漢語

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    <title>漢語</title>
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'''漢語'''者，[[漢族|漢人]]之言也。蓋[[華夏]]地方廣遠，山河數列，海內習用，方音殊異。以中國人多，以漢語為[[母語]]者亦眾，合以十億計，普世之五一。

== 音韻 ==

漢語一字一音，一音可分為聲、韻、調。[[漢字]]多不表音，故初用「讀若某」。後[[佛教]]東傳，得[[梵文]]而知[[反切]]，乃用以標音。近世，創[[國語注音|注音符號]]及[[漢語拼音]]，以明音韻。

== 語法 ==
漢語為[[孤立語]]、或曰分析語，此謂詞彙無[[格 (語法)|格]]、[[態 (語法)|態]]、[[性 (語法)|性]]、[[數 (語法)|數]]之變。唯示以[[語序]]之先後及虛字之用而達意。

語序為：[[主謂賓]]，[[修飾語|偏次]]先於[[中心語|正次]]。於數數，必附[[量詞]]於數後。各[[方言]][[語法]]略異，故白話文之行可亂文字。乃以國語語法為白話文語法。

古者語法，同乎[[文言]]。

== 文字 ==
{{main|漢字}}
三代以降，[[漢字]]初成。[[秦]]以書同文，必用[[小篆]]，其後偶有數變，用之不更至民季，共和國立，納昔[[錢玄同]]所倡簡字法，加以矯正，遂成今制，曰[[簡化字]]，今[[中國大陸]]、[[新加坡]]、[[馬來西亞]]行之。[[香港]]、[[澳門]]、[[臺灣]]仍因舊制，書傳統漢字。

近代西學東傳，亦有以[[拉丁字母]]記音者，法式歧異。至共和國立，創[[漢語拼音|拼音]]，授之於小學。初，國人頗思廢漢字，後以同音多，拉丁文字無象形之用，遂止。

== 沿革 ==
三代之時，天下有國千萬，言語不通。[[周]]既王，始有[[雅言]]。諸子著作，皆以雅言。及周道微，天下紛亂，言語異聲，文字異形。尤是楚語至不同也。[[秦始皇帝]]混一車書，獨用秦[[小篆|篆]]，各地方言日合。然至於[[許慎]]之世，[[說文解字]]之所錄，亦有同義而音異之字，多有「某地曰某為某」之訓。蓋天下文字雖一，而言語未統也。此[[上古音]]也。古語於語法異於今音，可見諸[[尚書]]。

魏晉之世，北族南面，雖[[魏孝文帝]]力主洛音，而古音已變，[[詩]]始不得押韻。[[中原]]漢胡雜合，而成唐音，為[[中古音|中古之音]]。於南國，衣冠之南渡，亦有吳音混於正音者。此世[[樂府]]有吳曲、西州曲之分，蓋亦異音之故也。

[[趙宋|宋]]季，[[中原]]復為胡君，語音大變。[[四聲]]缺入，派為三聲。唯江南淪陷不足百年，語音未大變也。[[明]]初都[[應天]]，[[永樂]]間北遷，百官隨同，江左之音復入燕地。以後四百年皆都[[北京]]，遂以為[[國語]]矣。

及[[中華人民共和國]]立，以國語為[[普通話]]，舉世皆以其漢語之正音。實其正音以國語稍改而成，[[中華民國|國民政府]]遷臺，用其國語至今未廢。然分立五十年，習用亦異也。大異者，舉凡[[兒化韻]]之用，[[外來詞]]之源，王畿方言之不同，亦成其異也。

於地方，雖有國語，實方言殊音甚多，惟[[學校]]、[[典禮]]多用正音。

今世，以漢語為官話者，有中國、[[新加坡]]、[[聯合國]]。隨中國國力日蓄，萬國習之者眾，以利來華遊學仕商。

== 方言 ==
蓋漢語歧甚，遠者異域不相通，近者十里音不同。然文惟一，為世所稀見。

以[[語言學]]分，言不通即非一語。且語法各異，故有漢語為一語族之論。漢語諸言，概分如下：

* [[官話]]，聞之中原、巴蜀、江北，滿蒙疆人亦多用之。今中國大陸之[[普通話]]、臺灣之[[中華民國國語|國語]]、南洋之[[華語]]皆宗[[北京官話]][[京師片]]。
* [[吳語]]，聞之吳越之地，昔宗[[蘇州話]]，今宗[[上海話]]。
* [[閩語]]，聞之閩臺之地，瓊文之民亦操之，其中分[[閩北語|閩北]]、[[閩東語|閩東]]、[[閩南語|閩南]]、[[閩中語|閩中]]、[[莆仙話|莆仙]]，五語各不相通。
* [[粵語]]，聞之嶺南，至於海外。[[廣州話]]為宗。
* [[客語]]，聞之南境，為[[客家人]]之言，[[梅州話]]為宗。
* [[湘語]]，聞之楚南。分新老二派。[[長沙話|長沙]]、[[雙峰話]]為宗。
* [[贛語]]，聞之[[江西]]，[[南昌話]]為宗。
* [[徽語]]，聞之皖南，[[徽州話]]為宗。今或以之為吳語之別種。
* [[晉語]]，聞之晉北、陝北、雲中等處，[[太原話]]為宗。

官話復分數種，以下次第：
*[[東北官話]]，聞之東北，宗[[瀋陽話]]。
*[[北京官話]]，聞之北京，東北，新疆之一部，宗[[北京話]]。
*[[江淮官話]]，聞之蘇中蘇北之大部，蘇南之一部及皖中，宗[[揚州話]]，以其地雜吳語，兩者相生，或謂淮語。明代以之為國語。
*[[西南官話]]，聞之川，桂，滇，貴，宗[[成都話]]。
*[[中原官話]]，聞之中原，關中，魯南。各地或有別種。宗[[洛陽話]]、[[西安話]]。
*[[冀魯官話]]，聞之冀，魯。宗[[濟南話]]。
*[[蘭銀官話]]，聞之隴上，寧夏。宗[[蘭州話]]。
*[[膠遼官話]]，聞之齊東，遼南，東北之一部。學界多宗[[煙臺話]]。

以下諸言皆從屬不明：
* [[廣西平話]]，聞之[[廣西]]山村，或以之為[[粵語]]之別種。
* [[韶州土話]]、[[湘南土話]]，聞之五嶺南北，或言二者皆近平話，或從[[湘南土話]]於湘語。
* [[瓦鄉話]]，聞之湘西沅水谷地，壟斷山絕，漢苗雜居，故甚異於官音，或以為湘語之別種。

== 書典 ==
* 《[[康熙字典|康熙大字典]]》
* 《[[廣韻]]》
* 《[[說文解字]]》

== 他典 ==
* [http://lexikon.china2day.de 《在線英漢字典》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713122604/http://lexikon.china2day.de/ |date=2007-07-13 }} &lt;!--
*[http://www.MonkeyKingSoft.com/ MonkeyKingSoft.com] - 使用电脑软件学习汉字：在电脑上动态显示汉字笔顺，或者打印成卡片帮助记忆。 --&gt;
* [http://www.kangxizidian.com/kangxi/ 《康熙大字典》]
* [http://www.edu.tw/EDU_WEB/EDU_MGT/MANDR/EDU6300001/allbook/bishuen/c8.htm?open 《常用國字標準字體筆順手冊》]
* [http://zgyy.faedia.com 《國文論壇》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210215/http://zgyy.faedia.com/ |date=2007-09-27 }}
* [http://www.zdic.net 《在線漢語字典》]
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link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;!--
*[http://www.newconcept.com/School/text_books.html 海外中文教材]--&gt;
* [http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ 《輕鬆習中文》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712024338/http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ |date=2007-07-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712024338/http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ |date=2007-07-12 }}&lt;!--
*[http://www.chinawestexchange.com/ China West Exchange]: 本网点是为了让西方人认识中国文化，中国人认识西方语言和文化而作的--&gt;
&lt;!--*[http://malandrin.org 马来西亚官话方言]
*[http://www.mina.ks.edu.tw/ 高雄县闽南语教材教学資料库]
*[http://www.cantonese.sheik.co.uk/ Cantonese Help Sheets]: 粤语教程
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/ 粵語審音配詞字庫]
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/Lindict/ Chinese to English Dictionary]: 中英字典
*[http://5189.asinah.net/ 中英字典 English to Chinese Dictionary]
*[http://us.dict.cn/ Dict.CN 中英字典 英中字典 English-Chinese and Chinese-English Dictionary on line]
*[http://www.unet.univie.ac.at/~a9305416/ Chinese Linguistics]: 汉语语言学网站（英文）
*[http://www.chineselanguage.org/CCDICT/index.html Chinese Characters Dictionary]: 支持日语、韩语、粤语等。
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/Canton2/ Cantonese Talking Syllabary]: 中文网站（繁体）

*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/zh.htm 网上上免费的普通话教程]
*[http://www.hanyu.com.cn/ Online College of Chinese Language汉语远程学院教学网]（中国国家汉办、华东师大合办)--&gt;
* [http://www.hello-han.com/index.php 《漢語，你好！》遠程教育網] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210409174241/http://www.hello-han.com/index.php |date=2021-04-09 }}
&lt;!--[http://www-ms.cc.ntu.edu.tw/~chinlit/ National Taiwan University Department of Chinese Literature]
*[http://www.yeminlitercuman.com/cin Turkish-Chinese Translators in China] --&gt;
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=1270 漢語方言列表]
*[http://yedict.com/ 字海網、葉典網]

{{堪讀之文}}

[[Category:漢語]]
[[Category:基礎之文]]</text>
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'''漢語'''者，[[漢族|漢人]]之言也。蓋[[華夏]]地方廣遠，山河數列，海內習用，方音殊異。以中國人多，以漢語為[[母語]]者亦眾，合以十億計，普世之五一。

== 音韻 ==

漢語一字一音，一音可分為聲、韻、調。[[漢字]]多不表音，故初用「讀若某」。後[[佛教]]東傳，得[[梵文]]而知[[反切]]，乃用以標音。近世，創[[國語注音|注音符號]]及[[漢語拼音]]，以明音韻。

== 語法 ==
漢語為[[孤立語]]、或曰分析語，此謂詞彙無[[格 (語法)|格]]、[[態 (語法)|態]]、[[性 (語法)|性]]、[[數 (語法)|數]]之變。唯示以[[語序]]之先後及虛字之用而達意。

語序為：[[主謂賓]]，[[修飾語|偏次]]先於[[中心語|正次]]。於數數，必附[[量詞]]於數後。各[[方言]][[語法]]略異，故白話文之行可亂文字。乃以國語語法為白話文語法。

古者語法，同乎[[文言]]。

== 文字 ==
{{main|漢字}}
三代以降，[[漢字]]初成。[[秦]]以書同文，必用[[小篆]]，其後偶有數變，用之不更至民季，共和國立，納昔[[錢玄同]]所倡簡字法，加以矯正，遂成今制，曰[[簡化字]]，今[[中國大陸]]、[[新加坡]]、[[馬來西亞]]行之。[[香港]]、[[澳門]]、[[臺灣]]仍因舊制，書傳統漢字。

近代西學東傳，亦有以[[拉丁字母]]記音者，法式歧異。至共和國立，創[[漢語拼音|拼音]]，授之於小學。初，國人頗思廢漢字，後以同音多，拉丁文字無象形之用，遂止。

== 沿革 ==
三代之時，天下有國千萬，言語不通。[[周]]既王，始有[[雅言]]。諸子著作，皆以雅言。及周道微，天下紛亂，言語異聲，文字異形。尤是楚語至不同也。[[秦始皇帝]]混一車書，獨用秦[[小篆|篆]]，各地方言日合。然至於[[許慎]]之世，[[說文解字]]之所錄，亦有同義而音異之字，多有「某地曰某為某」之訓。蓋天下文字雖一，而言語未統也。此[[上古音]]也。古語於語法異於今音，可見諸[[尚書]]。

魏晉之世，北族南面，雖[[魏孝文帝]]力主洛音，而古音已變，[[詩]]始不得押韻。[[中原]]漢胡雜合，而成唐音，為[[中古音|中古之音]]。於南國，衣冠之南渡，亦有吳音混於正音者。此世[[樂府]]有吳曲、西州曲之分，蓋亦異音之故也。

[[趙宋|宋]]季，[[中原]]復為胡君，語音大變。[[四聲]]缺入，派為三聲。唯江南淪陷不足百年，語音未大變也。[[明]]初都[[應天]]，[[永樂]]間北遷，百官隨同，江左之音復入燕地。以後四百年皆都[[北京]]，遂以為[[國語]]矣。

及[[中華人民共和國]]立，以國語為[[普通話]]，舉世皆以其漢語之正音。實其正音以國語稍改而成，[[中華民國|國民政府]]遷臺，用其國語至今未廢。然分立五十年，習用亦異也。大異者，舉凡[[兒化韻]]之用，[[外來詞]]之源，王畿方言之不同，亦成其異也。

於地方，雖有國語，實方言殊音甚多，惟[[學校]]、[[典禮]]多用正音。

今世，以漢語為官話者，有中國、[[新加坡]]、[[聯合國]]。隨中國國力日蓄，萬國習之者眾，以利來華遊學仕商。

== 方言 ==
蓋漢語歧甚，遠者異域不相通，近者十里音不同。然文惟一，為世所稀見。

以[[語言學]]分，言不通即非一語。且語法各異，故有漢語為一語族之論。漢語諸言，概分如下：

* [[官話]]，聞之中原、巴蜀、江北，滿蒙疆人亦多用之。今中國大陸之[[普通話]]、臺灣之[[中華民國國語|國語]]、南洋之[[華語]]皆宗[[北京官話]][[京師片]]。
* [[吳語]]，聞之吳越之地，昔宗[[蘇州話]]，今宗[[上海話]]。
* [[閩語]]，聞之閩臺之地，瓊文之民亦操之，其中分[[閩北語|閩北]]、[[閩東語|閩東]]、[[閩南語|閩南]]、[[閩中語|閩中]]、[[莆仙話|莆仙]]，五語各不相通。
* [[粵語]]，聞之嶺南，至於海外。[[廣州話]]為宗。
* [[客語]]，聞之南境，為[[客家人]]之言，[[梅州話]]為宗。
* [[湘語]]，聞之楚南。分新老二派。[[長沙話|長沙]]、[[雙峰話]]為宗。
* [[贛語]]，聞之[[江西]]，[[南昌話]]為宗。
* [[徽語]]，聞之皖南，[[徽州話]]為宗。今或以之為吳語之別種。
* [[晉語]]，聞之晉北、陝北、雲中等處，[[太原話]]為宗。

官話復分數種，以下次第：
*[[東北官話]]，聞之東北，宗[[瀋陽話]]。
*[[北京官話]]，聞之北京，東北，新疆之一部，宗[[北京話]]。
*[[江淮官話]]，聞之蘇中蘇北之大部，蘇南之一部及皖中，宗[[揚州話]]，以其地雜吳語，兩者相生，或謂淮語。明代以之為國語。
*[[西南官話]]，聞之川，桂，滇，貴，宗[[成都話]]。
*[[中原官話]]，聞之中原，關中，魯南。各地或有別種。宗[[洛陽話]]、[[西安話]]。
*[[冀魯官話]]，聞之冀，魯。宗[[濟南話]]。
*[[蘭銀官話]]，聞之隴上，寧夏。宗[[蘭州話]]。
*[[膠遼官話]]，聞之齊東，遼南，東北之一部。學界多宗[[煙臺話]]。

以下諸言皆從屬不明：
* [[廣西平話]]，聞之[[廣西]]山村，或以之為[[粵語]]之別種。
* [[韶州土話]]、[[湘南土話]]，聞之五嶺南北，或言二者皆近平話，或從[[湘南土話]]於湘語。
* [[瓦鄉話]]，聞之湘西沅水谷地，壟斷山絕，漢苗雜居，故甚異於官音，或以為湘語之別種。

== 書典 ==
* 《[[康熙字典|康熙大字典]]》
* 《[[廣韻]]》
* 《[[說文解字]]》

== 他典 ==
* [http://lexikon.china2day.de 《在線英漢字典》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713122604/http://lexikon.china2day.de/ |date=2007-07-13 }} &lt;!--
*[http://www.MonkeyKingSoft.com/ MonkeyKingSoft.com] - 使用电脑软件学习汉字：在电脑上动态显示汉字笔顺，或者打印成卡片帮助记忆。 --&gt;
* [http://www.kangxizidian.com/kangxi/ 《康熙大字典》]
* [http://www.edu.tw/EDU_WEB/EDU_MGT/MANDR/EDU6300001/allbook/bishuen/c8.htm?open 《常用國字標準字體筆順手冊》]
* [http://zgyy.faedia.com 《國文論壇》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210215/http://zgyy.faedia.com/ |date=2007-09-27 }}
* [http://www.zdic.net 《在線漢語字典》]
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*[http://www.newconcept.com/School/text_books.html 海外中文教材]--&gt;
* [http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ 《輕鬆習中文》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712024338/http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ |date=2007-07-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712024338/http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ |date=2007-07-12 }}&lt;!--
*[http://www.chinawestexchange.com/ China West Exchange]: 本网点是为了让西方人认识中国文化，中国人认识西方语言和文化而作的--&gt;
&lt;!--*[http://malandrin.org 马来西亚官话方言]
*[http://www.mina.ks.edu.tw/ 高雄县闽南语教材教学資料库]
*[http://www.cantonese.sheik.co.uk/ Cantonese Help Sheets]: 粤语教程
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/ 粵語審音配詞字庫]
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/Lindict/ Chinese to English Dictionary]: 中英字典
*[http://5189.asinah.net/ 中英字典 English to Chinese Dictionary]
*[http://us.dict.cn/ Dict.CN 中英字典 英中字典 English-Chinese and Chinese-English Dictionary on line]
*[http://www.unet.univie.ac.at/~a9305416/ Chinese Linguistics]: 汉语语言学网站（英文）
*[http://www.chineselanguage.org/CCDICT/index.html Chinese Characters Dictionary]: 支持日语、韩语、粤语等。
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/Canton2/ Cantonese Talking Syllabary]: 中文网站（繁体）

*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/zh.htm 网上上免费的普通话教程]
*[http://www.hanyu.com.cn/ Online College of Chinese Language汉语远程学院教学网]（中国国家汉办、华东师大合办)--&gt;
* [http://www.hello-han.com/index.php 《漢語，你好！》遠程教育網] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210409174241/http://www.hello-han.com/index.php |date=2021-04-09 }}
&lt;!--[http://www-ms.cc.ntu.edu.tw/~chinlit/ National Taiwan University Department of Chinese Literature]
*[http://www.yeminlitercuman.com/cin Turkish-Chinese Translators in China] --&gt;
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=1270 漢語方言列表]
*[http://yedict.com/ 字海網、葉典網]

