schools was influenced by the ''[[:en:Nouvelle_histoire|Nouvelle histoire]]'' as disseminated after the 1960s by ''Cahiers pédagogiques and Enseignement'' and other journals for teachers. Also influential was the Institut national de recherche et de documentation pédagogique, (INRDP). Joseph Leif, the Inspector-general of teacher training, said pupils children should learn about historians' approaches as well as facts and dates. Louis François, Dean of the History/Geography group in the Inspectorate of National Education advised that teachers should provide historic documents and promote "active methods" which would give pupils "the immense happiness of discovery". Proponents said it was a reaction against the memorization of names and dates that characterized teaching and left the students bored. Traditionalists protested loudly it was a postmodern innovation that threatened to leave the youth ignorant of French patriotism and national identity.<ref>Abby Waldman, " The Politics of History Teaching in England and France during the 1980s," ''History Workshop Journal'' Issue 68, Autumn 2009 pp. 199–221 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/history_workshop_journal/v068/68.waldman.html online]</ref> === Bias in school teaching === [[File:Historybooks.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Historybooks.JPG|thumb|History books in a bookstore]] In several countries history textbooks are tools to foster nationalism and patriotism, and give students the official narrative about national enemies.<ref>Jason Nicholls, ed. ''School History Textbooks across Cultures: International Debates and Perspectives'' (2006)</ref> In many countries, history textbooks are sponsored by the national government and are written to put the national heritage in the most favorable light. For example, in Japan, mention of the [[:en:Nanking_Massacre|Nanking Massacre]] has been removed from textbooks and the entire Second World War is given cursory treatment. Other countries have complained.<ref>Claudia Schneider, "The Japanese History Textbook Controversy in East Asian Perspective," ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science'', May 2008, Vol. 617, pp. 107–122</ref> Another example includes Turkey, where there is no mention of the [[:en:Armenian_Genocide|Armenian Genocide]] in Turkish textbooks as a result of the denial of the genocide.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Guillory|first1=John|author-link=John Guillory|title=The Common Core and the Evasion of Curriculum|date=2015|publisher=PMLA|pages=666–672|edition=vol 130}}</ref> It was standard policy in communist countries to present only a rigid Marxist historiography.<ref>"Problems of Teaching Contemporary Russian History," ''Russian Studies in History'', Winter 2004, Vol. 43 Issue 3, pp. 61–62</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Blackwell-Synergy.com|journal=International Affairs|volume=84|issue=2|pages=365–370|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2346.2008.00708.x|year=2008|last1=Wedgwood Benn|first1=David}}</ref> In the [[:en:United_States|United States]], textbooks published by the same company often differ in content from state to state.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/01/12/us/texas-vs-california-history-textbooks.html|title=Two States. Eight Textbooks. Two American Stories.|first=Dana|last=Goldstein|newspaper=The New York Times|date=12 January 2020|access-date=5 May 2020|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505140015/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/01/12/us/texas-vs-california-history-textbooks.html|url-status=live}}</ref> An example of content that is represented different in different regions of the country is the history of the [[:en:Southern_United_States|Southern states]], where [[:en:Slavery_in_the_United_States|slavery]] and the [[:en:American_Civil_War|American Civil War]] are treated as controversial topics. [[:en:McGraw-Hill_Education|McGraw-Hill Education]] for example, was criticized for describing Africans brought to American plantations as "workers" instead of slaves in a textbook.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Fernandez|first1=Manny|last2=Hauser|first2=Christine|date=5 October 2015|title=Texas Mother Teaches Textbook Company a Lesson on Accuracy|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/06/us/publisher-promises-revisions-after-textbook-refers-to-african-slaves-as-workers.html?_r=0|work=The New York Times|access-date=14 July 2018|archive-date=15 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715011315/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/06/us/publisher-promises-revisions-after-textbook-refers-to-african-slaves-as-workers.html?_r=0|url-status=live}}</ref> Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks, sometimes with success.<ref>"Teaching History in Schools: the Politics of Textbooks in India," ''History Workshop Journal'', April 2009, Issue 67, pp. 99–110</ref><ref>Tatyana Volodina, "Teaching History in Russia After the Collapse of the USSR," ''History Teacher'', February 2005, Vol. 38 Issue 2, pp. 179–188</ref> In 21st-century Germany, the history curriculum is controlled by the 16 states, and is characterized not by superpatriotism but rather by an "almost pacifistic and deliberately unpatriotic undertone" and reflects "principles formulated by international organizations such as UNESCO or the Council of Europe, thus oriented towards human rights, democracy and peace." The result is that "German textbooks usually downplay national pride and ambitions and aim to develop an understanding of citizenship centered on democracy, progress, human rights, peace, tolerance and Europeanness."