{{堪讀之文}}

[[Category:漢語]]
[[Category:基礎之文]]</text>
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'''漢語'''者，[[漢族|漢人]]之言也。蓋[[華夏]]地方廣遠，山河數列，海內習用，方音殊異。以中國人多，以漢語為[[母語]]者亦眾，合以十億計，普世之五一。

== 音韻 ==

漢語一字一音，一音可分為聲、韻、調。[[漢字]]多不表音，故初用「讀若某」。後[[佛教]]東傳，得[[梵文]]而知[[反切]]，乃用以標音。近世，創[[國語注音|注音符號]]及[[漢語拼音]]，以明音韻。

== 語法 ==
漢語為[[孤立語]]、或曰分析語，此謂詞彙無[[格 (語法)|格]]、[[態 (語法)|態]]、[[性 (語法)|性]]、[[數 (語法)|數]]之變。唯示以[[語序]]之先後及虛字之用而達意。

語序為：[[主謂賓]]，[[修飾語|偏次]]先於[[中心語|正次]]。於數數，必附[[量詞]]於數後。各[[方言]][[語法]]略異，故白話文之行可亂文字。乃以國語語法為白話文語法。

古者語法，同乎[[文言]]。

== 文字 ==
{{main|漢字}}
三代以降，[[漢字]]初成。[[秦]]以書同文，必用[[小篆]]，其後偶有數變，用之不更至民季，共和國立，納昔[[錢玄同]]所倡簡字法，加以矯正，遂成今制，曰[[簡化字]]，今[[中國大陸]]、[[新加坡]]、[[馬來西亞]]行之。[[香港]]、[[澳門]]、[[臺灣]]仍因舊制，書傳統漢字。

近代西學東傳，亦有以[[拉丁字母]]記音者，法式歧異。至共和國立，創[[漢語拼音|拼音]]，授之於小學。初，國人頗思廢漢字，後以同音多，拉丁文字無象形之用，遂止。

== 沿革 ==
三代之時，天下有國千萬，言語不通。[[周]]既王，始有[[雅言]]。諸子著作，皆以雅言。及周道微，天下紛亂，言語異聲，文字異形。尤是楚語至不同也。[[秦始皇帝]]混一車書，獨用秦[[小篆|篆]]，各地方言日合。然至於[[許慎]]之世，[[說文解字]]之所錄，亦有同義而音異之字，多有「某地曰某為某」之訓。蓋天下文字雖一，而言語未統也。此[[上古音]]也。古語於語法異於今音，可見諸[[尚書]]。

魏晉之世，北族南面，雖[[魏孝文帝]]力主洛音，而古音已變，[[詩]]始不得押韻。[[中原]]漢胡雜合，而成唐音，為[[中古音|中古之音]]。於南國，衣冠之南渡，亦有吳音混於正音者。此世[[樂府]]有吳曲、西州曲之分，蓋亦異音之故也。

[[趙宋|宋]]季，[[中原]]復為胡君，語音大變。[[四聲]]缺入，派為三聲。唯江南淪陷不足百年，語音未大變也。[[明]]初都[[應天]]，[[永樂]]間北遷，百官隨同，江左之音復入燕地。以後四百年皆都[[北京]]，遂以為[[國語]]矣。

及[[中華人民共和國]]立，以國語為[[普通話]]，舉世皆以其漢語之正音。實其正音以國語稍改而成，[[中華民國|國民政府]]遷臺，用其國語至今未廢。然分立五十年，習用亦異也。大異者，舉凡[[兒化韻]]之用，[[外來詞]]之源，王畿方言之不同，亦成其異也。

於地方，雖有國語，實方言殊音甚多，惟[[學校]]、[[典禮]]多用正音。

今世，以漢語為官話者，有中國、[[新加坡]]、[[聯合國]]。隨中國國力日蓄，萬國習之者眾，以利來華遊學仕商。

== 方言 ==
蓋漢語歧甚，遠者異域不相通，近者十里音不同。然文惟一，為世所稀見。

以[[語言學]]分，言不通即非一語。且語法各異，故有漢語為一語族之論。漢語諸言，概分如下：

* [[官話]]，聞之中原、巴蜀、江北，滿蒙疆人亦多用之。今中國大陸之[[普通話]]、臺灣之[[中華民國國語|國語]]、南洋之[[華語]]皆宗[[北京官話]][[京師片]]。
* [[吳語]]，聞之吳越之地，昔宗[[蘇州話]]，今宗[[上海話]]。
* [[閩語]]，聞之閩臺之地，瓊文之民亦操之，其中分[[閩北語|閩北]]、[[閩東語|閩東]]、[[閩南語|閩南]]、[[閩中語|閩中]]、[[莆仙話|莆仙]]，五語各不相通。
* [[粵語]]，聞之嶺南，至於海外。[[廣州話]]為宗。
* [[客語]]，聞之南境，為[[客家人]]之言，[[梅州話]]為宗。
* [[湘語]]，聞之楚南。分新老二派。[[長沙話|長沙]]、[[雙峰話]]為宗。
* [[贛語]]，聞之[[江西]]，[[南昌話]]為宗。
* [[徽語]]，聞之皖南，[[徽州話]]為宗。今或以之為吳語之別種。
* [[晉語]]，聞之晉北、陝北、雲中等處，[[太原話]]為宗。

官話復分數種，以下次第：
*[[東北官話]]，聞之東北，宗[[瀋陽話]]。
*[[北京官話]]，聞之北京，東北，新疆之一部，宗[[北京話]]。
*[[江淮官話]]，聞之蘇中蘇北之大部，蘇南之一部及皖中，宗[[揚州話]]，以其地雜吳語，兩者相生，或謂淮語。明代以之為國語。
*[[西南官話]]，聞之川，桂，滇，貴，宗[[成都話]]。
*[[中原官話]]，聞之中原，關中，魯南。各地或有別種。宗[[洛陽話]]、[[西安話]]。
*[[冀魯官話]]，聞之冀，魯。宗[[濟南話]]。
*[[蘭銀官話]]，聞之隴上，寧夏。宗[[蘭州話]]。
*[[膠遼官話]]，聞之齊東，遼南，東北之一部。學界多宗[[煙臺話]]。

以下諸言皆從屬不明：
* [[廣西平話]]，聞之[[廣西]]山村，或以之為[[粵語]]之別種。
* [[韶州土話]]、[[湘南土話]]，聞之五嶺南北，或言二者皆近平話，或從[[湘南土話]]於湘語。
* [[瓦鄉話]]，聞之湘西沅水谷地，壟斷山絕，漢苗雜居，故甚異於官音，或以為湘語之別種。

== 書典 ==
* 《[[康熙字典|康熙大字典]]》
* 《[[廣韻]]》
* 《[[說文解字]]》

== 他典 ==
* [http://lexikon.china2day.de 《在線英漢字典》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713122604/http://lexikon.china2day.de/ |date=2007-07-13 }} &lt;!--
*[http://www.MonkeyKingSoft.com/ MonkeyKingSoft.com] - 使用电脑软件学习汉字：在电脑上动态显示汉字笔顺，或者打印成卡片帮助记忆。 --&gt;
* [http://www.kangxizidian.com/kangxi/ 《康熙大字典》]
* [http://www.edu.tw/EDU_WEB/EDU_MGT/MANDR/EDU6300001/allbook/bishuen/c8.htm?open 《常用國字標準字體筆順手冊》]
* [http://zgyy.faedia.com 《國文論壇》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210215/http://zgyy.faedia.com/ |date=2007-09-27 }}
* [http://www.zdic.net 《在線漢語字典》]
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*[http://www.mina.ks.edu.tw/ 高雄县闽南语教材教学資料库]
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*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/ 粵語審音配詞字庫]
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/Lindict/ Chinese to English Dictionary]: 中英字典
*[http://5189.asinah.net/ 中英字典 English to Chinese Dictionary]
*[http://us.dict.cn/ Dict.CN 中英字典 英中字典 English-Chinese and Chinese-English Dictionary on line]
*[http://www.unet.univie.ac.at/~a9305416/ Chinese Linguistics]: 汉语语言学网站（英文）
*[http://www.chineselanguage.org/CCDICT/index.html Chinese Characters Dictionary]: 支持日语、韩语、粤语等。
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* [http://www.hello-han.com/index.php 《漢語，你好！》遠程教育網] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210409174241/http://www.hello-han.com/index.php |date=2021-04-09 }}
&lt;!--[http://www-ms.cc.ntu.edu.tw/~chinlit/ National Taiwan University Department of Chinese Literature]
*[http://www.yeminlitercuman.com/cin Turkish-Chinese Translators in China] --&gt;
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=1270 漢語方言列表]
*[http://yedict.com/ 字海網、葉典網]

{{堪讀之文}}

[[Category:漢語]]
[[Category:基礎之文]]</text>
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'''漢語'''者，[[漢族|漢人]]之言也。蓋[[華夏]]地方廣遠，山河數列，海內習用，方音殊異。以中國人多，以漢語為[[母語]]者亦眾，合以十億計，普世之五一。

== 音韻 ==

漢語一字一音，一音可分為聲、韻、調。[[漢字]]多不表音，故初用「讀若某」。後[[佛教]]東傳，得[[梵文]]而知[[反切]]，乃用以標音。近世，創[[國語注音|注音符號]]及[[漢語拼音]]，以明音韻。

== 語法 ==
漢語為[[孤立語]]、或曰分析語，此謂詞彙無[[格 (語法)|格]]、[[態 (語法)|態]]、[[性 (語法)|性]]、[[數 (語法)|數]]之變。唯示以[[語序]]之先後及虛字之用而達意。

語序為：[[主謂賓]]，[[修飾語|偏次]]先於[[中心語|正次]]。於數數，必附[[量詞]]於數後。各[[方言]][[語法]]略異，故白話文之行可亂文字。乃以國語語法為白話文語法。

古者語法，同乎[[文言]]。

== 文字 ==
{{main|漢字}}
三代以降，[[漢字]]初成。[[秦]]以書同文，必用[[小篆]]，其後偶有數變，用之不更至民季，共和國立，納昔[[錢玄同]]所倡簡字法，加以矯正，遂成今制，曰[[簡化字]]，今[[中國大陸]]、[[新加坡]]、[[馬來西亞]]行之。[[香港]]、[[澳門]]、[[臺灣]]仍因舊制，書傳統漢字。

近代西學東傳，亦有以[[拉丁字母]]記音者，法式歧異。至共和國立，創[[漢語拼音|拼音]]，授之於小學。初，國人頗思廢漢字，後以同音多，拉丁文字無象形之用，遂止。

== 沿革 ==
三代之時，天下有國千萬，言語不通。[[周]]既王，始有[[雅言]]。諸子著作，皆以雅言。及周道微，天下紛亂，言語異聲，文字異形。尤是楚語至不同也。[[秦始皇帝]]混一車書，獨用秦[[小篆|篆]]，各地方言日合。然至於[[許慎]]之世，[[說文解字]]之所錄，亦有同義而音異之字，多有「某地曰某為某」之訓。蓋天下文字雖一，而言語未統也。此[[上古音]]也。古語於語法異於今音，可見諸[[尚書]]。

魏晉之世，北族南面，雖[[魏孝文帝]]力主洛音，而古音已變，[[詩]]始不得押韻。[[中原]]漢胡雜合，而成唐音，為[[中古音|中古之音]]。於南國，衣冠之南渡，亦有吳音混於正音者。此世[[樂府]]有吳曲、西州曲之分，蓋亦異音之故也。

[[趙宋|宋]]季，[[中原]]復為胡君，語音大變。[[四聲]]缺入，派為三聲。唯江南淪陷不足百年，語音未大變也。[[明]]初都[[應天]]，[[永樂]]間北遷，百官隨同，江左之音復入燕地。以後四百年皆都[[北京]]，遂以為[[國語]]矣。

及[[中華人民共和國]]立，以國語為[[普通話]]，舉世皆以其漢語之正音。實其正音以國語稍改而成，[[中華民國|國民政府]]遷臺，用其國語至今未廢。然分立五十年，習用亦異也。大異者，舉凡[[兒化韻]]之用，[[外來詞]]之源，王畿方言之不同，亦成其異也。

於地方，雖有國語，實方言殊音甚多，惟[[學校]]、[[典禮]]多用正音。

今世，以漢語為官話者，有中國、[[新加坡]]、[[聯合國]]。隨中國國力日蓄，萬國習之者眾，以利來華遊學仕商。

== 方言 ==
蓋漢語歧甚，遠者異域不相通，近者十里音不同。然文惟一，為世所稀見。

以[[語言學]]分，言不通即非一語。且語法各異，故有漢語為一語族之論。漢語諸言，概分如下：

* [[官話]]，聞之中原、巴蜀、江北，滿蒙疆人亦多用之。今中國大陸之[[普通話]]、臺灣之[[中華民國國語|國語]]、南洋之[[華語]]皆宗[[北京官話]][[京師片]]。
* [[吳語]]，聞之吳越之地，昔宗[[蘇州話]]，今宗[[上海話]]。
* [[閩語]]，聞之閩臺之地，瓊文之民亦操之，其中分[[閩北語|閩北]]、[[閩東語|閩東]]、[[閩南語|閩南]]、[[閩中語|閩中]]、[[莆仙話|莆仙]]，五語各不相通。
* [[粵語]]，聞之嶺南，至於海外。[[廣州話]]為宗。
* [[客語]]，聞之南境，為[[客家人]]之言，[[梅州話]]為宗。
* [[湘語]]，聞之楚南。分新老二派。[[長沙話|長沙]]、[[雙峰話]]為宗。
* [[贛語]]，聞之[[江西]]，[[南昌話]]為宗。
* [[徽語]]，聞之皖南，[[徽州話]]為宗。今或以之為吳語之別種。
* [[晉語]]，聞之晉北、陝北、雲中等處，[[太原話]]為宗。

官話復分數種，以下次第：
*[[東北官話]]，聞之東北，宗[[瀋陽話]]。
*[[北京官話]]，聞之北京，東北，新疆之一部，宗[[北京話]]。
*[[江淮官話]]，聞之蘇中蘇北之大部，蘇南之一部及皖中，宗[[揚州話]]，以其地雜吳語，兩者相生，或謂淮語。明代以之為國語。
*[[西南官話]]，聞之川，桂，滇，貴，宗[[成都話]]。
*[[中原官話]]，聞之中原，關中，魯南。各地或有別種。宗[[洛陽話]]、[[西安話]]。
*[[冀魯官話]]，聞之冀，魯。宗[[濟南話]]。
*[[蘭銀官話]]，聞之隴上，寧夏。宗[[蘭州話]]。
*[[膠遼官話]]，聞之齊東，遼南，東北之一部。學界多宗[[煙臺話]]。

以下諸言皆從屬不明：
* [[廣西平話]]，聞之[[廣西]]山村，或以之為[[粵語]]之別種。
* [[韶州土話]]、[[湘南土話]]，聞之五嶺南北，或言二者皆近平話，或從[[湘南土話]]於湘語。
* [[瓦鄉話]]，聞之湘西沅水谷地，壟斷山絕，漢苗雜居，故甚異於官音，或以為湘語之別種。

== 書典 ==
* 《[[康熙字典|康熙大字典]]》
* 《[[廣韻]]》
* 《[[說文解字]]》

== 他典 ==
* [http://lexikon.china2day.de 《在線英漢字典》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713122604/http://lexikon.china2day.de/ |date=2007-07-13 }} &lt;!--
*[http://www.MonkeyKingSoft.com/ MonkeyKingSoft.com] - 使用电脑软件学习汉字：在电脑上动态显示汉字笔顺，或者打印成卡片帮助记忆。 --&gt;
* [http://www.kangxizidian.com/kangxi/ 《康熙大字典》]
* [http://www.edu.tw/EDU_WEB/EDU_MGT/MANDR/EDU6300001/allbook/bishuen/c8.htm?open 《常用國字標準字體筆順手冊》]
* [http://zgyy.faedia.com 《國文論壇》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210215/http://zgyy.faedia.com/ |date=2007-09-27 }}
* [http://www.zdic.net 《在線漢語字典》]
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*[http://www.newconcept.com/School/text_books.html 海外中文教材]--&gt;
* [http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ 《輕鬆習中文》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712024338/http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ |date=2007-07-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712024338/http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ |date=2007-07-12 }}&lt;!--
*[http://www.chinawestexchange.com/ China West Exchange]: 本网点是为了让西方人认识中国文化，中国人认识西方语言和文化而作的--&gt;
&lt;!--*[http://malandrin.org 马来西亚官话方言]
*[http://www.mina.ks.edu.tw/ 高雄县闽南语教材教学資料库]
*[http://www.cantonese.sheik.co.uk/ Cantonese Help Sheets]: 粤语教程
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/ 粵語審音配詞字庫]
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/Lindict/ Chinese to English Dictionary]: 中英字典
*[http://5189.asinah.net/ 中英字典 English to Chinese Dictionary]
*[http://us.dict.cn/ Dict.CN 中英字典 英中字典 English-Chinese and Chinese-English Dictionary on line]
*[http://www.unet.univie.ac.at/~a9305416/ Chinese Linguistics]: 汉语语言学网站（英文）
*[http://www.chineselanguage.org/CCDICT/index.html Chinese Characters Dictionary]: 支持日语、韩语、粤语等。
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/Canton2/ Cantonese Talking Syllabary]: 中文网站（繁体）

*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/zh.htm 网上上免费的普通话教程]
*[http://www.hanyu.com.cn/ Online College of Chinese Language汉语远程学院教学网]（中国国家汉办、华东师大合办)--&gt;
* [http://www.hello-han.com/index.php 《漢語，你好！》遠程教育網] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210409174241/http://www.hello-han.com/index.php |date=2021-04-09 }}
&lt;!--[http://www-ms.cc.ntu.edu.tw/~chinlit/ National Taiwan University Department of Chinese Literature]
*[http://www.yeminlitercuman.com/cin Turkish-Chinese Translators in China] --&gt;
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=1270 漢語方言列表]
*[http://yedict.com/ 字海網、葉典網]

{{堪讀之文}}

[[Category:漢語]]
[[Category:基礎之文]]</text>
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'''漢語'''者，[[漢族|漢人]]之言也。蓋[[華夏]]地方廣遠，山河數列，海內習用，方音殊異。以中國人多，以漢語為[[母語]]者亦眾，合以十億計，普世之五一。

== 音韻 ==

漢語一字一音，一音可分為聲、韻、調。[[漢字]]多不表音，故初用「讀若某」。後[[佛教]]東傳，得[[梵文]]而知[[反切]]，乃用以標音。近世，創[[國語注音|注音符號]]及[[漢語拼音]]，以明音韻。

== 語法 ==
漢語為[[孤立語]]、或曰分析語，此謂詞彙無[[格 (語法)|格]]、[[態 (語法)|態]]、[[性 (語法)|性]]、[[數 (語法)|數]]之變。唯示以[[語序]]之先後及虛字之用而達意。

語序為：[[主謂賓]]，[[修飾語|偏次]]先於[[中心語|正次]]。於數數，必附[[量詞]]於數後。各[[方言]][[語法]]略異，故白話文之行可亂文字。乃以國語語法為白話文語法。

古者語法，同乎[[文言]]。

== 文字 ==
{{main|漢字}}
三代以降，[[漢字]]初成。[[秦]]以書同文，必用[[小篆]]，其後偶有數變，用之不更至民季，共和國立，納昔[[錢玄同]]所倡簡字法，加以矯正，遂成今制，曰[[簡化字]]，今[[中國大陸]]、[[新加坡]]、[[馬來西亞]]行之。[[香港]]、[[澳門]]、[[臺灣]]仍因舊制，書傳統漢字。

近代西學東傳，亦有以[[拉丁字母]]記音者，法式歧異。至共和國立，創[[漢語拼音|拼音]]，授之於小學。初，國人頗思廢漢字，後以同音多，拉丁文字無象形之用，遂止。

== 沿革 ==
三代之時，天下有國千萬，言語不通。[[周]]既王，始有[[雅言]]。諸子著作，皆以雅言。及周道微，天下紛亂，言語異聲，文字異形。尤是楚語至不同也。[[秦始皇帝]]混一車書，獨用秦[[小篆|篆]]，各地方言日合。然至於[[許慎]]之世，[[說文解字]]之所錄，亦有同義而音異之字，多有「某地曰某為某」之訓。蓋天下文字雖一，而言語未統也。此[[上古音]]也。古語於語法異於今音，可見諸[[尚書]]。

魏晉之世，北族南面，雖[[魏孝文帝]]力主洛音，而古音已變，[[詩]]始不得押韻。[[中原]]漢胡雜合，而成唐音，為[[中古音|中古之音]]。於南國，衣冠之南渡，亦有吳音混於正音者。此世[[樂府]]有吳曲、西州曲之分，蓋亦異音之故也。

[[趙宋|宋]]季，[[中原]]復為胡君，語音大變。[[四聲]]缺入，派為三聲。唯江南淪陷不足百年，語音未大變也。[[明]]初都[[應天]]，[[永樂]]間北遷，百官隨同，江左之音復入燕地。以後四百年皆都[[北京]]，遂以為[[國語]]矣。

及[[中華人民共和國]]立，以國語為[[普通話]]，舉世皆以其漢語之正音。實其正音以國語稍改而成，[[中華民國|國民政府]]遷臺，用其國語至今未廢。然分立五十年，習用亦異也。大異者，舉凡[[兒化韻]]之用，[[外來詞]]之源，王畿方言之不同，亦成其異也。

於地方，雖有國語，實方言殊音甚多，惟[[學校]]、[[典禮]]多用正音。

今世，以漢語為官話者，有中國、[[新加坡]]、[[聯合國]]。隨中國國力日蓄，萬國習之者眾，以利來華遊學仕商。

== 方言 ==
蓋漢語歧甚，遠者異域不相通，近者十里音不同。然文惟一，為世所稀見。

以[[語言學]]分，言不通即非一語。且語法各異，故有漢語為一語族之論。漢語諸言，概分如下：

* [[官話]]，聞之中原、巴蜀、江北，滿蒙疆人亦多用之。今中國大陸之[[普通話]]、臺灣之[[中華民國國語|國語]]、南洋之[[華語]]皆宗[[北京官話]][[京師片]]。
* [[吳語]]，聞之吳越之地，昔宗[[蘇州話]]，今宗[[上海話]]。
* [[閩語]]，聞之閩臺之地，瓊文之民亦操之，其中分[[閩北語|閩北]]、[[閩東語|閩東]]、[[閩南語|閩南]]、[[閩中語|閩中]]、[[莆仙話|莆仙]]，五語各不相通。
* [[粵語]]，聞之嶺南，至於海外。[[廣州話]]為宗。
* [[客語]]，聞之南境，為[[客家人]]之言，[[梅州話]]為宗。
* [[湘語]]，聞之楚南。分新老二派。[[長沙話|長沙]]、[[雙峰話]]為宗。
* [[贛語]]，聞之[[江西]]，[[南昌話]]為宗。
* [[徽語]]，聞之皖南，[[徽州話]]為宗。今或以之為吳語之別種。
* [[晉語]]，聞之晉北、陝北、雲中等處，[[太原話]]為宗。

官話復分數種，以下次第：
*[[東北官話]]，聞之東北，宗[[瀋陽話]]。
*[[北京官話]]，聞之北京，東北，新疆之一部，宗[[北京話]]。
*[[江淮官話]]，聞之蘇中蘇北之大部，蘇南之一部及皖中，宗[[揚州話]]，以其地雜吳語，兩者相生，或謂淮語。明代以之為國語。
*[[西南官話]]，聞之川，桂，滇，貴，宗[[成都話]]。
*[[中原官話]]，聞之中原，關中，魯南。各地或有別種。宗[[洛陽話]]、[[西安話]]。
*[[冀魯官話]]，聞之冀，魯。宗[[濟南話]]。
*[[蘭銀官話]]，聞之隴上，寧夏。宗[[蘭州話]]。
*[[膠遼官話]]，聞之齊東，遼南，東北之一部。學界多宗[[煙臺話]]。

以下諸言皆從屬不明：
* [[廣西平話]]，聞之[[廣西]]山村，或以之為[[粵語]]之別種。
* [[韶州土話]]、[[湘南土話]]，聞之五嶺南北，或言二者皆近平話，或從[[湘南土話]]於湘語。
* [[瓦鄉話]]，聞之湘西沅水谷地，壟斷山絕，漢苗雜居，故甚異於官音，或以為湘語之別種。

== 書典 ==
* 《[[康熙字典|康熙大字典]]》
* 《[[廣韻]]》
* 《[[說文解字]]》

== 他典 ==
* [http://lexikon.china2day.de 《在線英漢字典》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713122604/http://lexikon.china2day.de/ |date=2007-07-13 }} &lt;!--
*[http://www.MonkeyKingSoft.com/ MonkeyKingSoft.com] - 使用电脑软件学习汉字：在电脑上动态显示汉字笔顺，或者打印成卡片帮助记忆。 --&gt;
* [http://www.kangxizidian.com/kangxi/ 《康熙大字典》]
* [http://www.edu.tw/EDU_WEB/EDU_MGT/MANDR/EDU6300001/allbook/bishuen/c8.htm?open 《常用國字標準字體筆順手冊》]
* [http://zgyy.faedia.com 《國文論壇》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210215/http://zgyy.faedia.com/ |date=2007-09-27 }}
* [http://www.zdic.net 《在線漢語字典》]
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|bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;!--
*[http://www.newconcept.com/School/text_books.html 海外中文教材]--&gt;
* [http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ 《輕鬆習中文》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712024338/http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ |date=2007-07-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712024338/http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ |date=2007-07-12 }}&lt;!--
*[http://www.chinawestexchange.com/ China West Exchange]: 本网点是为了让西方人认识中国文化，中国人认识西方语言和文化而作的--&gt;
&lt;!--*[http://malandrin.org 马来西亚官话方言]
*[http://www.mina.ks.edu.tw/ 高雄县闽南语教材教学資料库]
*[http://www.cantonese.sheik.co.uk/ Cantonese Help Sheets]: 粤语教程
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/ 粵語審音配詞字庫]
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/Lindict/ Chinese to English Dictionary]: 中英字典
*[http://5189.asinah.net/ 中英字典 English to Chinese Dictionary]
*[http://us.dict.cn/ Dict.CN 中英字典 英中字典 English-Chinese and Chinese-English Dictionary on line]
*[http://www.unet.univie.ac.at/~a9305416/ Chinese Linguistics]: 汉语语言学网站（英文）
*[http://www.chineselanguage.org/CCDICT/index.html Chinese Characters Dictionary]: 支持日语、韩语、粤语等。
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/Canton2/ Cantonese Talking Syllabary]: 中文网站（繁体）

*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/zh.htm 网上上免费的普通话教程]
*[http://www.hanyu.com.cn/ Online College of Chinese Language汉语远程学院教学网]（中国国家汉办、华东师大合办)--&gt;
* [http://www.hello-han.com/index.php 《漢語，你好！》遠程教育網] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210409174241/http://www.hello-han.com/index.php |date=2021-04-09 }}
&lt;!--[http://www-ms.cc.ntu.edu.tw/~chinlit/ National Taiwan University Department of Chinese Literature]
*[http://www.yeminlitercuman.com/cin Turkish-Chinese Translators in China] --&gt;
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=1270 漢語方言列表]
*[http://yedict.com/ 字海網、葉典網]

{{堪讀之文}}

[[Category:漢語]]
[[Category:基礎之文]]</text>
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'''漢語'''者，[[漢族|漢人]]之言也。蓋[[華夏]]地方廣遠，山河數列，海內習用，方音殊異。以中國人多，以漢語為[[母語]]者亦眾，合以十億計，普世之五一。

== 音韻 ==

漢語一字一音，一音可分為聲、韻、調。[[漢字]]多不表音，故初用「讀若某」。後[[佛教]]東傳，得[[梵文]]而知[[反切]]，乃用以標音。近世，創[[國語注音|注音符號]]及[[漢語拼音]]，以明音韻。

== 語法 ==
漢語為[[孤立語]]、或曰分析語，此謂詞彙無[[格 (語法)|格]]、[[態 (語法)|態]]、[[性 (語法)|性]]、[[數 (語法)|數]]之變。唯示以[[語序]]之先後及虛字之用而達意。

語序為：[[主謂賓]]，[[修飾語|偏次]]先於[[中心語|正次]]。於數數，必附[[量詞]]於數後。各[[方言]][[語法]]略異，故白話文之行可亂文字。乃以國語語法為白話文語法。

古者語法，同乎[[文言]]。

== 文字 ==
{{main|漢字}}
三代以降，[[漢字]]初成。[[秦]]以書同文，必用[[小篆]]，其後偶有數變，用之不更至民季，共和國立，納昔[[錢玄同]]所倡簡字法，加以矯正，遂成今制，曰[[簡化字]]，今[[中國大陸]]、[[新加坡]]、[[馬來西亞]]行之。[[香港]]、[[澳門]]、[[臺灣]]仍因舊制，書傳統漢字。

近代西學東傳，亦有以[[拉丁字母]]記音者，法式歧異。至共和國立，創[[漢語拼音|拼音]]，授之於小學。初，國人頗思廢漢字，後以同音多，拉丁文字無象形之用，遂止。

== 沿革 ==
三代之時，天下有國千萬，言語不通。[[周]]既王，始有[[雅言]]。諸子著作，皆以雅言。及周道微，天下紛亂，言語異聲，文字異形。尤是楚語至不同也。[[秦始皇帝]]混一車書，獨用秦[[小篆|篆]]，各地方言日合。然至於[[許慎]]之世，[[說文解字]]之所錄，亦有同義而音異之字，多有「某地曰某為某」之訓。蓋天下文字雖一，而言語未統也。此[[上古音]]也。古語於語法異於今音，可見諸[[尚書]]。

魏晉之世，北族南面，雖[[魏孝文帝]]力主洛音，而古音已變，[[詩]]始不得押韻。[[中原]]漢胡雜合，而成唐音，為[[中古音|中古之音]]。於南國，衣冠之南渡，亦有吳音混於正音者。此世[[樂府]]有吳曲、西州曲之分，蓋亦異音之故也。

[[趙宋|宋]]季，[[中原]]復為胡君，語音大變。[[四聲]]缺入，派為三聲。唯江南淪陷不足百年，語音未大變也。[[明]]初都[[應天]]，[[永樂]]間北遷，百官隨同，江左之音復入燕地。以後四百年皆都[[北京]]，遂以為[[國語]]矣。

及[[中華人民共和國]]立，以國語為[[普通話]]，舉世皆以其漢語之正音。實其正音以國語稍改而成，[[中華民國|國民政府]]遷臺，用其國語至今未廢。然分立五十年，習用亦異也。大異者，舉凡[[兒化韻]]之用，[[外來詞]]之源，王畿方言之不同，亦成其異也。

於地方，雖有國語，實方言殊音甚多，惟[[學校]]、[[典禮]]多用正音。

今世，以漢語為官話者，有中國、[[新加坡]]、[[聯合國]]。隨中國國力日蓄，萬國習之者眾，以利來華遊學仕商。

== 方言 ==
蓋漢語歧甚，遠者異域不相通，近者十里音不同。然文惟一，為世所稀見。

以[[語言學]]分，言不通即非一語。且語法各異，故有漢語為一語族之論。漢語諸言，概分如下：

* [[官話]]，聞之中原、巴蜀、江北，滿蒙疆人亦多用之。今中國大陸之[[普通話]]、臺灣之[[中華民國國語|國語]]、南洋之[[華語]]皆宗[[北京官話]][[京師片]]。
* [[吳語]]，聞之吳越之地，昔宗[[蘇州話]]，今宗[[上海話]]。
* [[閩語]]，聞之閩臺之地，瓊文之民亦操之，其中分[[閩北語|閩北]]、[[閩東語|閩東]]、[[閩南語|閩南]]、[[閩中語|閩中]]、[[莆仙話|莆仙]]，五語各不相通。
* [[粵語]]，聞之嶺南，至於海外。[[廣州話]]為宗。
* [[客語]]，聞之南境，為[[客家人]]之言，[[梅州話]]為宗。
* [[湘語]]，聞之楚南。分新老二派。[[長沙話|長沙]]、[[雙峰話]]為宗。
* [[贛語]]，聞之[[江西]]，[[南昌話]]為宗。
* [[徽語]]，聞之皖南，[[徽州話]]為宗。今或以之為吳語之別種。
* [[晉語]]，聞之晉北、陝北、雲中等處，[[太原話]]為宗。

官話復分數種，以下次第：
*[[東北官話]]，聞之東北，宗[[瀋陽話]]。
*[[北京官話]]，聞之北京，東北，新疆之一部，宗[[北京話]]。
*[[江淮官話]]，聞之蘇中蘇北之大部，蘇南之一部及皖中，宗[[揚州話]]，以其地雜吳語，兩者相生，或謂淮語。明代以之為國語。
*[[西南官話]]，聞之川，桂，滇，貴，宗[[成都話]]。
*[[中原官話]]，聞之中原，關中，魯南。各地或有別種。宗[[洛陽話]]、[[西安話]]。
*[[冀魯官話]]，聞之冀，魯。宗[[濟南話]]。
*[[蘭銀官話]]，聞之隴上，寧夏。宗[[蘭州話]]。
*[[膠遼官話]]，聞之齊東，遼南，東北之一部。學界多宗[[煙臺話]]。

以下諸言皆從屬不明：
* [[廣西平話]]，聞之[[廣西]]山村，或以之為[[粵語]]之別種。
* [[韶州土話]]、[[湘南土話]]，聞之五嶺南北，或言二者皆近平話，或從[[湘南土話]]於湘語。
* [[瓦鄉話]]，聞之湘西沅水谷地，壟斷山絕，漢苗雜居，故甚異於官音，或以為湘語之別種。

== 書典 ==
* 《[[康熙字典|康熙大字典]]》
* 《[[廣韻]]》
* 《[[說文解字]]》

== 他典 ==
* [http://lexikon.china2day.de 《在線英漢字典》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713122604/http://lexikon.china2day.de/ |date=2007-07-13 }} &lt;!--
*[http://www.MonkeyKingSoft.com/ MonkeyKingSoft.com] - 使用电脑软件学习汉字：在电脑上动态显示汉字笔顺，或者打印成卡片帮助记忆。 --&gt;
* [http://www.kangxizidian.com/kangxi/ 《康熙大字典》]
* [http://www.edu.tw/EDU_WEB/EDU_MGT/MANDR/EDU6300001/allbook/bishuen/c8.htm?open 《常用國字標準字體筆順手冊》]
* [http://zgyy.faedia.com 《國文論壇》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210215/http://zgyy.faedia.com/ |date=2007-09-27 }}
* [http://www.zdic.net 《在線漢語字典》]
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2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;!--
*[http://www.newconcept.com/School/text_books.html 海外中文教材]--&gt;
* [http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ 《輕鬆習中文》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712024338/http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ |date=2007-07-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712024338/http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ |date=2007-07-12 }}&lt;!--
*[http://www.chinawestexchange.com/ China West Exchange]: 本网点是为了让西方人认识中国文化，中国人认识西方语言和文化而作的--&gt;
&lt;!--*[http://malandrin.org 马来西亚官话方言]
*[http://www.mina.ks.edu.tw/ 高雄县闽南语教材教学資料库]
*[http://www.cantonese.sheik.co.uk/ Cantonese Help Sheets]: 粤语教程
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/ 粵語審音配詞字庫]
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/Lindict/ Chinese to English Dictionary]: 中英字典
*[http://5189.asinah.net/ 中英字典 English to Chinese Dictionary]
*[http://us.dict.cn/ Dict.CN 中英字典 英中字典 English-Chinese and Chinese-English Dictionary on line]
*[http://www.unet.univie.ac.at/~a9305416/ Chinese Linguistics]: 汉语语言学网站（英文）
*[http://www.chineselanguage.org/CCDICT/index.html Chinese Characters Dictionary]: 支持日语、韩语、粤语等。
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/Canton2/ Cantonese Talking Syllabary]: 中文网站（繁体）

*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/zh.htm 网上上免费的普通话教程]
*[http://www.hanyu.com.cn/ Online College of Chinese Language汉语远程学院教学网]（中国国家汉办、华东师大合办)--&gt;
* [http://www.hello-han.com/index.php 《漢語，你好！》遠程教育網] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210409174241/http://www.hello-han.com/index.php |date=2021-04-09 }}
&lt;!--[http://www-ms.cc.ntu.edu.tw/~chinlit/ National Taiwan University Department of Chinese Literature]
*[http://www.yeminlitercuman.com/cin Turkish-Chinese Translators in China] --&gt;
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=1270 漢語方言列表]
*[http://yedict.com/ 字海網、葉典網]

{{堪讀之文}}

[[Category:漢語]]
[[Category:基礎之文]]</text>
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'''漢語'''者，[[漢族|漢人]]之言也。蓋[[華夏]]地方廣遠，山河數列，海內習用，方音殊異。以中國人多，以漢語為[[母語]]者亦眾，合以十億計，普世之五一。