<ref>Simone Lässig and Karl Heinrich Pohl, "History Textbooks and Historical Scholarship in Germany," ''History Workshop Journal'' Issue 67, Spring 2009 pp. 128–129 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/history_workshop_journal/v067/67.lassig.html online at project MUSE]</ref> == See also == * [[:en:Outline_of_history|Outline of history]] * [[:en:Glossary_of_history|Glossary of history]] * {{Portal-inline|History}} == References == <references group="" responsive="0"></references> == Vinandi == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book|editor-last1=Norton|editor-first1=Mary Beth|editor-link1=Mary Beth Norton|editor-last2=Gerardi|editor-first2=Pamela|title=The American Historical Association's Guide to Historical Literature|edition=3rd|publisher=Oxford U.P.|date=1995|postscript=;}} Annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important English language history books in all fields and topics. * {{cite book|last=Benjamin|first=Jules R.|title=A Student's Guide to History|date=2009}} * {{cite book|last=Carr|first=E.H.|title=What is History?|location=Basingstoke|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|date=2001|isbn=0333977017|others=With a new introduction by Richard J. Evans}} * {{cite journal|last=Cronon|first=William|title=Storytelling|journal=American Historical Review|volume=118|number=1|date=2013|pages=1–19|doi=10.1093/ahr/118.1.1|url=http://www.williamcronon.net/aha-writings.htm|access-date=24 July 2016|archive-date=23 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160723044136/http://www.williamcronon.net/aha-writings.htm|url-status=live|postscript=;|doi-access=free}} Discussion of the impact of the end of the Cold War upon scholarly research funding, the impact of the Internet and Wikipedia on history study and teaching, and the importance of storytelling in history writing and teaching. * {{cite book|last=Evans|first=Richard J.|title=In Defence of History|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|date=2000|isbn=0393319598}} * {{cite book|last1=Furay|first1=Conal|last2=Salevouris|first2=Michael J.|title=The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide|date=2010}} * {{cite book|last=Kelleher|first=William|title=Writing History: A Guide for Students|date=2008|postscript=;}} [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195337557/ excerpt and text search]. * {{cite book|last=Lingelbach|first=Gabriele|chapter=The Institutionalization and Professionalization of History in Europe and the United States|title=The Oxford History of Historical Writing|volume=4: 1800–1945|date=2011|pages=78–|isbn=978-0199533091|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xVrwFT6zAFoC&pg=PA78|access-date=2 July 2015|archive-date=15 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915192900/https://books.google.com/books?id=xVrwFT6zAFoC&pg=PA78|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last=Presnell|first=Jenny L.|title=The Information-Literate Historian: A Guide to Research for History Students|date=2006|postscript=;}} [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195176510/ excerpt and text search]. * {{cite book|last=Tosh|first=John|title=The Pursuit of History|date=2006|isbn=1405823518}} * {{cite book|last=Woolf|first=D.R.|title=A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing|publisher=Garland Reference Library of the Humanities|volume=2|date=1998|postscript=;}} [https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Historical-Writing-Reference-Humanities/dp/0815315147/ excerpt and text search]. * {{cite book|editor-last=Williams|editor-first=H.S.|date=1907|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5sFAAAAIAAJ|title=The Historians' History of the World|volume=Book 1|access-date=2 July 2015|archive-date=15 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915174251/https://books.google.com/books?id=g5sFAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live|postscript=;}} This is Book 1 of 25 Volumes. * {{cite book|last1=Schwarcz|first1=Lilia Moritz|year=1998|language=pt|title=As barbas do imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos|publisher=Companhia das Letras|location=São Paulo|isbn=85-7164-837-9}} {{refend}} == External links ==<!--Please discuss on the talk page before adding more external links.--> * {{oweb|http://www.besthistorysites.net/}} of BestHistorySites * {{oweb|https://www.bbc.co.uk/history}} of BBC History * [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ Internet History Sourcebooks Project] See also [[:en:Internet_History_Sourcebooks_Project|Internet History Sourcebooks Project]] (Collections of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts for educational use) {{Time topics}}{{Humanities}}{{Social sciences}}{{Chronology}}{{Theories of History}}{{Subject bar|commons=yes|wikt=yes|n=yes|q=yes|s=yes|s-search=Portal:History|b=yes|b-search=Category:History|v=yes|v-search=Portal:History|d=yes|d-search=Q309}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}} {{Authority control}} s9jt8gat68jnx6cpswpi77z1a8jzmkm 0 28628 115757 76195 2026-05-04T01:08:41Z -wuppertaler 11394 photo added 115757 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Wittlich BW 2018-07-29 14-31-40.jpg|thumb]] '''Wittlich''' ni msumba wakusangika mu charu cha [[Germany]], cha pakati mu chilwa chikulu cha [[Ulaya]]. [[File:Flag_of_Germany.svg|thumb|mbendela ya Germany]] {{Commonscat}} [[Category:Misumba ikulu na idoko yamu Germany]] [[Category:Germany]] [[Category:Malo ghamu Germany]] [[Category:Mndandanda wa misumba na matauni ghachoko ghamu Germany]] nt13cu6ak9npcnmi3ox9jih35d4j73s