== 音韻 ==

漢語一字一音，一音可分為聲、韻、調。[[漢字]]多不表音，故初用「讀若某」。後[[佛教]]東傳，得[[梵文]]而知[[反切]]，乃用以標音。近世，創[[國語注音|注音符號]]及[[漢語拼音]]，以明音韻。

== 語法 ==
漢語為[[孤立語]]、或曰分析語，此謂詞彙無[[格 (語法)|格]]、[[態 (語法)|態]]、[[性 (語法)|性]]、[[數 (語法)|數]]之變。唯示以[[語序]]之先後及虛字之用而達意。

語序為：[[主謂賓]]，[[修飾語|偏次]]先於[[中心語|正次]]。於數數，必附[[量詞]]於數後。各[[方言]][[語法]]略異，故白話文之行可亂文字。乃以國語語法為白話文語法。

古者語法，同乎[[文言]]。

== 文字 ==
{{main|漢字}}
三代以降，[[漢字]]初成。[[秦]]以書同文，必用[[小篆]]，其後偶有數變，用之不更至民季，共和國立，納昔[[錢玄同]]所倡簡字法，加以矯正，遂成今制，曰[[簡化字]]，今[[中國大陸]]、[[新加坡]]、[[馬來西亞]]行之。[[香港]]、[[澳門]]、[[臺灣]]仍因舊制，書傳統漢字。

近代西學東傳，亦有以[[拉丁字母]]記音者，法式歧異。至共和國立，創[[漢語拼音|拼音]]，授之於小學。初，國人頗思廢漢字，後以同音多，拉丁文字無象形之用，遂止。

== 沿革 ==
三代之時，天下有國千萬，言語不通。[[周]]既王，始有[[雅言]]。諸子著作，皆以雅言。及周道微，天下紛亂，言語異聲，文字異形。尤是楚語至不同也。[[秦始皇帝]]混一車書，獨用秦[[小篆|篆]]，各地方言日合。然至於[[許慎]]之世，[[說文解字]]之所錄，亦有同義而音異之字，多有「某地曰某為某」之訓。蓋天下文字雖一，而言語未統也。此[[上古音]]也。古語於語法異於今音，可見諸[[尚書]]。

魏晉之世，北族南面，雖[[魏孝文帝]]力主洛音，而古音已變，[[詩]]始不得押韻。[[中原]]漢胡雜合，而成唐音，為[[中古音|中古之音]]。於南國，衣冠之南渡，亦有吳音混於正音者。此世[[樂府]]有吳曲、西州曲之分，蓋亦異音之故也。

[[趙宋|宋]]季，[[中原]]復為胡君，語音大變。[[四聲]]缺入，派為三聲。唯江南淪陷不足百年，語音未大變也。[[明]]初都[[應天]]，[[永樂]]間北遷，百官隨同，江左之音復入燕地。以後四百年皆都[[北京]]，遂以為[[國語]]矣。

及[[中華人民共和國]]立，以國語為[[普通話]]，舉世皆以其漢語之正音。實其正音以國語稍改而成，[[中華民國|國民政府]]遷臺，用其國語至今未廢。然分立五十年，習用亦異也。大異者，舉凡[[兒化韻]]之用，[[外來詞]]之源，王畿方言之不同，亦成其異也。

於地方，雖有國語，實方言殊音甚多，惟[[學校]]、[[典禮]]多用正音。

今世，以漢語為官話者，有中國、[[新加坡]]、[[聯合國]]。隨中國國力日蓄，萬國習之者眾，以利來華遊學仕商。

== 方言 ==
蓋漢語歧甚，遠者異域不相通，近者十里音不同。然文惟一，為世所稀見。

以[[語言學]]分，言不通即非一語。且語法各異，故有漢語為一語族之論。漢語諸言，概分如下：

* [[官話]]，聞之中原、巴蜀、江北，滿蒙疆人亦多用之。今中國大陸之[[普通話]]、臺灣之[[中華民國國語|國語]]、南洋之[[華語]]皆宗[[北京官話]][[京師片]]。
* [[吳語]]，聞之吳越之地，昔宗[[蘇州話]]，今宗[[上海話]]。
* [[閩語]]，聞之閩臺之地，瓊文之民亦操之，其中分[[閩北語|閩北]]、[[閩東語|閩東]]、[[閩南語|閩南]]、[[閩中語|閩中]]、[[莆仙話|莆仙]]，五語各不相通。
* [[粵語]]，聞之嶺南，至於海外。[[廣州話]]為宗。
* [[客語]]，聞之南境，為[[客家人]]之言，[[梅州話]]為宗。
* [[湘語]]，聞之楚南。分新老二派。[[長沙話|長沙]]、[[雙峰話]]為宗。
* [[贛語]]，聞之[[江西]]，[[南昌話]]為宗。
* [[徽語]]，聞之皖南，[[徽州話]]為宗。今或以之為吳語之別種。
* [[晉語]]，聞之晉北、陝北、雲中等處，[[太原話]]為宗。

官話復分數種，以下次第：
*[[東北官話]]，聞之東北，宗[[瀋陽話]]。
*[[北京官話]]，聞之北京，東北，新疆之一部，宗[[北京話]]。
*[[江淮官話]]，聞之蘇中蘇北之大部，蘇南之一部及皖中，宗[[揚州話]]，以其地雜吳語，兩者相生，或謂淮語。明代以之為國語。
*[[西南官話]]，聞之川，桂，滇，貴，宗[[成都話]]。
*[[中原官話]]，聞之中原，關中，魯南。各地或有別種。宗[[洛陽話]]、[[西安話]]。
*[[冀魯官話]]，聞之冀，魯。宗[[濟南話]]。
*[[蘭銀官話]]，聞之隴上，寧夏。宗[[蘭州話]]。
*[[膠遼官話]]，聞之齊東，遼南，東北之一部。學界多宗[[煙臺話]]。

以下諸言皆從屬不明：
* [[廣西平話]]，聞之[[廣西]]山村，或以之為[[粵語]]之別種。
* [[韶州土話]]、[[湘南土話]]，聞之五嶺南北，或言二者皆近平話，或從[[湘南土話]]於湘語。
* [[瓦鄉話]]，聞之湘西沅水谷地，壟斷山絕，漢苗雜居，故甚異於官音，或以為湘語之別種。

== 書典 ==
* 《[[康熙字典|康熙大字典]]》
* 《[[廣韻]]》
* 《[[說文解字]]》

== 他典 ==
* [http://lexikon.china2day.de 《在線英漢字典》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713122604/http://lexikon.china2day.de/ |date=2007-07-13 }} &lt;!--
*[http://www.MonkeyKingSoft.com/ MonkeyKingSoft.com] - 使用电脑软件学习汉字：在电脑上动态显示汉字笔顺，或者打印成卡片帮助记忆。 --&gt;
* [http://www.kangxizidian.com/kangxi/ 《康熙大字典》]
* [http://www.edu.tw/EDU_WEB/EDU_MGT/MANDR/EDU6300001/allbook/bishuen/c8.htm?open 《常用國字標準字體筆順手冊》]
* [http://zgyy.faedia.com 《國文論壇》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210215/http://zgyy.faedia.com/ |date=2007-09-27 }}
* [http://www.zdic.net 《在線漢語字典》]
* [http://www.zhongwen.com/Zhongwen.com 《網上中英字典》]{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead 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*[http://www.newconcept.com/School/text_books.html 海外中文教材]--&gt;
* [http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ 《輕鬆習中文》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712024338/http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ |date=2007-07-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712024338/http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ |date=2007-07-12 }}&lt;!--
*[http://www.chinawestexchange.com/ China West Exchange]: 本网点是为了让西方人认识中国文化，中国人认识西方语言和文化而作的--&gt;
&lt;!--*[http://malandrin.org 马来西亚官话方言]
*[http://www.mina.ks.edu.tw/ 高雄县闽南语教材教学資料库]
*[http://www.cantonese.sheik.co.uk/ Cantonese Help Sheets]: 粤语教程
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/ 粵語審音配詞字庫]
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/Lindict/ Chinese to English Dictionary]: 中英字典
*[http://5189.asinah.net/ 中英字典 English to Chinese Dictionary]
*[http://us.dict.cn/ Dict.CN 中英字典 英中字典 English-Chinese and Chinese-English Dictionary on line]
*[http://www.unet.univie.ac.at/~a9305416/ Chinese Linguistics]: 汉语语言学网站（英文）
*[http://www.chineselanguage.org/CCDICT/index.html Chinese Characters Dictionary]: 支持日语、韩语、粤语等。
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/Canton2/ Cantonese Talking Syllabary]: 中文网站（繁体）

*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/zh.htm 网上上免费的普通话教程]
*[http://www.hanyu.com.cn/ Online College of Chinese Language汉语远程学院教学网]（中国国家汉办、华东师大合办)--&gt;
* [http://www.hello-han.com/index.php 《漢語，你好！》遠程教育網] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210409174241/http://www.hello-han.com/index.php |date=2021-04-09 }}
&lt;!--[http://www-ms.cc.ntu.edu.tw/~chinlit/ National Taiwan University Department of Chinese Literature]
*[http://www.yeminlitercuman.com/cin Turkish-Chinese Translators in China] --&gt;
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=1270 漢語方言列表]
*[http://yedict.com/ 字海網、葉典網]

{{堪讀之文}}

[[Category:漢語]]
[[Category:基礎之文]]</text>
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'''漢語'''者，[[漢族|漢人]]之言也。蓋[[華夏]]地方廣遠，山河數列，海內習用，方音殊異。以中國人多，以漢語為[[母語]]者亦眾，合以十億計，普世之五一。

== 音韻 ==

漢語一字一音，一音可分為聲、韻、調。[[漢字]]多不表音，故初用「讀若某」。後[[佛教]]東傳，得[[梵文]]而知[[反切]]，乃用以標音。近世，創[[國語注音|注音符號]]及[[漢語拼音]]，以明音韻。

== 語法 ==
漢語為[[孤立語]]、或曰分析語，此謂詞彙無[[格 (語法)|格]]、[[態 (語法)|態]]、[[性 (語法)|性]]、[[數 (語法)|數]]之變。唯示以[[語序]]之先後及虛字之用而達意。

語序為：[[主謂賓]]，[[修飾語|偏次]]先於[[中心語|正次]]。於數數，必附[[量詞]]於數後。各[[方言]][[語法]]略異，故白話文之行可亂文字。乃以國語語法為白話文語法。

古者語法，同乎[[文言]]。

== 文字 ==
{{main|漢字}}
三代以降，[[漢字]]初成。[[秦]]以書同文，必用[[小篆]]，其後偶有數變，用之不更至民季，共和國立，納昔[[錢玄同]]所倡簡字法，加以矯正，遂成今制，曰[[簡化字]]，今[[中國大陸]]、[[新加坡]]、[[馬來西亞]]行之。[[香港]]、[[澳門]]、[[臺灣]]仍因舊制，書傳統漢字。

近代西學東傳，亦有以[[拉丁字母]]記音者，法式歧異。至共和國立，創[[漢語拼音|拼音]]，授之於小學。初，國人頗思廢漢字，後以同音多，拉丁文字無象形之用，遂止。

== 沿革 ==
三代之時，天下有國千萬，言語不通。[[周]]既王，始有[[雅言]]。諸子著作，皆以雅言。及周道微，天下紛亂，言語異聲，文字異形。尤是楚語至不同也。[[秦始皇帝]]混一車書，獨用秦[[小篆|篆]]，各地方言日合。然至於[[許慎]]之世，[[說文解字]]之所錄，亦有同義而音異之字，多有「某地曰某為某」之訓。蓋天下文字雖一，而言語未統也。此[[上古音]]也。古語於語法異於今音，可見諸[[尚書]]。

魏晉之世，北族南面，雖[[魏孝文帝]]力主洛音，而古音已變，[[詩]]始不得押韻。[[中原]]漢胡雜合，而成唐音，為[[中古音|中古之音]]。於南國，衣冠之南渡，亦有吳音混於正音者。此世[[樂府]]有吳曲、西州曲之分，蓋亦異音之故也。

[[趙宋|宋]]季，[[中原]]復為胡君，語音大變。[[四聲]]缺入，派為三聲。唯江南淪陷不足百年，語音未大變也。[[明]]初都[[應天]]，[[永樂]]間北遷，百官隨同，江左之音復入燕地。以後四百年皆都[[北京]]，遂以為[[國語]]矣。

及[[中華人民共和國]]立，以國語為[[普通話]]，舉世皆以其漢語之正音。實其正音以國語稍改而成，[[中華民國|國民政府]]遷臺，用其國語至今未廢。然分立五十年，習用亦異也。大異者，舉凡[[兒化韻]]之用，[[外來詞]]之源，王畿方言之不同，亦成其異也。

於地方，雖有國語，實方言殊音甚多，惟[[學校]]、[[典禮]]多用正音。

今世，以漢語為官話者，有中國、[[新加坡]]、[[聯合國]]。隨中國國力日蓄，萬國習之者眾，以利來華遊學仕商。

== 方言 ==
蓋漢語歧甚，遠者異域不相通，近者十里音不同。然文惟一，為世所稀見。

以[[語言學]]分，言不通即非一語。且語法各異，故有漢語為一語族之論。漢語諸言，概分如下：

* [[官話]]，聞之中原、巴蜀、江北，滿蒙疆人亦多用之。今中國大陸之[[普通話]]、臺灣之[[中華民國國語|國語]]、南洋之[[華語]]皆宗[[北京官話]][[京師片]]。
* [[吳語]]，聞之吳越之地，昔宗[[蘇州話]]，今宗[[上海話]]。
* [[閩語]]，聞之閩臺之地，瓊文之民亦操之，其中分[[閩北語|閩北]]、[[閩東語|閩東]]、[[閩南語|閩南]]、[[閩中語|閩中]]、[[莆仙話|莆仙]]，五語各不相通。
* [[粵語]]，聞之嶺南，至於海外。[[廣州話]]為宗。
* [[客語]]，聞之南境，為[[客家人]]之言，[[梅州話]]為宗。
* [[湘語]]，聞之楚南。分新老二派。[[長沙話|長沙]]、[[雙峰話]]為宗。
* [[贛語]]，聞之[[江西]]，[[南昌話]]為宗。
* [[徽語]]，聞之皖南，[[徽州話]]為宗。今或以之為吳語之別種。
* [[晉語]]，聞之晉北、陝北、雲中等處，[[太原話]]為宗。

官話復分數種，以下次第：
*[[東北官話]]，聞之東北，宗[[瀋陽話]]。
*[[北京官話]]，聞之北京，東北，新疆之一部，宗[[北京話]]。
*[[江淮官話]]，聞之蘇中蘇北之大部，蘇南之一部及皖中，宗[[揚州話]]，以其地雜吳語，兩者相生，或謂淮語。明代以之為國語。
*[[西南官話]]，聞之川，桂，滇，貴，宗[[成都話]]。
*[[中原官話]]，聞之中原，關中，魯南。各地或有別種。宗[[洛陽話]]、[[西安話]]。
*[[冀魯官話]]，聞之冀，魯。宗[[濟南話]]。
*[[蘭銀官話]]，聞之隴上，寧夏。宗[[蘭州話]]。
*[[膠遼官話]]，聞之齊東，遼南，東北之一部。學界多宗[[煙臺話]]。

以下諸言皆從屬不明：
* [[廣西平話]]，聞之[[廣西]]山村，或以之為[[粵語]]之別種。
* [[韶州土話]]、[[湘南土話]]，聞之五嶺南北，或言二者皆近平話，或從[[湘南土話]]於湘語。
* [[瓦鄉話]]，聞之湘西沅水谷地，壟斷山絕，漢苗雜居，故甚異於官音，或以為湘語之別種。

== 書典 ==
* 《[[康熙字典|康熙大字典]]》
* 《[[廣韻]]》
* 《[[說文解字]]》

== 他典 ==
* [http://lexikon.china2day.de 《在線英漢字典》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713122604/http://lexikon.china2day.de/ |date=2007-07-13 }} &lt;!--
*[http://www.MonkeyKingSoft.com/ MonkeyKingSoft.com] - 使用电脑软件学习汉字：在电脑上动态显示汉字笔顺，或者打印成卡片帮助记忆。 --&gt;
* [http://www.kangxizidian.com/kangxi/ 《康熙大字典》]
* [http://www.edu.tw/EDU_WEB/EDU_MGT/MANDR/EDU6300001/allbook/bishuen/c8.htm?open 《常用國字標準字體筆順手冊》]
* [http://zgyy.faedia.com 《國文論壇》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210215/http://zgyy.faedia.com/ |date=2007-09-27 }}
* [http://www.zdic.net 《在線漢語字典》]
* [http://www.zhongwen.com/Zhongwen.com 《網上中英字典》]{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead 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*[http://www.newconcept.com/School/text_books.html 海外中文教材]--&gt;
* [http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ 《輕鬆習中文》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712024338/http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ |date=2007-07-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712024338/http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ |date=2007-07-12 }}&lt;!--
*[http://www.chinawestexchange.com/ China West Exchange]: 本网点是为了让西方人认识中国文化，中国人认识西方语言和文化而作的--&gt;
&lt;!--*[http://malandrin.org 马来西亚官话方言]
*[http://www.mina.ks.edu.tw/ 高雄县闽南语教材教学資料库]
*[http://www.cantonese.sheik.co.uk/ Cantonese Help Sheets]: 粤语教程
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/ 粵語審音配詞字庫]
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/Lindict/ Chinese to English Dictionary]: 中英字典
*[http://5189.asinah.net/ 中英字典 English to Chinese Dictionary]
*[http://us.dict.cn/ Dict.CN 中英字典 英中字典 English-Chinese and Chinese-English Dictionary on line]
*[http://www.unet.univie.ac.at/~a9305416/ Chinese Linguistics]: 汉语语言学网站（英文）
*[http://www.chineselanguage.org/CCDICT/index.html Chinese Characters Dictionary]: 支持日语、韩语、粤语等。
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/Canton2/ Cantonese Talking Syllabary]: 中文网站（繁体）

*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/zh.htm 网上上免费的普通话教程]
*[http://www.hanyu.com.cn/ Online College of Chinese Language汉语远程学院教学网]（中国国家汉办、华东师大合办)--&gt;
* [http://www.hello-han.com/index.php 《漢語，你好！》遠程教育網] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210409174241/http://www.hello-han.com/index.php |date=2021-04-09 }}
&lt;!--[http://www-ms.cc.ntu.edu.tw/~chinlit/ National Taiwan University Department of Chinese Literature]
*[http://www.yeminlitercuman.com/cin Turkish-Chinese Translators in China] --&gt;
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=1270 漢語方言列表]
*[http://yedict.com/ 字海網、葉典網]

{{堪讀之文}}

[[Category:漢語]]
[[Category:基礎之文]]</text>
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'''漢語'''者，[[漢族|漢人]]之言也。蓋[[華夏]]地方廣遠，山河數列，海內習用，方音殊異。以中國人多，以漢語為[[母語]]者亦眾，合以十億計，普世之五一。

== 音韻 ==

漢語一字一音，一音可分為聲、韻、調。[[漢字]]多不表音，故初用「讀若某」。後[[佛教]]東傳，得[[梵文]]而知[[反切]]，乃用以標音。近世，創[[國語注音|注音符號]]及[[漢語拼音]]，以明音韻。

== 語法 ==
漢語為[[孤立語]]、或曰分析語，此謂詞彙無[[格 (語法)|格]]、[[態 (語法)|態]]、[[性 (語法)|性]]、[[數 (語法)|數]]之變。唯示以[[語序]]之先後及虛字之用而達意。

語序為：[[主謂賓]]，[[修飾語|偏次]]先於[[中心語|正次]]。於數數，必附[[量詞]]於數後。各[[方言]][[語法]]略異，故白話文之行可亂文字。乃以國語語法為白話文語法。

古者語法，同乎[[文言]]。

== 文字 ==
{{main|漢字}}
三代以降，[[漢字]]初成。[[秦]]以書同文，必用[[小篆]]，其後偶有數變，用之不更至民季，共和國立，納昔[[錢玄同]]所倡簡字法，加以矯正，遂成今制，曰[[簡化字]]，今[[中國大陸]]、[[新加坡]]、[[馬來西亞]]行之。[[香港]]、[[澳門]]、[[臺灣]]仍因舊制，書傳統漢字。

近代西學東傳，亦有以[[拉丁字母]]記音者，法式歧異。至共和國立，創[[漢語拼音|拼音]]，授之於小學。初，國人頗思廢漢字，後以同音多，拉丁文字無象形之用，遂止。

== 沿革 ==
三代之時，天下有國千萬，言語不通。[[周]]既王，始有[[雅言]]。諸子著作，皆以雅言。及周道微，天下紛亂，言語異聲，文字異形。尤是楚語至不同也。[[秦始皇帝]]混一車書，獨用秦[[小篆|篆]]，各地方言日合。然至於[[許慎]]之世，[[說文解字]]之所錄，亦有同義而音異之字，多有「某地曰某為某」之訓。蓋天下文字雖一，而言語未統也。此[[上古音]]也。古語於語法異於今音，可見諸[[尚書]]。

魏晉之世，北族南面，雖[[魏孝文帝]]力主洛音，而古音已變，[[詩]]始不得押韻。[[中原]]漢胡雜合，而成唐音，為[[中古音|中古之音]]。於南國，衣冠之南渡，亦有吳音混於正音者。此世[[樂府]]有吳曲、西州曲之分，蓋亦異音之故也。

[[趙宋|宋]]季，[[中原]]復為胡君，語音大變。[[四聲]]缺入，派為三聲。唯江南淪陷不足百年，語音未大變也。[[明]]初都[[應天]]，[[永樂]]間北遷，百官隨同，江左之音復入燕地。以後四百年皆都[[北京]]，遂以為[[國語]]矣。

及[[中華人民共和國]]立，以國語為[[普通話]]，舉世皆以其漢語之正音。實其正音以國語稍改而成，[[中華民國|國民政府]]遷臺，用其國語至今未廢。然分立五十年，習用亦異也。大異者，舉凡[[兒化韻]]之用，[[外來詞]]之源，王畿方言之不同，亦成其異也。

於地方，雖有國語，實方言殊音甚多，惟[[學校]]、[[典禮]]多用正音。

今世，以漢語為官話者，有中國、[[新加坡]]、[[聯合國]]。隨中國國力日蓄，萬國習之者眾，以利來華遊學仕商。

== 方言 ==
蓋漢語歧甚，遠者異域不相通，近者十里音不同。然文惟一，為世所稀見。

以[[語言學]]分，言不通即非一語。且語法各異，故有漢語為一語族之論。漢語諸言，概分如下：

* [[官話]]，聞之中原、巴蜀、江北，滿蒙疆人亦多用之。今中國大陸之[[普通話]]、臺灣之[[中華民國國語|國語]]、南洋之[[華語]]皆宗[[北京官話]][[京師片]]。
* [[吳語]]，聞之吳越之地，昔宗[[蘇州話]]，今宗[[上海話]]。
* [[閩語]]，聞之閩臺之地，瓊文之民亦操之，其中分[[閩北語|閩北]]、[[閩東語|閩東]]、[[閩南語|閩南]]、[[閩中語|閩中]]、[[莆仙話|莆仙]]，五語各不相通。
* [[粵語]]，聞之嶺南，至於海外。[[廣州話]]為宗。
* [[客語]]，聞之南境，為[[客家人]]之言，[[梅州話]]為宗。
* [[湘語]]，聞之楚南。分新老二派。[[長沙話|長沙]]、[[雙峰話]]為宗。
* [[贛語]]，聞之[[江西]]，[[南昌話]]為宗。
* [[徽語]]，聞之皖南，[[徽州話]]為宗。今或以之為吳語之別種。
* [[晉語]]，聞之晉北、陝北、雲中等處，[[太原話]]為宗。

官話復分數種，以下次第：
*[[東北官話]]，聞之東北，宗[[瀋陽話]]。
*[[北京官話]]，聞之北京，東北，新疆之一部，宗[[北京話]]。
*[[江淮官話]]，聞之蘇中蘇北之大部，蘇南之一部及皖中，宗[[揚州話]]，以其地雜吳語，兩者相生，或謂淮語。明代以之為國語。
*[[西南官話]]，聞之川，桂，滇，貴，宗[[成都話]]。
*[[中原官話]]，聞之中原，關中，魯南。各地或有別種。宗[[洛陽話]]、[[西安話]]。
*[[冀魯官話]]，聞之冀，魯。宗[[濟南話]]。
*[[蘭銀官話]]，聞之隴上，寧夏。宗[[蘭州話]]。
*[[膠遼官話]]，聞之齊東，遼南，東北之一部。學界多宗[[煙臺話]]。

以下諸言皆從屬不明：
* [[廣西平話]]，聞之[[廣西]]山村，或以之為[[粵語]]之別種。
* [[韶州土話]]、[[湘南土話]]，聞之五嶺南北，或言二者皆近平話，或從[[湘南土話]]於湘語。
* [[瓦鄉話]]，聞之湘西沅水谷地，壟斷山絕，漢苗雜居，故甚異於官音，或以為湘語之別種。

== 書典 ==
* 《[[康熙字典|康熙大字典]]》
* 《[[廣韻]]》
* 《[[說文解字]]》

== 他典 ==
* [http://lexikon.china2day.de 《在線英漢字典》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713122604/http://lexikon.china2day.de/ |date=2007-07-13 }} &lt;!--
*[http://www.MonkeyKingSoft.com/ MonkeyKingSoft.com] - 使用电脑软件学习汉字：在电脑上动态显示汉字笔顺，或者打印成卡片帮助记忆。 --&gt;
* [http://www.kangxizidian.com/kangxi/ 《康熙大字典》]
* [http://www.edu.tw/EDU_WEB/EDU_MGT/MANDR/EDU6300001/allbook/bishuen/c8.htm?open 《常用國字標準字體筆順手冊》]
* [http://zgyy.faedia.com 《國文論壇》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210215/http://zgyy.faedia.com/ |date=2007-09-27 }}
* [http://www.zdic.net 《在線漢語字典》]
* [http://www.zhongwen.com/Zhongwen.com 《網上中英字典》]{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead 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link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;!--
*[http://www.newconcept.com/School/text_books.html 海外中文教材]--&gt;
* [http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ 《輕鬆習中文》] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712024338/http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ |date=2007-07-12 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712024338/http://learn_chinese.ckungfu.com/ |date=2007-07-12 }}&lt;!--
*[http://www.chinawestexchange.com/ China West Exchange]: 本网点是为了让西方人认识中国文化，中国人认识西方语言和文化而作的--&gt;
&lt;!--*[http://malandrin.org 马来西亚官话方言]
*[http://www.mina.ks.edu.tw/ 高雄县闽南语教材教学資料库]
*[http://www.cantonese.sheik.co.uk/ Cantonese Help Sheets]: 粤语教程
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/ 粵語審音配詞字庫]
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/Lindict/ Chinese to English Dictionary]: 中英字典
*[http://5189.asinah.net/ 中英字典 English to Chinese Dictionary]
*[http://us.dict.cn/ Dict.CN 中英字典 英中字典 English-Chinese and Chinese-English Dictionary on line]
*[http://www.unet.univie.ac.at/~a9305416/ Chinese Linguistics]: 汉语语言学网站（英文）
*[http://www.chineselanguage.org/CCDICT/index.html Chinese Characters Dictionary]: 支持日语、韩语、粤语等。
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/Canton2/ Cantonese Talking Syllabary]: 中文网站（繁体）

*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/zh.htm 网上上免费的普通话教程]
*[http://www.hanyu.com.cn/ Online College of Chinese Language汉语远程学院教学网]（中国国家汉办、华东师大合办)--&gt;
* [http://www.hello-han.com/index.php 《漢語，你好！》遠程教育網] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210409174241/http://www.hello-han.com/index.php |date=2021-04-09 }}
&lt;!--[http://www-ms.cc.ntu.edu.tw/~chinlit/ National Taiwan University Department of Chinese Literature]
*[http://www.yeminlitercuman.com/cin Turkish-Chinese Translators in China] --&gt;
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=1270 漢語方言列表]
*[http://yedict.com/ 字海網、葉典網]

{{堪讀之文}}

[[Category:漢語]]
[[Category:基礎之文]]</text>
      <sha1>49jwzm04v1lm6n2gww5pa402poqy1al</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>用戶討論:Fluorin x Zeta</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>111343</id>
    <revision>
      <id>418371</id>
      <parentid>388845</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-21T18:37:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>J ansari</username>
        <id>69114</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>J ansari遷頁[[用戶討論:Wiz Qyurei]]至[[用戶討論:Fluorin x Zeta]]：當重新命名使用者「[[Special:CentralAuth/Wiz Qyurei|Wiz Qyurei]]」至「[[Special:CentralAuth/Fluorin x Zeta|Fluorin x Zeta]]」時自動移動頁面</comment>
      <origin>385846</origin>
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      <text bytes="181" sha1="arvxk0km8ozcz1u2rpjkorrqnfqlvws" xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Welcome|realName=|name=Aftalium}}

-- [[用戶:丁子君|丁子君]] ([[用戶討論:丁子君|對話]]) 二〇二二年一二月三日 （六） 〇一時一八分 (UTC)</text>
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  <page>
    <title>賈科莫·馬泰奧蒂</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>111702</id>
    <revision>
      <id>418385</id>
      <parentid>417027</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-22T08:53:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shunshen Lee</username>
        <id>68656</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>418385</origin>
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      <text bytes="1717" sha1="al9ygmo8evab6f819ac8jg1w31faqz5" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Giacomo Matteotti 2.jpg|180px|thumb|馬泰奧蒂之像]]
'''賈科莫·馬泰奧蒂''' {{按|[[義大利語]] Giacomo Matteotti}}，[[義大利]]人。[[西元]][[一八八五年]]五月廿二日，生於羅維戈。馬氏少有志操，篤信[[w:zh:社會主義|社會主義]]，究心政事，以憂國恤民為己任。及長，參預國政，仕社會黨，以副主席充[[w:zh:眾議院 (意大利)|眾議員]]，為時論所稱。[[一九二四年]]五月，馬氏蒞議院抗言，力陳[[法西斯]]黨人姦偽。謂其濫用威權，竊弄選舉，誘脅肆暴，所為不法；於是公論紛然，同列多側目。時[[墨索里尼]]方握柄，擅專威福，聞馬氏言，大懼其譏議，乃陰使其黨悍吏杜米尼者，與其黨徒五人，潛伺馬氏於道，迫而劫之，執以幽室。杜米尼素為墨氏所倚，性酷悍而無道，遂以工器鋼銼，刃其身，酷殺之&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/23/opinion/jamal-khashoggi-murder-mussolini-italy-fascism-mbs-saudi-arabia.html What a Murder by Mussolini Teaches Us About Khashoggi and M.B.S.], By Alexander Stille, Oct. 23, 2018, [[w:zh:紐約時報|紐約時報]].&lt;/ref&gt;。六月十日，殞命，時年三十九。馬氏屍久匿郊野，至八月十六日，始見於[[羅馬]]近畿之溝澮，狀甚慘。[[警察]]捕法西斯黨徒五人，雖加鞫訊，惟三人入罪耳。未幾，[[w:zh:維托里奧·埃馬努埃萊三世|義王]]命下，遂宥釋，而百姓聞之，莫不憤慨。是役也，義大利朝野震動，士論交馳，訐墨氏擅殺議員，無可逭，宜罷相位。然則墨氏羽翼益豐，又挾王袒庇，終守其官。

==考據==
{{Reflist}}

[[分類:義大利列傳]]</text>
      <sha1>al9ygmo8evab6f819ac8jg1w31faqz5</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>418386</id>
      <parentid>418385</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-22T08:53:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shunshen Lee</username>
        <id>68656</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Shunshen Lee已移動頁面[[稿:賈科莫·馬泰奧蒂]]至[[賈科莫·馬泰奧蒂]]，不留重新導向：校正回歸</comment>
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      <text bytes="1717" sha1="al9ygmo8evab6f819ac8jg1w31faqz5" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Giacomo Matteotti 2.jpg|180px|thumb|馬泰奧蒂之像]]
'''賈科莫·馬泰奧蒂''' {{按|[[義大利語]] Giacomo Matteotti}}，[[義大利]]人。[[西元]][[一八八五年]]五月廿二日，生於羅維戈。馬氏少有志操，篤信[[w:zh:社會主義|社會主義]]，究心政事，以憂國恤民為己任。及長，參預國政，仕社會黨，以副主席充[[w:zh:眾議院 (意大利)|眾議員]]，為時論所稱。[[一九二四年]]五月，馬氏蒞議院抗言，力陳[[法西斯]]黨人姦偽。謂其濫用威權，竊弄選舉，誘脅肆暴，所為不法；於是公論紛然，同列多側目。時[[墨索里尼]]方握柄，擅專威福，聞馬氏言，大懼其譏議，乃陰使其黨悍吏杜米尼者，與其黨徒五人，潛伺馬氏於道，迫而劫之，執以幽室。杜米尼素為墨氏所倚，性酷悍而無道，遂以工器鋼銼，刃其身，酷殺之&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/23/opinion/jamal-khashoggi-murder-mussolini-italy-fascism-mbs-saudi-arabia.html What a Murder by Mussolini Teaches Us About Khashoggi and M.B.S.], By Alexander Stille, Oct. 23, 2018, [[w:zh:紐約時報|紐約時報]].&lt;/ref&gt;。六月十日，殞命，時年三十九。馬氏屍久匿郊野，至八月十六日，始見於[[羅馬]]近畿之溝澮，狀甚慘。[[警察]]捕法西斯黨徒五人，雖加鞫訊，惟三人入罪耳。未幾，[[w:zh:維托里奧·埃馬努埃萊三世|義王]]命下，遂宥釋，而百姓聞之，莫不憤慨。是役也，義大利朝野震動，士論交馳，訐墨氏擅殺議員，無可逭，宜罷相位。然則墨氏羽翼益豐，又挾王袒庇，終守其官。

==考據==
{{Reflist}}

[[分類:義大利列傳]]</text>
      <sha1>al9ygmo8evab6f819ac8jg1w31faqz5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>418387</id>
      <parentid>418386</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-22T09:04:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shunshen Lee</username>
        <id>68656</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>418387</origin>
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      <text bytes="2044" sha1="flmh5v45rplpxgqtnx77w90lihfbf7v" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Giacomo Matteotti 2.jpg|180px|thumb|馬泰奧蒂玉照]]
'''賈科莫·馬泰奧蒂''' {{按|[[義大利語]] Giacomo Matteotti}}，[[義大利]]人。[[西元]][[一八八五年]]五月廿二日，生於羅維戈。馬氏少有志操，登[[w:zh:博洛尼亞大學|博洛尼亞大學]]法學士，篤信[[w:zh:社會主義|社會主義]]，究心政事，以憂國恤民為己任。及長，參預國政，仕[[w:zh:義大利社會黨|社會黨]]，以副主席充[[w:zh:眾議院 (義大利)|眾議員]]，為時論所稱。[[一九二四年]]五月，馬氏蒞議院抗言，力陳[[w:zh:國家法西斯黨|法西斯黨人]]姦偽。謂其濫用威權，竊弄選舉，誘脅肆暴，所為不法&lt;ref&gt;[http://it.wikisource.org/wiki/Italia_-_30_maggio_1924,_Discorso_alla_Camera_dei_Deputati_di_denuncia_di_brogli_elettorali Speech of 30 May 1924] the last speech of Matteotti, from it.wikisource&lt;/ref&gt;；於是公論紛然，同列多側目。時[[墨索里尼]]方握柄，擅專威福，聞馬氏言，大懼其譏議，乃陰使其黨悍吏杜米尼者，與其黨徒五人，潛伺馬氏於道，迫而劫之，執以幽室。杜米尼素為墨氏所倚，性酷悍而無道，遂以工器鋼銼，刃其身，酷殺之&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/23/opinion/jamal-khashoggi-murder-mussolini-italy-fascism-mbs-saudi-arabia.html What a Murder by Mussolini Teaches Us About Khashoggi and M.B.S.], By Alexander Stille, Oct. 23, 2018, [[w:zh:紐約時報|紐約時報]].&lt;/ref&gt;。六月十日，殞命，時年三十九。馬氏屍久匿郊野，至八月十六日，始見於[[羅馬]]近畿之溝澮，狀甚慘。[[警察]]捕法西斯黨徒五人，雖加鞫訊，惟三人入罪耳。未幾，[[w:zh:維托里奧·埃馬努埃萊三世|義王]]命下，遂宥釋，而朝野善類聞之，莫不憤慨。是役也，義大利海內震動，士論交馳，訐墨氏等擅殺議員，無可逭，宜罷相位。然則墨氏羽翼益豐，又挾王袒庇，終守其官。

==考據==
{{Reflist}}

[[分類:義大利列傳]]</text>
      <sha1>flmh5v45rplpxgqtnx77w90lihfbf7v</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>摩訶真言</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>128440</id>
    <revision>
      <id>418376</id>
      <parentid>418285</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-22T00:43:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thyj</username>
        <id>38133</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>418376</origin>
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      <text bytes="1203" sha1="p5i3b7lcrb7ooj1gzive1t64imzy1q1" xml:space="preserve">[[圖像:Hare Krishna Maha Mantra in Siddham.png|thumb|[[梵字]]書《摩訶真言》]]
《'''摩訶真言'''》，全稱《'''訶唎訖哩瑟拏摩訶曼怛羅'''》{{按|[[梵語]]曰{{lang|sa|𑖮𑖨𑖸 𑖎𑖴𑖬𑖿𑖜 𑖦𑖮𑖯𑖦𑖡𑖿𑖝𑖿𑖨}}／{{lang|sa|Hare Kṛṣṇa Mahā-mantra}}}}，[[印度教]]之[[黑天]]真言也，初載《[[普渡鬥爭世奧義書]]》。全文止三詞：訶唎{{按|{{lang|sa|𑖮𑖨𑖸}}}}、訖哩瑟拏{{按|{{lang|sa|𑖎𑖴𑖬𑖿𑖜}}}}、羅摩{{按|{{lang|sa|𑖨𑖯𑖦}}}}。本是密咒，[[遮曇若摩訶波羅菩]]尊者為廣傳之。

== 全文 ==
梵音：
&lt;blockquote&gt;
&lt;poem&gt;
{{lang|sa-sidd|𑖮𑖨𑖸 𑖎𑖴𑖬𑖿𑖜 𑖮𑖨𑖸 𑖎𑖴𑖬𑖿𑖜
𑖎𑖴𑖬𑖿𑖜 𑖎𑖴𑖬𑖿𑖜 𑖮𑖨𑖸 𑖮𑖨𑖸
𑖮𑖨𑖸 𑖨𑖯𑖦 𑖮𑖨𑖸 𑖨𑖯𑖦
𑖨𑖯𑖦 𑖨𑖯𑖦 𑖮𑖨𑖸 𑖮𑖨𑖸}}
&lt;/poem&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

漢音：
&lt;blockquote&gt;
&lt;poem&gt;
訶唎 訖哩瑟拏 訶唎 訖哩瑟拏
訖哩瑟拏 訖哩瑟拏 訶唎 訶唎
訶唎 羅摩 訶唎 羅摩
羅摩 羅摩 訶唎 訶唎
&lt;/poem&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== 參 ==
{{Commonscat|Hare Krishna mantra}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:宗教]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>塞基洛斯墓誌</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>128538</id>
    <revision>
      <id>418351</id>
      <timestamp>2025-06-21T12:32:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Above mountain</username>
        <id>108075</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>立文</comment>
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      <text bytes="686" sha1="epl4j9wx2ic7jomubj4e2fk36wd6k2v" xml:space="preserve">'''塞基洛斯墓誌并序'''，古希臘人所刻，見於[[愛奧尼亞]]地。碑為石柱，詩及樂譜鐫於上，乃當世所存最古之整樂也。

其序曰：「我為墓碑，徵以永念。塞基洛斯立我於此，誌不朽之思。」詞意勸人珍惜當下，樂觀處世，蓋曰：「生存之時，盡歡無憂；人生短促，歲月易逝。」
[[File:Seikilos1.tif|thumb|塞基洛斯墓誌并序（大理石，土耳其艾登出土）]]

是碑或為塞基洛斯念亡妻所立，亦或自誌其名。其曲調依[[古希臘]]記譜法記之，旋律簡潔，意蘊悠遠。今存於丹麥國家博物館，為古樂研究之瑰寶。
[[Category:古希臘史]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>418352</id>
      <parentid>418351</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-21T12:42:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Above mountain</username>
        <id>108075</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>引據</comment>
      <origin>418352</origin>
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      <text bytes="1528" sha1="r6amxrg7q9ms93kqt59g0x5narr2di9" xml:space="preserve">'''塞基洛斯墓誌并序'''，古希臘人所刻，見於[[愛奧尼亞]]地。碑為石柱，詩及樂譜鐫於上，乃當世所存最古之整樂也&lt;ref name=MusicAncGreeceRome&gt;{{cite book|title=page 252|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PDBMPo1VkhYC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PA252#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false|first=John G.|last=Landels|year=1999|access-date=2014-11-03|archive-date=2020-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729154454/https://books.google.com/books?id=PDBMPo1VkhYC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PA252#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。


其序曰：「我為墓碑，徵以永念。塞基洛斯立我於此，誌不朽之思。」詞意勸人珍惜當下，樂觀處世，蓋曰：「生存之時，盡歡無憂；人生短促，歲月易逝。」
[[File:Seikilos1.tif|thumb|塞基洛斯墓誌并序（大理石，土耳其艾登出土）]]

是碑或為塞基洛斯念亡妻所立&lt;ref name=HarvardDictionaryMusic&gt;{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=02rFSecPhEsC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PA767#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false|page=767|chapter=塞基洛斯墓誌|editor-first=Don Michael|editor-last=Randel|year=2003|title=|access-date=2015-12-08|archive-date=2017-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170220100922/https://books.google.com/books?id=02rFSecPhEsC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PA767#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt; ，亦或自誌其名。其曲調依[[古希臘]]記譜法記之，旋律簡潔，意蘊悠遠。今存於丹麥國家博物館，為古樂研究之瑰寶。
==據==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:古希臘史]]</text>
      <sha1>r6amxrg7q9ms93kqt59g0x5narr2di9</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>418353</id>
      <parentid>418352</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-21T12:46:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Above mountain</username>
        <id>108075</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>418353</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1532" sha1="qeek0le7dw8m74u618rnwb0fsb4btax" xml:space="preserve">'''塞基洛斯墓誌并序'''，古希臘人所刻，見於[[愛奧尼亞]]地。碑為石柱，詩及樂譜鐫於上，乃當世所存最古之整樂也&lt;ref name=MusicAncGreeceRome&gt;{{cite book|title=page 252|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PDBMPo1VkhYC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PA252#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false|first=John G.|last=Landels|year=1999|access-date=2014-11-03|archive-date=2020-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729154454/https://books.google.com/books?id=PDBMPo1VkhYC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PA252#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。


其序曰：「我為墓碑，徵以永念。塞基洛斯立我於此，誌其不朽之思。」詞意勸人珍惜當下，樂觀處世，蓋曰：「生存之時，盡歡無憂；人生短促，韶華易逝。」
[[File:Seikilos1.tif|thumb|塞基洛斯墓誌并序（大理石，土耳其艾登出土）]]

是碑或為塞基洛斯念亡妻所立&lt;ref name=HarvardDictionaryMusic&gt;{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=02rFSecPhEsC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PA767#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false|page=767|chapter=塞基洛斯墓誌|editor-first=Don Michael|editor-last=Randel|year=2003|title=|access-date=2015-12-08|archive-date=2017-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170220100922/https://books.google.com/books?id=02rFSecPhEsC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PA767#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt; ，亦或自誌其名。其曲調依[[古希臘]]記譜法記之，旋律簡潔，意蘊悠遠。今存於丹麥國家博物館，為古樂研究之瑰寶。

==據==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:古希臘史]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>用戶討論:RandomIndividual123</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>128539</id>
    <revision>
      <id>418354</id>
      <timestamp>2025-06-21T12:54:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>New user message</username>
        <id>64015</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>在新使用者的討論頁上添加[[Template:Welcome|歡迎資訊]]</comment>
      <origin>418354</origin>
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      <text bytes="214" sha1="inbpksdw3gyifozky7gzc3z3krriz7m" xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Welcome|realName=|name=RandomIndividual123}}

-- [[user:WAN233|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #007FFF;&quot;&gt;启明&lt;/span&gt;]][[user talk:WAN233|(留言)]] 二〇二五年六月二一日 （六） 一二時五四分 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>inbpksdw3gyifozky7gzc3z3krriz7m</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>用戶討論:Shobvy</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>128540</id>
    <revision>
      <id>418355</id>
      <timestamp>2025-06-21T13:03:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>New user message</username>
        <id>64015</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>在新使用者的討論頁上添加[[Template:Welcome|歡迎資訊]]</comment>
      <origin>418355</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="179" sha1="nsu5u3o3lmj3gpxtkyzixsr6xknqy9h" xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Welcome|realName=|name=Shobvy}}

-- [[用戶:丁子君|丁子君]] ([[用戶討論:丁子君|對話]]) 二〇二五年六月二一日 （六） 一三時〇三分 (UTC)</text>
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  <page>
    <title>用戶討論:Rubintyrann</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>418356</id>
      <timestamp>2025-06-21T13:52:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>New user message</username>
        <id>64015</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>在新使用者的討論頁上添加[[Template:Welcome|歡迎資訊]]</comment>
      <origin>418356</origin>
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      <text bytes="183" sha1="r2sbpwwj1znddvr53ld36sa7vgzfekj" xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Welcome|realName=|name=Rubintyrann}}

-- [[用戶:Itsmine|孔明居士]] ([[用戶討論:Itsmine|對話]]) 二〇二五年六月二一日 （六） 一三時五二分 (UTC)</text>
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  <page>
    <title>克倫威爾</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>128542</id>
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      <timestamp>2025-06-21T14:33:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shunshen Lee</username>
        <id>68656</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>立新文</comment>
      <origin>418357</origin>
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      <text bytes="4250" sha1="f1km2hofbzcpmut4uh1orxvr47r5exq" xml:space="preserve">{{Emperor
|圖   =[[File:Oliver Cromwell by Samuel Cooper.jpg|200px]]
|稱號 =英格蘭聯邦護國公
|姓名 =克倫威爾
|廟號 =
|諡號 =
|陵墓 =[[西敏寺]]
|政權 =[[w:zh:英格蘭聯邦|英格蘭聯邦]]
|生卒 =[[西元]][[一五九九年]]四月廿五日&lt;br&gt;至[[一六五八年]]九月三日
|在位 =[[西元]][[一六五三年]]十二月十六日&lt;br&gt;至[[一六五八年]]九月三日
|年號 =
|先君 =國王 [[w:zh:查理一世 (英格蘭)|查理一世]]
|嗣君 =護國公 [[w:zh:理查德·克倫威爾|理查德]]
}}
'''克倫威爾''' {{按|[[英文]] Oliver Cromwell}}，諱'''奧利弗'''，[[英格蘭]]人也。[[西元]][[一五九九年]]四月廿五日，誕亨廷登。

==生平==
其先出於[[托馬斯·克倫威爾|托馬斯]]姊凱瑟琳，世居農郊，值[[w:zh:宗教改革|宗教更張]]之際，家道以興，貲財頗豐。父曰羅伯特，母曰伊麗莎白。少機敏，受學於亨廷登文法校，後入[[w:zh:劍橋大學悉尼學院|劍橋悉尼學院]]。會父喪，遂輟學還，力耕於田間，儼然農民。後繼其叔家貲，稍自裕。先是，英倫風尚[[w:zh:清教徒|清教]]，克倫威爾慕之篤信，日夕誦經，謂蒙[[耶穌|基督]]旨導，自處謹嚴。克倫威爾性剛毅，喜簡樸，少言而志堅。其信念雖未形諸辭令，而兼容[[w:zh:新教|新教]]諸派，蓋實篤於道也&lt;ref&gt;Boyer, Richard E., ed. ''Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan revolt; failure of a man or a faith?'' (1966) excerpts from primary and secondary sources. [https://archive.org/details/olivercromwellpu00boye online]&lt;/ref&gt;。[[一六二八年]]，初仕議會，充亨廷登議員。[[一六四〇年]]，轉劍橋，參預長議會，由是聲聞愈顯。及英倫內訌，國王與議會軍相攻，克倫威爾附圓顱黨，募兵自將之，親統鐵騎，軍容壯肅，時號為「老鐵騎軍」&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Morrill |first=John S. |author-link=John Morrill (historian) |date=May 2008 |origyear=2004 |id=6765 |title=Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)}}&lt;/ref&gt;。克軍能戰善守，威震王黨，積功進將軍，勢日張，遂悉握兵柄。

[[一六四九年]]，內亂平，克倫威爾與諸將議，執國王問罪，鞫實，尋命棄市，刑白廳&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=BBC staff |title=This Sceptred Isle – The Execution of Charles I. |date=3 October 2014 |access-date=4 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080628144505/http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/sceptred_isle/page/65.shtml?question=65 |archive-date=28 June 2008 |url-status=live |chapter=The Execution of Charles I |chapter-url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/sceptred_isle/page/65.shtml?question=65 |publisher=BBC Radio 4}}&lt;/ref&gt;。既而擠排異己，議員多褫官，國會空存其名焉。克倫威爾權柄獨操，朝野震懾。是年，命西征[[愛爾蘭]]，所至城邑皆陷，軍威如雷。又遣麾下將蒙克率兵入[[蘇格蘭]]，連戰而捷，王黨大潰，無敢當。[[一六五三年]]四月，克倫威爾率甲士蒞國會，悉逐議員，斷其章奏。未幾，命籌設新官屬，謂曰「小議會」，人皆其所自擇。十二月，克倫威爾稱「護國公」，總攬庶政，制諸軍民，威儀如昔國王焉&lt;ref&gt;Clifford, Alan (1999). ''Oliver Cromwell: the lessons and legacy of the Protectorate'' Charenton Reformed Publishing, {{ISBN|0-9526716-2-X}}. Religious study.&lt;/ref&gt;。克氏當國，乃勵行約法，興工造艦，肅吏安民。又請通使互市，設守拓邊，至是威震[[泰西]]。[[一六五八年]]九月三日，薨於[[w:zh:白廳|白廳]]，時年五十九，葬於[[西敏寺]]。克氏子理查德立，才短志薄，軍政俱廢，貴族及諸將帥乘間圖變。理查德益惶駭，遽棄權柄，攜親眷同奔[[法蘭西]]；於是王政復辟，羣臣奉[[查理二世|查理王子]]車駕還[[倫敦]]。王既迎復，怒未洩，命發克倫威爾陵寢，剖棺暴屍，載而遊街。至泰伯恩刑場，敕懸克氏骸於絞架，與其黨徒屍並列，俟示眾終日，斬其首，貫以矛，行於市中。克倫威爾其軀則棄之溝壑，不設棺椁；時人觀者，皆噤不敢言。

==考據==
{{reflist}}

[[分類:聯合斯圖亞特列傳]]</text>
      <sha1>f1km2hofbzcpmut4uh1orxvr47r5exq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>418358</id>
      <parentid>418357</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-21T14:34:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shunshen Lee</username>
        <id>68656</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Shunshen Lee遷頁[[奧利弗·克倫威爾]]至[[克倫威爾]]</comment>
      <origin>418357</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4250" sha1="f1km2hofbzcpmut4uh1orxvr47r5exq" xml:space="preserve">{{Emperor
|圖   =[[File:Oliver Cromwell by Samuel Cooper.jpg|200px]]
|稱號 =英格蘭聯邦護國公
|姓名 =克倫威爾
|廟號 =
|諡號 =
|陵墓 =[[西敏寺]]
|政權 =[[w:zh:英格蘭聯邦|英格蘭聯邦]]
|生卒 =[[西元]][[一五九九年]]四月廿五日&lt;br&gt;至[[一六五八年]]九月三日
|在位 =[[西元]][[一六五三年]]十二月十六日&lt;br&gt;至[[一六五八年]]九月三日
|年號 =
|先君 =國王 [[w:zh:查理一世 (英格蘭)|查理一世]]
|嗣君 =護國公 [[w:zh:理查德·克倫威爾|理查德]]
}}
'''克倫威爾''' {{按|[[英文]] Oliver Cromwell}}，諱'''奧利弗'''，[[英格蘭]]人也。[[西元]][[一五九九年]]四月廿五日，誕亨廷登。

==生平==
其先出於[[托馬斯·克倫威爾|托馬斯]]姊凱瑟琳，世居農郊，值[[w:zh:宗教改革|宗教更張]]之際，家道以興，貲財頗豐。父曰羅伯特，母曰伊麗莎白。少機敏，受學於亨廷登文法校，後入[[w:zh:劍橋大學悉尼學院|劍橋悉尼學院]]。會父喪，遂輟學還，力耕於田間，儼然農民。後繼其叔家貲，稍自裕。先是，英倫風尚[[w:zh:清教徒|清教]]，克倫威爾慕之篤信，日夕誦經，謂蒙[[耶穌|基督]]旨導，自處謹嚴。克倫威爾性剛毅，喜簡樸，少言而志堅。其信念雖未形諸辭令，而兼容[[w:zh:新教|新教]]諸派，蓋實篤於道也&lt;ref&gt;Boyer, Richard E., ed. ''Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan revolt; failure of a man or a faith?'' (1966) excerpts from primary and secondary sources. [https://archive.org/details/olivercromwellpu00boye online]&lt;/ref&gt;。[[一六二八年]]，初仕議會，充亨廷登議員。[[一六四〇年]]，轉劍橋，參預長議會，由是聲聞愈顯。及英倫內訌，國王與議會軍相攻，克倫威爾附圓顱黨，募兵自將之，親統鐵騎，軍容壯肅，時號為「老鐵騎軍」&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Morrill |first=John S. |author-link=John Morrill (historian) |date=May 2008 |origyear=2004 |id=6765 |title=Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)}}&lt;/ref&gt;。克軍能戰善守，威震王黨，積功進將軍，勢日張，遂悉握兵柄。

[[一六四九年]]，內亂平，克倫威爾與諸將議，執國王問罪，鞫實，尋命棄市，刑白廳&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=BBC staff |title=This Sceptred Isle – The Execution of Charles I. |date=3 October 2014 |access-date=4 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080628144505/http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/sceptred_isle/page/65.shtml?question=65 |archive-date=28 June 2008 |url-status=live |chapter=The Execution of Charles I |chapter-url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/sceptred_isle/page/65.shtml?question=65 |publisher=BBC Radio 4}}&lt;/ref&gt;。既而擠排異己，議員多褫官，國會空存其名焉。克倫威爾權柄獨操，朝野震懾。是年，命西征[[愛爾蘭]]，所至城邑皆陷，軍威如雷。又遣麾下將蒙克率兵入[[蘇格蘭]]，連戰而捷，王黨大潰，無敢當。[[一六五三年]]四月，克倫威爾率甲士蒞國會，悉逐議員，斷其章奏。未幾，命籌設新官屬，謂曰「小議會」，人皆其所自擇。十二月，克倫威爾稱「護國公」，總攬庶政，制諸軍民，威儀如昔國王焉&lt;ref&gt;Clifford, Alan (1999). ''Oliver Cromwell: the lessons and legacy of the Protectorate'' Charenton Reformed Publishing, {{ISBN|0-9526716-2-X}}. Religious study.&lt;/ref&gt;。克氏當國，乃勵行約法，興工造艦，肅吏安民。又請通使互市，設守拓邊，至是威震[[泰西]]。[[一六五八年]]九月三日，薨於[[w:zh:白廳|白廳]]，時年五十九，葬於[[西敏寺]]。克氏子理查德立，才短志薄，軍政俱廢，貴族及諸將帥乘間圖變。理查德益惶駭，遽棄權柄，攜親眷同奔[[法蘭西]]；於是王政復辟，羣臣奉[[查理二世|查理王子]]車駕還[[倫敦]]。王既迎復，怒未洩，命發克倫威爾陵寢，剖棺暴屍，載而遊街。至泰伯恩刑場，敕懸克氏骸於絞架，與其黨徒屍並列，俟示眾終日，斬其首，貫以矛，行於市中。克倫威爾其軀則棄之溝壑，不設棺椁；時人觀者，皆噤不敢言。

==考據==
{{reflist}}

[[分類:聯合斯圖亞特列傳]]</text>
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      <id>418360</id>
      <parentid>418358</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-21T14:41:37Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Shunshen Lee</username>
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|圖   =[[File:Oliver Cromwell by Samuel Cooper.jpg|200px]]
|稱號 =英格蘭聯邦護國公
|姓名 =克倫威爾
|廟號 =
|諡號 =
|陵墓 =[[西敏寺]]
|政權 =[[w:zh:英格蘭聯邦|英格蘭聯邦]]
|生卒 =[[西元]][[一五九九年]]四月廿五日&lt;br&gt;至[[一六五八年]]九月三日
|在位 =[[西元]][[一六五三年]]十二月十六日&lt;br&gt;至[[一六五八年]]九月三日
|年號 =
|先君 =國王 [[w:zh:查理一世 (英格蘭)|查理一世]]
|嗣君 =護國公 [[w:zh:理查德·克倫威爾|理查德]]
}}
'''克倫威爾''' {{按|[[英文]] Oliver Cromwell}}，諱'''奧利弗'''，[[英格蘭]]人也。[[西元]][[一五九九年]]四月廿五日，誕亨廷登。

==生平==
[[File:Charles Landseer Cromwell Battle of Naseby.JPG|200px|left|thumb|克倫威爾行軍圖]]
其先出於[[托馬斯·克倫威爾|托馬斯]]姊凱瑟琳，世居農郊，值[[w:zh:宗教改革|宗教更張]]之際，家道以興，貲財頗豐。父曰羅伯特，母曰伊麗莎白。少機敏，受學於亨廷登文法校，後入[[w:zh:劍橋大學悉尼學院|劍橋悉尼學院]]。會父喪，遂輟學還，力耕於田間，儼然農民。後繼其叔家貲，稍自裕。先是，英倫風尚[[w:zh:清教徒|清教]]，克倫威爾慕之篤信，日夕誦經，謂蒙[[耶穌|基督]]旨導，自處謹嚴。克倫威爾性剛毅，喜簡樸，少言而志堅。其信念雖未形諸辭令，而兼容[[w:zh:新教|新教]]諸派，蓋實篤於道也&lt;ref&gt;Boyer, Richard E., ed. ''Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan revolt; failure of a man or a faith?'' (1966) excerpts from primary and secondary sources. [https://archive.org/details/olivercromwellpu00boye online]&lt;/ref&gt;。[[一六二八年]]，初仕議會，充亨廷登議員。[[一六四〇年]]，轉劍橋，參預長議會，由是聲聞愈顯。及英倫內訌，國王與議會軍相攻，克倫威爾附圓顱黨，募兵自將之，親統鐵騎，軍容壯肅，時號為「老鐵騎軍」&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Morrill |first=John S. |author-link=John Morrill (historian) |date=May 2008 |origyear=2004 |id=6765 |title=Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)}}&lt;/ref&gt;。克軍能戰善守，威震王黨，積功進將軍，勢日張，遂悉握兵柄。

[[File:Oliver Cromwell by Robert Walker.jpg|180px|thumb|克氏畫像]]
[[一六四九年]]，內亂平，克倫威爾與諸將議，執國王問罪，鞫實，尋命棄市，刑白廳&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=BBC staff |title=This Sceptred Isle – The Execution of Charles I. |date=3 October 2014 |access-date=4 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080628144505/http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/sceptred_isle/page/65.shtml?question=65 |archive-date=28 June 2008 |url-status=live |chapter=The Execution of Charles I |chapter-url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/sceptred_isle/page/65.shtml?question=65 |publisher=BBC Radio 4}}&lt;/ref&gt;。既而擠排異己，議員多褫官，國會空存其名焉。克倫威爾權柄獨操，朝野震懾。是年，命西征[[愛爾蘭]]，所至城邑皆陷，軍威如雷。又遣麾下將蒙克率兵入[[蘇格蘭]]，連戰而捷，王黨大潰，無敢當。[[一六五三年]]四月，克倫威爾率甲士蒞國會，悉逐議員，斷其章奏。未幾，命籌設新官屬，謂曰「小議會」，人皆其所自擇。十二月，克倫威爾稱「護國公」，總攬庶政，制諸軍民，威儀如昔國王焉&lt;ref&gt;Clifford, Alan (1999). ''Oliver Cromwell: the lessons and legacy of the Protectorate'' Charenton Reformed Publishing, {{ISBN|0-9526716-2-X}}. Religious study.&lt;/ref&gt;。克氏當國，乃勵行約法，興工造艦，肅吏安民。又請通使互市，設守拓邊，至是威震[[泰西]]。[[一六五八年]]九月三日，疾作，薨於[[w:zh:懷特霍爾宮|白廳]]，時年五十九，葬於[[西敏寺]]。克氏子理查德立，才短志薄，軍政俱廢，貴族及諸將帥乘間圖變。理查德益惶駭，遽棄權柄，攜親眷同奔[[法蘭西]]；於是王政復辟，羣臣奉[[查理二世|查理王子]]車駕還[[倫敦]]。王既迎復，怒未洩，命發克倫威爾陵寢，剖棺暴屍，載而遊街。至泰伯恩刑場，敕懸克氏骸於絞架，與其黨徒屍並列，俟示眾終日，斬其首，貫以矛，行於市中。克倫威爾其軀則棄之溝壑，不設棺椁；時人觀者，皆噤不敢言。

==考據==
{{reflist}}

[[分類:聯合斯圖亞特列傳]]</text>
      <sha1>j25v7dpv62br7ophm2c01qmwyi26lsh</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>418361</id>
      <parentid>418360</parentid>
      <timestamp>2025-06-21T14:59:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shunshen Lee</username>
        <id>68656</id>
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      <origin>418361</origin>
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      <text bytes="4679" sha1="833k8r39gyreai62luonsdtkhy5inj5" xml:space="preserve">{{Emperor
|圖   =[[File:Oliver Cromwell by Samuel Cooper.jpg|200px]]
|稱號 =英格蘭聯邦護國公
|姓名 =克倫威爾
|廟號 =
|諡號 =
|陵墓 =[[西敏寺]]
|政權 =[[w:zh:英格蘭聯邦|英格蘭聯邦]]
|生卒 =[[西元]][[一五九九年]]四月廿五日&lt;br&gt;至[[一六五八年]]九月三日
|在位 =[[西元]][[一六五三年]]十二月十六日&lt;br&gt;至[[一六五八年]]九月三日
|年號 =
|先君 =國王 [[w:zh:查理一世 (英格蘭)|查理一世]]
|嗣君 =護國公 [[w:zh:理查德·克倫威爾|理查德]]
}}
'''克倫威爾''' {{按|[[英文]] Oliver Cromwell}}，諱'''奧利弗'''，[[英格蘭]]人也。[[西元]][[一五九九年]]四月廿五日，誕亨廷登。

==生平==
[[File:Charles Landseer Cromwell Battle of Naseby.JPG|200px|left|thumb|克倫威爾行軍圖]]
其先出於[[托馬斯·克倫威爾|托馬斯]]姊凱瑟琳，世居農郊，值[[w:zh:宗教改革|宗教更張]]之際，家道以興，貲財頗豐。父曰羅伯特，母曰伊麗莎白。少機敏，受學於亨廷登文法校，後入[[w:zh:劍橋大學悉尼學院|劍橋悉尼學院]]。會父喪，遂輟學還，服除，力耕於田間，儼然農民。後繼其叔家貲，稍自裕。先是，英倫風尚[[w:zh:清教徒|清教]]，克倫威爾慕之篤信，日夕誦經，謂蒙[[耶穌|基督]]旨導，自處謹嚴。克倫威爾性剛毅，喜簡樸，少言而志堅。其信念雖未形諸辭令，而兼容[[w:zh:新教|新教]]諸派，蓋實篤於道也&lt;ref&gt;Boyer, Richard E., ed. ''Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan revolt; failure of a man or a faith?'' (1966) excerpts from primary and secondary sources. [https://archive.org/details/olivercromwellpu00boye online]&lt;/ref&gt;。[[一六二八年]]，初仕議會，充亨廷登議員。[[一六四〇年]]，轉劍橋，參預「長議會」，由是聲聞愈顯。及英倫內訌，國王與議會軍相攻，克倫威爾附圓顱黨，募兵自將之，親統鐵騎，軍容壯肅，時號為「老鐵騎軍」&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Morrill |first=John S. |author-link=John Morrill (historian) |date=May 2008 |origyear=2004 |id=6765 |title=Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)}}&lt;/ref&gt;。克軍能戰善守，威震王黨，積功進將軍，勢日張，遂悉握兵柄。

[[File:Oliver Cromwell by Robert Walker.jpg|180px|thumb|克氏畫像]]
[[一六四九年]]，內亂平，克倫威爾與諸將議，執國王問罪，鞫實，尋命棄市，刑白廳&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=BBC staff |title=This Sceptred Isle – The Execution of Charles I. |date=3 October 2014 |access-date=4 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080628144505/http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/sceptred_isle/page/65.shtml?question=65 |archive-date=28 June 2008 |url-status=live |chapter=The Execution of Charles I |chapter-url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/sceptred_isle/page/65.shtml?question=65 |publisher=BBC Radio 4}}&lt;/ref&gt;。既而擠排異己，議員多褫官，惟留親信，國會空存其名焉。克倫威爾權柄獨操，朝野震懾。是年，命西征[[愛爾蘭]]，所至城邑皆陷，軍威如雷。又遣麾下將蒙克率兵入[[蘇格蘭]]，連戰而捷，王黨大潰，無敢當。[[一六五三年]]四月，克倫威爾率甲士蒞國會，悉逐議員，斷其章奏。未幾，命籌設新官屬，謂曰「小議會」，人皆其所自擇。十二月，克倫威爾稱「護國公」，總攬庶政，制諸軍民，威儀如昔國王焉&lt;ref&gt;Clifford, Alan (1999). ''Oliver Cromwell: the lessons and legacy of the Protectorate'' Charenton Reformed Publishing, {{ISBN|0-9526716-2-X}}. Religious study.&lt;/ref&gt;。克氏當國，乃勵行約法，興工造艦，肅吏安民。又請通使互市，設守拓邊，至是威震[[泰西]]。[[一六五八年]]九月三日，疾作，薨於[[w:zh:懷特霍爾宮|白廳]]，時年五十九，葬於[[西敏寺]]。克氏子理查德立，才短志薄，軍政俱廢，貴族及諸將帥乘間圖變。理查德益惶駭，遽棄權柄，攜親眷同奔[[法蘭西]]；於是王政復辟，羣臣奉[[查理二世|查理王子]]車駕還[[倫敦]]。王既迎復，怒未洩，命發克倫威爾陵寢，剖棺暴屍，載而遊街。至泰伯恩刑場，敕懸克氏骸於絞架，與其黨徒屍並列，俟示眾終日，斬其首，貫以矛，行於市中。克倫威爾其軀則棄之溝壑，不設棺椁；時人觀者，皆噤不敢言。王詔置克氏首於[[西敏宮]]門之上，凡廿五年，始為風暴擊落。後其首流轉民間，為好事者所藏，歷久猶存髯髮也。[[一九六〇年]]，劍橋大學贖克氏首還，葬牛津。

==考據==
{{reflist}}

[[分類:聯合斯圖亞特列傳]]</text>
      <sha1>833k8r39gyreai62luonsdtkhy5inj5</sha1>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>奧利弗·克倫威爾</title>
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      <id>418359</id>
      <timestamp>2025-06-21T14:34:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shunshen Lee</username>
        <id>68656</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Shunshen Lee遷頁[[奧利弗·克倫威爾]]至[[克倫威爾]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="30" sha1="cmukwxiupzi6s18dbtm1o52fsymsros" xml:space="preserve">#重新導向 [[克倫威爾]]</text>
      <sha1>cmukwxiupzi6s18dbtm1o52fsymsros</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>俾斯麥</title>
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      <id>418363</id>
      <timestamp>2025-06-21T16:19:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shunshen Lee</username>
        <id>68656</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>立新文</comment>
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      <text bytes="3723" sha1="6fnlw9wlde74gktjufh5wlbmx8b0e7a" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Otto Fürst von Bismarck.JPG|200px|thumb|德宰相俾斯麥像]]
'''俾斯麥''' {{按|[[德語]] Otto von Bismarck}}，名'''奧托·馮'''，[[w:zh:德意志帝國|德意志]]人。[[西元]][[一八一五年]]四月一日，誕[[普魯士]]。少負大略，性方峻，好論兵事。初為普魯士容克，明習保守之論，言辭剴切，為同列所推重。由是聲名漸著，遂擢為外使，專典交涉。[[一八六二年]]，普國內請願[[憲政|立憲]]，[[威廉一世|王]]慮變作，召俾斯麥入對訖，授[[宰相]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Crankshaw |first=Edward |title=Bismarck |url=https://archive.org/details/bismarck0000cran |publisher=The Viking Press |year=1981 |isbn=978-0670169825 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;。俾斯麥既受命，乃無復顧議會意，斷行己志。數年間，俾氏請興兵伐[[丹麥]]，奪施勒斯維、荷爾斯泰因諸地。又因與[[奧匈帝國|奧地利]]爭德意志事權，戰於薩多瓦，奧軍大敗，卒定[[w:zh:布拉格和約|約]]，褫其共主位。自是普魯士總攝[[w:zh:北德意志邦聯|北德]]之政，諸邦從化。俾氏以兵威震歐陲，倡[[w:zh:小德意志|小德意志]]之策，遂謀以普魯士統攝德人諸邦。[[一八七〇年]]，俾氏伺[[法蘭西]]時局不靖，請發兵伐之，遂有[[w:zh:普法戰爭|普法之役]]。德師至色當，擒[[w:zh:拿破崙三世|法皇]]。[[一八七一年|明年]]初，德意志[[諸侯]]咸勸進普王，未幾，即皇帝位於[[w:zh:凡爾賽宮|凡爾賽宮]]，德人至此始定於一。

俾氏以鐵血之政，行於朝綱，為輿論號曰「鐵血宰相」&lt;ref&gt;鐵者，軍械器物也；血者，殺戮之徵也。其言曰：「本國之興，不繫辯舌，而在干戈。」凡其所為，多以力服人，故得是名。&lt;/ref&gt;。及建國，俾氏乃更圖內政整飭，議置民婚法，以沮抑天主教中央黨勢。俾氏初善自由黨人，務改良舊制，然則混一以來，浸疏自由黨，而與保守輩相結納。請重關稅、抑外貨，設勞工保險，補恤老弱&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gall |first=Lothar |title=Bismarck: The White Revolutionary |publisher=Unwin Hyman |year=1990 |isbn=978-0044457787 |volume=1 |ref=harv |author-link=Lothar Gall}}&lt;/ref&gt;。[[一八七九年]]，俾氏立《社會黨人法》，彈壓激進不附己者，益抑工運，固官權之尊。[[一八八八年]]，[[威廉二世 (德國)|皇太孫威廉]]襲立，性頗剛愎，以俾氏柄政多專擅，愈銜之，政見乖離。[[一八九零年|越二年]]，帝遽勒俾氏去位，三月，乃以勞恩堡公爵休致。俾斯麥雖退，不廢論政，嘗著書以記舊事&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bismarck |first=Otto von |url=https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=77734130 |title=Bismarck, the Man &amp; the Statesman: Being the Reflections and Reminiscences of Otto, Prince von Bismarck |publisher=Harper &amp; Brothers |others=Trans. A. J. Butler |year=1899 |volume=1 |location=New York and London |access-date=2020-07-05 |archive-date=2011-06-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624020254/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=77734130 |dead-url=no }}&lt;/ref&gt;，名曰《回憶與思考》，述其前功，期後人知己忠誠而不忘也。國人素尚俾氏為國父，德譽交譽，無復疑議。及[[第二次世界大戰|納粹敗]]，學士論俾氏治事，每譴其專制，謂其壞[[民主]]，立帝制遺禍，其罪不細。俾斯麥執政凡二十餘年，縱橫[[歐洲]]，混一德境，創立良法，為後世所美。[[一八九八年]]七月三十日，卒於家，追贈陸軍上將，德人立其像祀之。

==考據==
{{reflist}}

[[分類:普魯士列傳]]
[[分類:德意志帝國列傳]]</text>
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      <comment>Shunshen Lee遷頁[[奧托·馮·俾斯麥]]至[[俾斯麥]]</comment>
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'''俾斯麥''' {{按|[[德語]] Otto von Bismarck}}，名'''奧托·馮'''，[[w:zh:德意志帝國|德意志]]人。[[西元]][[一八一五年]]四月一日，誕[[普魯士]]。少負大略，性方峻，好論兵事。初為普魯士容克，明習保守之論，言辭剴切，為同列所推重。由是聲名漸著，遂擢為外使，專典交涉。[[一八六二年]]，普國內請願[[憲政|立憲]]，[[威廉一世|王]]慮變作，召俾斯麥入對訖，授[[宰相]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Crankshaw |first=Edward |title=Bismarck |url=https://archive.org/details/bismarck0000cran |publisher=The Viking Press |year=1981 |isbn=978-0670169825 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;。俾斯麥既受命，乃無復顧議會意，斷行己志。數年間，俾氏請興兵伐[[丹麥]]，奪施勒斯維、荷爾斯泰因諸地。又因與[[奧匈帝國|奧地利]]爭德意志事權，戰於薩多瓦，奧軍大敗，卒定[[w:zh:布拉格和約|約]]，褫其共主位。自是普魯士總攝[[w:zh:北德意志邦聯|北德]]之政，諸邦從化。俾氏以兵威震歐陲，倡[[w:zh:小德意志|小德意志]]之策，遂謀以普魯士統攝德人諸邦。[[一八七〇年]]，俾氏伺[[法蘭西]]時局不靖，請發兵伐之，遂有[[w:zh:普法戰爭|普法之役]]。德師至色當，擒[[w:zh:拿破崙三世|法皇]]。[[一八七一年|明年]]初，德意志[[諸侯]]咸勸進普王，未幾，即皇帝位於[[w:zh:凡爾賽宮|凡爾賽宮]]，德人至此始定於一。

俾氏以鐵血之政，行於朝綱，為輿論號曰「鐵血宰相」&lt;ref&gt;鐵者，軍械器物也；血者，殺戮之徵也。其言曰：「本國之興，不繫辯舌，而在干戈。」凡其所為，多以力服人，故得是名。&lt;/ref&gt;。及建國，俾氏乃更圖內政整飭，議置民婚法，以沮抑天主教中央黨勢。俾氏初善自由黨人，務改良舊制，然則混一以來，浸疏自由黨，而與保守輩相結納。請重關稅、抑外貨，設勞工保險，補恤老弱&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gall |first=Lothar |title=Bismarck: The White Revolutionary |publisher=Unwin Hyman |year=1990 |isbn=978-0044457787 |volume=1 |ref=harv |author-link=Lothar Gall}}&lt;/ref&gt;。[[一八七九年]]，俾氏立《社會黨人法》，彈壓激進不附己者，益抑工運，固官權之尊。[[一八八八年]]，[[威廉二世 (德國)|皇太孫威廉]]襲立，性頗剛愎，以俾氏柄政多專擅，愈銜之，政見乖離。[[一八九零年|越二年]]，帝遽勒俾氏去位，三月，乃以勞恩堡公爵休致。俾斯麥雖退，不廢論政，嘗著書以記舊事&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bismarck |first=Otto von |url=https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=77734130 |title=Bismarck, the Man &amp; the Statesman: Being the Reflections and Reminiscences of Otto, Prince von Bismarck |publisher=Harper &amp; Brothers |others=Trans. A. J. Butler |year=1899 |volume=1 |location=New York and London |access-date=2020-07-05 |archive-date=2011-06-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624020254/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=77734130 |dead-url=no }}&lt;/ref&gt;，名曰《回憶與思考》，述其前功，期後人知己忠誠而不忘也。國人素尚俾氏為國父，德譽交譽，無復疑議。及[[第二次世界大戰|納粹敗]]，學士論俾氏治事，每譴其專制，謂其壞[[民主]]，立帝制遺禍，其罪不細。俾斯麥執政凡二十餘年，縱橫[[歐洲]]，混一德境，創立良法，為後世所美。[[一八九八年]]七月三十日，卒於家，追贈陸軍上將，德人立其像祀之。

==考據==
{{reflist}}

[[分類:普魯士列傳]]
[[分類:德意志帝國列傳]]</text>
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'''俾斯麥''' {{按|[[德語]] Otto von Bismarck}}，名'''奧托·馮'''，[[w:zh:德意志帝國|德意志]]人。[[西元]][[一八一五年]]四月一日，誕[[普魯士]]。少負大略，性方峻，好論兵事。初為普魯士容克，明習保守之論，言辭剴切，為同列所推重。由是聲名漸著，遂擢為外使，專典交涉。[[一八六二年]]，普國內請願[[憲政|立憲]]，[[w:zh:威廉一世 (德國)|王]]慮變作，召俾斯麥入對訖，授[[宰相]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Crankshaw |first=Edward |title=Bismarck |url=https://archive.org/details/bismarck0000cran |publisher=The Viking Press |year=1981 |isbn=978-0670169825 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;。俾斯麥既受命，乃無復顧議會意，斷行己志。數年間，俾氏請興兵伐[[丹麥]]，奪施勒斯維、荷爾斯泰因諸地。又因與[[奧匈帝國|奧地利]]爭德意志事權，戰於薩多瓦，奧軍大敗，卒定[[w:zh:布拉格和約|約]]，褫奧人共主位。自是普魯士總攝[[w:zh:北德意志邦聯|北德]]之政，諸邦從化。俾氏以兵威震歐陲，倡[[w:zh:小德意志|小德意志]]之策，遂謀以普魯士統攝德人諸邦。[[一八七〇年]]，俾氏伺[[法蘭西]]時局不靖，請發兵伐之，遂有[[w:zh:普法戰爭|普法之役]]。德師至色當，擒[[w:zh:拿破崙三世|法皇]]。[[一八七一年|明年]]初，德意志[[諸侯]]咸勸進普王，未幾，即皇帝位於[[w:zh:凡爾賽宮|凡爾賽宮]]，德人至此始定於一。

俾氏以鐵血之政，行於朝綱，為輿論號曰「鐵血宰相」&lt;ref&gt;鐵者，軍械器物也；血者，殺戮之徵也。其言曰：「本國之興，不繫辯舌，而在干戈。」凡其所為，多以力服人，故得是名。&lt;/ref&gt;。及建國，俾氏乃更圖內政整飭，議置民婚法，以沮抑天主教中央黨勢。俾氏初善自由黨人，務改良舊制，然則混一以來，浸疏自由黨，而與保守輩相結納。請重關稅、抑外貨，設勞工保險，補恤老弱&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gall |first=Lothar |title=Bismarck: The White Revolutionary |publisher=Unwin Hyman |year=1990 |isbn=978-0044457787 |volume=1 |ref=harv |author-link=Lothar Gall}}&lt;/ref&gt;。[[一八七九年]]，俾氏立《社會黨人法》，彈壓激進不附己者，益抑工運，固官權之尊。[[一八八八年]]，[[威廉二世 (德國)|皇太孫威廉]]襲立，性頗剛愎，以俾氏柄政多專擅，愈銜之，政見乖離。[[一八九零年|越二年]]，帝遽勒俾氏去位，三月，乃以勞恩堡公爵休致。俾斯麥雖退，不廢論政，嘗著書以記舊事&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bismarck |first=Otto von |url=https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=77734130 |title=Bismarck, the Man &amp; the Statesman: Being the Reflections and Reminiscences of Otto, Prince von Bismarck |publisher=Harper &amp; Brothers |others=Trans. A. J. Butler |year=1899 |volume=1 |location=New York and London |access-date=2020-07-05 |archive-date=2011-06-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624020254/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=77734130 |dead-url=no }}&lt;/ref&gt;，名曰《回憶與思考》，述其前功，期後人知己忠誠而不忘也。國人素尚俾氏為國父，德譽交譽，無復疑議。及[[第二次世界大戰|納粹敗]]，學士論俾氏治事，每譴其專制，謂其壞[[民主]]，立帝制遺禍，其罪不細。俾斯麥執政凡二十餘年，縱橫[[歐洲]]，混一德境，創立良法，為後世所美。[[一八九八年]]七月三十日，卒於家，年八十三，追贈陸軍上將銜，德人立其像祀之。

==考據==
{{reflist}}

[[分類:普魯士列傳]]
[[分類:德意志帝國列傳]]</text>
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}}
'''俾斯麥''' {{按|[[德語]] Otto von Bismarck}}，名'''奧托·馮'''，[[w:zh:德意志帝國|德意志]]人。[[西元]][[一八一五年]]四月一日，誕[[普魯士]]。少負大略，性方峻，好論兵事。初為普魯士容克，明習保守之論，言辭剴切，為同列所推重。由是聲名漸著，遂擢為外使，專典交涉。[[一八六二年]]，普國內請願[[憲政|立憲]]，[[w:zh:威廉一世 (德國)|王]]慮變作，召俾斯麥入對訖，授[[宰相]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Crankshaw |first=Edward |title=Bismarck |url=https://archive.org/details/bismarck0000cran |publisher=The Viking Press |year=1981 |isbn=978-0670169825 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;。俾斯麥既受命，乃無復顧議會意，斷行己志。數年間，俾氏請興兵伐[[丹麥]]，奪施勒斯維、荷爾斯泰因諸地。又因與[[奧匈帝國|奧地利]]爭德意志事權，戰於薩多瓦，奧軍大敗，卒定[[w:zh:布拉格和約|約]]，褫奧人共主位。自是普魯士總攝[[w:zh:北德意志邦聯|北德]]之政，諸邦從化。俾氏以兵威震歐陲，倡[[w:zh:小德意志|小德意志]]之策，遂謀以普魯士統攝德人諸邦。[[一八七〇年]]，俾氏伺[[法蘭西]]時局不靖，請發兵伐之，遂有[[w:zh:普法戰爭|普法之役]]。德師至色當，擒[[w:zh:拿破崙三世|法皇]]。[[一八七一年|明年]]初，德意志[[諸侯]]咸勸進普王，未幾，即皇帝位於[[w:zh:凡爾賽宮|凡爾賽宮]]，德人至此始定於一。

俾氏以鐵血之政，行於朝綱，為輿論號曰「鐵血宰相」&lt;ref&gt;鐵者，軍械器物也；血者，殺戮之徵也。其言曰：「本國之興，不繫辯舌，而在干戈。」凡其所為，多以力服人，故得是名。&lt;/ref&gt;。及建國，俾氏乃更圖內政整飭，議置民婚法，以沮抑天主教中央黨勢。俾氏初善自由黨人，務改良舊制，然則混一以來，浸疏自由黨，而與保守輩相結納。請重關稅、抑外貨，設勞工保險，補恤老弱&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gall |first=Lothar |title=Bismarck: The White Revolutionary |publisher=Unwin Hyman |year=1990 |isbn=978-0044457787 |volume=1 |ref=harv |author-link=Lothar Gall}}&lt;/ref&gt;。[[一八七九年]]，俾氏立《社會黨人法》，彈壓激進不附己者，益抑工運，固官權之尊。[[一八八八年]]，[[威廉二世 (德國)|皇太孫威廉]]襲立，性頗剛愎，以俾氏柄政多專擅，愈銜之，政見乖離。[[一八九零年|越二年]]，帝遽勒俾氏去位，三月，乃以勞恩堡公爵休致。俾斯麥雖退，不廢論政，嘗著書以記舊事&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bismarck |first=Otto von |url=https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=77734130 |title=Bismarck, the Man &amp; the Statesman: Being the Reflections and Reminiscences of Otto, Prince von Bismarck |publisher=Harper &amp; Brothers |others=Trans. A. J. Butler |year=1899 |volume=1 |location=New York and London |access-date=2020-07-05 |archive-date=2011-06-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624020254/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=77734130 |dead-url=no |accessdate=2025-06-21 |archivedate=2011-06-24 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624020254/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=77734130 }}&lt;/ref&gt;，名曰《回憶與思考》，述其前功，期後人知己忠誠而不忘也。國人素尚俾氏為國父，德譽交譽，無復疑議。及[[第二次世界大戰|納粹敗]]，學士論俾氏治事，每譴其專制，謂其壞[[民主]]，立帝制遺禍，其罪不細。俾斯麥執政凡二十餘年，縱橫[[歐洲]]，混一德境，創立良法，為後世所美。[[一八九八年]]七月三十日，卒於家，年八十三，追贈陸軍上將銜，德人立其像祀之。

==考據==
{{reflist}}

[[分類:普魯士列傳]]
[[分類:德意志帝國列傳]]</text>
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-- [[用戶:丁子君|丁子君]] ([[用戶討論:丁子君|對話]]) 二〇二五年六月二一日 （六） 一七時三九分 (UTC)</text>
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-- &lt;span style=&quot;text-shadow:0 1px 5px #66f9cf;&quot;&gt;[[User:MintCandy|薄荷糖]]&lt;/span&gt;敬上 &lt;small&gt;（[[User talk:MintCandy|議]]）&lt;/small&gt; 二〇二五年六月二一日 （六） 一八時三七分 (UTC)</text>
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-- [[用戶:Itsmine|孔明居士]] ([[用戶討論:Itsmine|對話]]) 二〇二五年六月二一日 （六） 二〇時四五分 (UTC)</text>
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-- [[user:WAN233|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #007FFF;&quot;&gt;启明&lt;/span&gt;]][[user talk:WAN233|(留言)]] 二〇二五年六月二二日 （日） 〇三時二八分 (UTC)</text>
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-- [[用戶:Davidzdh|&lt;font color=&quot;#008B8B&quot;&gt;关山&lt;/font&gt;]] ([[User talk:Davidzdh|修書]]) 二〇二五年六月二二日 （日） 〇五時四四分 (UTC)</text>
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-- [[用戶:Itsmine|孔明居士]] ([[用戶討論:Itsmine|對話]]) 二〇二五年六月二二日 （日） 〇六時五五分 (UTC)</text>
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-- [[用戶:丁子君|丁子君]] ([[用戶討論:丁子君|對話]]) 二〇二五年六月二二日 （日） 〇七時〇九分 (UTC)</text>
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-- &lt;span style=&quot;text-shadow:0 1px 5px #66f9cf;&quot;&gt;[[User:MintCandy|薄荷糖]]&lt;/span&gt;敬上 &lt;small&gt;（[[User talk:MintCandy|議]]）&lt;/small&gt; 二〇二五年六月二二日 （日） 〇八時三四分 (UTC)</text>
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-- [[用戶:丁子君|丁子君]] ([[用戶討論:丁子君|對話]]) 二〇二五年六月二二日 （日） 〇九時二二分 (UTC)</text>
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      <text bytes="2383" sha1="mzdlg1is0kwzpkiuz37vnlncp3h8i8b" xml:space="preserve">'''羅伯特·拉福萊特''' {{按|[[英文]] Robert M. La Follette}}，[[美利堅]]人。[[西元]][[一八五五年]]六月十四日，生於[[威斯康辛州|威斯康辛]]。其先世仕寒門，性資清介。拉氏為人穎敏，言談雄辯，師友皆異之。及入法政館學，篤志研精，習[[法律|律令]]，探公義，遂登法曹之選，為律師於威州，操守廉潔，聲譽日隆。初隸聯邦眾議員，所上章奏，剴切時政。轉威斯康辛州長，乃力興更化，倡清廉，飭貪墨，修選制，立審計，禁投貲諸弊，民咸德之，號曰「進步系」宗匠&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Hale|first=William Bayard |author-link=William Bayard Hale |date=June 1911 |title=La Follette, Pioneer Progressive: The Story of &quot;Fighting Bob&quot;, the New Master of the Senate and Candidate for the Presidency |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |pages=14591–14600 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=rHAAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA14591|access-date=July 10, 2009|ref=none}}&lt;/ref&gt;。[[歐戰]]起，[[天下]]煙塵蔽野，各國觀望。[[一九一七年|歷三年]]，美國議戰守策，士大夫多附參戰，拉氏獨抗疏曰：「兵戈一起，民命塗炭；釁端既開，禍延無窮。吾恐舉國皆墮於黷武之計，棄大義而圖小利矣！」&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=La Follette|first=Robert M.|url=https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/gdc/lhbum/07510/07510.pdf|title=La Follette's Autobiography; A Personal Narrative of Political Experiences|year=1913|via=[[Library of Congress]]|ref=none}}&lt;/ref&gt;遂極論於國會，其詞激切，震動議院。宣戰訖，物議雖譏之，而拉氏操守彌堅，不為威脅所沮，當時人或稱其「孤忠」。拉氏位參議凡二十年，所言多中時弊，清流益歸心；惟屢訾議當局法度，為執政忌憚之。[[一九二五年]]六月十八日，卒[[華盛頓哥倫比亞特區|華府]]，年七十，州人多輟市，親致奠。嗣後[[一九五七年|卅二年]]，參議院置史評局，訪輯先賢士大夫事蹟，眾推拉氏與[[亨利·克萊]]、[[w:zh:丹尼爾·韋伯斯特|丹尼爾·韋伯斯特]]、[[約翰·卡爾霍恩]]、[[w:zh:羅伯特·塔夫脫|羅伯特·塔夫脫]]並列焉，號曰「參議院五賢」，彰其卓識，以為萬世表。

==考據==
{{reflist}}

[[分類:威斯康辛州列傳]]</text>
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'''羅伯特·拉福萊特''' {{按|[[英文]] Robert M. La Follette}}，[[美利堅]]人。[[西元]][[一八五五年]]六月十四日，生於[[威斯康辛州|威斯康辛]]。其先世仕寒門，性資清介。拉氏為人穎敏，言談雄辯，師友皆異之。及入法政館學，篤志研精，習[[法律|律令]]，探公義，遂登法曹之選，為律師於威州，操守廉潔，聲譽日隆。初隸聯邦眾議員，所上章奏，剴切時政。轉威斯康辛州長，乃力興更化，倡清廉，飭貪墨，修選制，立審計，禁投貲諸弊，民咸德之，號曰「進步系」宗匠&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Hale|first=William Bayard |author-link=William Bayard Hale |date=June 1911 |title=La Follette, Pioneer Progressive: The Story of &quot;Fighting Bob&quot;, the New Master of the Senate and Candidate for the Presidency |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |pages=14591–14600 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=rHAAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA14591|access-date=July 10, 2009|ref=none}}&lt;/ref&gt;。[[歐戰]]起，[[天下]]煙塵蔽野，各國觀望。[[一九一七年|歷三年]]，美國議戰守策，士大夫多附參戰，拉氏獨抗疏曰：「兵戈一起，民命塗炭；釁端既開，禍延無窮。吾恐舉國皆墮於黷武之計，棄大義而圖小利矣！」&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=La Follette|first=Robert M.|url=https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/gdc/lhbum/07510/07510.pdf|title=La Follette's Autobiography; A Personal Narrative of Political Experiences|year=1913|via=[[Library of Congress]]|ref=none}}&lt;/ref&gt;遂極論於國會，其詞激切，震動議院。宣戰訖，物議雖譏之，而拉氏操守彌堅，不為威脅所沮，當時人或引其[[w:zh:乳名|小字]]，稱「戰士鮑勃」。拉氏位參議凡二十年，所言多中時弊，清流益歸心；惟屢訾議當局法度，為執政忌憚之。[[一九二五年]]六月十八日，卒[[華盛頓哥倫比亞特區|華府]]，年七十，州人多輟市，親致奠。嗣後[[一九五七年|卅二年]]，參議院置史評局，訪輯先賢士大夫事蹟，眾推拉氏與[[亨利·克萊]]、[[w:zh:丹尼爾·韋伯斯特|丹尼爾·韋伯斯特]]、[[約翰·卡爾霍恩]]、[[w:zh:羅伯特·塔夫脫|羅伯特·塔夫脫]]並列焉，號曰「參議院五賢」，彰其卓識，以為萬世表。

==考據==
{{reflist}}

[[分類:威斯康辛州列傳]]</text>
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        <username>Shunshen Lee</username>
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      <comment>新文「[[分類:威斯康辛州|列傳]] [[分類:美國列傳]]」</comment>
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[[分類:美國列傳]]</text>
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